CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURES

In this chapter, the researcher will explain some theories which support

this research, they are; Concept of translation, concept of Idiom, process and

procedures of translation, concept of translation strategies, concept of Movie, the

synopsis of Easy A and the previous related studies.

2.1. Concept of Translation

2.1.1. Definition of Translation

These are some definitions of translation based on the translation

theorists. According to Catford (1964), he said that translation is replacement of

textual material in one language (source language) by equivalent textual material

in other language (target language). Meanwhile, Newmark (1981:5) said that is

the process of rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way

that author intended the text. In addition, Nida and Taber (1969) in Meryem

(2010), they said that translation consists in reproducing in the receptor language

the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, in first term of

meaning and secondly in term of style.

McGuire (1980) in Bena Florita (2010) said that translation involves the

rendering of a source language (SL) text into the target language (TL) so as to

ensure that the surface meaning of the two will approximately similar, and the

structure of the SL will be preserved as closely as possible, but not so closely that

TL structure will be seriously distorted. So, from some definitions above, it can be
concluded that translation is how to transfer the meaning of source language to

target language without any changing of the meaning itself.

2.2. Process of Translation

2.2.1. The Process of Translation

The diagram below is belongs to Nida’ s process of translation

illustration. From the diagram below, we can say that the first step to translate a

text is analysing. In this step, the translator must find first the equivalence of the

target language. After finding them, the translator begins to transfer the meaning

of the text to the target language. But before it transferred into a ‘final product’,

the translator must restructure the source text into a proper equivalence meaning

of the target language. (Bassnet: 2002)

SOURCE LANGUAGE RECEPTOR LANGUAGE

TEXT TRANSLATION
#

ANALYSIS RESTRUCTURING

TRANSFER

Figure 2.2
2.3. Concept of Translation Strategies

2.3.1. Definition of Translation Strategies

As a translator, we cannot with ease translate from source language into

target language. We acquire strategies to transfer the meaning. The word

‘strategy’ itself has so many meaning based on its contexts. Translation strategies

are tool for solving the problem that translators mostly face. Loscher (1991) in

Sadeghi and Farjad (2014) defines translation strategy is a potentially conscious

procedure for the solution of a problem which as individual is faced with when

translating a text segment from a language to another language. Krings (1986) in

Monireh (2013) defines translation strategy as "translator's potentially conscious

plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a concrete

translation task.

Meanwhile Jaaskelainen (1999) in Ordudari considers strategy as a series

of competencies, a set of steps or processes that favour the acquisition, storage,

and/or utilization of information. He maintains that strategies are "heuristic and

flexible in nature, and their adoption implies a decision influenced by

amendments in the translator's objectives." in Mustonen’s thesis, Leppihalme’s

(1997) view translation strategies are applied when a translation difficulty occurs

and the translator wishes to solve the problem and produce a good translation.

Thus, according to Leppihalme, translation strategies are means which the

translator, within the confines of his/her existing knowledge, considers to be the

best in order to reach the goals set by the translation task. So, from the researchers
above, we can conclude that translation strategies can be a useful tool when we

are facing problems while translating a text.

2.3.2. Problems in Translation

In some occasional time while we are trying to translate a text, we have

something stuck in our head or maybe something odd. Translating a text could be

an easy task or the opposite. As you know, a ‘strategy’ can be used when a

translator is facing up a problem while translating a text. Problem in translating a

text can occurs to everybody. Translation problem, according to Miremandi

(1991) in Owji (2013) are divided into two main categories, they are; (1) Lexical

problems, (2) Syntactic problems. Those categories will be explained briefly.

A. Lexical Problems

Although words are entities that refer objects or concepts, a word in one

language may not be substituted with a word in another language when referring

to the same concepts of objects. In lexical problems, Miremadi also divided it into

five subcategories:

 Straight/denotative meaning

refers to those words of the source text that can be matched with

those of the target text "without missing images" (e.g. mother,

father, etc).

 Lexical meaning

Refers to words or phrases have a same equivalent, although in that

situation this may not be the case; the translator must be aware of

the context in order not to misrepresent the author’s message.

 Semantic Voids

Refers to words and/or expressions that represent concept that

cannot be found in other special communities. The closest

equivalent may be found, although the exact equivalent cannot.

 Proper Names

This subcategory refers to the individuals and can be transcribed

from one language into another, sometimes the specific meaning

that they carry, which do not exist in th target speech community,

may be lost.

 Metaphorical Expression

This problem refers to the problematic of translating idioms and

similar expressions. Miremadi (1991) has quoted from Broeik

(1981) about offering suggestions for translating idiomatic

expressions:

 Discriminating between common expression and

metaphors.

 Having access to the resources of translating a single

metaphor.

 Being cautious of different contexts and their constraints on

using metaphors.

 Correctly realizing the constraints on the translation, and

delivering the message.

 B. Syntactic Problems

Miremadi (1991) has quoted from Nida (1975), one cannot find two

languages that have the same exact identical systems of structural organizations.

These differences include:

 Word classes

Languages differ from each other in the internal word formation of

language classification.

 Grammatical relations

This difference exists among the language in the way that a

constituent of a sentence functions within that sentence.

 Word order

 Style

 Pragmatic aspects

2.3.3. Taxonomy of Translation Strategies

Many of scholars have different opinions about the taxonomy of

translation strategy. Chesterman (1997) in Bergen () that taxonomy of translation

strategy can be presented in a simple way, including the simplest strategy which

is: Change Something!. Chesterman also categorized the translation strategy into

three; Semantic, Syntactic and pragmatic changes. Those strategies also have

subcategories for each of them.

 A. Syntactic Strategy

This strategy refers to the changing of the grammatical structure of the

target text in relation to the source text. This strategy has more ten subcategories,

they are:

 Literal translation

The translator follows the source language form as close as

possible without following the source language structure.

 Loan translation

Refers to the borrowing of a single term and the following of a

structure of the text which is foreign to the target reader.

 Transposition

This term actually borrowed from Vinay and Darbelnet

(1958).

This strategy refers to the changing of a word-class. For

example, adjective to noun.

 Unit shift

This term is borrowed from Catford (1965). The unit that

changes are morpheme – word – phrase – clause – sentence –

paragraph.

 Paraphrase structure change

This strategy refers to the changing in the internal structure of

the noun phrase or verb phrase.

 Clause structure change

The change effects the organization of the main phrases [i.e.

Subject, Verb, Object, Complement, Adverb] of the clause..

 Sentence structure change

Refers to the change in the sentence units; a change in the

relationship between main clause and subordinate clauses.

 Cohesion change

Take a form of reference through pronouns, ellipsis,

substitution or repetition. Textual cohesion refers how to make

the parts of the text ‘stay together’ to form a fluent

comprehensible whole.

 Level shift

This strategy means the change of level, such as Chesterman

refers to are phonology, morphological, syntactical and lexical

due to different types of language use these levels in very

different ways to express meaning.

 Scheme change

Refers to rhetorical schemata, such as parallelism, alliteration

and in poetry, rhythm and rhyming. Parallelism refers to tehe

similar arrangement of a pair or series of related words,

phrases or sentences.
 B. Semantic Strategy

In this second strategy, consist of some subcategories. Chesterman (1997)

breaks them into nine subcategories of semantic strategy. Those subcategories will

be explained briefly below.

 Synonymy

In this strategy the translator select the closest synonymy that is

not the obvious first literal translation of the SL word or phrase.

 Antonomy

A strategy which uses a word with the opposite meaning, usually

combined with a negation.

 Hyponymy

A hyponym is one of a larger category. For instance, cat is a

hyponym in relation to animal, while a hypernym is know n as a

superordinate term, the opposite of hyponym. For instance, spice

is a hypernym in anise.

 Converses

Refer to pairs of opposite, such as take-give, receive-give, which

express the same semantic from the opposite point of view.

 Trope

This strategy is a term that is used for figure of speech or

metaphor. Trope refers to using a term or phrase to compare two

 things that are unrelated with the purpose of revealing their

similarity,

 Abstraction change

This strategy is concerns shifting either from more abstract terms

to be more concrete one or vice versa.

 Distribution change

This kind of strategy uses the same semantic component which is

distributed over more item (expansion) or fewer ones

(compression).

 Emphasis change

This strategy increases, decreases or changes the emphasis of

thematic focus of the translated text in comparison to the original.

 Paraphrase change

According to the overall meaning of the source text, it creates a

liberal approximate translation, some lexical items may be ignored

in this sort of strategy.

C. Pragmatic Strategy

 Cultural Filtering

It may be described as the concrete realization, at the level of

language, of the universal strategy of domestication or target

culture-oriented translation. This strategy is generally used while

translating culture-bound items.

 Explicitness Change

In explicitness change strategy some information of the source text

maybe added; or deleted to make the text more or less explicit.

 Information Change

Similar to the previous strategy; however, here the changed

information is NOT implicit in the source language text.

 Interpersonal Change

This strategy is used to affect the whole style of the text to make it

more or less informed, technical etc.

 Speech Act

Refers to changes the nature of the source text speech act, either

obligatory or non-obligatory (e.g. from reporting to a command, or

from direct to indirect speech).

 Visibility Change

This is a strategy that increases the "presence" of either the author

of the source text or its translator (e.g. footnotes that are added by

the translator).

 Coherence Change

similar to cohesion change which was mentioned in the previous

section (syntactic strategies). The only difference is that, cohesion

change concerns micro-structure level (e.g. a sentence or a

paragraph), but coherence change concerns a higher textual level

 (i.e. combining different paragraphs to each other in a way

different from the source text).

 Partial translation

Refers to translate a part of a text, not the entire text (e.g. song

lyrics or poetry).

 Trans-editing

According to Stetting (1989), another strategy which can be

mentioned in this section is trans-editing that refers to extensive

editing of the original text when necessary (i.e. changing the

organization of the source text information, wording or etc).

2.4. Concept of Idioms

2.4.1. The Definition of Idioms

Idioms, consciously or not, directly or not, have been learnt by us. It is an

aspect of English which are colourful and fascinating. Idiom is a fixed expression

whose meaning cannot be taken as a combination of the meaning of its component

parts, according to Ifill (2002). Seidl (1983) in Straksiene (2009:13) gives a

definition for idioms as well. She said that idioms are semantically frozen sets of

words and they have general or solid meaning. Meanwhile in his book entitled An

A-Z of English Grammar and Use which has been translated into Indonesian

become,Kamus Lengkap Tata Bahasa Inggris, Geoffrey Leech said that Idioms

are a group of words which are consist of two or more words. They must be
treated as a unity in learning a language. We cannot determine the meaning by

only combining its individual word- meaning. Baker (2011), in her book said that

idioms are frozen patterns of language which allow little or no variation; they

cannot be deduced from their individual components.

To ensure you what is the meaning of idiom, let’s see the example which

i will break it down. “I get on with my teacher very well.” The phrase that i

underlined is an idiom. The meaning of this idiom is to have a friendly

relationship. If you try to translate them by using word-for-word translation, it

would be meaningless. Leap to conclusion, idioms are not something easy to

translate by using a literal or word-for-word tranlation because they are a one

package of word and they are inseparable.

2.4.2. Types of Idioms

Based on Makkai (1972) in Fernando (1996) idioms is divided into two;

idioms of Encoding and idioms of decoding. Those types of idioms will be

explained below.

A. Idioms of Encoding (Identifiable)

This type of idiom is a idiosyncratic lexical combinations that have

transparent meaning. Idioms of Encoding could be recognized by comparing the

use of proper preposition in different languages. Therefore, ‘at’ is used instead of

‘with’ in the English expression ‘drive at 70 m.p.h’ (not ‘drive with’ as in

French).

B. Idioms of Decoding (Non-Identifiable)

 Idioms of decoding refers to the non-identifiable and misleading

expressions whose interpretation could not be acknowledge only by using

independently learned linguistics conventions. They include expressions like ‘beat

around the bush’ and ‘fly off the handle’. This type of idioms can be divided into

lexemic and sememic.

I. Lexemic idioms include:

 Phrasal verbs, e.g., ‘to come up with’, ‘to turn off’, ‘to take

part in’.

 Phrasal compound, e.g., ‘black ice’, ‘black board’.

 Incorporating verbs, e.g., ‘man-handle’, ‘Man-eater’

 Pseudo-idioms, e.g., ‘ spick and span’, ‘kit and kin’.

II. Sememic Idioms, on the other hand, usually give the pragmatic

meanings related to a particular culture, they are:

 Proverb, e.g., ‘Chew of something over’, ‘A bird in hand is

worth two the bush’.

 Familiar Quotations e.g., ‘Not a mouse stirring’.

If Makkai divides idioms into two types, Fernando (1996) in Strasksiene

(2009) distinguishes idioms into three, such as pure idioms, semi-idioms and

literal idioms. Pure idioms are defined by Fernando as ‘type of conventionalized,

non literal multiword expression.’ Pure idioms are always non literal, they may be

cannot be changed or have a little variation. For example ‘to spill the beans’ has

nothing to do with the beans.

 The second type of idioms according to Fernando is semi-idioms. This

kind of idiom is defined as a partially opaque. Because it has one or more literal

parts and one with non literal. For example, foot the bill means ‘pay’. And the

last type of idiom from Fernando is literal idioms. This sub-class of idioms are

either invariable or allow little variation. In addition, literal idioms are considered

to be transparent as they can be interpreted on the basis of their parts. For

example, of course, in any case, for certain.

2.4.3. Translation Strategies on Idioms

Translating idioms have never been an easy task for translator, especially

for young translator. Because idioms are frozen chunks of words whose overall

meaning different from the meaning of the given words said Balfaqeeh (2009).

Some of them are identifiable and some others are not. Since we have known that

idioms are hard to translate. Therefore, we need strategy to translate them right, so

the meaning of the idioms themselves can be transferred.

There are different concepts and categorizations for translation strategies

by different scholars. Baker (2010) said that an idioms or a fixed expression could

be translated into another language depends on many factors whether an idiom

with a similar meaning is available in the target language. She also proposed

strategies for translating idioms, they are:

(a) Using an idiom of similar meaning and form

(b) Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form

(c) Borrowing the source language idiom

 (d) Translation by paraphrase

(e) Translation by omission of a play on idiom

(f) Translation by omission of entire idiom

On the other hand, Nida and Taber (1969) in Ahmadi and Ketabi (2011),

they said that the most recommended strategy for translating idioms by translating

them with a natural target language idiom which has the same meaning as the

original source language idiom. Exclude the literal translation strategy and they

suggest three translation strategies for idioms:

(a) Translating idioms with non-idioms.

(b) Translating idioms with idioms

(c) Translating non-idioms with idioms.

2.4.4. The Difficulties on Idiomatic Expression Translation

As we know, we cannot translate idioms by translating them literally or

using word-for-word translation. Because of lots of idioms have a meaning which

is doesn’t have any connection with the idioms itself. Mollanazar (2004) in

Akhbari (2013) said that the first step in translating idioms is to recognize them.

The pitfall for the translators is to translate idioms literally. A word-for-word

translation of idioms is often nonsense or even sometimes amusing. Meanwhile

Davies in Sajid Jumu’a (2014) names the problems may face in translating idioms

and fixed expression, such as :

 Recognition

 No equivalent in the target language

  A similar counterpart in the target language with a different

context of use

 Difference between the convention, context, and frequency of use

in the source and target language

Baker (2010) also states that the difficulties involved in translating an

idiom are totally different from those involved in interpreting it. Whether a given

idiom is transparent, opaque or misleading. An opaque expression may be easier

to translate than a transparent one. The main difficulties involved in translating

idioms and fixed expressions may be summarized as follows:

(a) An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language.

Like single words, idioms and fixed expressions may be culture-specific.

Formulae such as Merry Christmas and say when which relate to specific

social or religious occasions provide good examples. Idioms and fixed

expressions which contain culture-specific items are not necessarily

untranslatable.

(b) An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target

language, but its context of use may be different; the two expressions may

have different connotations, for instance, or they may not be pragmatically

transferable.

(c) An idiom may be used in the source text in both its literal and idiomatic senses

at the same time. Unless the target-language idiom corresponds to the source-
 language idiom both in form and in meaning, the play on idiom cannot be

successfully reproduced in the target text.

(d) The very convention of using idioms in written discourse, the contexts in

which they can be used, and their frequency of use may be different in the

source and target languages.

2.5. Concept of Movie

2.5.1. Definition of Movie

Who doesn’t love watching movie? Movie is a story or event recorded by

a camera as a set of moving images and shown in a theatre or on television;

a motion picture (OxfordDictionary.com). Movie contains messages and values,

indirectly we always learned something from a movie that we had watched.

Allen and Gommery (1993) stated that the making of the film also has

social dimension for several reasons. Filmmakers are member of society and as

such are no less subject to social pressure and norms than anyone else.

Furthermore, all filmmaking occurs within some social contexts.

From the statement above, it is obviously clear that movie has something

to do with the society. Movie can represent what is happening to a society at that

time. Easy A is one of movie that represents American teenagers’ life lately. The

use of idiomatic expression is the main issues in this movie which is going to be

explored.

2.6. Synopsis of Easy A

 The film opens with Olive Penderghast (Emma Stone) talking into a

web cam about how her little white lie ballooned into an uncontrollable monster.

She says she will explain her side, the true side of what occurred. She says that

she was a nobody that no one noticed outside her best friend Rhiannon (Aly

Michalka). Rhiannon wants to go camping with Olive but Olive lies and says she

is going on a date. In reality, she just hangs around the house all weekend singing

"Pocketful of Sunshine" by Natasha Bedingfield.

The following Monday, pressed by Rhiannon, Olive lies about losing

her virginity to a college guy. Marianne (Amanda Bynes), an overly enthusiastic

Christian, overhears her telling the lie and soon it spreads like wildfire.

The school has a conservative teen church group run by Marianne who

decides that Olive will be their next project. The group's harassment disguised as

concern comes to head at an English class run by Mr Griffith (Thomas Haden

Church). The class happens to be reading The Scarlet Letter, a novel about

adultery and shame. When one of the girls from the church group makes a side

comment at Olive, Olive shoots back one of her own. This gets her sent to the

principal's office and Olive is given detention. It is there she sees her classmate

Brandon (Dan Byrd) walking out of the office with a bloodied nose.

Later at home, Olive is with her parents and her adopted brother. Her

mother Rosemary (Patricia Clarkson) and father Dill (Stanley Tucci) are very

liberal and supportive of their daughter and her choices. Brandon comes over later

and propositions Olive; she'll pretend to sleep with him and make him appear
straight, when in reality everyone knows he's gay. She agrees and they pretend to

have sex at a public party. Afterwards she bumps into an old crush Todd (Penn

Badgley), whom she almost kissed years ago but instead lied about it when he

said he wasn't ready.

Now after apparently sleeping with two guys and the harassment

starting to get to her, Olive decides to go with the flow. She begins to wear more

provocative clothing and stitches a red 'A' to everything she wears. Boys begin to

give her gift cards and money to say they've done sexual things with her to

increase their own popularity, which only increases her rep.

However, things begin to go downhill quickly. Rhiannon, partly jealous

of the attention Olive is getting, joins the church group protesting her. Olive is

able to reconcile with Marianne but it is destroyed when Marianne's boyfriend

Micah (Cam Gigandet) gets an STD and says Olive gave it to him.

Olive sees Mrs Griffith (Lisa Kudrow) who is crying and confesses that

she is the one who slept with Micah. Olive promises to take the blame to save

Mrs. Griffith's job and marriage.

Olive becomes disillusioned with the fact that though everyone thinks

she is sleeping around, no one will take the chance to actually date her. This

changes when Anson (Jake Sandvig) comes up to her and asks her out. The date

goes sour when Olive sees' Rhiannon at the restaurant and remembers that she has

a crush on Anson. Olive tries to recover and Anson attempts to pay her off, so she

asks what they'll say happened but Anson thinks he will actually get sex and tries
to force himself on her. She resists and he drives off. Todd, who works at the

restaurant, sees her and offers to drive her home. Todd tells her that he doesn't

believe the rumour mill and thinks she's actually great. He remembers how cool

she was about not kissing him years ago and wishes she actually was his first kiss

(her friend Rhiannon was and he says she was terrible). Olive is touched but says

she can't be with him until she sorts out her life.

Olive proceeds to go to the boys that propositioned her and tells them to

fess up but most deny it, or in the case of Brandon who comes out to his parents,

leave town altogether. When she goes to Mrs. Griffith to make her come clean,

she refuses to and uses her authority as an adult to make it clear Olive won't be

believed over her. Olive runs to Mr. Griffith and tells the truth but immediately

regrets how she did it, realizing she just ruined a marriage.

To get everything finally in the open, she does a song and dance number

at a pep rally and pretends that she will be doing a sex show via web cam with

Todd. In actuality (as the whole movie has been an extended flashback) she

confesses what she has done. She also makes up with Rhiannon, apologizing for

lying. When she is finishing up, Todd comes by riding a lawnmower and tells her

to come out. She closes her web cam confession saying she really likes Todd and

maybe she will lose her virginity to him in the future but at the end of the day it is

no one's business but her own. She leaves the house to kiss him and they ride off

from the neighbourhood on the lawnmower (a joke Olive made earlier on in the

piece where she says "Whatever happened to chivalry? Does it only exist in 80's
movies? I want John Cusack holding a boombox outside my window. I wanna

ride off on a lawnmower with Patrick Dempsey").

2.7. Review of Previous Studies

There are two studies which conducted a research about translation

strategy on idiomatic expression. The first study is from Dwi Asep Mulyono

entitled Translation Strategies of Pure Idioms in Veronica Roth’s Divergent and

he went to Dian Nuswantoro University. This study was conducted by using

descriptive qualitative method. He obtained the data from the English version of

the novel and the Indonesian-translated novel. The finding in this study is there

were three translation strategies; 1. Translation by using idiom with similar

meaning but dissimilar form, 2. Translation by paraphrase, and 3. Translation by

omission. Those strategies that I mentioned was composed by Mona Baker which

were applied by the researcher to translate the pure idioms in the novel.

There were total 38 of pure idioms found. The result of this study showed

that there were three strategies applied by the researcher; translation by using

idioms with similar meaning but dissimilar form (21,05%) , translation by

paraphrase (76,32%) and translation by omission (2,63%).

Furthermore, the second study was conducted by Sabricha Utami Sari.

She went to the same university as Dwi Mulyono. Her thesis was entitlted
Strategies in Translating Idiomatic Expression of Phrasal Verb in Terence

Blacker’s Bilingual Novel “Ms. Wiz Goes Live” Into “Ms. Wiz Jadi Bintang

Televisi” By Mala Suhendra. There were 44 idiomatic expressions found in the

novel. She also applied the Baker’s translation strategies as her method to

translated the idiomatic expressions she found in the bilingual novel. As the result

of her study, it showed that only three translation study were occupied; (1) Similar

meaning but dissimilar meaning (95.55%), (2) Paraphrase (2.22%), and (3)

omission (2.22%)

And the third previous study is from Margarita Straksiene which is

entitled Analysis of Idiom Translation Strategies from English into Lithuanian.

She actually tried to analyze what strategy used by Lithuanian translator, Rasa

Kirvaityte. Straksiene used two book from Agatha Christie; they are Appointment

with Death (2001) and Death on the Nile (1977). Straksiene collected the idioms

she found in the novel and put them into the classification proposed by Fernando

(1996): pure idioms (50%), semi-idioms (19%) and literal idioms (31%).

The main focus of this research was to analyze translator’s preferences

for strategies used for translating idioms. The analysis has shown that translator’s

translation of idioms involved four basic translation strategies: paraphrasing,

which involves explanatory and stylistic paraphrase, idiom to idiom translation,

which involves using idiom of similar meaning and form and using idiom of

similar meaning but dissimilar form, literal translation and omission. From two

book she tried to analyze, she found that paraphrase is the most prevailing
translation strategy she used. The use of paraphrase is 49%, followed by literal

translation is 31%, and idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form and idiom

of similar meaning and form shared a same percentage, it’s 9% and last is

omission with 2% of usage.

Based on the previous studies above, this study has similarity. The

similarity is the researchers also employs Baker’s translation stratergies for

idiomatic expression. Such as similarity, this study has a difference which will

distinguish from them. This study will try to analyze and describe the strategies

applied for all kind of idiomatic expression found, meanwhile both of the previous

study were more specific. The first previous study was only focusing on the pure

idioms and the second prevoius study was only focusing on the phrasal verb. And

the last previous study has shown that the researcher not only employed Baker’s

translation strategy for idioms but she also employed a Newmark’s translation

strategy: Literal Translation.