arch 26, 2009 06:39 ”ISM LT chapter 1” Sheet number 1 Page number 26 black

CHAPTER 1
Limits and Continuity

EXERCISE SET 1.1

1. (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 3 (d) 3

Limits
2. (a) 0 and
(b) 0 Continuity
(c) 0 (d) 0

3. (a) −1 (b) 3 (c) does not exist (d) 1

Exercise
4. (a) 2 Set 1.1 (b) 0 (c) does not exist (d) 2

5. (a) 3 0
1. (a) (b) (b)
3 0 (c) 3 (c) 0(d) 3 (d) 3

6. (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) 1 (d) 0

3. (a) −1 (b) 3 (c) does not exist (d) 1

7. (a) −∞ (b) −∞ (c) −∞ (d) 1

5. (a) 0 (b) 0 (c) 0 (d) 3
8. (a) +∞ (b) +∞ (c) +∞ (d) undef
7. (a) −∞ (b) −∞ (c) −∞ (d) 1
9. (a) 1 (b) −∞ (c) does not exist (d) −2
9. (a) +∞ (b) +∞ (c) 2 (d) 2 (e) −∞ (f ) x = −2, x = 0, x = 2
10. (a) +∞ (b) 1 (c) does not exist (d) 2

11. (i) −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1

11. (i) −0.1 −0.01 −0.001 0.001 0.01 0.1
1.9866933 1.9998667 1.9999987 1.9999987 1.9998667 1.9866933
1.9866933 1.9998667 1.9999987 1.9999987 1.9998667 1.9866933
(ii) 2.
The limit appears to be 2.

1.986
-0.1 0.1
(ii) The limit appears to be 2.

12. (i)
13. (a) 2 −0.5 1.5 −0.05 1.01
1.1 −0.005 0
1.001 0.005
0.5 0.9 0.05
0.99 0.999 0.5
−0.489669752
0.1429 0.2105 −0.499895842
0.3021 0.3300−0.499998958
0.3330 1.0000−0.499998958 −0.499895842
0.5714 0.3690 −0.489669752
0.3367 0.3337
(ii)
1 -0.4896698 The limit appears to be −1/2.

-0.5
-0.5 0.5

0 2
0 The limit is 1/3.
13. (a) 2 1.5 1.1 1.01 1.001 0 0.5 0.9 0.99 0.999
0.1429 0.2105 0.3021 0.3300 0.3330 1.0000 0.5714 0.3690 0.3367 0.3337
(b) 2 1.5 1.1 1.01 1.001 1.0001
0.4286 1.0526 6.344 66.33 666.3 6666.3
26

1
2 Chapter 1

50

1 2
0 The limit is +∞.

(c) 0 0.5 0.9 0.99 0.999 0.9999

−1 −1.7143 −7.0111 −67.001 −667.0 −6667.0
0
0 1

-50 The limit is −∞.

15. (a) −0.25 −0.1 −0.001 −0.0001 0.0001 0.001 0.1 0.25
2.7266 2.9552 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 3.0000 2.9552 2.7266
3

-0.25 0.25
2 The limit is 3.

(b) 0 −0.5 −0.9 −0.99 −0.999 −1.5 −1.1 −1.01 −1.001

1 1.7552 6.2161 54.87 541.1 −0.1415 −4.536 −53.19 −539.5
60

-1.5 0

-60 The limit does not exist.

17. False; define f (x) = x for x 6= a and f (a) = a + 1. Then limx→a f (x) = a 6= f (a) = a + 1.

19. False; define f (x) = 0 for x < 0 and f (x) = x + 1 for x ≥ 0. Then the left and right limits exist but are unequal.

x2 − 1
27. msec = = x − 1 which gets close to −2 as x gets close to −1, thus y − 1 = −2(x + 1) or y = −2x − 1.
x+1

x4 − 1
29. msec = = x3 + x2 + x + 1 which gets close to 4 as x gets close to 1, thus y − 1 = 4(x − 1) or y = 4x − 3.
x−1

31. (a) The length of the rod while at rest.

Exercise Set 1.2 3

(b) The limit is zero. The length of the rod approaches zero as its speed approaches c.

3.5

–1 1
33. (a) 2.5 The limit appears to be 3.

3.5

– 0.001 0.001
(b) 2.5 The limit appears to be 3.

3.5

– 0.000001 0.000001
(c) 2.5 The limit does not exist.

Exercise Set 1.2

1. (a) By Theorem 1.2.2, this limit is 2 + 2 · (−4) = −6.

(b) By Theorem 1.2.2, this limit is 0 − 3 · (−4) + 1 = 13.

(c) By Theorem 1.2.2, this limit is 2 · (−4) = −8.

(d) By Theorem 1.2.2, this limit is (−4)2 = 16.

√
3
(e) By Theorem 1.2.2, this limit is 6 + 2 = 2.

2 1
(f ) By Theorem 1.2.2, this limit is =− .
(−4) 2

3. By Theorem 1.2.3, this limit is 2 · 1 · 3 = 6.

5. By Theorem 1.2.4, this limit is (32 − 2 · 3)/(3 + 1) = 3/4.

x4 − 1
7. After simplification, = x3 + x2 + x + 1, and the limit is 13 + 12 + 1 + 1 = 4.
x−1

x2 + 6x + 5 x+5
9. After simplification, = , and the limit is (−1 + 5)/(−1 − 4) = −4/5.
x2 − 3x − 4 x−4

2x2 + x − 1
11. After simplification, = 2x − 1, and the limit is 2 · (−1) − 1 = −3.
x+1
4 Chapter 1

t3 + 3t2 − 12t + 4 t2 + 5t − 2
13. After simplification, = , and the limit is (22 + 5 · 2 − 2)/(22 + 2 · 2) = 3/2.
t − 4t
3 t2 + 2t

15. The limit is +∞.

17. The limit does not exist.

19. The limit is −∞.

21. The limit is +∞.

23. The limit does not exist.

25. The limit is +∞.

27. The limit is +∞.

x−9 √ √
29. After simplification, √ = x + 3, and the limit is 9 + 3 = 6.
x−3

31. (a) 2 (b) 2 (c) 2

33. True, by Theorem 1.2.2.

35. False; e.g. f (x) = 2x, g(x) = x, so lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0, but lim f (x)/g(x) = 2.
x→0 x→0 x→0

√
x+4−2 1
37. After simplification, =√ , and the limit is 1/4.
x x+4+2

x3 − 1
39. (a) After simplification, = x2 + x + 1, and the limit is 3.
x−1
y

x
(b) 1

41. (a) Theorem 1.2.2 doesn’t apply; moreover one cannot subtract infinities.

x−1
   
1 1
(b) lim+ − = lim+ = −∞.
x→0 x x2 x→0 x2

1 a x+1−a
43. For x 6= 1, − 2 = and for this to have a limit it is necessary that lim (x + 1 − a) = 0, i.e.
x−1 x −1 x2 − 1 x→1
1 2 x+1−2 x−1 1 1 1
a = 2. For this value, − = = 2 = and lim = .
x − 1 x2 − 1 x2 − 1 x −1 x+1 x→1 x + 1 2

45. The left and/or right limits could be plus or minus infinity; or the limit could exist, or equal any preassigned real
number. For example, let q(x) = x − x0 and let p(x) = a(x − x0 )n where n takes on the values 0, 1, 2.

47. Clearly, g(x) = [f (x) + g(x)] − f (x). By Theorem 1.2.2, lim [f (x) + g(x)] − lim f (x) = lim [f (x) + g(x) − f (x)] =
x→a x→a x→a
lim g(x).
x→a
Exercise Set 1.3 5

Exercise Set 1.3

1. (a) −∞ (b) +∞

3. (a) 0 (b) −1

5. (a) 3 + 3 · (−5) = −12 (b) 0 − 4 · (−5) + 1 = 21 (c) 3 · (−5) = −15 (d) (−5)2 = 25
√
(e) 3
5+3=2 (f ) 3/(−5) = −3/5 (g) 0

(h) The limit doesn’t exist because the denominator tends to zero but the numerator doesn’t.

7. x 10 100 1000 10000 100000 1000000

f (x) 0.953463 0.995037 0.999500 0.999950 0.999995 0.9999995

The limit appears to be 1.

9. The limit is −∞, by the highest degree term.

11. The limit is +∞.

13. The limit is 3/2, by the highest degree terms.

15. The limit is 0, by the highest degree terms.

17. The limit is 0, by the highest degree terms.

19. The limit is −∞, by the highest degree terms.

21. The limit is −1/7, by the highest degree terms.

p √
23. The limit is 3 −5/8 = − 3 5 /2, by the highest degree terms.

√
q
5x − 2
2 5 − x22 √
25. = when x < 0. The limit is − 5 .
x+3 −1 − x3

2−y − y2 + 1 √
27. p =q when y < 0. The limit is 1/ 6 .
7 + 6y 2 7
2 + 6
y

√
q
3x4 + x 3 + x13 √
29. = 8 when x < 0. The limit is 3 .
x −8
2 1 − x2
√
p x2 + 3 + x 3
31. lim ( x2 + 3 − x) √ = lim √ = 0, by the highest degree terms.
x→+∞ x2 + 3 + x x→+∞ x2 + 3 + x

33. False; if x/2 > 1000 then 1000x < x2 /2, x2 − 1000x > x2 /2, so the limit is +∞.

35. True: for example f (x) = sin x/x crosses the x-axis infinitely many times at x = nπ, n = 1, 2, . . ..

37. It appears that lim n(t) = +∞, and lim e(t) = c.

t→+∞ t→+∞

39. (a) +∞ (b) −5

41. lim p(x) = +∞. When n is even, lim p(x) = +∞; when n is odd, lim p(x) = −∞.
x→−∞ x→+∞ x→+∞

43. (a) No. (b) Yes, tan x and sec x at x = nπ + π/2 and cot x and csc x at x = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ..
6 Chapter 1

45. (a) If f (t) → +∞ (resp. f (t) → −∞) then f (t) can be made arbitrarily large (resp. small) by taking t large
enough. But by considering the values g(x) where g(x) > t, we see that f (g(x)) has the limit +∞ too (resp. limit
−∞). If f (t) has the limit L as t → +∞ the values f (t) can be made arbitrarily close to L by taking t large
enough. But if x is large enough then g(x) > t and hence f (g(x)) is also arbitrarily close to L.

(b) For lim the same argument holds with the substitutiion ”x decreases without bound” instead of ”x increases
x→−∞
without bound”. For lim− substitute ”x close enough to c, x < c”, etc.
x→c

47. t = 1/x, lim f (t) = +∞.

t→+∞

49. t = csc x, lim f (t) = +∞.

t→+∞

2
51. After a long division, f (x) = x + 2 + , so lim (f (x) − (x + 2)) = 0 and f (x) is asymptotic to y = x + 2.
x−2 x→±∞
The only vertical asymptote is at x = 2.
y
15

9
y=x+2
3 x
–12 –6 –3 3 9 15

–9 x=2

–15

2
53. After a long division, f (x) = −x2 +1+ , so lim (f (x)−(−x2 +1)) = 0 and f (x) is asymptotic to y = −x2 +1.
x−3 x→±∞
The only vertical asymptote is at x = 3.
y

12
x=3
6
x
–4 –2 2 4
y = –x 2 + 1 –6

–12

55. lim (f (x) − sin x) = 0 so f (x) is asymptotic to y = sin x. The only vertical asymptote is at x = 1.
x→±∞

y
5

3
y = sin x
x
–4 2 8

x=1
–4

Exercise Set 1.4

1. (a) |f (x) − f (0)| = |x + 2 − 2| = |x| < 0.1 if and only if |x| < 0.1.
Exercise Set 1.4 7

(b) |f (x) − f (3)| = |(4x − 5) − 7| = 4|x − 3| < 0.1 if and only if |x − 3| < (0.1)/4 = 0.025.

(c) |f (x) − f (4)| = |x2 − 16| <  if |x − 4| < δ. We get f (x) = 16 +  = 16.001 at x = 4.000124998, which
corresponds to δ = 0.000124998; and f (x) = 16 −  = 15.999 at x = 3.999874998, for which δ = 0.000125002. Use
the smaller δ: thus |f (x) − 16| <  provided |x − 4| < 0.000125 (to six decimals).

3. (a) x0 = (1.95)2 = 3.8025, x1 = (2.05)2 = 4.2025.

(b) δ = min ( |4 − 3.8025|, |4 − 4.2025| ) = 0.1975.

5. |(x3 −4x+5)−2| < 0.05 is equivalent to −0.05 < (x3 −4x+5)−2 < 0.05, which means 1.95 < x3 −4x+5 < 2.05. Now
x3 −4x+5 = 1.95 at x = 1.0616, and x3 −4x+5 = 2.05 at x = 0.9558. So δ = min (1.0616 − 1, 1 − 0.9558) = 0.0442.

2.2

0.9 1.1
1.9

7. With the TRACE feature of a calculator we discover that (to five decimal places) (0.87000, 1.80274) and (1.13000, 2.19301)
belong to the graph. Set x0 = 0.87 and x1 = 1.13. Since the graph of f (x) rises from left to right, we see that if
x0 < x < x1 then 1.80274 < f (x) < 2.19301, and therefore 1.8 < f (x) < 2.2. So we can take δ = 0.13.

9. |2x − 8| = 2|x − 4| < 0.1 when |x − 4| < 0.1/2 = 0.05 = δ.

 2   2
  x − 9 − 6x + 18   x2 − 6x + 9 
  
x − 9
11. If x 6= 3, then  − 6 =    x − 3  = |x − 3| < 0.05 when |x − 3| < 0.05 = δ.
= 
x−3 x−3

13. Assume δ ≤ 1. Then −1 < x − 2 < 1 means 1 < x < 3 and then |x3 − 8| = |(x − 2)(x2 + 2x + 4)| < 19|x − 2|, so
we can choose δ = 0.001/19.
   
 1 1   x − 5  |x − 5|
15. Assume δ ≤ 1. Then −1 < x − 5 < 1 means 4 < x < 6 and then  −  = 
   < , so we can choose
x 5 5x  20
δ = 0.05 · 20 = 1.

17. Let  > 0 be given. Then |f (x) − 3| = |3 − 3| = 0 <  regardless of x, and hence any δ > 0 will work.

19. |3x − 15| = 3|x − 5| <  if |x − 5| < /3, δ = /3.

 2 
 2x + x 
21.  − 1 = |2x| <  if |x| < /2, δ = /2.
x

23. |f (x) − 3| = |x + 2 − 3| = |x − 1| <  if 0 < |x − 1| < , δ = .

25. If  > 0 is given, then take δ = ; if |x − 0| = |x| < δ, then |x − 0| = |x| < .

27. For the first part, let  > 0. Then there exists δ > 0 such that if a < x < a + δ then |f (x) − L| < . For the left
limit replace a < x < a + δ with a − δ < x < a.

29. (a) |(3x2 + 2x − 20 − 300| = |3x2 + 2x − 320| = |(3x + 32)(x − 10)| = |3x + 32| · |x − 10|.

(b) If |x − 10| < 1 then |3x + 32| < 65, since clearly x < 11.
8 Chapter 1

(c) δ = min(1, /65); |3x + 32| · |x − 10| < 65 · |x − 10| < 65 · /65 = .

31. If δ < 1 then |2x2 − 2| = 2|x − 1||x + 1| < 6|x − 1| <  if |x − 1| < /6, so δ = min(1, /6).

33. If δ < 1/2 and |x − (−2)| < δ then −5/2 < x < −3/2, x + 1 < −1/2, |x + 1| > 1/2; then
 
 1  |x + 2|

x + 1 − (−1)  |x + 1| < 2|x + 2| <  if |x + 2| < /2, so δ = min(1/2, /2).
=

√
√ √
   
x + 2   x − 4  1
35. | x − 2| = ( x − 2) √
 = √ < |x − 4| <  if |x − 4| < 2, so δ = min(2, 4).
x + 2  x + 2 2

37. Let  > 0 be given and take δ = . If |x| < δ, then |f (x) − 0| = 0 <  if x is rational, and |f (x) − 0| = |x| < δ = 
if x is irrational.
√
39. (a) We have to solve the equation 1/N 2 = 0.1 here, so N = 10.

(b) This will happen when N/(N + 1) = 0.99, so N = 99.

(c) Because the function 1/x3 approaches 0 from below when x → −∞, we have to solve the equation 1/N 3 =
−0.001, and N = −10.

(d) The function x/(x + 1) approaches 1 from above when x → −∞, so we have to solve the equation N/(N + 1) =
1.01. We obtain N = −101.
r r
x21 1− x22 1−
41. (a) = 1 − , x1 = − ; = 1 − , x2 =
1 + x21  1 + x22 
r r
1− 1−
(b) N = (c) N = −
 

1
43. < 0.01 if |x| > 10, N = 10.
x2
   
 x   1 
45. 
 − 1 = 
   < 0.001 if |x + 1| > 1000, x > 999, N = 999.
x+1 x + 1
 
 1 
47.  − 0 < 0.005 if |x + 2| > 200, −x − 2 > 200, x < −202, N = −202.
x+2
   
 4x − 1   11 
49. 
 − 2 = 
   < 0.1 if |2x + 5| > 110, −2x − 5 > 110, 2x < −115, x < −57.5, N = −57.5.
2x + 5 2x + 5 
 
1 1 1
51.  2  <  if |x| > √ , so N = √ .
x  
   
 4x − 1   11 
53.  − 2 =   <  if |2x+5| > 11 , i.e. when −2x−5 > 11 , which means 2x < − 11 −5, or x < − 11 − 5 ,
2x + 5 2x + 5     2 2
5 11
so N = − − .
2 2
 √ 2 2
√ √
    
 2 x   2  2 2 2 2
55.  √
 − 2 =  √
   <  if x − 1 > , i.e. when x > 1 + , or x > 1 + , so N = 1 + .
x−1 x − 1    

1 1 1 1
57. (a) > 100 if |x| < (b) > 1000 if |x − 1| <
x2 10 |x − 1| 1000
Exercise Set 1.5 9

−1 1 1 1 1
(c) < −1000 if |x − 3| < √ (d) − < −10000 if x4 < , |x| <
(x − 3)2 10 10 x4 10000 10

1 1 1 1
59. If M > 0 then > M when 0 < (x − 3)2 < , or 0 < |x − 3| < √ , so δ = √ .
(x − 3)2 M M M

1 1 1
61. If M > 0 then > M when 0 < |x| < , so δ = .
|x| M M

1 1 1 1
63. If M < 0 then − < M when 0 < x4 < − , or |x| < , so δ = .
x4 M (−M )1/4 (−M )1/4

65. If x > 2 then |x + 1 − 3| = |x − 2| = x − 2 <  if 2 < x < 2 + , so δ = .

√
67. If x > 4 then x − 4 <  if x − 4 < 2 , or 4 < x < 4 + 2 , so δ = 2 .

69. If x > 2 then |f (x) − 2| = |x − 2| = x − 2 <  if 2 < x < 2 + , so δ = .

71. (a) Definition: For every M < 0 there corresponds a δ > 0 such that if 1 < x < 1 + δ then f (x) < M . In our case
1 1 1 1
we want < M , i.e. 1 − x > , or x < 1 − , so we can choose δ = − .
1−x M M M

(b) Definition: For every M > 0 there corresponds a δ > 0 such that if 1 − δ < x < 1 then f (x) > M . In our case
1 1 1 1
we want > M , i.e. 1 − x < , or x > 1 − , so we can choose δ = .
1−x M M M

73. (a) Given any M > 0, there corresponds an N > 0 such that if x > N then f (x) > M , i.e. x + 1 > M , or
x > M − 1, so N = M − 1.

(b) Given any M < 0, there corresponds an N < 0 such that if x < N then f (x) < M , i.e. x + 1 < M , or
x < M − 1, so N = M − 1.
 
3.0 3 3
75. (a) = 0.4 (amperes) (b) [0.3947, 0.4054] (c) , (d) 0.0187
7.5 7.5 + δ 7.5 − δ

(e) It approaches infinity.

Exercise Set 1.5

1. (a) No: lim f (x) does not exist. (b) No: lim f (x) does not exist. (c) No: lim− f (x) 6= f (2).
x→2 x→2 x→2

(d) Yes. (e) Yes. (f ) Yes.

3. (a) No: f (1) and f (3) are not defined. (b) Yes. (c) No: f (1) is not defined.

(d) Yes. (e) No: f (3) is not defined. (f ) Yes.

5. (a) No. (b) No. (c) No. (d) Yes. (e) Yes. (f ) No. (g) Yes.
y y

x x
7. (a) 3 (b) 1 3
10 Chapter 1

y y
1

x
1
x
2 3
-1
(c) (d)

$4
t
9. (a) 1 2

(b) One second could cost you one dollar.

11. None, this is a continuous function on the real numbers.

13. None, this is a continuous function on the real numbers.

15. The function is not continuous at x = −1/2 and x = 0.

17. The function is not continuous at x = 0, x = 1 and x = −1.

19. None, this is a continuous function on the real numbers.

16
21. None, this is a continuous function on the real numbers. f (x) = 2x + 3 is continuous on x < 4 and f (x) = 7 +
x
is continuous on 4 < x; lim f (x) = lim f (x) = f (4) = 11 so f is continuous at x = 4.
x→4− x→4+

23. True; by Theorem 1.5.5.

25. False; e.g. f (x) = g(x) = 2 if x 6= 3, f (3) = 1, g(3) = 3.

p
27. True; use Theorem 1.5.3 with g(x) = f (x).

29. (a) f is continuous for x < 1, and for x > 1; lim f (x) = 5, lim f (x) = k, so if k = 5 then f is continuous for
x→1− x→1+
all x.

(b) f is continuous for x < 2, and for x > 2; lim f (x) = 4k, lim f (x) = 4 + k, so if 4k = 4 + k, k = 4/3 then f
x→2− x→2+
is continuous for all x.

31. f is continuous for x < −1, −1 < x < 2 and x > 2; lim f (x) = 4, lim f (x) = k, so k = 4 is required. Next,
x→−1− x→−1+
lim− f (x) = 3m + k = 3m + 4, lim+ f (x) = 9, so 3m + 4 = 9, m = 5/3 and f is continuous everywhere if k = 4
x→2 x→2
and m = 5/3.
Exercise Set 1.5 11

y y

x x
33. (a) c (b) c

35. (a) x = 0, lim− f (x) = −1 6= +1 = lim+ f (x) so the discontinuity is not removable.
x→0 x→0

(b) x = −3; define f (−3) = −3 = lim f (x), then the discontinuity is removable.
x→−3

(c) f is undefined at x = ±2; at x = 2, lim f (x) = 1, so define f (2) = 1 and f becomes continuous there; at
x→2
x = −2, lim f (x) does not exist, so the discontinuity is not removable.
x→−2

5
x
5
-5

37. (a) Discontinuity at x = 1/2, not removable; at x = −3, removable.

(b) 2x2 + 5x − 3 = (2x − 1)(x + 3)

39. Write f (x) = x3/5 = (x3 )1/5 as the composition (Theorem 1.5.6) of the two continuous functions g(x) = x3 and
h(x) = x1/5 ; it is thus continuous.

41. Since f and g are continuous at x = c we know that lim f (x) = f (c) and lim g(x) = g(c). In the following we use
x→c x→c
Theorem 1.2.2.
(a) f (c) + g(c) = lim f (x) + lim g(x) = lim (f (x) + g(x)) so f + g is continuous at x = c.
x→c x→c x→c

(b) Same as (a) except the + sign becomes a − sign.

(c) f (c)g(c) = lim f (x) lim g(x) = lim f (x)g(x) so f g is continuous at x = c.

x→c x→c x→c

43. (a) Let h = x − c, x = h + c. Then by Theorem 1.5.5, lim f (h + c) = f ( lim (h + c)) = f (c).
h→0 h→0

(b) With g(h) = f (c + h), lim g(h) = lim f (c + h) = f (c) = g(0), so g(h) is continuous at h = 0. That is, f (c + h)
h→0 h→0
is continuous at h = 0, so f is continuous at x = c.

45. Of course such a function must be discontinuous. Let f (x) = 1 on 0 ≤ x < 1, and f (x) = −1 on 1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

47. If f (x) = x3 + x2 − 2x − 1, then f (−1) = 1, f (1) = −1. The Intermediate Value Theorem gives us the result.

49. For the negative root, use intervals on the x-axis as follows: [−2, −1]; since f (−1.3) < 0 and f (−1.2) > 0, the
midpoint x = −1.25 of [−1.3, −1.2] is the required approximation of the root. For the positive root use the interval
[0, 1]; since f (0.7) < 0 and f (0.8) > 0, the midpoint x = 0.75 of [0.7, 0.8] is the required approximation.

51. For the positive root, use intervals on the x-axis as follows: [2, 3]; since f (2.2) < 0 and f (2.3) > 0, use the interval
[2.2, 2.3]. Since f (2.23) < 0 and f (2.24) > 0 the midpoint x = 2.235 of [2.23, 2.24] is the required approximation
of the root.
12 Chapter 1

53. Consider the function f (θ) = T (θ + π) − T (θ). Note that T has period 2π, T (θ + 2π) = T (θ), so that f (θ + π) =
T (θ + 2π) − T (θ + π) = −(T (θ + π) − T (θ)) = −f (θ). Now if f (θ) ≡ 0, then the statement follows. Otherwise,
there exists θ such that f (θ) 6= 0 and then f (θ + π) has an opposite sign, and thus there is a t0 between θ and
θ + π such that f (t0 ) = 0 and the statement follows.

55. Since R and L are arbitrary, we can introduce coordinates so that L is the x-axis. Let f (z) be as in Exercise 54.
Then for large z, f (z) = area of ellipse, and for small z, f (z) = 0. By the Intermediate Value Theorem there is a
z1 such that f (z1 ) = half of the area of the ellipse.

57. For x ≥ 0, f is increasing and so is one-to-one. It is continuous everywhere and thus by Theorem 1.5.7 it has an
inverse defined on its range [5, +∞) which is continuous there.

Exercise Set 1.6

1. This is a composition of continuous functions, so it is continuous everywhere.

3. Discontinuities at x = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

5. Discontinuities at x = nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

π 5π
7. Discontinuities at x = + 2nπ, and x = + 2nπ, n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .
6 6

9. (a) f (x) = sin x, g(x) = x3 + 7x + 1. (b) f (x) = |x|, g(x) = sin x. (c) f (x) = x3 , g(x) = cos(x + 1).
   
1 1
11. lim cos = cos lim = cos 0 = 1.
x→+∞ x x→+∞ x

sin 3θ sin 3θ
13. lim = 3 lim = 3.
θ→0 θ θ→0 3θ

x2 − 3 sin x sin x
15. lim = lim x − 3 lim = −3.
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x

 
sin θ 1 sin θ
17. lim+ = lim+ lim = +∞.
θ→0 θ2 θ→0 θ θ→0+ θ

tan 7x 7 sin 7x 3x tan 7x 7 7

19. = · · , so lim = ·1·1= .
sin 3x 3 cos 7x 7x sin 3x x→0 sin 3x 3·1 3

sin x 1 √ sin x
21. lim √ = lim x lim = 0.
x→0+ 5 x 5 x→0+ x→0+ x

sin x2 sin x2
   
23. lim = lim x lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x→0 x2

2
t2 t2

t
25. = , so lim = 1.
1 − cos2 t sin t t→0 1 − cos2 t

2
θ2 θ2 (1 + cos θ) θ2

1 + cos θ θ
27. · = = (1 + cos θ), so lim = (1)2 · 2 = 2.
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ 1 − cos2 θ sin θ θ→0 1 − cos θ

 
1
29. lim+ sin = lim sin t, so the limit does not exist.
x→0 x t→+∞
Exercise Set 1.6 13

tan ax a sin ax 1 bx
31. lim = lim = a/b.
x→0 sin bx x→0 b ax cos ax sin bx

33. (a) 4 4.5 4.9 5.1 5.5 6

0.093497 0.100932 0.100842 0.098845 0.091319 0.076497

The limit appears to be 0.1.

sin(x − 5) 1 sin t 1 1
(b) Let t = x − 5. Then t → 0 as x → 5 and lim = lim lim = ·1= .
x→5 x2 − 25 x→5 x + 5 t→0 t 10 10

35. True: let  > 0 and δ = . Then if |x − (−1)| = |x + 1| < δ then |f (x) + 5| < .

37. True; the functions f (x) = x, g(x) = sin x, and h(x) = 1/x are continuous everywhere except possibly at x = 0,
so by Theorem 1.5.6 the given function is continuous everywhere except possibly at x = 0. We prove that
lim x sin(1/x) = 0. Let  > 0. Then with δ = , if |x| < δ then |x sin(1/x)| ≤ |x| < δ = , and hence f is
x→0
continuous everywhere.

39. (a) The student calculated x in degrees rather than radians.

πx◦ sin x◦
(b) sin x◦ = sin t where x◦ is measured in degrees, t is measured in radians and t = . Thus lim =
180 x →0 x◦
◦

sin t π
lim = .
t→0 (180t/π) 180

sin kx 1
41. lim− f (x) = k lim = k, lim+ f (x) = 2k 2 , so k = 2k 2 , and the nonzero solution is k = .
x→0 x→0 kx cos kx x→0 2

sin t
43. (a) lim+ = 1.
t→0 t

1 − cos t
(b) lim− = 0 (Theorem 1.6.3).
t→0 t

π−x t
(c) sin(π − t) = sin t, so lim = lim = 1.
x→π sin x t→0 sin t

sin(πx) sin πt
45. t = x − 1; sin(πx) = sin(πt + π) = − sin πt; and lim = − lim = −π.
x→1 x−1 t→0 t
 
50π
47. −|x| ≤ x cos ≤ |x|, which gives the desired result.
x

49. Since lim sin(1/x) does not exist, no conclusions can be drawn.
x→0

51. lim f (x) = 0 by the Squeezing Theorem.

x→+∞
y

x
4

-1
14 Chapter 1

53. (a) Let f (x) = x − cos x; f (0) = −1, f (π/2) = π/2. By the IVT there must be a solution of f (x) = 0.

y
1.5
y=x
1

0.5
y = cos x
x
(b) 0 c/2 (c) 0.739

55. (a) Gravity is strongest at the poles and weakest at the equator.
g
9.84

9.82

9.80

f
30 60 90

(b) Let g(φ) be the given function. Then g(38) < 9.8 and g(39) > 9.8, so by the Intermediate Value Theorem
there is a value c between 38 and 39 for which g(c) = 9.8 exactly.

Exercise Set 1.7

1. sin−1 u is continuous for −1 ≤ u ≤ 1, so −1 ≤ 2x ≤ 1, or −1/2 ≤ x ≤ 1/2.

√
3. u is continuous for 0 ≤ u, so 0 ≤ tan−1 x, or x ≥ 0; x2 − 9 6= 0, thus the function is continuous for 0 ≤ x < 3
and x > 3.

5. tan θ = 4/3, 0 < θ < π/2; use the triangle shown to get sin θ = 4/5, cos θ = 3/5, cot θ = 3/4, sec θ = 5/3,
csc θ = 5/4.

5 4

!
3

7. (a) 0 ≤ x ≤ π (b) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 (c) −π/2 < x < π/2 (d) −∞ < x < +∞

9. Let θ = cos−1 (3/5); sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ = 2(4/5)(3/5) = 24/25.

5 4

!
3
Exercise Set 1.7 15

1 + x2 1
x
1 – x2

tan –1 x √ cos –1 x
−1 1 −1 1 − x2
11. (a) cos(tan x) = √ 1 (b) tan(cos x) = x
1 + x2 x

x x
x2 – 1
x2 – 1

√ sec –1 x sec –1 x
−1 x2 − 1 −1 1
(c) sin(sec x) = 1 (d) cot(sec x) = √ 1
x x2 − 1

y
y c/2
c/2
x
x
–0.5 0.5
– c/2 – c/2
13. (a) (b)

15. (a) x = π − sin−1 (0.37) ≈ 2.7626 rad (b) θ = 180◦ + sin−1 (0.61) ≈ 217.6◦ .

17. (a) sin−1 (sin−1 0.25) ≈ sin−1 0.25268 ≈ 0.25545; sin−1 0.9 > 1, so it is not in the domain of sin−1 x.

(b) −1 ≤ sin−1 x ≤ 1 is necessary, or −0.841471 ≤ x ≤ 0.841471.

     
−1 x −1 x −1 1 π
19. lim sin = sin lim = sin − =− .
x→+∞ 1 − 2x x→+∞ 1 − 2x 2 6

21. False; the range of sin−1 is [−π/2, π/2], so the equation is only true for x in this range.

23. True; the line y = π/2 is a horizontal asymptote as x → ∞ and as x → −∞.

x sin x
25. lim = lim = 1.
x→0 sin−1 x x→0 x

sin−1 5x 5x
27. 5 lim = 5 lim = 5.
x→0 5x x→0 sin 5x

y
c y
c/2

c/2 x
5

x
29. (a) –10 10

(b) The domain of cot−1 x is (−∞, +∞), the range is (0, π); the domain of csc−1 x is (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞), the
range is [−π/2, 0) ∪ (0, π/2].
16 Chapter 1

31. (a) 55.0◦ (b) 33.6◦ (c) 25.8◦

p p
33. (a) If γ = 90◦ , then sin γ = 1, 1 − sin2 φ sin2 γ = 1 − sin2 φ = cos φ, D = tan φ tan λ = (tan 23.45◦ )(tan 65◦ ) ≈
0.93023374 so h ≈ 21.1 hours.

(b) If γ = 270◦ , then sin γ = −1, D = − tan φ tan λ ≈ −0.93023374 so h ≈ 2.9 hours.
p √ √
x2 = 6000v 2 /g, x = 10v
35. y = 0 when √ 60/g = 1000 30 for v = 400 and g = 32; tan θ = 3000/x = 3/ 30,
−1
θ = tan (3/ 30) ≈ 29◦ .

37. (a) Let θ = cos−1 (−x) then cos θ = −x, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π. But cos(π − θ) = − cos θ and 0 ≤ π − θ ≤ π so cos(π − θ) = x,
π − θ = cos−1 x, θ = π − cos−1 x.

(b) Let θ = sec−1 (−x) for x ≥ 1; then sec θ = −x and π/2 < θ ≤ π. So 0 ≤ π − θ < π/2 and π − θ =
sec−1 sec(π − θ) = sec−1 (− sec θ) = sec−1 x, or sec−1 (−x) = π − sec−1 x.

tan α + tan β
39. tan(α + β) = ,
1 − tan α tan β

tan(tan−1 x) + tan(tan−1 y) x+y

tan(tan−1 x + tan−1 y) = =
1 − tan(tan−1 x) tan(tan−1 y) 1 − xy
x+y
so tan−1 x + tan−1 y = tan−1 .
1 − xy
s  2 √
−1 −1 1 x2 − 1
41. sin(sec x) = sin(cos (1/x)) = 1− = .
x |x|

Exercise Set 1.8

1. (a) −4 (b) 4 (c) 1/4

3. (a) 2.9691 (b) 0.0341

 
1
4
5. (a) log2 16 = log2 (2 ) = 4 (b) log2 = log2 (2−5 ) = −5 (c) log4 4 = 1 (d) log9 3 = log9 (91/2 ) = 1/2
32

7. (a) 1.3655 (b) −0.3011

1 1
9. (a) 2 ln a + ln b + ln c = 2r + s/2 + t/2 (b) ln b − 3 ln a − ln c = s − 3r − t
2 2

1 1
11. (a) 1 + log x + log(x − 3) (b) 2 ln |x| + 3 ln(sin x) − ln(x2 + 1)
2 2

24 (16)
13. log = log(256/3)
3
√
3
x(x + 1)2
15. ln
cos x
√
17. x = 10−1 = 0.1, x = 0.01

19. 1/x = e−2 , x = e2

21. 2x = 8, x = 4
Exercise Set 1.8 17

p p
23. ln 2x2 = ln 3, 2x2 = 3, x2 = 3/2, x = 3/2 (we discard − 3/2 because it does not satisfy the original equation).

ln 3
25. ln 5−2x = ln 3, −2x ln 5 = ln 3, x = −
2 ln 5

1
27. e3x = 7/2, 3x = ln(7/2), x = ln(7/2)
3

29. e−x (x + 2) = 0 so e−x = 0 (impossible) or x + 2 = 0, x = −2

y
6

2
x
–2 4
31. (a) Domain: all x; range: y > −1.

y
2

x
–4 2

(b) Domain: x 6= 0; range: all y. –4

y
4

x
-4 4

-4
33. (a) Domain: x 6= 0; range: all y.

x
-2 2
(b) Domain: all x; range: 0 < y ≤ 1.

35. False. The graph of an exponential function passes through (0, 1), but the graph of y = x3 does not.

37. True, by definition.

39. log2 7.35 = (log 7.35)/(log 2) = (ln 7.35)/(ln 2) ≈ 2.8777; log5 0.6 = (log 0.6)/(log 5) = (ln 0.6)/(ln 5) ≈ −0.3174.
18 Chapter 1

0 3

41. –3

43. x ≈ 1.47099 and x ≈ 7.85707.

√ √
45. (a) No, the curve passes through the origin. (b) y = ( 4 2)x (c) y = 2−x = (1/2)x (d) y = ( 5)x

–1 2
0

47. log(1/2) < 0 so 3 log(1/2) < 2 log(1/2).

1 − ex 1−0
49. lim = = 1.
x→−∞ 1 + ex 1+0

1 + e−2x 1+0
51. Divide the numerator and denominator by ex : lim = = 1.
x→+∞ 1 − e−2x 1−0

53. The limit is −∞.

x+1 1 (x + 1)x
55. = 1 + , so lim = e from Figure 1.3.4.
x x x→+∞ xx

57. t = 1/x, lim f (t) = +∞.

t→+∞

59. t = csc x, lim f (t) = +∞.

t→+∞

ln 2x t + ln 2
61. Let t = ln x. Then t also tends to +∞, and = , so the limit is 1.
ln 3x t + ln 3

 t
1
63. Set t = −x, then get lim 1 + = e by Figure 1.3.4.
t→−∞ t



 0 if b < 1,

65. From the hint, lim bx = lim e(ln b)x = 1 if b = 1,
x→+∞ x→+∞ 

+∞ if b > 1.

Chapter 1 Review Exercises 19

v
200

160

120

80

40
t
67. (a) 4 8 12 16 20

 
(b) lim v = 190 1 − lim e−0.168t = 190, so the asymptote is v = c = 190 ft/sec.
t→∞ t→∞

(c) Due to air resistance (and other factors) this is the maximum speed that a sky diver can attain.

69. (a) n 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 + 10−n 1.01 1.001 1.0001 1.00001 1.000001 1.0000001
1 + 10n 101 1001 10001 100001 1000001 10000001
n
(1 + 10−n )1+10 2.7319 2.7196 2.7184 2.7183 2.71828 2.718282
The limit appears to be e.

(b) This is evident from the lower left term in the chart in part (a).

(c) The exponents are being multiplied by a, so the result is ea .

71. 75e−t/125 = 15, t = −125 ln(1/5) = 125 ln 5 ≈ 201 days.

73. (a) 7.4; basic (b) 4.2; acidic (c) 6.4; acidic (d) 5.9; acidic

75. (a) 140 dB; damage (b) 120 dB; damage (c) 80 dB; no damage (d) 75 dB; no damage

77. Let IA and IB be the intensities of the automobile and blender, respectively. Then log10 IA /I0 = 7 and log10 IB /I0 =
9.3, IA = 107 I0 and IB = 109.3 I0 , so IB /IA = 102.3 ≈ 200.

79. (a) log E = 4.4 + 1.5(8.2) = 16.7, E = 1016.7 ≈ 5 × 1016 J

(b) Let M1 and M2 be the magnitudes of earthquakes with energies of E and 10E, respectively. Then 1.5(M2 −
M1 ) = log(10E) − log E = log 10 = 1, M2 − M1 = 1/1.5 = 2/3 ≈ 0.67.

Chapter 1 Review Exercises

1. (a) 1 (b) Does not exist. (c) Does not exist. (d) 1 (e) 3 (f ) 0 (g) 0

(h) 2 (i) 1/2

3. (a) x -0.01 -0.001 -0.0001 0.0001 0.001 0.01

f (x) 0.402 0.405 0.405 0.406 0.406 0.409
20 Chapter 1

0.5

x
(b) -1 1

(−1)3 − (−1)2
5. The limit is = 1.
−1 − 1

3x + 9 3 3
7. If x 6= −3 then = with limit − .
x2 + 4x + 3 x+1 2

25 32
9. By the highest degree terms, the limit is = .
3 3

11. (a) y = 0. (b) None. (c) y = 2.

sin 3x
13. If x 6= 0, then = cos 3x, and the limit is 1.
tan 3x

3x − sin(kx) sin(kx)
15. If x 6= 0, then =3−k , so the limit is 3 − k.
x kx

17. As t → π/2+ , tan t → −∞, so the limit in question is 0.

 −x " x/3 #(−3)

3 3
19. 1+ = 1+ , so the limit is e−3 .
x x

21. $2,001.60, $2,009.66, $2,013.62, $2013.75.

23. (a) f (x) = 2x/(x − 1).

y
10

x
10

(b)

25. (a) lim f (x) = 5.

x→2

(b) δ = (3/4) · (0.048/8) = 0.0045.

27. (a) |4x − 7 − 1| < 0.01 means 4|x − 2| < 0.01, or |x − 2| < 0.0025, so δ = 0.0025.
 2 
 4x − 9 
(b) 
 − 6 < 0.05 means |2x + 3 − 6| < 0.05, or |x − 1.5| < 0.025, so δ = 0.025.
2x − 3

(c) |x2 − 16| < 0.001; if δ < 1 then |x + 4| < 9 if |x − 4| < 1; then |x2 − 16| = |x − 4||x + 4| ≤ 9|x − 4| < 0.001
provided |x − 4| < 0.001/9 = 1/9000, take δ = 1/9000, then |x2 − 16| < 9|x − 4| < 9(1/9000) = 1/1000 = 0.001.
Chapter 1 Review Exercises 21

29. Let  = f (x0 )/2 > 0; then there corresponds a δ > 0 such that if |x − x0 | < δ then |f (x) − f (x0 )| < ,
− < f (x) − f (x0 ) < , f (x) > f (x0 ) −  = f (x0 )/2 > 0, for x0 − δ < x < x0 + δ.

31. (a) f is not defined at x = ±1, continuous elsewhere.

(b) None; continuous everywhere.

(c) f is not defined at x = 0 and x = −3, continuous elsewhere.

33. For x < 2 f is a polynomial and is continuous; for x > 2 f is a polynomial and is continuous. At x = 2,
f (2) = −13 6= 13 = lim+ f (x), so f is not continuous there.
x→2

a+b a+b
35. f (x) = −1 for a ≤ x < and f (x) = 1 for ≤ x ≤ b; f does not take the value 0.
2 2

37. f (−6) = 185, f (0) = −1, f (2) = 65; apply Theorem 1.5.8 twice, once on [−6, 0] and once on [0, 2].

39. Draw right triangles of sides 5, 12, 13, and 3, 4, 5. Then sin[cos−1 (4/5)] = 3/5, sin[cos−1 (5/13)] = 12/13,
cos[sin−1 (4/5)] = 3/5, and cos[sin−1 (5/13)] = 12/13.

5 4

!
3

4 12
(a) cos[cos−1 (4/5) + sin−1 (5/13)] = cos(cos−1 (4/5)) cos(sin−1 (5/13) − sin(cos−1 (4/5)) sin(sin−1 (5/13)) = −
5 13
3 5 33
= .
5 13 65

4 5
(b) sin[sin−1 (4/5) + cos−1 (5/13)] = sin(sin−1 (4/5)) cos(cos−1 (5/13)) + cos(sin−1 (4/5)) sin(cos−1 (5/13)) = +
5 13
3 12 56
= .
5 13 65

41. y = 5 ft = 60 in, so 60 = log x, x = 1060 in ≈ 1.58 × 1055 mi.

43. 3 ln e2x (ex )3 + 2 exp(ln 1) = 3 ln e2x + 3 ln(ex )3 + 2 · 1 = 3(2x) + (3 · 3)x + 2 = 15x + 2.

y
2

x
4

–2
45. (a)

(b) The curve y = e−x/2 sin 2x has x−intercepts at x = −π/2, 0, π/2, π, 3π/2. It intersects the curve y = e−x/2
at x = π/4, 5π/4 and it intersects the curve y = −e−x/2 at x = −π/4, 3π/4.
22 Chapter 1

N
200

100

t
47. (a) 10 30 50

(b) N = 80 when t = 9.35 yrs.

(c) 220 sheep.

49. (a) The function ln x − x0.2 is negative at x = 1 and positive at x = 4, so by the intermediate value theorem it is
zero somewhere in between.

(b) x = 3.654 and 332105.108.

51. (a) The functions x2 and tan x are positive and increasing on the indicated interval, so their product x2 tan x is
also increasing there. So is ln x; hence the sum f (x) = x2 tan x + ln x is increasing, and it has an inverse.

π/2
-1
y=f (x) x
π/2
y=x
y=f(x)

(b)
The asymptotes for f (x) are x = 0, x = π/2. The asymptotes for f −1 (x) are y = 0, y = π/2.

Chapter 1 Making Connections

1. Let P (x, x2 ) be an arbitrary point on the curve, let Q(−x, x2 ) be its reflection through the y-axis, let O(0, 0) be
the origin. The perpendicular bisector of the line which connects P with O meets the y-axis at a point C(0, λ(x)),
whose ordinate is as yet unknown. A segment of the bisector is also the altitude of the triangle ∆OP C which is
isosceles, so that CP = CO.
Using the symmetrically opposing point Q in the second quadrant, we see that OP = OQ too, and thus C is
equidistant from the three points O, P, Q and is thus the center of the unique circle that passes through the three
points.

3. Replace the parabola with the general curve y = f (x) which passes through P (x, f (x)) and S(0, f (0)). Let the
perpendicular bisector of the line through S and P meet the y-axis at C(0, λ), and let R(x/2, (f (x) − λ)/2)
2 2 2
be the midpoint of P and S. By the Pythagorean Theorem, CS = RS + CR , or (λ − f (0))2 = x2 /4 +
 2  2
f (x) + f (0) f (x) + f (0)
− f (0) + x2 /4 + −λ ,
2 2
x2
 
1
which yields λ = f (0) + f (x) + .
2 f (x) − f (0)