Exhibition Design An Introduction (Philip Hughes)

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exhibition design
Introduction
Who this book is for 6 / The modern exhibition 7 / The history of exhibition design 10 /
Recent developments 18 / The role of the exhibition designer 20 / How to use this book 21 /
1. The brief
How specific should a brief be? 24 / What kind of language should a brief use? 25 /
Strategy 26 / Content and assets 29 / Audience 32 / Time and money 34 /
2. The visitor
Engaging the visitor 36/ Layering for diverse audiences 42 / Learning styles 44 /
Branding 46 / The brand environment 47 / Teenagers and Museums 55 / Designing for
disability/accessibility 55 /
3. The site
The permanent exhibition site 58 / Signposting the exhibition site 59 / Signposting trade
fairs 60 / “Open” exhibition spaces 61 / “Closed” exhibition spaces 63 / Internal organization:
architecture 64 / Internal organization: content 67 / How to survey a site 71 /
4. Exhibition strategy
What is an exhibition strategy? 76 / Classifying the exhibits 76 / Devising a path 77 /
The importance of experiences 80/
5. 3-D design skills

Generating guiding ideas 82 / Evolving a design 84 / Developing the design using
sketches, models and plans 87 / Planning the circulation 97 / Developing elevations 99 /
The direction of flow 102 /
6. Graphic design skills

The role of graphics in an exhibition 104 / Approaches to exhibition graphics 108 /
Designing for legibility 116 / Designing for readability 119 / Reproducing graphics 124 /
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7. Lighting
How lighting is used in exhibitions 132 / The human eye 132 / Surveying the site 136 /
The lighting plan 138 / Exhibit-focused lighting 138 / Environmental lighting 141 /
Feature lighting 142 / Coloured lighting 143 / Lighting for comfort 147 / Conservation 147 /
Lighting specifications 147 / Trade fairs 152 / Professional practice 152 /
8. Interactives
Interactive media 156 / The visitor experience 157 / Technology 158 / What kind of
interactive? 160 / What makes a successful interactive? 160 / Writing an interactive
brief 162 / Other considerations 162 /
9. Sound and film

The benefits of sound and film 168 / The pitfalls of sound and film 169 / Types of linear
media in exhibitions 169 / Writing an audiovisual brief 172 / Acoustic considerations 173 /
How to ensure quality media experiences 174 / Limiting factors 174 /
10. Materials
Choosing materials 178 / Deciding on suitable materials 181 /
11. Portable exhibitions

Flexible designs 186 /
12. Technical drawing

The purpose of technical drawings 192 / Labels, details and notes 193 /
Ofcial approvals 199 / Tenders 199 / Amending drawings 200 /
13. Construction and delivery

Construction 202 / Trade fairs 206 / The green agenda 208 /
The designer’s responsibilities 211 / Trade practices 211 / Children’s exhibits 212 /
Project management 212 / Ancillary services 212 / Handover 214 /
14. Conclusion
An evolving discipline 216 / Green design 217 / The future 219/
...
Accessibility guidelines 222 / Smithsonian guidelines for accessible exhibition design 224 /
Sample storyline 225 / Glossary 226 / Further reading/useful websites 227 / Index 228 /
Picture credits 231 / Acknowledgements 232 /

First published in 2010, reprinted in 2013
Second edition published in 2015 by
Laurence King Publishing Ltd
361–373 City Road
London EC1V 1LR
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)20 7841 6900
Fax: +44 (0)20 7841 6910
e-mail: enquiries@laurenceking.com
www.laurenceking.com
Text © 2010, 2015 Philip Hughes

Philip Hughes has asserted his right under the
Copyright, Designs, and Patent Act of 1988, to be
identified as the author of this work.
This book was designed and produced by

Laurence King Publishing Ltd, London
All rights reserved. No part of this publication

may be reproduced or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopy, recording or any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publisher.
A catalogue record for this book is available

from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-178067-606-7
Designed by Draught Associates
Printed in China
Frontispiece: “The Interpretation Project.”

Exhibition design by Ralph Appelbaum Associates.
Crypt exhibit in St Paul’s Cathedral, London, UK.
Photograph © Peter Mauss/Esto
Cover photograph © doublespace / VIEW

Eli and Edythe Broad Museum, East Lansing, U.S.
by Zaha Hadid Architects, 2012.

Introduction

This introduction explains the purpose of the book and how
to use it. It describes the significance of exhibitions and
their design, and how new museums and galleries are being
established throughout the world. It traces the evolution of
exhibition design from the eighteenth century to the present
day and also highlights the range of skills required by
modern designers.
Who this book is for

The respected Dutch designer (and former director of Opera Design) Frans
Bevers once remarked that a book on exhibition design should cover not only
what is exciting to do, but also what the designer should not forget to do.
There are now a large number of books devoted to the former, illustrated with
dramatic, bold schemes that photograph well. However, there is little literature
devoted to the process of achieving the stunning results that appear regularly
in the design press.
Exhibition Design, aimed at students of design, aspiring designers,
exhibition professionals and anyone with an interest in the topic, hopes to
convey some of the skills necessary to thrill, educate and entertain new
generations of exhibition visitors. At the same time, this book also conveys the
necessary information about the practical aspects of responsible exhibition
practice, such as moving visitors safely through exhibition spaces, designing
digestible and legible text, creating appropriate, accessible interaction, the
integration of film, and exhibition construction.
Exhibition designers are drawn from a variety of backgrounds, among
them interior design, product design, architecture, graphic design, multimedia
and construction. This book is structured to help a varied readership to
access information in a number of ways. Some may try to examine all the
information contained within it systematically, others will browse and
selectively concentrate on particular areas, while yet others will skim, stopping
occasionally to look at a particularly interesting image or caption. In other
words, they will treat this book in the same way that different visitors react to
an exhibition. As far as possible, the principles described are accompanied
by inspiring examples that demonstrate how these principles are derived from
contemporary exhibition practice.

Introduction The modern exhibition
The modern exhibition

The Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, designed by the Canadian-American Danish National Maritime Museum,
Kossmann.dejong, Helsingør, Denmark,
architect Frank Gehry, achieved almost instant fame when it opened in 2013. A signature building designed by
1997. It drew almost a million tourists a year to a pleasant yet declining Bjarke Ingels Group and an immersive
exhibition design by Kossman.dejong brings
port, and delivered immediate economic and social benefits to the people new audiences to the remarkable story of
of Bilbao. It was successful in a way that could hardly have been envisaged Danish seafaring.
by its administrators or the mayor. This success also polished the already
considerable reputation of its architect and sparked a decade-long fascination
with the iconic museum designed by a “starchitect”, intended to invigorate
and bring high-culture cachet to a neglected town.
Achieved with a mixture of private and public funds, the Guggenheim
offered a formula sought by governments, planners and museum
administrators around the world—a global audience, economic regeneration
and high prestige at a relatively low cost. The success of the Guggenheim
and a small number of other similar projects sent out a message to national
and local governments. With an iconic building designed by one of a small
coterie of signature architects, and the collaboration of a “branded” national
institution (Tate, National History Museum, Smithsonian, Louvre, etc.), your
town could become the next Bilbao. It also heralded a new equation where
culture, previously understood to be a drag on successful economies, created
wealth and a new sense of purpose and identity.
In the commercial world, continued economic growth in the early years
of the twenty-first century buoyed the building of vast exhibition halls, such
as the huge and much-extended trade fair halls in Hanover, Milan, Barcelona
and Munich, and provided unique opportunities for exhibition designers.

However, the financial crisis of 2007–8, and the economic slowdown that Hanover exhibition ground, Hanover, Germany.
This complex houses the giant CeBIT Telecoms
followed it, seemed to lead to a reduction in exhibition design commissions. trade exhibition every year and hosted the
There are signs of recovery today, though, and even during a recession World Expo in 2000.
there will always be strands of exhibition practice that will survive, and even
thrive. Not surprisingly, many of the exhibition opportunities emerging today
are in the countries that were least affected by the global slowdown. The BRIC
countries (Brazil, Russia, India and China), in particular, are embracing
museums as a tool for educating new generations to take on the future
demands of knowledge and technology, and are building vast new centres for
culture. The Museum of the Portuguese Language in Brazil’s São Paulo, the
Jewish Museum and Tolerance Centre in Moscow, the vast science “cities” in
India, and the National Museum and Shanghai Science and Technology
Museum in China are all examples of this trend. In the mineral-rich Gulf states,
such as Abu Dhabi, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Oman, a succession of new
museums are being developed in a rush to engender a sustainable,
knowledge-based economy before carbon resources finally run out.
The development of hands-on interactive science centres to communicate
the principles of science and engineering through play has continued at a
remarkable pace, too. In North America, where this movement was born, and
in Europe, science centres are now a key element in the education of a
science-literate workforce able to take on the challenges of the modern
economy. National programmes of science education supported by science
centres, often linked with teacher training programmes, have yielded

Introduction The modern exhibition
remarkable initiatives in China, Turkey, Saudi Arabia, Bulgaria, Norway, Museum of London App, London UK, Smartphone
can bring history to life by overlaying archive
Malta, the Czech Republic and Poland, among others. images over modern photographs as shown in the
In a parallel development, the gathering pace of digitization has “Streetmuseum” app commissioned by the
Museum of London. This image shows the Royal
begun to affect exhibition practice deeply, and a new breed of digital Exchange in London.
design agencies has emerged. Exhibitions are now advertised and
bookable online, augmented by digital interactives during a visit,
frequently accompanied by study packs and opportunities for further
understanding. Forums also create opportunities for visitors to open a
dialogue with curators and experts long after their visit. The online “Bug
Forum” hosted by the UK Natural History Museum is one such example.
However, digitization looks set to have even more far-reaching
consequences for the interpretation of collections, as the vast stores of
the world’s museums are slowly brought into view through incremental
scanning and recording. As a result, exhibition designers must be able
to manage and work creatively with the digital information that
surrounds an exhibition. Increasingly, the assets of a museum will
include an electronic database that can be accessed through websites,
apps and creative interactive devices within the environs of a gallery
interior, in addition to traditional object displays. In a remarkable new
development, Google has used its understanding of Internet-based
learning to pioneer exhibitions that can be experienced both physically,
in an exhibition room, and virtually, through a tablet or computer.
As the channels for distributing content increase, so does the need

for meaningful organization, prioritization and interpretation. Specialist
exhibition content and interpretation developers, with research and writing
skills, are now an established and vital part of exhibition design practice.
These individuals work in a team environment with three-dimensional
designers, architects, graphic or media designers. Clients increasingly also
require the work of practised and experienced content developers, capable of
sifting, prioritizing and managing raw content to help produce creative design
work—truly inspiring interpretive design has come to depend on their skills.
Finally, as exhibition planners and designers develop masterplans for a
new generation of exhibition facilities, clients and designers are being made
increasingly aware of the social context of public learning. For cultural
attractions to continue to be successful, they must employ a mixture of
activities—festivals, events, lectures, performances, cafés and restaurants,
alongside exhibitions. This blend creates an environment that encourages
enthusiasm for public learning as an integrated part of the life of a community.
In major cities in particular, museums and interpretive visitor attractions are a
hub for a promenading (and increasingly international) public who enjoy a
range of activities, complemented by the contemplation, restoration and
stimulation that exhibitions provide. The work of imaginative, thoughtful and
memorable exhibitions underpins these hubs, and this book explores the
tools used by some of the world’s most successful designers to achieve this.
The history of exhibition design

Display is an innate element of human behaviour, constantly practised in our
daily lives. Most homes have casual arrangements of treasured possessions
and images, organized by personal preference and intended to reflect, and
be reflected upon by, their owners and others. Shopkeepers and market
traders, likewise, develop a sense of the best way to display their wares;
how and where to place goods to attract custom and create a sympathetic
environment. Above all, religious buildings such as churches, mosques and
temples are powerful examples of how techniques of display can be most
skilfully employed. Many of them use their architecture to elevate iconic
objects, to communicate the need for reverence, to frame views that
concentrate attention on a single sacred object or place (“the altar”) and to
stimulate the senses (scents, music, visual stimulation, tactility), promoting
spiritual contemplation in much the same way that other states of heightened
apprehension are promoted by modern exhibition designers. Indeed, many
museums and exhibition spaces often have something of the atmosphere of a
temple, which they often resemble physically. (Noteworthy, in this context, is
the degree to which large buildings of the nineteenth century were designed
in a temple-like style that drew inspiration from Greek or Roman precedents.)
Museum and art gallery displays mainly evolved out of the collections of
rich patrons, whose curiosities and artefacts were normally shown only to
other wealthy families. At the end of the eighteenth century, a number of such
collections were combined and organized for public display. In many places—
10

Introduction The history of exhibition design
Florence is an example—great works of art commissioned by patrons such Above left

Sir John Soane Museum, London, UK.
as the Medici family merely had to be consolidated in palaces that were Like many museums, this grew out of the
extended or adapted for the purpose of exhibiting them. In New York and private collection of a single patron, Sir John
Soane. On his death in 1837, a trust was set
Washington, collections were largely imported and were sought after not just up that administers the museum to this day.
for their perceived artistic merit, but also for the insight they gave into all The building is remarkable for its clever use
of daylight from skylights and clerestory
things foreign. Quite often, museum or art gallery displays were set up with windows and for its ingenious use of space,
a dual purpose: to house an existing collection of artefacts and to provide such as the hinged painting racks built into
the walls shown in this image.
educational opportunities for an increasingly literate and self-educating
population. The promise of self-improvement was a central part of their Above
The Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy, 1581.
attraction and, much as they do today, they enabled large numbers of The gallery was built at the request of
visitors to gain a broader and more complex understanding of the world. Granduca Francesco de’ Medici, son of
Cosimo I. The original design was by
The United Kingdom’s first dedicated public art gallery was the Dulwich Giorgio Vasari, one of the leading painters
Picture Gallery in south-east London, the building for which was and architects of the sixteenth century.
The museum houses many of the great
commissioned by Frenchman Noël Desenfans, and his Swiss masterpieces commissioned and
friend Sir Francis Bourgeois. The two art dealers had originally acquired collected by the Medici family.
the Dulwich paintings for the king of Poland, Stanislaus Augustus. Upon
abdication in 1795, the king left them with a substantial collection they
did not wish to entirely dispose of. They struck upon the idea of opening
a public gallery with the support of an elderly widow. The gallery proved to
be an important precedent for architects and designers of gallery spaces,
demonstrating as it did how a building dedicated to art might look.
It famously showed how daylight could be introduced from above at a time
when, in most buildings, the walls on which paintings were hung were
pierced by windows.
11

Many institutions began to acquire artefacts at an unprecedented rate to Above left
The Reptile Gallery, Natural History Museum,
satisfy the appetite of the public. It is hard to imagine the impact that displays London, UK. In the mid-nineteenth century, careful
of art and science would have had on these visitors, whose opportunities to categorization and a rigorous approach to the
ordering of displays in museums underpinned
travel and explore were limited and for whom these displays provided a many contemporary advances in science.
fascinating insight into a huge range of subjects. Transportation issues aside,
there were few restrictions on the movement of artefacts between countries, Above
The Great Exhibition, London, UK, 1851. This
and many irreplaceable works of art were removed from historic sites, most event marked the beginning of the international
notoriously, perhaps, the frieze from the Parthenon in Athens which is now in exposition movement that survives today. The
exhibition was housed in the revolutionary glass
the British Museum in London. Contemporary museum-makers might content and metal pavilion known as the Crystal Palace,
themselves with filming or recording a country’s cultural products, but in the designed by Joseph Paxton.
nineteenth century exotic animals, cultural antiquities, art and other items of
interest were simply removed from their original and natural locations.
Although the imported “curiosities” elicited wonder, they were frequently
mislabelled and poorly understood. Gallery staff often had only the haziest
notion of the function, importance and attribution of their displays. The
emphasis was firmly on the creation of “spectacles” intended to provoke and
amaze. Many artefacts acquired narratives that, though thrilling, had little or
no basis in truth. The introduction of more scrupulous practices was
influenced by distinguished scientists such as Charles Darwin and Linnaeus,
the Swedish taxonomist, who were concerned with the careful classification
and ordering of natural phenomena. Their approach became that of museum
curators, whose zeal for careful labelling and scrupulous classification
contributed significantly to emerging scientific disciplines.
At the same time as the Western nations were acquiring these vast
collections from abroad, public displays began to be used to promote and
celebrate these societies’ growing industrial and technical accomplishments.
The Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, housed in the revolutionary Crystal
Palace, was a substantial milestone in the history of exhibitions and, for that
12

Introduction The history of exhibition design matter, in the intellectual history of Europe. (The Great Exhibition represented
the beginning of the World Expo movement, currently overseen by the
International Exhibitions Bureau in Paris.)
The Crystal Palace building, designed by Joseph Paxton, was itself
an engineering marvel, built in just six months using repeated modular
components of glass and steel, that profoundly influenced architecture.
The South Kensington Museum in London (later the Victoria & Albert
Museum) was set up with the money generated by the Great Exhibition,
with the express intention of improving the standards of manufacture and
the applied arts. Like many museums and galleries of that period, the South
Kensington Museum was not intended for recreation but was established to
provide a source of valuable information for designers, craftspeople and
manufacturers seeking to improve their products.
Museum and gallery pioneers met the challenges of publicly displaying
objects in a number of ways. In an era before electricity or reliable gaslights
designers relied on the clever infiltration of natural light into the galleries
usually from above so that as much wall area as possible could be used for
display. Balconies were often located below a skylight to maximize the use
of daylight, leaving a central atrium void that allowed light to flood into the
lower tiers of the building.
Display cases with thick wooden frames were the staple of most museum
collections, providing security and protection from theft and damage. In
conjunction with poor lighting, the glass of these cases meant that many
exhibits were difficult to see and also created an important psychological
distance between the viewer and the object. Many curators saw themselves
as trustees of important collections; meeting the needs of the public was often
regarded as a chore rather than a duty, an attitude that was reflected in a
hushed atmosphere and the barriers put between the viewer and the
artefacts. Displays tended to be very crowded by modern standards, with
pictures hung four or five high on the walls, and the highest paintings tilted
away from the wall to meet the gaze of the viewer. Many museums felt bound
to show as many of their artefacts as they could physically cram into display
cases; often the exhibits were impressively comprehensive, but very difficult
for the ordinary observer to take in. Conservation features that are considered
so important today, such as control of temperature, relative humidity and air
pollution were not prevalent.
This is not to suggest that modern display practices are in every respect
improvements. A great many paintings and sculptures are nowadays seen
in surroundings very different to those in which they were intended to be
displayed. In art galleries the picture-hanging device was the picture rail with
hooks and chains attached to the framed pictures. Out of step with modern
design, this has disappeared from many galleries. Historically, in the homes of
art patrons paintings with deep frames were a constituent part of a decorative
design scheme that often included intricate plasterwork, patterned wallpaper,
dado rails and ornate furniture. Many of the paintings of religious subjects
13

found in Western museums were originally on view in churches. The format Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, UK, 1884.
This remarkable collection of archaeological
of some of these paintings, for example triptychs, often look awkward in a and anthropological artefacts was bequeathed
modern gallery because they are literally out of place. by Lieutenant-General Augustus Pitt Rivers to
Oxford University in 1884. The collection has
multiplied many times over since the museum’s
The evolution of modern display techniques inception, with little increase in the size of the
museum itself.
Modern display techniques are largely influenced by the art and design
movements of the early twentieth century, principally the development
of abstract art and the principles espoused by avant-garde artists and
designers, many of whom studied and taught at the Bauhaus in Germany
between 1919 and 1937. These principles caused designers to radically
rethink the elements of design, so that walls and floors came to be regarded
as “planes”, as if they were elements in an abstract sculpture. Modern
Movement architects and designers reinterpreted the rooms of buildings
in new ways, using the language of “spatial relationships” and “volumes”
to influence display environments. Exhibition environments were reconceived
in many different forms by Surrealists, Futurists and Constructivists.
Simultaneously, artists like Duchamp pioneered installation art in which the
envelope of the gallery, formerly treated as an empty shell into which the
display was placed, was itself transformed into an element of the artwork.
New approaches to design emphasized a new dedication to combining
functionality and aesthetics. In 1924 Frederick Kiesler, influenced by the
Bauhaus, designed a free-standing, demountable display system, the L&T
system, in the distinctive geometric style of the Modern Movement, which
14

Introduction The history of exhibition design
he used for pictures at the Konzerthaus in Vienna. This system, a forerunner Above left
Van Gogh exhibition, MoMA, New York, USA,
of modern collapsible displays, was modular and allowed the combined 1935. Alfred Barr, the founding director of the
display of objects and images; it was also adaptable and the viewer could Museum of Modern Art, devised this Van Gogh
exhibition. The show was remarkable for the
adjust the images and objects to his or her eye level. width of empty wall space allowed between the
Of the strands of display practice that grew out of the Modern Movement, paintings. This hanging method has become
almost ubiquitous for modern painting shows.
easily the most influential is the spare, minimal environment with white walls
developed at the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New York. Inspired by
Bauhaus principles, this clinical style, now so pervasive, was developed Above
“Machine Art” exhibition, MoMA, New York,
through a series of experimental exhibitions from the mid-1930s to the early USA, 1934. Designed by the architect Philip
1940s when the reaction to modern art was still very mixed. The exhibitions Johnson, the exhibition featured everyday
industrial goods. This groundbreaking show,
introduced smooth-surfaced walls and carefully but sparsely arranged which asserted that functional goods and
displays to the American public, and were seen as provocative. Philip machinery could be perceived as art, brought
widespread public interest. The display
Johnson’s “Machine Art” (1934) showed industrial goods as though they was typically spare and unadorned in the
were art pieces. Contrary to some expectations, the exhibition proved to be Bauhaus tradition.
very popular and the contentious idea that displays of industrial products
could be given the reverence normally devoted to art was on the whole
accepted as a reasonable premise by the visiting public. The spare style,
inspired by the smooth lines of modern ships and the functional leanness
of aircraft, suited the display and endeared the new Museum of Modern Art
to contemporary patrons.
Other exhibitions at MoMA, such as Herbert Bayer’s “Road to Victory”,
drew on another strand of Bauhaus design practice: the “environment”, an
all-encompassing experience that overwhelmed the senses of participants,
and involved many creative disciplines to achieve a total effect. The exhibition,
which took place during the World War II, was conceived literally as a single
path, a road to victory on which visitors walked alongside inspirational images
of life-size patriotic Americans contributing to the war effort. The story told by
the images was intended to have maximum psychological and emotional
impact. Symbolically, the path rose several feet over its length and ended with
the moment of victory, portrayed by a mural of soldiers on which were
superimposed photographs of mothers and fathers at home. Mary Anne
Staniszewski, author of The Power of Display, which chronicles the MoMA
exhibitions, remarked: “The message was one of a fated victory and a certain
15

future; in other words, an idealist and determinist covenant with what had Centre Georges Pompidou, Rogers and Piano,
Paris, France, 1972–6. The Centre Georges
been and what will be was manifest in every nail, piece of wood, caption, and Pompidou is a landmark in the display of modern
photograph in this installation design.” The success of “Road to Victory” also art. The organization—vast uninterrupted floors
with no internal columns or structural walls—has
demonstrated how skilful photography, increasingly being used in advertising, had a great impact on the type of displays that
could become a powerful emotional tool. Bayer, who would have been familiar could be housed. The informal ground-floor
exhibition space has more the atmosphere
with the exhibitions designed by the Constructivists in support of Soviet of a city square than a conventional museum.
Communism and the Italian Futurist displays in support of Fascism, employed
many of the techniques used for these, though for very different ends.
Perhaps the most defining element of MoMA’s display legacy was
also its simplest. Alfred Barr, the museum’s founding director, pioneered
exhibitions of paintings hung at wide intervals, with a sizeable border of empty
space around each exhibit. The common practice of “skying” paintings high
on the walls, one above the other, was eliminated and a neutral wall colour
was chosen, first a beige monk’s cloth and later white paint. Barr treated all
displays the same, so a 1935 exhibition of Van Gogh’s paintings was given a
roughly similar treatment to “Italian Masters” in 1940. His method precluded
the use of period detail, colour or wall-hanging to communicate the context or
period in which an artwork was produced. Visitors were encouraged to ignore
the artist’s historical and social context and to consider the art separately as
an autonomous object. This style, now evident everywhere, was innovative
and encouraged viewers to look at art in a new way.
16

Introduction The history of exhibition design Interactive exhibitions
In the 1960s a new revolution in exhibition display was brought about by the
growth of the “hands-on” exhibition, developed and adopted by institutions
such as the Exploratorium in San Francisco. Dissatisfied with traditional
methods of teaching science, these institutions introduced a fresh conception
of learning, whereby children would actively engage with real science. They
developed interactive exhibits that allowed visitors to learn directly from
experience and have fun at the same time. The displays sought to engage
a type of visitor now known to museum and educational specialists as
“kinaesthetic learners”. These visitors, traditionally poorly served by Above left

Exploratorium, San Francisco, California,
museums, enjoy getting involved with something—“doing” rather than USA, 1983. A heliostat on the roof tracks the
observing. Today, we have come to expect this type of exhibit in our sun’s movement and reflects the sunlight off a
mirror down into the exhibit area. Bouncing off
museums, indicating the enormous impact interactive exhibits have had on other mirrors, the light reaches a wall of prisms,
the way display professionals think about museums and visitor experiences. which break into a spectrum of colours. The
scribbles of colour shift with moving air currents.
“Doing” is now the standard approach to the teaching of science, and
interactive exhibits continue to populate other areas of exhibition practice, Above
Exploratorium, San Francisco, California,
enriched by other types of interactive experience—such as environmental and USA, 1983. Artist Ned Kahn creates warm
“find out more” interactives. Contemporary exhibitions, such as the Winston updrafts and circular air flows. This exhibit
combines art and a powerful educational
Churchill exhibition in London (see pages 94–95 and 114–15), owe much to message for children learning about science.
these precedents.
Other experiments have sought to dispel the elitist nature of much
exhibition practice. The glorious Centre Pompidou in Paris, designed by
Italian architect Renzo Piano and British architect Richard Rogers, has,
since its inception, attempted to create a less reverential atmosphere, more
marketplace than art temple. The hi-tech building with its massive, tubular air
ducts, exposed structure and bright colours is in many ways an antidote to
the palatial, traditional galleries of the Louvre across town, and is in this sense
17

an ideal venue for provocative, experimental installations that might appeal to
younger audiences. Additionally, the Centre Pompidou’s huge, undivided floor
planes and lack of columns or internal load-bearing walls gives the exhibition
designer greater freedom to divide spaces according to the dictates of the
display, rather than having to respond to the structure of the building.
Recent developments
Recent developments have brought about a realignment in the modes of
delivering exhibitions in both the public and private sectors. Younger visitors
have begun to pay less attention to traditional advertising and marketing, and
increasingly inhabit a parallel digital community. To maintain their relevance to
a new generation of potential customers, corporations and institutions are
forced to seek out the virtual habitat in which these consumers reside. In turn,
exhibitions have become more interactive and increasingly have a dialogue
with this virtual world. The visitor will often browse a website before seeing an
exhibition and will often consult that website afterwards. More importantly for
corporations, the exhibition has become an opportunity to stage a live event
that is announced online and portrayed online after it has taken place,
allowing the corporation to stake out territory in the digital environment. This
“take home” aspect of modern exhibitions has parallels with the traditional
“giveaways” handed out to visitors and the themed trinkets from the museum
shop. The important difference is that data capture at exhibitions allows
institutions to draw the Internet traffic of their target audiences into their digital
space, delivering the kind of marketing benefits that mere branded trinkets
can no longer provide.
Interestingly, the live, physical experience of holding an event has not been
replaced by virtual exhibitions, as was predicted when the Internet was born.
The digital experience often leads to a physical visit and seems to encourage
rather than discourage visitors. The advent of digital communities such as
Capture the Museum, National Museum of

Scotland, Thought Den Ltd, 2013 This app
encourages children to virtually “capture”
museum objects as part of a team game
organized by the museum.
18

Introduction Recent developments “Second Life” may change this situation in the future, but the evidence so far
seems to suggest that the “real” exhibition is a robust feature of modern life
and unlikely to be replaced very soon.
For designers and exhibition managers, the developments described
above have had a significant impact on the practice of staging exhibitions.
Web, multimedia, graphics, sound and lighting designers are expected to
work side by side, to deliver a single linked experience that operates with
consistency from the first contact on the website to the after-show email.
Curators are expected to blog continuously from the moment their exhibition
ideas are conceived through the duration of the show. Visitors are expected
to interact with the display, give feedback on its value and have their say on
its every aspect. The “like it or leave it” attitude of past generations of
designers and exhibition managers has been superseded by a less
defensive and more flexible attitude towards feedback and comment.
Exhibitions continue to be an extremely efficient medium of
communication and, in the words of one commentator, Tony Bennett,
“speak to the eyes”. Anyone who wishes to gain a substantial understanding
of a subject in a manageable time frame would be well advised to visit a well-
curated exhibition, where the information they seek is mapped out as a
comprehensible three-dimensional journey. Within most major national
museums and art galleries, what the visitor takes for granted is an enormous
amount of care in the choice of the exhibits and, often, brilliant interpretations
of a subject. Many exhibitions will also provide a fascinating sublayer of
information for those who wish to delve below the surface. For tourists, visits
to museums and galleries are a substantial element of their enjoyment of their
stay, and a vital representation of the culture of the country they have travelled
to explore. Beautifully lit and presented displays are a minimum requirement
for international cultural consumers whose spending fuels the vibrant
international tourist economy. The theoretical underpinning and exhibits for
these are provided by an army of exhibition professionals, but it is the job of
the exhibition designer to orchestrate an environment that connects with the
visitor, and transform a collection of exhibits into an inspiring experience.
Designers have developed great sophistication in their understanding of
their audiences, and must think carefully about how to engage a
segmented marketplace.
To an even greater extent, trade fairs afford an opportunity for visitors
to gain an overview of an entire subject. Though car shows, for example,
have largely become opportunities for branded entertainment, a single
event can bring together all the most important players in the car market and
allow visitors the luxury of watching the great brands jostle for their attention.
For business customers, trade fairs provide a rare opportunity to rub
shoulders with their most important contacts in a time-efficient manner, to
forge business relationships and to take a snapshot of the most advanced
developments in their field. For exhibitors, these fairs are essential to creating
a conversation with their customers through the medium of a designed
19

experience. Small wonder that they often spend large sums on the design
and construction of their trade stands, with each exhibitor vying to outperform
their neighbours. The skill of the exhibition designer may, in the past, have
been overlooked by the world of design as well as by many clients. Major
contemporary exhibitors, however, need no persuading of the value of
exhibition design and designers, and invest heavily in the design of their
“customer experiences”.
The role of the exhibition designer

Although there are a number of university-level specialist courses in exhibition
design, they produce only a fraction of the professionals who are currently
practising. There is plenty of evidence to suggest that graduates trained in
other design disciplines or art can transfer their skills to exhibition design,
though some grounding in its basic principles is always recommended. In
many instances, practitioners may work across a range of contexts; for
example, in retail or office design or, in the case of graphic designers, in print
or digitally based media. In larger exhibition design practices, working across
disciplines is more rare as these companies tend to create specialist
exhibition teams.
The range of design specialists working on a single project will often
depend on the budget. For a small exhibition, the designer will be called
upon to be responsible for the three-dimensional design of the structure
as well as simple text panels and project management. Larger exhibitions
may have a budget large enough to employ specialists from a variety of
disciplines. In most cases, there will be a design director who assumes
overall responsibility for the outcome and coordinates the work of
collaborators. That said, many exhibitions are staged with no design
involvement at all—artists who mount their own shows, for example, and
exhibitors at trade fairs who put together their own stands. Some of the
fundamental rules explained in this book may help such exhibitors to avoid
the worst disasters and increase the effectiveness of their displays. Complex
shows, however, require the input of experienced exhibition designers.
Exhibition designers often specialize in one of two areas: museum
displays for publicly funded institutions or commercial displays for corporate
clients. Increasingly, the boundary between these sectors is being broken and
designers work in both areas. Some operate externally as consultants called
in on contract to address particular design tasks, others may work in-house
as part of a team designing a programme of exhibitions. Exhibitions are
usually constructed with a time frame in mind, thus temporary installations
need to be less durable than permanent ones, and sometimes employ
different construction techniques or materials. Typically, exhibition design
encompasses areas such as “customer experiences”, “brand environments”,
trade fair stands, launch events, consumer pavilions (including World Expos),
museums, art galleries, and science and “discovery” centres.
Further opportunities exist for design students with a detailed knowledge
20

Introduction How to use this book of sustainable design. While this topic is too large to be properly handled in
this volume, it is important to stress that future generations of designers will
be required to take up the challenge of the sustainable management of the
earth’s resources, balancing social, economic and environmental concerns
through their practice. In many Western countries, much that has been
discussed at intergovernmental level since the 1980s has filtered down to
become concrete. Modern practitioners will be dealing on a day-to-day basis
with questions of sustainable design practice against the background of
potentially rapid climate change and intense debate about the use of the
world’s scarce resources.
Westphalian State Museum of Archaeology,

Atelier Brückner, Herne, Germany, 2003. Skull
fragments in cases are displayed alongside large-
scale projected computer-generated images,
which explain the significance of the exhibits
How to use this book

The 14 chapters of this book examine exhibition design today and the key
elements of the exhibition design process, from formulation of the brief
through to construction and handover to the client. Each chapter refers to
consecutive elements of the process, explaining the industry terminology
and delivering key information.
The “Introduction” provides an overview of exhibition activity in the world
today, and includes a short account of major historical milestones and
influential practitioners in exhibition design. The roles and responsibilities of
the exhibition designer in both trade and public exhibitions are described.
Chapter 1 “The brief” describes how a good brief should be formulated
and the types of information that may usefully be included. This chapter also
describes how the briefing language can influence the design process.
Chapter 2 “The visitor” describes how exhibition audiences are analyzed
21

and includes discussion of branding and targeted audiences.
It also describes how exhibition designers might address visitors who
have varying levels of knowledge and diverse learning styles.
Chapter 3 “The site” looks at the opportunities and constraints provided
by the exhibition site and their impact on design strategies.
Chapter 4 “Exhibition strategy” is a concise account of how exhibition
designers work with a given brief to produce the strategy for an exhibition.
Diagrams show how these strategies help to formulate visitor journeys.
Chapter 5 “3-D design skills” describes how exhibition designers generate
ideas, research visual references and formulate exhibition plans. It includes
illustrations of models, sketches and visuals used in the initial stages of the
three-dimensional design process for trade fairs, museums and galleries.
Chapter 6 “Graphic design skills” looks at the use of text and imagery in the
exhibition environment. The importance of legible and readable text and text–
image scale is discussed, with practical advice on large-format printing and
production issues.
Chapter 7 “Lighting” discusses lighting strategies specific to exhibitions.
It describes how lights can be positioned over exhibits and the use of lighting
to model objects (such as sculptures), as well as backlighting, edgelighting
and spotlighting, with illustrated examples.
Chapter 8 “Interactives” describes the guiding principles of interactive
design and gives some key examples.
Chapter 9 “Sound and film” considers how sound and film can be used
to support an exhibition storyline, and includes advice for designers wishing
to commission audiovisual experts, as well as practical information
about installation.
Chapter 10 “Materials” looks at the considerations designers must
take into account when they specify materials, such as fire safety, durability,
suitability for purpose and sustainability. Illustrations in this chapter
include examples of the material sample boards that are used for
presentations to clients.
Chapter 11 “Portable exhibitions” discusses temporary exhibition equipment
that can be easily erected and dismantled, with useful illustrations.
Chapter 12 “Technical drawing” looks at the role of technical drawing in
the delivery of exhibitions, with examples of plans, sections, elevations and
three-dimensional drawings by leading practitioners.
Chapter 13 “Construction and delivery” describes how designers and
exhibition-design firms structure their production process and work with
contractors to achieve successful results. It includes information about
the role of the project manager and the implementation of green design.
Chapter 14 “Conclusion” describes how exhibition design has evolved
as a discipline, and how green criteria are set to change the industry.
It also describes the economic importance of exhibitions in countries
with little tradition in this area, and some of the responsibilities of the
exhibition-design profession.
22

1.
The brief

This chapter describes the ideal brief, how it is formulated and
the various aspects of exhibition planning that it should cover.
These include the target audience, the context or narrative in
which exhibits will be seen, and the way in which the theme of
the exhibition should be interpreted. A brief also highlights
the need for the client to provide the designer with all the
information necessary to achieve a successful outcome.
At the beginning of every project, designer and client need to develop a shared
understanding of a project. This understanding needs to be both creative and
practical, describing what is expected, as well as the creative opportunities.
Typically, a good brief is recorded and provides a reference point for future
developments, helping both client and designer understand whether, as a
project moves forward, they have strayed from the initial intentions, or whether
assumptions have changed. Successful projects start with a good, clear initial
briefing, but this will often evolve as client and designer explore the potential
of a given project.
Ultimately, the mark of a successful brief is a successful and creative project.
The skill of the client in creating a design brief cannot be underestimated—the
better the brief, the better the working process and the realized project. Accurate
attention to information such as budgets, costs and programme is essential,
while similar attention to less tangible elements such as themes and content
will likewise lead to relevant, thought-provoking creative responses. Brief-writers
often ask how prescriptive a brief should be. Good projects can be achieved
with both loose and tightly prescriptive briefs. However, if the designer is to meet
the expectations of the client, it is really important that the client is clear about
what those expectations are. If a brief does not communicate intentions clearly,
the designer will likely waste a lot of time and effort trying to discern them.
How specific should a brief be?

Some briefs can be too prescriptive. If the client specifies what they would like
to see in their exhibition too precisely, they effectively take design decisions into
their own hands and deny themselves the opportunity to use the designer’s
expertise. A brief that is too vague, on the other hand, runs the risk that the
designer may waste time working on issues that are not relevant to the task
in hand.
All in all, if the client has good ideas that they feel should be considered,
they should put them up for discussion at the outset, but be willing to take the
designer’s advice on whether they are appropriate. This saves time and avoids
the common situation where the client has an idea but waits to see whether the
designer comes up with the same one, and is disappointed when they do not.
The best briefs are specific about objectives, learning outcomes and available
assets, such as collections—this leaves the designer free to inflect the content
in the best way, and consider which delivery techniques might be best for
which type of content.
24

1.
A business-to-business Primary audience Secondary audience
What kind of language should a brief use?
exhibition held by
mobile-phone suppliers • Mobile-phone retailers • Mobile-phone customers
(existing customers) • Trade customers in
• Mobile-phone retailers related businesses
(potential new customers) • Mobile-phone support
technicians
A public exhibition Primary audience Secondary audience
• Children aged 6–12 • Children below 6 and

• Parents of children above 12
aged 6–12 • Independent adults of
The brief
all ages
• School and educational
groups
As a designer, it is essential to test your understanding of the brief by

questioning the client, investigating scenarios and generally probing the
brief’s soundness. If the client has not described the nature of the task
properly and some aspects do not make sense, ask questions, even at
the risk of appearing naive.
What kind of language should a

brief use?
A brief usually contains lots of dry factual information, such as scope, budget
and programme, and there is no point in dressing this up. However, it should
also always contain some emotive language to convey the importance of the
project—why it is exciting and worthwhile. Creative design often thrives on the
association of words and images, so clever, funny and evocative language
can be used to stimulate the designer’s imagination. The language used can
also provide the designer with valuable insights into the client’s frame of mind,
which can, in turn, shape a better working process and indicate the most
appropriate forms of communication. For example, formal clients may prefer
well-prepared materials, presented less frequently, while less formal clients
may wish to see working sketches and early ideas at more regular intervals.
25

The briefing process is not limited to written documents, however. Creative
immersion in the idea of a project is essential. A visit to a museum vault, a
client’s factory, cultural visits undertaken together and joint workshops will all
help convey ideas and feelings, and enable a designer and client to develop
a successful working relationship.
Strategy
There are myriad ways to set out the necessary components of a brief, and
these are listed below. Large projects may feature all of these elements and
more, but smaller projects will often omit any number of these if they are
not relevant.
Institutional or company objectives

Most companies and museums have a list of written objectives or institutional
goals tailored to their overall mission, and it is incredibly helpful to see these,
particularly when working for a client for the first time, as these will govern the
development of the experience. These objectives will have been carefully
considered, and will often have a strong influence on the daily work of the
client body. These aims often benefit from some explanation, though—who
originated them and how they evolved. For museums, these statements are a
key point of difference, indicating to staff and visitors how they distinguish the
experiences they offer from their competitors.
Messages and outcomes

Most exhibitors have values and ideas—often referred to as “key
messages”—that they want to communicate to their audiences as part of an
overall strategy. These are typically altered and updated more frequently than
institutional objectives, and they often mirror short-term campaigns. Museums
can use these messages to help them pursue, for example, strategic
educational initiatives to enhance students’ understanding of science, natural
history or history. Commercial exhibitors will often have strategic goals that
explain the competitive strengths and unique advantages of their current
offer. Related but slightly different are visitor outcomes. These describe the
ideas of impressions the client wants the audience to take away from their
visitor experience. For example, a natural history exhibition about insects
might be intended to leave schoolchildren with the idea that “the bugs in my
house are really interesting”, or “science can be fun”. It can be really helpful to
state intended “visitor outcomes” as well as “visitor messages”, as there is a
critical difference between delivering messages (saying that “science is fun”)
and designing an experience that creates an understanding in the mind of the
visitor (having visitors say “science is fun” after their visit). The former is
more straightforward; the latter is a more complex outcome to achieve, but
ultimately a more rewarding result. Visitor outcomes can be tested through
audience surveys, which can help designer and client understand how close
they are to reaching their targets.
26

1. The subject or content of an exhibition is sometimes tied to a wider
campaign or, in the case of commercial exhibitions, to wider branding
The brief Strategy
strategies. A coordinated approach that enables an exhibition both to gain

publicity and to help broaden and deepen a wider branding strategy is
sometimes required. This kind of thinking is less relevant for museums than
it is for commercial exhibitions, where the explicit aim is to enhance brand
perception. Commercial exhibitors often have extensive reports detailing
areas where they need to heighten or shift visitor perceptions of their
brand. This information can be especially useful, and should be included in
briefs for commercial exhibitions so that the designer can maximize any
opportunities for linking with existing branding, marketing or communications.
Exhibition content also often connects with, or gives insight into, topics on
school or university curricula. For many national institutions, particularly
museums of science and natural history, these links are very carefully
considered. If an exhibition subject directly addresses an aspect of learning—
say “optics” or “how machines work”—the museum can play a powerful role
in expanding and deepening student learning through live demonstrations
and showing key historical objects that may have been previously explained
or introduced in the classroom. Where the client wants to make these links,
it is important to explain in the brief exactly what the links are, and what
students are expected to take away from their experiences. This kind of
information has an impact not just on the spatial storytelling aspect of an
exhibition, but also on design features, such as gathering spaces for groups,
or capacity for live demonstrations, to give two examples.
Sustainability
Sustainability features in many exhibition design briefs, so it is a good idea
to establish from the outset what this means in the context of the project.
Sustainability can relate to two distinct areas in exhibition design:
environmental and financial. Environmental sustainability affects the materials
used in constructing the exhibition, and may even affect the working process,
impacting on travel, for example. Financial sustainability refers to the business
plan or business objectives a client may have when developing an exhibition,
and will impact upon such factors as how many visitors can occupy the space
at any one time, or whether there is a retail or café space.
Ambitions for sustainability should be defined early on in the project,
ideally by the client—how they expect sustainable principles to be applied,
and to what level. There are a number of official bodies that provide
benchmarks for environmentally sustainable projects: BREEAM (Building
Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) in the UK and
LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) in the US are
examples. Whereas architects have become familiar with sustainable working
practices and standards, examples of the application of sustainable exhibition
design practices are fewer, although large project teams often include
sustainability consultants to help realize sustainability criteria.
27

Masterplanning
Very often exhibition designers are asked to create “interpretive masterplans”.
These address the need to plan links between disparate content/gallery
areas, and often encompass an entire site, or a large section of a site. A
completed interpretive master plan shows potential visitor routes between
galleries, illustrates logical content sequences (such as a chronological or
thematic approach) and might illustrate a range of costed options to help the
client decide how best to use their buildings and galleries within a given
budget. These studies are necessary to make integrated visitor experiences
that are consistent with a pre-determined, logical, carefully devised narrative.
Interpretive masterplans might also make recommendations for the
placement of cafés or gift shops along the route to maximize the client’s
revenue and provide comfort for visitors. As the planning of new facilities and
the re-thinking of existing facilities often requires new marketing or operational
strategies, these masterplans can be accompanied by marketing or
operational plans produced by external consultants.
Marketing
Exhibitions are undoubtedly more successful when they are accompanied by
large landmark events such as lecture series, book launches, and radio and
TV programmes. If events are planned around the opening of an exhibition,
Ralph Appelbaum Associates, London,

UK, 2014. Creative and rich design
environments stimulate ideas and
creative solutions.
28

1. it is helpful to make exhibition designers aware of this as it may affect the
focus of the exhibition. Increasingly exhibition content is shared across a
The brief Content and assets
number of platforms, including social media, providing new ways to gain

public attention for museum content and attract new audiences. Forward-
thinking exhibitors have also begun to mix virtual and physical encounters that
enable people to share in the experience of being in the exhibition, and allow
visitors at the exhibition to see digital input from outside. Key visitor attractions
from a museum or exhibition experience provide leverage for marketing and
social media, and can sometimes be designed to provide maximum exposure
to social media. If a client has these expectations, they should be
communicated in the brief.
Costing
Any thinking about the scale of an exhibition will require an understanding of
cost levels. For larger projects, specialist exhibition cost consultants are
essential in helping project and client teams understand what they can expect
for the funds available. Generally, highly interactive or audiovisual experiences
tend to be the most expensive, while simple graphic or object displays are
less costly. However, some up-front information about overall budget is
important as a guide for all parties.
Public funding
Many exhibitions can only be achieved with the help of public funds. Specific
funding bodies, such as the Heritage Lottery Fund in the UK, the European
Commission in Europe, or the National Endowment for the Arts in the US have
criteria that must be met through exhibition design. Briefs should be clear
about these criteria, as designers often have experience of navigating these
successfully, whereas a client can be facing them for the first time. Some
funds may involve a series of applications, and briefs should be clear about
the dates and requirements for each stage. This way client and designer can
work together to ensure any submissions are successful.
Content and assets

The brief will then need to establish the details of the proposed exhibition’s
actual content—the storyline or themes underpinning it, as well as the assets
and physical conditions available to achieve the desired visitor experience.
Storyline
A number of design practices and museums routinely use the language of
“narrative” when designing and devising new exhibitions. Narrative design
dictates that exhibition content be put together into a story sequence, with a
beginning, middle and end (see also Chapter 3). The introductory component
helps visitors to understand the context and characters in a story, and the
museum exhibits are then arranged as if to tell an unfolding narrative.
29

The logic of this approach is strong, as stories are the most elemental way we
have as humans to convey and recall information. Briefs will therefore ideally
include a broad narrative for the exhibition experience. A storyline need not be
long—a couple of pages of text is sufficient—but this will help by suggesting
dramatic turning points, and putting the relative importance of parts of the
story into perspective.
Themes
Visiting museums is a distracting business and rarely are visitors able to give
their undivided attention to complex and unedited information. Consequently,
like a good travel guide, exhibition curators spend a great deal of time
working out how to flag interesting aspects of their exhibition content by
highlighting thematic links and illustrating parallels between seemingly
unrelated subject areas. This impacts how content is grouped and how those
subject areas are called out in exhibition graphics and multimedia devices.
Briefs should state the main themes of the exhibition, or ask that the
designers draw their own thematic conclusions.
Content
Curators and subject specialists, however knowledgeable and thoughtful in
their approach, often benefit from the assistance of specialist exhibition
content developers, usually working for a design company. Content
development, or the art of working with an exhibition subject to help make
content comprehensible to visitors, is a specialist skill. It requires considerable
knowledge of best practice in the treatment of content by parallel institutions,
as well as a methodology that enables a client to look at their own subject
matter from a host of differing perspectives. Through intensive workshopping
and consideration of options, content development can provide new insights
and opportunities—even radical changes—in the way a subject can be
displayed and arranged.
Exhibition assets
The motivation for staging an exhibition can spring from many sources: a
desire to sell or market products, to show an existing collection of artefacts
and objects, or to share an idea with a new audience. In exhibition jargon, the
stuff of an exhibition—the cars in a transport museum, for example, or fossils
in a natural history museum—are known as “exhibition assets”, and these are
sourced and displayed according to how important they are in telling the
narrative (see above). This approach has not always been the case. Many
museum displays were once built around the enthusiasms of curators,
with less consideration of how visitors would understand them.
Assets can also refer to other features of a museum or exhibition.
These might include different kinds of archive, such as film or photography,
the museum’s location, its buildings and architecture, a strong visitor base
or volunteer group, or, for corporate projects, brand awareness.
30

1.
Research
The brief Content and assets
Content
A/V development
Interactive development
Digital
Media
Graphic research
RAA Design
CLIENT Commissioned art
2D
A/V engineering
Lighting
Architects,
3D M&E services
suppliers &
contractors
Structures
Where possible during the briefing process, designer and client should An “organogram”, a hierarchical diagram
setting out the roles and responsibilities of the
work together to make a full assessment of the available assets. A broad staff designing an exhibition.
overview mentioning key assets is fine to begin with. This will then be refined
and expanded upon as the project progresses.
Cataloguing and recording

Meticulous recording and transfer of information about exhibition assets from
the client to the designer is also critical to the success of an exhibition.
Spreadsheet templates with comprehensive information about the height,
width, depth, weight and display conditions are standard tools for tracking
and recording objects selected for exhibition. Image and film assets should
be recorded with detailed information on image resolution, size and relevance
to a particular content area. Exhibition databases will usually have a unique
catalogue numbering system that identifies every object, graphic image,
sound or film asset intended for display. This may differ from internal systems
already in use by the museum or client, and is intended to enable effective
communication between designer and client. At the briefing stage, it is worth
making sure that both client and designer understand the different database
documents that will be used during the project, and how these documents
will be shared between them.
31

Conservation
Long-term display of any exhibit requires the consideration of trained
conservators to determine the optimum conditions for display and to prevent
harm to often valuable and irreplaceable objects. Creating the appropriate
conditions for each object requires an understanding of the collections but
also needs the collaboration of a number of professionals, including lighting
designers, services engineers (responsible for regulating the atmosphere of
a gallery) and architects, who should provide galleries that are as sympathetic
to conservation as display. If the client wishes to borrow objects from other
institutions, they will often be asked to guarantee that environmental conditions
are suitable. Good briefing material should always include mention of
conservation policy.
Site and building

Exhibition briefing material will usually be accompanied by comprehensive
information about the site of the exhibition and detailed floor plans that indicate
how visitors might arrive and exit, amenities such as gift shops and cafés,
and any adjoining spaces. Power, data and other services drawings
will also be necessary and should be made available directly or through
collaborating architects, facilities managers or services consultants.
Legal requirements
Exhibitions need the scrutiny of appointed experts who have legal and/or
advisory powers to scrutinize and, where necessary, amend designs to ensure
that they comply with the law. These might include fire, accessibility and health
and safety specialists. Where important constraints are known—for example,
fire exits or important access points for wheelchair users—it can be helpful to
include these in the brief. This helps the designers to integrate these constraints
from the beginning and may save time later in the process.
Audience
Increasingly, exhibition clients and designers research the needs of their
intended audience before beginning a project. This is known as “formative
evaluation”. This can be done through an analysis that takes into consideration,
amongst other things, proximity, wealth and size of local audiences, as well as
motivations for visiting. Naturally, major exhibitions in big cities with large local
populations and good transport links tend to attract larger numbers of people.
However, an exceptional attraction with unique appeal to a wide section of the
population can sometimes exceed expectations—in the UK, for example, the
Eden Project in Cornwall is a remote visitor attraction that nevertheless attracts
over a million visitors per year.
Audience studies can provide the designer with a lot of useful information.
Peak and low-season visitor assumptions help architects and designers to work
out, for example, the capacity of circulation spaces, cafés and restaurants. A
study that helps predict the origin and number of foreign tourists will help
32

1. designers and clients to determine the kind of written information they will
portray in the exhibition, and whether translations will be needed.
Exhibition Design The Brief
In addition to a purely statistical analysis, museum experts have devised

classifications of likely visitor types, based on less tangible things such as
motivation. This kind of research is helpful for designers because it describes
why different types of visitors might want to go to a museum and, by
extension, how the designer might best meet their needs. In this context,
some visitors might be described as “refreshers” (those who go to exhibitions
to “restore” themselves, replenish their minds and who gain a spiritual
satisfaction from learning). Others might be “experience seekers” who want
to visit the “latest thing”, and be able to tell others that they have done so.
Motivation classifications are useful design tools, but they require some
understanding and analysis (see, for example, Falk, J. H., Heimlich, J. and
Bronnenkant, K., “Using identity-related visit motivations as a tool for
understanding adult zoo and aquarium visitors’ meaning-making” in Curator
vol. 51, no.1, pages 55–79).
If such research has been carried out, and is deemed relevant to the type
of experience the client has in mind, it should be included as part of the
briefing materials. The more the designer knows about the existing or
intended audience, the better the experience will be.
33

Time and money
Any brief should be accompanied by some reference to an approximate
budget, together with a rough idea of when the exhibition should open,
and the project’s scope and responsibility. Variations in programme and
budget can be disruptive to exhibition programmes, and designers find it
difficult to work with frequent changes to either of these constraints.
The following table provides an outline of the usual division of
responsibility between client and design practice.
Client responsibilities Planning Consultants to client

Exhibition premise Architecture
Briefing Market research
Curation Accessibility
Audience research Film-making
Accessibility Health and safety
Education Fabrication and installation
Marketing/PR Planning consent
Conservation Security
Education
Design practice Planning Consultants to design

responsibilities Masterplanning Translation
Narrative design (includes Interactive design
graphic and 3D design) Sound design
Scriptwriting AV hardware design
Artworking Structural engineering design
Content development Film production
Content coordination
Multimedia development
DO… DON’T…
• Be clear about what you are required to do. • Move forward on the basis of a purely
• Make sure the brief allows for creative oral brief.
interpretation. • Start to design the exhibition without exploring
• Research the subject of the exhibition. the brief adequately.
• Anticipate potential problems at the • Start the project without properly defining the
briefing stage. roles and responsibilities of the client, the
• Share briefing information with important design team and other project workers.
project workers as required.
34

2.
The visitor

This chapter discusses the vital topic of visitor engagement
with an exhibition. It describes how layers of information can
be created for diverse audiences, and how modern learning
theory has influenced the way designers create displays for
visitors with different levels of knowledge. It also includes
information about interpreting a company’s brand in the
context of an exhibition.
Engaging the visitor

“Engagement” is significant in the world of exhibitions, and in any book on the
subject the word pops up consistently. It describes the process of addressing
visitors directly, stimulating them, turning their attention towards something,
creating lasting positive memories of a display and giving them new insights.
Significantly, there is a real difference between showing exhibits to a visitor
and engaging him or her with them. Engagement is a much deeper and more
profound experience that changes and deepens understanding and is the aim
of good exhibition design.
To engage visitors in an effective way, exhibitors spend a great deal of
time and energy researching their audience’s interests and motivations and
classifying it by age, sex and socio-economic group. Like all events that
cost money, exhibitions involve competition. For a show aimed at consumers,
this might take the form of attractions such as shopping, leisure complexes
and garden centres. For business-to-business exhibitions, each stand at a
trade fair competes against its neighbours and a host of alternative exhibits.
By trying to understand what motivates a particular audience, a designer
can develop designs that address target groups and engage and develop
visitor involvement.
Alongside the research required to create engaging displays that speak to
the designated visitor group, the designer also has to consider the physical
and intellectual barriers that prevent audiences engaging with exhibits. At a
simple level, this may mean examining the physical environment to ensure
that wheelchair users, the visually impaired and members of other disabled
groups have access to the displays. But there are also less tangible barriers
to explore. Visitors may stay away from an exhibition if they feel it does not
relate to them, or that they do not “fit in”. Daunting and confusing reception
areas don’t make visitors feel welcome. These are all factors that can be
controlled by the designer.
Opposite
“IBM 100: THINK”, Ralph Appelbaum Associates,
New York City, USA, 2011. Located at New York’s
Lincoln Center, this exhibition features a giant
interactive wall where visitor movement creates
visualizations in dynamic shapes and colour.
36

2.
The visitor Engaging the visitor

The USA Visitor Services Association Bill of
Rights. This Bill of Rights for visitors spells out
The Visitor Bill of Rights the main obligations of exhibitors. Note that
interaction between visitor and exhibitor is
1. Comfort: “Meet my basic needs.” explicitly encouraged by point seven. Point ten
2. Orientation: “Make it easy for me to find my way around.” emphasizes the need to understand visitors
and their level of understanding about a subject.
3. Welcome/belonging: “Make me feel welcome.”
4. Enjoyment: “I want to have fun.”
5. Socializing: I came to spend time with my family and friends.”
6. Respect: “Accept me for who I am and what I know.”
7. Communication: “Help me to understand and let me talk too.”
8. Learning: “I want to learn something new.”
9. Choice and control: “Let me choose; give me some control.”
10. Challenge and confidence: “Give me a challenge I know
I can handle.”
11. Revitalization: “Help me leave refreshed, restored.”
[Black, Graham, The Engaging Museum
(Abingdon: Routledge, 2005), p32]
Understanding a target audience means research—on the one hand

asking questions about the motivations, preoccupations and ideals of the
visitors an exhibition aims to attract, and on the other reflecting on the
physical and intellectual barriers that would prevent them engaging with the
display. With this knowledge, the designer can work out strategies to stimulate
visitor interest and involve viewers in the display by relating these to the
exhibition content.
For some topics of broad interest, diverse visitor groups will be expected
to attend. For example, sports cars might appeal to a number of different age
and socio-economic profiles, though perhaps with a predominantly male bias.
The designer is therefore addressing a diverse audience that might approach
the exhibition from a wide range of perspectives. On the other hand, displays,
such as those for children, have to be extremely well researched and
targeted. What appeals to a five-year-old will not necessarily appeal to a ten-
year-old, and a display that is intended to address both groups could prove to
be a costly mistake if it is poorly researched. The greater the sum spent on an
exhibition, the more exacting the research must be. In some cases, the client
will test aspects of an exhibition such as posters and interactives by showing
them to evaluate their effectiveness with the desired audience.
The process of creating engaging displays usually involves a representation
of the target audience. To reach the exhibition’s designated visitors, the
designer links its subject to something they know, understand and have a
positive connection to, usually researched visually using inspirational
moodboards. So, if the target group is young professionals aged between 30
and 40, the designer should try to represent them and their interests on the
board, making that representation as stimulating as it can be. The aim is to
dynamically visualize key inspirations. Moodboards have a dual purpose.
38

2. They help to stimulate the designer’s imagination while providing interesting
precedents that demonstrate the direction of his or her thinking to the client—
The visitor Engaging the visitor
a kind of visual mindmap. The client can compare the images on the board
with their own understanding of the market in which they wish to operate.
To draw the desired visitors into an exhibition, it has to be made clear
through advertising, graphics and the physical environment that the display is
for them. Traditional audiences may be comfortable with the routine of visiting
exhibitions. For groups to whom this does not apply, the designer has to
demonstrate clearly through appropriately designed posters, literature and
marketing a feeling of welcome and a sense that there might be something
in the exhibition to engage a range of visitors.
Inspirational moodboards or precedent studies have a further purpose:
they help the designer and client to study and refine the language and tone
of the exhibition. The images on a board can highlight an appropriate design
language for conveying messages and ideas about the show to the target Scott’s Last Expedition, Natural History Museum,
audience. They are often key inspirations for the experience of the exhibition, Land Design Studio, London, UK, 2011. This
immersive exhibition recreates and interprets the
visually and spatially, and demonstrate how its key objectives can be science legacy of the Antarctic expedition by
translated into a three-dimensional experience. Captain Scott in 1912.

The Arctic Study Center, Anchorage Museum of Art
and History, 2010, Anchorage, Alaska
Design: Ralph Appelbaum Associates
Smithsonian Arctic Studies Center is a new layers of discovery for each object, including oral
cultural-center model that serves, and is served histories, historic photographs, artistic depictions,
by, Alaskan Native communities. The collection, and a growing body of Native and scholarly
is interpreted in consultation with Alaskan Native commentary.
scholars, curators and community elders
representing fourteen communities. Through
updatable digital stations visitors uncover multiple
Above
The showcases are easy to open and enable
staff to facilitate easy access to culturally
important artefacts including clothing, tools,
carvings and ceremonial art.
Left
Special detachable object mounts allow
objects to be easily removed for study.
40

2.
The visitor Case study
Above
Multimedia installations immerse visitors in the
story of the Arctic through recordings of Alaskan
Native storytellers and sounds from the natural
environment.
Left
A series of related objects describe the context
of life in the Arctic.
41

Layering for diverse audiences
Every large exhibition addresses a wide range of visitors, some with more
knowledge of its theme than others. To accommodate their varied needs,
designers and exhibitors create layers of information. Any exhibition can be
layered in a great variety of ways. For example, there could be a layer for
lengths of visit—short, medium or long—or for different interest groups:
a display of aeroplanes might have separate layers for engineers, school
children and pilots. Below are four types of visitor with differing levels of
knowledge, who might be catered for.
The expert
This is the specialist who knows the terrain well and wants to supplement his
or her detailed map of the area. They may have covered most of the ground
before, so they are interested in some of the least trodden paths. They are
looking for exhibits or information that will further their existing knowledge,
though much of what they see will be familiar to them. He or she might need
a research facility, perhaps a screen or a database of reference material, to
explore some aspects of the exhibition more deeply. They may wish to sit
down, especially if they have an enquiry that could be time-consuming.
Their eye may be caught by a number of exhibits, and they need to have
the facilities to enable them to delve deeper into the provenance, type,
date and background of any one of them.
The frequent traveller

This person is familiar with the main landmarks and would like to discover
more about the terrain by exploration. He or she has a reasonable foundation
of knowledge and wants to increase it, but is motivated by general curiosity
rather than the need to pursue any specific information. To satisfy the needs
of the frequent traveller, the designer has to plan for an informed level of
enquiry. This may be conveyed in a number of ways: explanatory text,
audiovisual displays or other interpretative media may be appropriate.
For some exhibitions an extensive catalogue would be useful for a generalist
to read and explore at leisure. The frequent traveller may also benefit from
a website with further details of the exhibition.
The scout
The scout does not know the terrain but wants to pick up on the main
landmarks. The exhibition designer must ensure there is legible signage and
labelling that identifies a clearly defined path. The trail of information he or she
lays out should transmit sufficient information for the scout to understand the
main thrust of the exhibition with minimum confusion. This visitor needs a
highly organized and rigorous “top layer” of information.
42

2. The orienteer
The orienteer often doesn’t know where to go in an exhibition. He or she looks
The visitor Layering for diverse audiences
for something that is meaningful to them, some light they can navigate by.
They may have been brought along by another visitor who has more
understanding of what is being shown and has abandoned them. Really good
interpretative design should include a wide range of activities and options for
the orienteer. In science exhibitions younger children, who are unlikely to
understand a series of exhibits intended for adults, might be provided with
displays that thrill them as well as delivering a subtle message. For example, Churchill Museum, Casson Mann, London, UK.
A central interactive table allows visitors to click on
a static display of dinosaur bones might satisfy an adult with an interest in individual elements of a Churchill archive. The top
natural history. For a child, a simulated ride on the back of a dinosaur would layer of information is general, but by clicking
through a series of windows, visitors can access
be much more fun, while still communicating many of the important aspects detailed information including primary sources
of dinosaur behaviour. such as letters and memos written by Churchill.
43

UK Pavilion, International Expo 2005,
Land Design, Aichi, Japan. This exhibit
engages a wide spectrum of the audience
through a mixture of visual, auditory and
interactive stimuli. The visitor is encouraged
to learn about the ability of a gecko to
climb vertical surfaces by making a virtual
“gecko man” scale a building. The exhibit
also demonstrates how humans can
develop technologies by studying and
emulating animals.
Learning styles
Modern learning theory emphasizes that learning is a varied process.
By borrowing some of its terms it is possible to divide the visitor’s mode
of engagement into three differing categories—visual, auditory and
kinaesthetic—each of which describes one of the most common ways
to learn about exhibits. These categorizations can be useful to the designer
as they emphasize the varied types of stimulus required to engage a broad
range of audiences.
The visual learner

This type of learner requires visual stimulation in order to help engage with an
exhibition. Typically, he or she is most moved by eye-catching displays and is
less likely to read text. They like visual rather than written explanations of
phenomena and technical data, so diagrams, timelines and flow charts suit
them best. No visitor is exclusively driven by the visual, but their interest in
exhibits will be stimulated by images, film and three-dimensional sculpture.
Any subsequent examination of text is driven by the initial visual impact of
the display. Designers and artist tend to be visually driven and can easily
empathize with the visual learner.
The auditory learner

The auditory learner is the least suited to traditional exhibition display. He or
she learns best through verbal communication and discussion, and likes to
44

2. interpret the meaning of things through speech. To reach them, the use of
sound is essential. Interactive screens, voice recordings and audio guides
The visitor Learning styles
are the interpretation tools of choice for this type of visitor. Discussion with
curators, gallery talks and presentations are also useful ways of engaging
auditory learners.
The kinaesthetic learner

This type of visitor learns best through a hands-on approach that allows them
to actively explore the physical world, and steers clear of traditional museums
and exhibitions. For the kinaesthetic learner, who is interested in objects or
artefacts that can be touched, a display of objects behind glass would simply
be too detached; there would be nothing to hold or do, and he or she would
soon get bored or look for distractions. The interactive display particularly
appeals to the kinaesthetic learner, who likes the feedback and involvement
of electronic and analogue interactivity. This active style of engagement is
rarely catered for in art galleries, but is well understood in interactive
science exhibits.
Left and below left

Ford VJ Experience, Imagination, Detroit
Auto Show, Detroit, Michigan, USA, 2007.
This experience was devised in order to increase
the emotional resonance between visitors and
the Ford brand. Visitors were filmed answering
questions about what would make a difference
in their lives. The filmed visitor responses were
collated and then compiled by VJs (video jockeys)
in visual sequences with soundtracks for
broadcast on a large LED screen. A central
hub featured the VJs at work, while low-level
screens encouraged visitors to contribute to the
experience. The screen content was, therefore,
generated by the visitor and was intended to
inspire a new form of interaction between the
visitor and the brand.
45

Branding
All clients are concerned about how they are perceived by the public.
When they hold an exhibition, this perception is altered, rethought and
reconstructed by how visitors react to the show. It is the designer’s job to
meet the client’s requirements to strengthen, alter and reinvigorate visitor
perception through the experience of the exhibition. To achieve this, the
designer needs to know two things.
First, he or she has to understand how the client is currently perceived
in the marketplace. If the client is well known—a major car brand, for
example—the designer or design company may carry out their own research
into the target market, depending on their resources and the budget Guinness Storehouse, Imagination, Dublin, Ireland.
Designers Imagination used a broad palette
available from the client. With less well-known organizations, much of the of media to create an “immersive” brand
information will be provided by the client. For small exhibitions, the research experience for the makers of Guinness. The
all-encompassing design was effective in
may be a cursory glance at the Internet and a leaf through the information communicating a series of brand values in a
provided by the client. modern and engaging way and the Storehouse
has proved a popular visitor attraction.
Second, the designer has to find out what the client wants to achieve,
and their thinking about the market in which they operate. The client will often
have an array of brand information: diagrams such as the “brand wheel”, a
brand manual with corporate logos and brand statements, and a host of other
brand information generated by the marketing department. It is important to
ask the client how the exhibition fits into the overall marketing strategy.
The designer’s job is to interpret the client’s brand values in terms of a
real exhibition experience. For many companies, their brand is entirely
two-dimensional, played out through advertising and corporate literature.
Exhibition designers are tasked with taking the brand out of the graphic
realm and interpreting it as a series of spatial experiences. The first rule is
that all corporate signage must be scrupulously reproduced; normally no
company or institution allows their corporate logo to be altered. However,
beyond the obvious strictures of corporate graphics, the further interpretation
of the brand is in the creative domain of the designer. As long as he or she
can argue convincingly that their ideas coincide with the client’s brand values,
there is often scope.
Large public institutions have begun to dabble hesitantly with the idea
that how an exhibition audience perceives their brand is instrumental in their
long-term health. However, for trade exhibitors brand perception is central
to a show and taken very seriously. For them, a thrilling and delightful
exhibition can be useful only if it is consistent with, and supportive of, an
overall brand message. Some clients will rely heavily on their design company
for advice about brand strategies and brand communication. Care must be
taken in this arena because, though many designers are familiar with brand
issues they cannot be said to be truly expert. Where necessary, they hire
marketing and brand consultants to deliver specialist branding advice
to their customers.
46

2.
The visitor The brand environment
The brand environment Above

“Fast and Fabulous from Beijing to Shanghai
Although there is nothing new about multisensory displays, designers of with Bombardier”, Migliore + Servetto, Milan,
commercial exhibitions often use them to match the exhibition experience Italy, 2005. This “brand experience” conveys
the essence of the brand of train and airplane
with the brand values of the client company, with the aim of making the visitor manufacturer Bombardier through an
“feel” a “brand experience”. The term was coined by the design group experiential approach to the design.
Imagination at the end of the 1990s, and the systematic communication of Below left and below
A rendering and sketch of the display.
brand values through sensory means has been an established practice since
that time. Part of the motivation for “sensory” brand environments is that the
visual saturation of the modern world has blunted the effectiveness of visual
communications, and to reach visitors effectively full use should be made of
sound, touch, smell and taste.
What this means can best be described by an example. In a traditional
commercial display of, say, computer chips, the exhibitor would display the
chip neatly on a specially designed pedestal, with high-quality lighting and a
well-edited graphic panel to describe its use. The designer of the panel would
take care to highlight key advantages such as the number of calculations the
chip could perform, the ease with which it could be installed and after-sales
47

support. For many professional buyers of computer chips this information
might be sufficient, though the display would undoubtedly have a similar feel
to countless others.
The “brand environment” approach, on the other hand, is to appeal to the
consumer on an emotional level, by creating a heightened perception of the
client’s brand that goes beyond the qualities of a single product. To do this
the designer uses all the means at his or her disposal to create an enveloping
environment in which the brand values, which in the case of the computer
chip might, for argument’s sake, be described as “speed”, “professionalism”
and “support”, are played out through every aspect of the display: sight,
sound, touch and smell. The architecture of the exhibit reflects the product’s
brand values, with its form, the tactile qualities of the materials, and the sound
and smell of the environment specifically chosen to amplify and reflect the
brand message.
National Museum of Ethnology, Opera Design,

Leiden, the Netherlands. A device such as this
“Magic Carpet” can transform a child’s
experience of a museum visit.
Children and exhibitions

Of all visitors, children are possibly the most critical. Unlike adults who can
empathize with most exhibitions, however mediocre, children can be damning
in their appraisal of exhibits that do not engage them. The words “boring”,
“dull” and “pointless” are often used. Moreover, they will not spend time on
these displays, and are prone to play games, mess around and generally
cause mayhem. Parents, teachers and museum demonstrators have a great
interest in creating exhibitions that engage children and absorb their attention.
Like all other exhibitions, shows for children of all ages have to be well
researched. Designers are generally too old to fully appreciate what children
like, and though they may have memories of what it is like to be a child, these
memories should be refreshed through thorough investigation. The most
helpful sources could be educational psychologists, teachers, parents and,
48

2.
The visitor Children and exhibitions
most importantly, children themselves. Ask questions. “What games do you Above left and above
“Food: Traditions, Taboos and Delicacies”,
play?”, “What television programmes do you watch?” and “What makes a National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, the
good day out?” are a good start. Taking small children to an exhibition can Netherlands. Designed by Opera Design, this
exhibition about the taboos and traditions of food
provide real information about how they relate to displays. Their reactions from around the world was highly interactive.
are very different to those of adults, and the designer can learn far more by Oversize wall-mounted graphics show familiar
foods in a new light.
seeing children in the exhibition environment than through reading or other
forms of research.
Designers of science exhibitions stress how important it is for children to
have fun when they visit them. Po-faced and overserious displays are likely to
put young ones off visiting exhibitions for good. Dusty exhibits in sealed
cabinets with no interactivity are anathema to children, and lead to boredom,
which is the enemy of any good show. How often have you heard a child say,
“That was really boring”? It takes only a few such experiences for children to
be completely turned off by museum-based learning. Good design and a
thoughtful approach to the exhibits are the best ways to prevent this. However,
it cannot be assumed that children are not willing to learn. They can be the
first to say “What was the point of that?” if they think a fun exhibit serves no
purpose.
Children have a very incomplete picture of how groups of knowledge
relate to each other. Teachers describe how they can come away from an
exhibition with numerous misunderstandings; they may not realize that the
ancient Greek or Roman civilizations date from after and not before, say,
dinosaurs. They have been heard to say the Vikings were at their height
during the ice age—and, given their background knowledge, might have
good reasons for thinking this. As children get older, areas of their knowledge
map are filled in and the task of explaining context becomes easier. For most
learning exhibitions, the designer should consider how the background to
them is communicated and plan their flow accordingly.
49

The audience for most exhibitions aimed at children will include a large Above left and above
“Food: Traditions, Taboos and Delicacies”,
number of families, often with two or more children of differing ages. This National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, the
gives rise to the problem of designing displays for several different age Netherlands. The museum experience for young
visitors is enlivened by a series of tasks and
groups at once. This is an issue that many museum designers and science games (above left), while a backlit picture wall
centres have given thought to. The answer is to pitch the design towards shows families from around the world enjoying
local foods (above).
slightly older children. They will not interact with displays that seem too young
for them, but young children are drawn to ones aimed at an older age group
because they aspire to having the same experiences as older children.
To a greater degree than most adult visitors, children enjoy group interactions
with exhibits and are social in their approach. They may stand back from a
display until they see another child exploring it, and join in only when they feel
it is acceptable to do so. For the designer, this means displays have to be
designed with social groupings in mind—for example, so that only one child
plays on a machine but there is space for several others to see what he or she
is doing. When the first child has finished playing the other children will take
their cue from the reactions of their peer group. If the feedback is good, they
are often keen to become involved. In some instances parents will
demonstrate how to use a display and the child will join in with their guidance.
Children enjoy the freedom exhibitions allow them. They often do not have
much choice in other aspects of their lives—at school, for example—and in
most cases they would not have chosen to visit the show in the first place.
Ideally, the designer should think about how they can exercise this freedom,
and provide them with lots of options without creating a rabbit warren in which
no teacher or parent will be able to find them if they get lost.
Most exhibition designers agree that activity is the key to successful
exhibits. For example, it is useful to show European children how Japanese
women dressed traditionally by displaying a kimono on a mannequin, but
much more fun (and educational) if they can try one on. Similarly, Japanese
children might be impressed by seeing a medieval knight’s armour, but might
be far more excited to try on a replica suit of armour.
50

2. Children’s Project & Discovery Centre, Damascus, Syria
Design: Damascus Consultants and Cultural Innovations
As part of an educational initiative in Syria, Cultural school system and aimed to open the way for a
Innovations was asked to develop a framework more active, participatory and self-directed form
for learning in a proposed museum in Damascus. of education. The expressed aim was to create
The aim of the museum was to open up the critical questioning and to free human minds
possibility for self-initiated exploration of related and developing capacities for work, while both
exhibits for young visitors. The initiative marked adapting and contributing to change.
a departure from the traditional authoritarian
physical physical
my world my world
my country my country
commun commun
my it y my it y
family family
my my
me me
intellectual social intellectual social
Above Below
The world of the child is represented by a series of concentric A policy document describes how the learning environment
circles, from the personal to the global. The second circle breaks is represented developmentally, isolating learning goals for
down these connections into physical, social and intellectual. The differing age groups.
combination of these connections is the stated aim of the
museum’s learning philosophy.
Age Curiosity Channel Explore (Experiment and Gather Facts) Create Share
Group (Hypothesis) (Me+++++)
5 to 7 What happened Material Exhibition about dinosaurs and theories about their life and death There are several What is the
to the dinosaurs? ways in which the lifecycle of other
Material Programme about the life of dinosaurs, baby dinosaurs, etc dinosaurs may animals that I
have become know about? Are
Experiential Hands-on mock dinosaur dig
extinct. Scientists they threatened
Experiential Demonstrations about fossil preparation techniques have been wrrong with extinction?
in the past and are What can I do
Virtual Online virtual tour of the SDC’s dinosaur-related exhibits still searching for about it?
more answers.
Virtual Newspaper article featuring factoids and a quiz
8 to 11 What does Material Exhibition about the types of dinosaurs discovered in the Middle East To communicate What other
“dinosaur” mean we need to name resources are
and how are they Material Travelling exhibit about the origins of dinosaurs everything and, available to
named? in science, most help me with
Experiential Discovery box about dinosaur teeth
often these names my school
Experiential Demonstration of dinosaur DNA modelling have meaning project on
which can be Jurassic World
Virtual Television special about dinosaur hunters in the Middle East learned. dinosaurs?
Virtual Online list of suggested reading material and resources
12 to 15 How does what Material Exhibition about form and function in the animal world How an animal What can I do
happened to the is constructed to help save
dinosaurs tell us Material Programme about predators and prey impacts what it endangered
about our own can eat, how it species?
Experiential Green Team session about ecological issues
world? survives, its very
Experiential Mentoring sessions with an ecological expert existence (form
and function). All
Virtual Online writing competition about ecological challenges ecological niches
will be filled.
Virtual Web lessons about the importance of biological diversity in the world
51

Science of Spying, Children’s Museum, Indianapolis,
Indiana and Science Museum, London
Design: Jump Studios
The exhibition presents children with the opportunity
to become a spy. The first area is a “recruitment area”
(below) where the visitor enters the show through
the “secret” entrance in the back of a phone box.
The visitor learns “spy skills” (opposite) like opening
combination safes, disguising themselves, searching
through waste bins for evidence and playing with
computer interactives. In the “Tech Zone” (overleaf),
children experience “face-scanning” technologies. In
“Spyworld” some visitors find themselves in a spying
corporation (overleaf) while other visitors are invited to
spy on them through a two-way mirror. Visitors finally
“escape” from the exhibition by crawling under an
infrared beam at waist height. The designers used
models and computer visuals with images of children
to demonstrate how the children might interact with
the environment. This exhibition engaged children
through role-play and games, while communicating
serious information about modern surveillance
technologies and the near ubiquity of surveillance
devices in modern cities. The ideas were tested with
the intended audiences throughout the development.
Above
Model of the entire exhibition. The entrance
is at the top right of the model.
Left
Visitors entered the exhibition through
‘secret’ phone booths (shown on the
right of the photograph).
52

2.
Above left
Model of the “recruitment area”
at the beginning of the exhibition.
This page
Renderings and a photograph
of the “spy skills” area.
53

Top left and right
Photograph and model of the “Tech Zone”.
Above and left

A rendering and model of “Spyworld”.
54

2. Teenagers and museums
Teenagers are often reluctant visitors to museums and are less happy to
The visitor Teenagers and museums
accept, as many younger children do, that the experience is “good” for them.
A number of explanations are put forward by museum commentators. One
suggests that teenagers generally lack curiosity about the world outside the
bubble of their school, friends and immediate environment; others point to the
pressures put on them to achieve extrinsic goals like exams, college entry and
so forth. Teenagers themselves complain that museums are not relevant to
them and that they find them alienating.
For many teenagers, a museum is a place where they are told how to think
and behave, and anything apart from hushed reverence for the displays is
frowned on. The presence of museum guards and anxious staff worried about
the safety of their exhibits is a further barrier to a teenager’s enjoyment of the
museum environment.
Designing for disability/accessibility

For the last ten years, design for the disabled has been more happily
described as “inclusive design” or “accessibility”. This reflects a shift in
emphasis from a perceived need to cater for wheelchairs users and the
severely handicapped to a growing realization that disability is far more
prevalent than was previously understood or allowed for. Campaigns by
disability groups has caused governments to enshrine good practice in
law, and made obligatory in many countries what was previously merely
encouraged. As a result of this legislation, positive steps have been taken
towards genuine accessibility, though much work remains to be done. The
patchwork buildings, multiple levels and labyrinthine corridors of many major
institutions continue to test the skills of the most able orienteer. For many
disabled visitors, these institutions are often impossible to navigate without
expert guidance and help.
Campaigners stress that good inclusive design should promote the
integration of facilities, creating environments that can be used equally by
all visitors without separating the able-bodied and disabled. By
compartmentalizing disabled users, it is argued, exhibitors effectively promote
the attitude that they belong on the margins. Certainly, many of the well-
intentioned contraptions built in the past to help people with disabilities
actually compromise their visiting experiences, and create an artificial
separation that causes resentment and ultimately discourages exhibition
visits. Designers should therefore aim to create not special “disabled”
exhibitions but good public ones that the breadth of the visiting population
can access by a number of devices, including “touch tours”, induction loops
and good circulation planning. Many measures that are motivated by
accessibility also benefit the wider public. For example, by limiting the
use of highly reflective glass designers are helping all visitors, not only
the visually impaired, to see exhibits more easily.
55

There are a number of practices that make exhibitions more accessible
for disabled users. For example, the Victoria & Albert Museum in London
organizes sign tours for the deaf and “touch tours” for the blind. The latter
enable blind visitors to read special labels in Braille and feel historical stone
sculptures. By using their sense of touch, they are able to engage in a
personal and intimate way with the museum’s sculptures. The tours are
only for the blind, to ensure the conservation of the sculptures; their
by-product is that normally disadvantaged, visually impaired visitors
feel that they are privileged.
Accessibility experts stress that any inclusive measures have to be well
thought through. There is no point in installing Braille labels and exhibit-
handling facilities in a room with an open staircase. However much blind
users may want to touch a display, they would never want to risk plunging
down an unbarriered stairwell.
The best way to understand the experience of people with disabilities is by
personal experiment. The Royal National Institute for the Blind and numerous
other organizations concerned with accessible design demonstrate what it
is like to be disabled by asking design students or consultants to simulate
disability by using a wheelchair, for example, or wearing dark glasses with
a film over the lenses.
In a large group of visitors a proportion will be affected by other hidden
disabilities, which should not be forgotten. For example, dyslexia is common
and can be addressed by good graphic design.
DO… DON’T…
• Ask your client to pass on information • Assume your responses to exhibits or

about their current audience and any new display devices are shared by everyone.
audiences they would like to attract. Use research to understand others’ needs
• Research the audience carefully and try to and preferences.
find out what might attract it. • Put unnecessary barriers between visitors
• Build up a visual archive of “moodboard” and exhibits. Allow viewers to get as close
images from your research. to displays as can reasonably be allowed.
• Respond to visitors’ diverse learning styles • Design displays that alienate disabled
by providing a variety of ways for them to visitors. Equal access for all users is key to
engage with exhibits. good modern exhibition design.
• Expect visitors to understand and
enjoy exhibits if the reason why they are
being displayed isn’t clearly communicated.
If they fail to grasp the significance of an
exhibit the failure is in the interpretive design.
56

3.
The site

This chapter looks at the variety of approaches designers
can take to a site, depending on whether an exhibition is
permanent or temporary, and whether the space in which
it is held is open or closed. It discusses the importance of a
building’s structure in determining how and where exhibits
are displayed, and also provides information about choosing
sites at trade fairs.
The permanent exhibition site

For visitor centres and permanent exhibitions that are tied to a particular
geographic position, the first step is an analysis that takes in routes to the
site, and its topography, sightlines and other relevant factors such as the
prevailing wind direction and sun orientation. Exhibitions that are intimately
connected to their site, such as sea-life centres or natural history exhibitions
in woodland, are particularly sensitive to, and their success depends very
largely on, these factors. If a new building is involved the designer, in
conjunction with an architect, may be able to manipulate environmental
constraints and opportunities to deepen the visitor experience. A number
of sustainability factors also come into play. Careful positioning of building
elements, particularly windows, in respect of prevailing wind directions and Manchester Art Gallery signage, Holmes Wood,
Manchester, UK. This wayfinding signage in the
the movement of the sun will enhance the energy efficiency of the building Chinese district of Manchester welcomes the
and reduce the need for air conditioning and central heating. local community to the art gallery.
58

3.
The permanent exhibition site
The site
Signposting the exhibition site

“The Cult of Beauty”, Victoria and Albert
There are a number of opportunities and pitfalls:
Museum, Opera Design, London, UK, 2011.
• Where possible, ensure that posters and signage are consistent in This introduction uses sculpture, painting,
graphics and projected light to convey the
style with the advertisements for the exhibition. If it has been advertised
theme of the exhibition.
in magazines and newspapers visitors will be looking for signage in
the same style.
• Ensure that the signage can be followed from the first poster or pick-up
point. Visitors hate to follow a trail of signs only to make a wrong turn
some way along the route and find that they have been abandoned.
• Iconic structures or landmark sculptures outside an exhibition can be
effective advertising, especially when visitors link them with the show.
• Where possible, iconic structures or signage that can be seen by passers-
by should be lit at night. Even if the museum or gallery is closed, many
people might be persuaded to come back the next day.
59

Signposting trade fairs
For most trade fairs, the organizers use a site plan to mark out aisles and Ford/Aurora project, Imagination, Berlin, 1998.
This event gave the designers the rare opportunity
corridors in empty halls, then subdivide the remaining spaces into pitches. to make their own entranceway. The ramp was at
These are sold to the exhibitors, who choose a pitch based on its size and the beginning of an experiential journey, creating
anticipation and expectation in the visitor’s mind.
position in the hall. The wealthiest and most important exhibitors are usually
given first refusal on the most visible pitches, while the remainder are sold to
companies with smaller marketing budgets. Halls are usually big— some are
massive—with few obstructions. Each hall is like a mini city with large
companies on the favoured sites, surrounded by smaller boutique-sized
stands. Occasionally, the organizers try to spread the main sites around the
hall to ensure fewer “dead spots”, encouraging visitors to pass the smaller
exhibitors on their way to the larger ones.
For any company choosing a site, it is important to ask about the
relationship of the stand space to the entrance. A prominent position close to
where visitors enter a hall will get more traffic than sites that are further back
and, as in a town centre, such prime locations are often sold to exhibitors at
a premium. If there are several halls it can be useful to be on a main route
between them. Like many large museums, big trade fairs have their main
roads, side streets and quiet courtyards. The closer a stand is to the main
road, the more likely it is to be seen.
As in many towns, large trade fairs have “zoning” laws that force exhibitors
to build below a certain height to ensure regularity, and often impose
“setbacks” to make sure that all substantial structures are away from the edge
of a stand in order to clear sightlines. The laws may also involve creating
60

Rendering of exhibition stand for Shell, Imagination.
3. Exhibits within a trade fair environment need to be
clearly signposted, with signage visible along the
aisles of the exhibition hall. These tall signage
Signposting trade fairs
totems bearing the company logo are orientated

to attract maximum visitor traffic.
The site
pathways between exhibitors and ensuring good circulation through the hall.
These regulations are stated in a manual and should be closely followed as
many organizers force exhibitors to take down any construction that breaches
them. Companies sometimes buy stand space that has an obstruction such
as a column within its boundaries. The organizers of the fair should be able
to provide exact details of its positioning within the space, to the nearest
centimetre, to aid the designer with his or her planning.
“Open” exhibition spaces

Some galleries are designed to show exhibits in the context of the
surrounding landscape; for the sake of clarity, let’s call them “open” exhibition
spaces. They have large areas of glazing with views to the exterior. The
pleasure of an exhibition in an open gallery is the interplay between the
exhibits and their environment. For the designer, this type of gallery has some
drawbacks. First, the exhibits have to compete with whatever visitors can see
out of a window and it is more difficult to manipulate the viewer’s attention.
Open galleries are also affected by fluctuating daylight, and the designer has
to take its shifting emphasis as it changes daily and through the seasons into
consideration. There is a long tradition of daylit display spaces. The Great
Exhibition of 1851, the forerunner of the World Expo movement, was housed
in a huge, glazed temporary structure: the Crystal Palace. This was
transparent to the outside world, and its interior spaces were visually
connected with its surroundings in London’s Hyde Park.
Open galleries are unsuitable for displaying objects that may be harmed
by ultraviolet rays and high lux levels. Fabrics, watercolours and books, for
example, are severely affected by daylight, and can deteriorate visibly during
the course of an exhibition. When it is well controlled, daylight leads to a
comfortable visitor experience, though one that is perhaps a little less intense
than in galleries where all the lighting is artificial.
61

Craig Thomas Discovery & Visitor Center,
Jackson Hole, Wyoming
Craig Thomas Discovery & Visitor Center, worked together to employ the building as an
Jackson Hole, Wyoming, is an exhibition and orientation device for visitors to the park. Seven
visitor center for the Grand Teton National Park. peak identifiers embedded in the floor radiate
Noted for its spectacular landscape and wild out to features in the landscape. Portions of
life, the park currently has more than four the exhibit floor come alive with slow-moving
million visitors a year. These images show media, called the Video Rivers. Inspired by the
how the designers have sought to create geologic processes that formed the Teton range,
an open exhibition space by integrating the a landscape of uplifted graphic surfaces and
exhibits with the landscape outside the display dioramas and plinths rise dramatically out
area. The architectural and design teams of recessed areas of the floor. Left and bottom left
Section and plan showing sightlines radiating
out into the landscape.
Below and bottom

Photograph of the completed exhibit area with
the park landscape visible in the distance, and
a computer rendering of exhibit area.
C D I
L
J
K
B
62

3.
“Closed” exhibition spaces
The site
“Closed” exhibition spaces

Closed exhibition spaces with no daylight give far greater control to the
designer. Where there are no competing views of a gallery’s surroundings,
the visitor is forced to focus purely on the exhibits and their message. For
so-called immersive environments, where the designer aims to profoundly
affect the visitor’s state of mind, closed galleries allow him or her to construct
a narrative using sound, film and interactivity without external distraction.
Where lighting cannot be disturbed by fluctuating daylight, designers have a
much freer hand to emphasize the relative importance of the exhibits through
subtle changes in light value. From the perspective of conservation, Above left
Guinness Storehouse, Imagination, Dublin, Ireland.
temperature, humidity and ultraviolet rays can be carefully monitored. Most The Guinness Storehouse is designed as an
projectors and video screens rely on relatively low light levels (with the immersive brand experience in a mainly “closed”
space. Video, projection and images are more
exception of very powerful daylight projectors and screens) and a closed effective when daylight is excluded.
environment is therefore ideal for multimedia displays.
Above, centre and top right
After roughly an hour the closed environment, especially where light levels Guinness Storehouse, Imagination, Dublin, Ireland.
are very low or there are dramatic contrasts between light and dark, can Visitors to the branded experience finish their visit
at the top of the building in a glass viewing room
become oppressive for visitors. The designer should therefore plan rest stops with a 360-degree panoramic view over Dublin.
in areas where general light levels are higher. Long exhibition journeys in This room is visible from vantage points
throughout the city and visually connects
windowless environments can be tiring, and daylight helps to ease the sense Dublin with the Guinness brand.
of claustrophobia engendered in many large galleries.
Many of the most interesting galleries have a mixture of closed and open
spaces. The Guinness Storehouse in Dublin is a mostly closed narrative
journey that progresses up the building and ends with a high-level panoramic
view of the city. The narrative implicitly ties the visitor’s emergence from the
closed, multiple levels of the exhibition to the open “brand experience” of
sitting with a pint of Guinness and looking out over Dublin.
63

The Centre Pompidou in Paris, designed by Renzo Piano and Richard
Rogers, was designed to be more “open” than traditional exhibition spaces in
a number of ways. The ground-floor gallery has numerous public entrances to
the street and is visible to passers-by through a long glass façade adjoining a
public square. The entrances allow visitors to use the whole ground floor as a
thoroughfare, creating a marketplace-like atmosphere that is less formal and
more open than traditional galleries. Less pompous and authoritarian than its
predecessors, the Centre Pompidou is a landmark in the development of
exhibition spaces.
Internal organization: architecture

In traditional museums and galleries visitors circulate through a series of
interconnected rooms. These create natural divisions for showing the subject
matter of an exhibition but, particularly in old buildings, the display surfaces
are supporting walls and are permanent and unmovable. This means that,
for curators, rooms tend to be inflexible vehicles for displaying exhibits.
Modern galleries generally have far fewer structural dividing walls, and
therefore provide more freedom in the way that exhibitions are delivered.
For example, the Centre Pompidou has an “open” or “free” plan with no
internal structural columns and walls; its huge floors are supported by lattice
steel beams. Exhibitions at the Pompidou are designed from scratch on a flat,
level floor with few impinging walls. Although each show has to accommodate
visitor flow up escalators, the building structure provides remarkable scope
for matching the design of the exhibition to its content over a large floor area.
In free-plan environments the designer controls navigation as well as the
mounting and display of objects.
In many historic museums and galleries, collections are acquired
piecemeal, and interpreted variously as curatorial ideas change over time.
Walls are moved and spaces are refurbished according to immediate needs,
often without any consideration of the overall effect. The result is a disjointed
and fragmented experience for visitors. If a design requires changes to the
structure of a building, a structural engineer must be employed to advise on
the details and structural integrity of any proposed construction work.
The designer must consider possible circulation routes and how the
exhibition will be approached, and get an impression of the length and quality
of the visitor experience within the constraints of the site. Disability laws in
many countries (see also Chapter 2) specify that exhibitions should be
accessible to disabled visitors, and changes in level therefore have to be
considered at an early stage to ensure that wheelchair users, for example, are Opposite
Natural History Museum of Utah, Ralph
not excluded. Staircases cause delays and if a show is on several floors it is Appelbaum Associates, Salk Lake City,
necessary to plan the best way to move from one to another. For many Utah, USA, 2011. This 3-D floorplan
illustrates how collection types are
exhibitions, especially lengthy ones, consideration should also be given to arranged throughout the museum;
refreshment facilities, spaces for sitting down and access to toilets. A multi-level floorplan illustrates how
content is dynamically arranged along
An initial assessment of light levels will enable the designer to consider a visitor circulation path and across
how light will be controlled, especially where there are windows. Similarly, any a simulated landscape.
64

Collections
3.
Internal organization: architecture
Collections Core Collections Wall Observatories/Visible Study Cases Landscape

The site
Circulation
LEVEL 4
SKY Sky
NV Native Voices
LEVEL 3
CL Classroom
LEVEL 2 LIFE Life
TL The Land
FP First People
CL Classroom
LAKE Lake
LEVEL 1
PW Past Worlds
PPL Paleo Prep Lab
CL Classroom
UF Utah Futures
CG Children’s Gallery
65

Key
1 Bradninch Place Entry Hall
2 Highlighted Collectors
3 Interactive World Map
4 Touch-Screen Data Access
5 Views into Lab
6 Interactive Data
7 Conservation Video Link
To Bradninch Discovering Our World: Collecting

Place Entry X
Preserving the Past: Conserving

To Vertical
Circulation
To Bradninch storage/
facilities
Place Entry staff
entrance
variations in heat may have to be resolved—if not by the designer, then by Above and opposite
Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Ralph
those responsible for managing the building. Detailed technical drawings Appelbaum Associates, Exeter, UK, 2011.
are often available from building managers, showing the original architect’s Section drawings for this masterplan are
intended to give a provisional impression of
blueprints and subsequent amendments to the structure, though these content and visitor experience in advance of
should always be checked against the space itself. full concept design.
If a list of exhibits has been issued, the designer can start to think about
what will be displayed in relation to the site. It is helpful to see the list at an
early stage in the design process as some exhibits may be so large that
there is only one place where they can be accommodated. Exhibits will also
often have to be moved from a delivery bay into the exhibition space, and in
an initial survey the designer should trace this movement, checking that
displays can be easily offloaded and taken through any necessary
doorways. As the relative humidity, temperature and light levels of the site
can affect the exhibits themselves, it may be necessary to assess their
possible environmental impact, too.
66

Key
3. 1 Discovering the World
2 Conservation Lab
Internal organization: content
3 Preserving the Past

4 Circulation Slot
5 World Cultures Introduction
6 Devon and Exeter Introduction
7 Core of Life
8 Hands-On Collections Gallery
9 Fine Arts Study Centre
10 Origins of the Museum
11 Natural World
The site
7
8
1
5
4
11
9 6 3 2
10
Internal organization: content

Frequently, particularly in older buildings, the designer’s task is to unite
fragmented exhibition spaces and link them to make a coherent story.
There are many ways of doing this. Traditionally, gallery designers have
organized content by discipline. So if the topics covered in a museum
encompassed, say, the history of Australia, these would be broken down into
separate disciplines—natural history, social history, decorative arts, fine arts,
etc. This approach follows the departmental expertise of the curators, and
usually leads to objects being subdivided and distributed amongst galleries
accordingly; displays of rocks and minerals end up in one gallery dedicated
to geology, plants and animals are housed in another, and newspapers,
pictures and paintings are placed in yet another.
The current, and most popular, method of arranging content uses
“narrative” design—the scripting of a single over-arching “story”, broken down
into a number of individual sub-chapters that include a mixture of disciplines
and gallery experiences. Returning to our Australia example, the story might
be the arrival of settlers in Australia and their first adventures in unfamiliar
lands. A first gallery, “Arrival”, might involve marine science material (the fish
67

London Transport Museum, London, UK
These images show how the visitor journey is (opposite, centre). Exhibits that are likely to be
mapped in sketch form in a designer’s notebook affected by harmful UV rays can be grouped in
through an overview diagram (right) and individual areas not affected by daylight. After the design
sketches of the detailed program (below). This is refined, a CAD rendering shows the design
visitor journey is then translated into a three- with materials applied and human figures
dimensional drawing (opposite, top left) that (opposite, bottom left). A photograph of the
demonstrates progress from the reception, up to finished project (opposite, bottom right).
the second floor in a lift, descending on a
staircase. This total journey was then mapped onto
a foam board model and inserted into the structure
of the exhibition building (opposite, top right). The
arched structural members of the model help to
show the relationship of the exhibition to the host
building and the relative position of the largest
exhibits. Daylight studies show the movement of
sunlight as it changes throughout the day
Above and top

Initially the visitor journey is mapped out in
an overview diagram and detail sketches.
68

3.
Case study
The site
Above left and above

An axonometric diagram and a three-
dimensional model show how the
exhibition fits into the existing structure.
Left
Computer image showing daylight studies.
Below
Photographs of the completed
exhibition space.
69

they ate on their journey), ornithology (the birds that followed the same Natural History Museum of Utah, Ralph
Appelbaum Associates, Salt Lake City, Utah,
migratory paths), human biology (how they used nature to survive), decorative USA, 2011. This huge showcase gives the visitor
arts (their paintings, drawings and body art) and geology (the siting of the first an early glimpse of this museum’s varied and
rich collections housed in surrounding galleries.
settlements on volcanic material). Narrative ordering of material can be
chronological (following events in time), although it need not be. Stories can
be told backwards, for example, or through dramatic episodes that lead the
visitors to make narrative connections. This cross-disciplinary approach is
perceived to be more visitor-friendly as it uses the intuitive mechanism of a
story to order experiences rather than the more abstract division of material
suggested by the departmental boundaries of curators. It also opens up the
potential for interpretation through a variety of media rather than just a
collection of things—once you have described the content as a story, then it
feels natural to use a variety of storytelling media (film, sound, tactility, etc.). In
addition, the narrative approach offers the opportunity to create chapters of
70

3. create chapters of the story that match the physical envelope of the
exhibition, thereby facilitating a collaborative relationship between
The site Internal organization: content
exhibition designer and content developer.

In 1996, the Dutch design consultancy Opera was given a rare
opportunity when it was commissioned to work with the entire collection
of the National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden, the Netherlands, and
redesign all its internal displays. Opera used a continuous internal wall
“like a ribbon” to visually connect all the displays over a number of floors.
The ribbon represented a journey around the world, and acted as a
navigational tool for visitors as well as being an important unifying design
element. This solution thus combined physical factors (the internal wall
used as a navigational device) with a narrative device (“journey around
the world”) to organize both content and physical space-making.
How to survey a site

The purpose of a survey is to record the size, structure, details and visual
appearance of a site so that accurate drawings can be prepared to scale.
These are used as a basis for the redesign and planning of interior space.
Site surveys are often carried out by surveyors, using extremely accurate
equipment. However, it is useful to know how to survey a site without
electronic aids, particularly when designing small, temporary exhibitions.
Site surveys are best done by two people, one to measure and the
other to note down the measurements.
Equipment
Cameras; pens; pencils; A3 paper pads (tracing/detail or graph);
clipboards; scale rules; extending steel measuring tapes
(approx. 8 m/26 ft); 100 m
(328 ft ) tape; 2 m (61∕2 ft) folding measuring rod.
The survey
• Photograph the whole site. The best way is to take photographs in a
long sequence, so that when you get back to the studio you can knit
them together and create a collage that shows all the wall surfaces.
Additional wide-angle shots will help you remember the layout of
spaces. Don’t take photographs at random; you may find it impossible
to remember how the images relate to the site.
• Take photographs of mains boxes, air-conditioning units and floor
sockets to remind you of the services available.
• Even if you have good CAD drawings it is essential to check their
accuracy. If there are no drawings you will have to do a full site survey
by drawing and measuring the space.
71

In the studio Above and opposite
These drawings show how a site survey can
• Draw a plan of the whole space. be sketched out on an A3 size sketch pad.
• Draw all the walls/elevations, one by one, with all the doors, fire Note that the plan (above) shows the overall
organization of the space. The wall elevations
equipment, air-conditioning and wall-mounted sockets marked. (opposite) correspond to the sections marked
• Draw section lines on the plan. On separate sheets draw the wall on the plan: A–A, B–B, etc. It is useful to take
photographs of all of these views in the
elevations that correspond to the section lines. existing building so that when drawing individual
• Take overall measurements of the space at a number of places and elements, the designer can check visually
whether the drawings seem correct.
draw them on the plan.
• Measure the elements that make up a whole wall length and put them
on the plan. If the measurements don’t add up, check them and work
out where the discrepancy lies.
• By taking measurements diagonally across corners you will be able to
work out whether a room is square. If the diagonal measurements are not
roughly equal, you will have to do additional measurements to calculate
the angles of the walls.
• When you have measured the major elements on the site, start to work on
the details. Record additional details at a larger scale on separate sheets
and note their location on the plan.
72

3.
How to survey a site
The site
73

• Take care to mark all the wall- and floor-mounted sockets on all plans
and elevations. If you are intending to build free-standing units that
need power, you will have to work out carefully where the power will
come from. Ensure that cables won’t run along the floors where they
will create a hazard.
• When you get back to the studio use the top of a drawing board to make
a long sequential collage of all the data. Then transfer the data into your
computer or on to your drawing board.
DO… DON’T…
• Thoroughly investigate the spaces you are • Install ramps or steps that deter
designing for by taking photographs, drawing wheelchair users.
and measuring. • Deter visitors through poor signposting.
• Measure loading bays and delivery doors to • Place fragile exhibits that are affected by
determine a maximum size for exhibits and ultraviolet rays and high light levels in
display devices that will be taken through galleries lit by daylight.
them into the display area. • Forget to consider the effect of daylight
• Analyze and develop exhibition content to on the mood of the exhibition.
see how it might best work within the physical
constraints of the exhibition area.
• Determine which walls and internal
structures can be moved to facilitate
displaying the exhibits.
• Examine the route from the building
entrance to the exhibition space.
74

4.
Exhibition strategy

This chapter shows how an exhibition strategy evolves,
based on the initial brief and formulated by the client and
designer. It describes how exhibits can be classified, the
ways in which they can be viewed by the public, and the
importance of creating experiences, rather than traditional
displays, for visitors.
What is an exhibition strategy?

Every exhibition begins with a premise or rationale. This may be very simple,
such as “Things I have collected recently” or “Our products”, but in most
cases it is a complex story supported by scrupulous research. The premise
should explain the background to the exhibition and provide a reason for
including some objects and excluding others. Along with the other briefing
information, such as the storyline, context document and visitor profile, etc.
(see chapter 1), it forms the basis for an exhibition strategy. While the brief is
nearly always authored by the client, the exhibition strategy is formulated
jointly by client and designer.
The exhibition strategy determines how the premise will be played out in
detail in a given space or location. As such, it requires consideration of a
whole range of factors, including the content of the show, how exhibits are
divided or classified and how to engage visitors with the displays. There may
be some key determinants that need initial consideration; perhaps the nature
of the site, the nature and size of the exhibits or the need to attract particular
audiences, but an exhibition is mostly a compromise between a number of
factors. The exhibition strategy always responds to access and sustainability
issues, and must respond to a given budget. It is not the design per se, but
an approach to the design. It can often be best described through images
showing the types of activities and moods the designer wishes to create,
without too much detailed design information.
Classifying the exhibits

The drafting of an exhibition brief often involves deciding how to classify
the exhibits. There are innumerable ways of doing this—chronologically,
alphabetically, by subject, by theme, etc—just as there are for arranging
books on a shelf. The designer has to consider the coherence of the
classification and how it will impact on the visitor experience. For historical
displays, classifying exhibits by time period is the most common, from the
oldest artefacts to the most recent. This kind of schema is intuitive and easily
understood by the majority of visitors, with little explanation needed. On the
other hand, product displays are usually thematic, classified by generic type,
so an exhibition of electronic goods is divided into cameras, phones and
televisions. The choice that is made is often based on assumptions about
the visitors to the exhibition and which categories they will best connect with.
Exhibitors differ in their classifications; in most museum exhibitions the
76

4. content is divided into a number of chapters. Though opinions vary as to
the total number of these, most concur that more than seven discrete areas
Exhibition strategy Classifying the exhibits
in an exhibition would confuse the majority of visitors. Sometimes the

classification system is affected by where the exhibits are displayed; if an
exhibition is housed in four rooms it would be difficult to divide its content
into three subcategories.
Exhibits can also be classified in a mixture of ways, so an overall
historical exhibition may initially be divided into time periods—for
example,1700–1800, 1800–1900, 1900–2000—and then into thematic
subdivisions such as clothes, furniture, art, etc. All classificatory systems are
necessarily arbitrary, and there are bound to be displays that do not fit neatly
into categories. Given the above time periods, if particular types of clothing
were worn between, say, 1850 and 1950, it would be difficult to determine in
which one they should properly be displayed without inventing a series of
subrules. Visitors are often less concerned with the exactitude of a
classification and are looking for a snapshot of a historical period based on
scholarship rather than detailed definitive information. Some exhibitions are
not divided into discrete categories; instead, ideas are communicated by
juxtaposing the exhibits.
Devising a path
Devising how exhibits are viewed sequentially in a space is a major part of
the designer’s task. Approaches differ: some exhibitions offer visitors a very
open exploration of exhibits and some are very prescriptive, forcing them to
work their way along a predetermined path.
The single path

A single path ensures that all visitors have similar experiences and allows the
exhibitor to plan their approach to them in detail, so that they encounter a
succession of exhibits in a preconceived fashion. This may be important
where the objective is to build a platform of knowledge in the visitor’s mind.
For example, if a museum is creating a science exhibition it might decide to
show explanatory material at the start of the path to introduce visitors to
scientific ideas. Later exhibits will be better understood once a basic
understanding has been established. This process of introduction and
preparation is called “scaffolding”. The same technique is employed by trade
shows. For example, before they see any of the exhibits visitors might be
ushered into a cinema to watch a film which would immerse them in a series
of inspirational stories intended to communicate the brand values of a
particular company. If the film is effective, visitors are usually more receptive
to the company’s marketing and products, and altogether more suggestible.
It should be noted that the single path approach is not always a matter of
choice: some exhibition buildings, particularly historic ones, are simply too
small to allow for individual exploration. Single path displays often involve
visitor management problems and “dwell time” needs to be strictly managed. Single path
77

The multiple path Time
A multiple path exhibition causes fewer traffic management
problems as visitors can select alternative exhibits to engage with 1900 1910 1920 1930
when a particular display is busy. This approach also allows for

Theme 1
greater freedom, and provides visitors with the possibility of
Theme 2
following their own interests and preoccupations. Multiple path
exhibitions nevertheless require signposting and orientation Theme 3
information; although visitors follow self-determined paths they Theme 4
still need to know where they are within the overall schema of the Theme 5
exhibition and its environment. In a museum, multiple paths provide
a wide range of themed visits. Designers often devise alternative
routes through displays, and guided groups, interested in different Multiple path
subjects, can take separate paths. For example, in a museum of
natural history, there might be a choice between tours of, say,
animals, plants and human biology.
The radial pattern Modern day
The radial pattern was devised by the nineteenth-century English Medieval
museologist and explorer Henry Pitt Rivers, but was never Early Iron Age
implemented. In the 1960s, the scheme was revived and new Bronze Age
proposals were produced for the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford, Neolithic
England but, again, it was never put into practice. Pitt Rivers Paleolithic
envisaged a display of Paleolithic artefacts in the centre of a series Time
of concentric circles each devoted to objects from a subsequent

era— Palaeolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age and so forth—up to the
present day. By walking along paths from the centre visitors would
be able to see how a series of artefacts had evolved, and could
trace the history of specific objects. The circles would have
increased in circumference with an increasing diversity of artefacts
in the outermost displays. The radial pattern was the forerunner of Radial pattern
the visitor journey, often used in museum exhibitions to represent
the world in microcosm.
“Star” exhibits
Exhibitions can be arranged predominantly around outstanding
objects when the exhibitor wishes to engage visitors with “star”
exhibits before drawing their attention to less immediately striking
ones. This type of display is important when other classification
systems might entail a dull visitor experience. The Victoria & Albert
Museum took this approach when it redesigned its British Galleries “Star” exhibit
in the late 1990s. Before this reworking, artefacts had been
classified in a variety of ways, none of which, in the opinion of
the museum, engaged visitors sufficiently. The displays were
redesigned to maximize visitor enjoyment and to highlight the most
dramatic and exciting examples in the collection. Star exhibits have
78

4. a dual role: they enliven the areas around them, and also
tend to draw visitors through a gallery and create a sense
Exhibition strategy Devising a path
of expectation throughout the journey.
Areas of affinity
As it is usually difficult to make absolute classificatory
distinctions, some exhibitors create “areas of affinity”, placing
exhibits as near as possible to similar artefacts. This approach
has its own logical problems and demands that exhibitors
make subtle judgements about how close one object should
be to another. However, it does allow visitors to make Areas of affinity
immediate visual connections between exhibits, compare
them directly and follow a thread of exploration from one
artefact to another. This system was used very subtly by René
d’Harnoncourt at the Museum of Modern Art in New York for
“Arts of the South Seas”, to show the distinctiveness of artworks
from different Polynesian islands. Individual areas of affinity
were divided with walls, and gaps in the walls created vistas
through the exhibition that allowed visitors to make cross-
comparisons between discrete but related displays.
The fan pattern

The fan pattern is usually favoured for business-to-business
trade fairs. This allows visitors to take in immediately all that is
on display at a show, and works very well for anyone who has
little time and wants to see a particular stand without delay.
Trade fair customers have less interest than exhibition visitors
in lengthy “experiences”—this applies especially when small
businesses are involved—and need to move quickly and
directly to their area of choice. For them, a stand with Fan pattern
everything on display visible as they approach it is often
preferable. It is important to orientate trade fair stands
towards their busiest approaches.
Map orientation
An interactive map is often the hub of an exhibition. Visitors
can consult it and follow the route through the show that it
suggests. If they wish to find out more about the subject of
the exhibition, they can go back to the map to find new ways
of exploring the displays.
Map orientation
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The importance of experiences
Modern designers stress that exhibitions are concerned with
creating experiences rather than displays in a traditional sense.
This distinction is important because it moves the boundary of
the design task from physical display—the mounting of objects
for visitors to see from a safe distance—to the more demanding
task of altering and engaging the visitor’s perception of the
exhibition subject. Increasingly, designers are concerned with
creating galvanizing and transformative events that provide
memorable impressions. This often involves the new staples
of art and design practice: film, multimedia and interaction.
DO… DON’T…
• Investigate the premise for the exhibition. • Start the design until the premise is settled.
• Construct an interpretive strategy to bring • Allow the design to deviate from an
the premise to life. agreed strategy.
• Create a storyline that can be divided into • Create strategies that are too complicated
chapters to suit the exhibition space. for visitors to understand.
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5.
3-D design skills

This chapter describes how the ideas that determine the
overall concept of an exhibition are generated to evolve an
exhibition strategy, and how sketches, models and computer
visuals are then used to develop the final design plan.
Important considerations during this process are how visitors
will move through the exhibition, and how their experience
of displays can be improved by the dynamic use of heights.
Generating guiding ideas

As with any design project, it is important to develop guiding ideas that
respond to the brief. Once they are formulated, the designer will have a
rationale to support his or her design proposals and be able to show the
client, through models, drawings and computer visuals, how they will be
implemented. The ideas will link the storyline, audience and site context,
and will be the basis for the design approach to every aspect of the exhibition
Tomihiro Art Museum, aat+ makoto yokomizo,

Architects Inc., Azuma Village, Japan. Three
boards are used to describe the architects’
approach to the design of this museum dedicated
to the work of the artist Tomihiro Hoshino. Each
concept board and principle helps to describe
how the solution was arrived at. The clear
communication of the principles helps the
designers and the clients to unite around a
series of agreed ideas.
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5. from external advertising to construction details. Once they have been
accepted by the clients, they will form part of a shared understanding
3-D design skills Generating guiding ideas
that helps the individuals involved in the project to work together in pursuit
of a common goal.
It is perfectly true that many design schemes with very little conceptual
content are put forward and accepted. It is very easy to spot them—they are
dull and repetitive. The very best ones are packed with interesting ideas about
learning, interaction, lighting, materials and design. Ideas for exhibitions come
from a huge range of sources, not all of which are directly related to art and
design. However, there are some standard ways to find inspiration:
• Researching previous examples, known as precedents, helps the

designer to understand current developments in exhibition design.
Precedents are taken from magazines or books and are carefully sifted
before being presented, sometimes mounted on boards, as part of the
analysis of the brief and to show the client that relevant approaches
have been considered.
• Where the client is a commercial entity, designers try to discover as much
as they can about the customer’s experience. Most clients collect
information about how their brand is perceived and often have clear goals
for improving brand perception. Designers will also usually do their own
research, by attempting to document and research typical encounters with
a brand, often using photography, interviews and image research.
• Mindmapping exercises or brainstorms draw out ideas about a brief very
quickly. Mindmaps are usually created by a group of designers in short
intensive sessions, and are a time-efficient way to obtain a number of
perspectives on the brief. It is important for all participants to express their
ideas and thoughts quickly without censoring them—everyone says the
first thing that comes into their minds and concepts are developed through
word association.
• Ideas are developed through observation and experience. Designers are
enriched by inspirational events and places, which can be recorded
through drawing, photography and video. Exhibition design is very much
a synthesis of related disciplines and designers are frequently influenced
by, for example, art practice, theatre design, architecture, product design
and production design for films.
• Every exhibition has a basic thesis or storyline which the designer needs
to research with the aim of translating it into displays visitors can engage
with. Too much research can be a handicap as the more the designer
learns about the subject of the exhibition, the less he or she is able to
empathize with visitors who are encountering it for the first time. However,
it is necessary to understand the theme of the exhibition well enough to
work with the storyline.
• The guiding ideas for a design can be written in a design rationale,
but they are more often set out on a series of illustrated boards,
with key words or brief annotations.
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Evolving a design
When all the preparatory work is complete, the designer will start to
develop a design for the exhibition (see chapter 4) that addresses the
intended audience, works with the exhibits and can be delivered for the
available budget.
The approach for exhibitions of contemporary art will be very different to
that for other types of show, such as those concerned with history or science,
or trade fairs. The nature of the exhibition and many of the display methods
will already be determined by the choice of artists and by curatorial direction.
In this case, the designer has a more discreet role as an enabler and
facilitator whose judgements are made in cooperation with the curator
and artists. There has to be a clear understanding that the artists’, and
not the designer’s, work is paramount, though individual artists will have to
compromise for reasons of space or the phrasing of the show. Living artists,
like living playwrights, like to have a hand in the staging of their work.
However, if an artist is dead, curators and exhibition designers—much like
theatre directors and production designers—have a greater say in the
interpretation of his or her work for new audiences.
Outside the world of art, designers have more scope to fashion the
content of an exhibition. Modern exhibition design tends to be interventionist
and is fully alive to the possibilities of sound, film, texture and smell. Like art,
design has a great many new tools at its disposal, and the best exhibitions
use these tools to create experiences that communicate on an emotional as
well as intellectual level. Stephen Greenberg of exhibition designers Metaphor
(formerly DEGW) has described this as being similar to a three-dimensional
movie, in which the audience participates actively, that uses sound, light, film
and other media to convey a story through a process that is part drama, part
scenography. These new methods open up new possibilities for storytelling in
which the exhibition environment is reconceived as a narrative with a number
of parts in which the drama of the story is relived by the visitor. Every aspect of
the exhibition is then interpreted in the light of this narrative, using materials,
lighting, film, physical layout, graphics and a range of other media to reinforce
the storyline. To achieve this complex mix, the designer needs to work
with other creative professionals and technicians to achieve a seamless
experience in which all the elements combine to reinforce the same message.
For many designers, interaction is the key to a good exhibition.
A proportion of the visiting public is not content to look at displays and admire
them through a thick layer of glass. Children in particular, but many adults as
well, like to interact with exhibits. Many visitors, after all, would prefer to “fly”
a plane on a simulator rather than simply admire the buttons and levers in a
purely static display.
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5.
3-D design skills Evolving a design
Guinness Storehouse, Imagination, Dublin,

Ireland. These moodboards show images
chosen by the designers as key inspirations
for the design. Some of the images relate
directly to the storyline, while others are purely
experiential, intending to convey the kind of
experience the designers are aiming for.
85

PARADISE THE JOURNEY INTO THE
TO THE CATARACT
BUS THRESHOLD BEGINS “PAPYRUS PYRAMIDS
PLATEAU OASIS/LAND OF EGYPT
“IN THE TREES” STONE BOATS THICKET”
LIFE AFTERLIFE
THE VISITOR JOURNEY
Grand Egyptian Museum, exhibition design by Metaphor, Cairo, Egypt.

The museum is situated near the Great Pyramids of Giza. The museum
building, by Heneghan Peng Architects, is organized as a “running stair”
design inclined towards the pyramids. The exhibition design, by Metaphor,
organizes the displays along a single timeline covering more than 3,500
years, with the most recent exhibits at the base of the incline. The visitor
walks up the running stair in the direction of the pyramids, encountering each
subsequent period and ending at the oldest exhibits of the prehistoric era.
86

5.
3-D design skills Evolving a design
Below 50 lux, light sensitive material
Below 100 lux, human eye gradient
Below 200 lux, gradient medium +

stable material
Below 300 lux, base ambient
Special lighting,back box, digital stream
Over 300 lux, grand stair, outlook
Developing the design using

sketches, models and plans
Once an exhibition strategy has been decided on, most designers start to Grand Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Egypt. This site
diagram shows light levels in the display areas.
develop their designs using scale models, sketches and rough drawings of The diagram is instrumental in helping curators
layouts. If the exhibits are listed it is useful to draw all of them to scale and put and designers to place light-sensitive exhibits
within the display area.
them on the plan, which should have been checked against a survey of the
site. Where key exhibits fit only into certain spaces, it is useful to position them
first and compare their size with that of the other exhibits in the overall plan.
At this stage, it is important to be aware of all obstructions and height
restrictions in the exhibition space. The next phase is drawing and modelling,
to create and test three-dimensional solutions. Some designers make rough
conceptual models with a sculptural bias that help to inform the design
concept. The models are preparatory exercises, which free up the designer’s
thinking and help him or her to intervene in a space without being too
hidebound by its existing structure. Spatial ideas are continually developed
through a series of sketched plans, and sketches and models; these are
quite rough to start with, but are gradually refined until they are workable
documents that can be discussed with the client and other project workers.
87

Great North Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK.
Design: Casson Mann
This museum combines a varied collection that Below left Gallery plan showing arrangement
incorporates natural history, antiquities and decorative of specimens
arts. The natural history displays shown here are
ingeniously organized using stacked display containers. Bottom left Section showing vertical
The animals in this display seem to be playing in and arrangement of specimens.
among the containers, mimicking their behaviour in the
wild. Contextual graphics and interactives complete Below Display containers communicate the
the interpretive design. habitats of different species.
A A
Section A-A
88

5.
In-depth displays within the rear of the Investigation including:
3-D design skills Case study
display containers including:

• Investigation drawers
• Habitat • Images and film
• Survival • Microscope investigations
• Feeding habits • Live animal exhibits
• Adapting to environments • Boxed alcoves for visitors to enter
• Camouflage • Closed box with a peephole
• Skeletons and bio-mechanics
Predators roam the

spaces between the
display containers
Rear view of the Diversity of Life gallery from the first floor balcony
89

“Pompeii & Herculaneum”, the British Museum,
Land Design Studio, London, UK, 2013.
(Clockwise from top) CAD layout of the space
clearly communicates visitor experience and
materiality of proposed design; photograph of
completed exhibition; cardboard model
constructed on CAD layout of exhibition; CAD
wall elevations are mounted onto foamboard to
give an impression of the visitor experience.
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5.
3-D design skills Developing the design
During the early stages of the project it is important to show ideas Top left and right
Westphalian State Museum of Archaeology,
quickly and intuitively to clients and collaborators without going too far Atelier Brückner, Herne, Germany, 2003. The
down the wrong track. Models are the preferred method of most schools prologue to this display of archaeological
artefacts is the “Forest of History”. The trees, dating
of architecture and design, because they allow students to explore three- back 5,000 to 14,000 years, are described by Uwe
dimensional solutions quickly and can be turned around in the hand to be Brückner as “silent witnesses” to our archaeological
history and set the scene for a walk back into
analyzed from multiple viewpoints. They tend to create design solutions that Westphalian history. A final photograph and
are truly three-dimensional, as any intervention can be judged in plan as sketch by Uwe Brückner are illustrated here.
well as elevation. Scale human figures glued into models help the designer Above left and right
to appreciate how individual visitors will experience the exhibition. Individual Westphalian State Museum of Archaeology.
Brückner organized the display along chronological
interactions with single exhibits are best developed through sketches; these lines. Thematic content was picked out at various
can provide a great deal of detail and can be annotated to show the client stages through a number of “theme cubes” that
convey time-spanning themes. The sketch on the
that a number of factors have been considered. Models and computer left shows the intuitive relationship of the visitor to
visuals should always be produced in such a way so as to communicate the the archaeological field and the exhibition content,
while on the right an overview shows the
experience from the visitor’s viewpoint. Eye-level drawings and models that “archaeological field” with the “archaeological
can be peered into are helpful for anyone who wishes to examine a scheme. path” and theme cubes.
91

Once the rough sketches and models have been made, the final plan
will begin to take shape. The plan is very important in spatial design and
shows all the elements involved in the exhibition. Their layout is crucial to a
successful scheme and governs a host of factors including visitor navigation,
how the exhibits relate to each other, the ease and comfort of visitor
circulation, the duration of the exhibition and the ease with which fire exits
can be found. The layout is amended regularly in most museum and gallery
projects, through discussion with the client, health and safety officers, access
specialists and fire officers. It is often possible to make small amendments to
the plan without changing the look and feel of the whole design. However, if
there are major amendments the designer may have to start again from the
beginning and reconfigure the whole scheme. It is his or her responsibility to
ensure that the final result, despite any compromises, is a harmonious and
ergonomically successful whole.
“Water: A Unique Resource”, Expo Zaragoza,

Ralph Appelbaum Associates, Zaragoza,
Spain, 2008. This Pavilion was both a
pedestrian footbridge and an exhibition pavilion.
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5.
3-D Design Skills Developing the design
i
th d
i
Top
l
Photo of model showing view of pavilion
from the river.
D
Middle
kill
Photo of model shows pavilion approach.
Lower
i
Photo of model shows integration of interpretive
3 Dd
elements within architectural envelope.
93

Churchill Museum, London, UK
Design: Casson Mann
This project was very constrained by a grid of Churchill’s life. Each counter was clad with a
heavy structural steelwork which limited the size of material that communicated an aspect
the displays and the width of the aisles. All the of the statesman’s life. For example, a “Chartwell
disparate elements of the display were effectively Chintz” patterned laminate, which referred to
tied together by a very consistent geometry Churchill’s childhood home, was used for the
throughout. Graphics, artefacts and multimedia counter that showed his early life, while the “War
displays were integrated into a series of waist-level Years” plinth was clad with an aluminium that
counters which depicted parts of Winston referenced a World War II fighter plane.
The drawing shows elevations of a series

of exhibits. These drawings are essential
to communicate the detail of exhibit display
to contractors and co-workers.
94

5.
Top
An early overall layout made to outline the
size of the display area, the circulation and
the general organization of exhibits.
Left and above

Model of the waist-high display structure
(above) and photograph of the completed
exhibition (left).
95

Disabled route via lift
Disabled route via

moving walkway
Fast route
Grand Egyptian Museum, exhibition design

by Metaphor, Cairo, Egypt. The top image
shows how the exhibition designers devised
routes through the exhibits for disabled users.
The pink route is via an elevator, and the
blue route is via a moving walkway. The
bottom image shows a fast route through
the major exhibits.
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5. Planning the circulation
Circulation planning enables the designer to determine what experiences
3-D design skills Planning the circulation
visitors will have and the sequence in which they have them. Its quality has a
major impact on visitor satisfaction and has to be carefully scrutinized. Many
institutions rely on large numbers of visitors on public holidays and require
sufficient circulation space to accommodate crowds on these days, even if
they are relatively empty at other times. Coach parties arriving simultaneously
at an exhibition also cause temporary peaks in visitor numbers.
It is often possible to plan a number of timed routes that can be tailored
for particular groups. Separate paths through a display help to prevent too
many visitors being in one area at the same time, while allowing museum staff
to show different aspects of the display. The priorities are:
• Make sure large parties don’t go through a display at the same time.
• Ensure visitors remove hats and coats that will interfere with a display.
• Allow sufficient room near turnstiles and cloakrooms to accommodate
large parties.
• Create separate routes through a display to prevent guided groups from
running into each other.
• Avoid “pinchpoints” and blockages. A pinchpoint that is too narrow or a
single blockage will cause visitors to back up. They can be held up by
obstructions in any part of the site, including the car park and shop.
• Do tests to see how many individuals can move comfortably through the
exhibition at one time. If necessary, a timed entry schedule can
be used to ensure that safety standards are met and visitor numbers
are controlled.
• Work out how many visitors can view a display at the same time. Look at
individual visits and estimate how far back viewers will have to stand to
see it. This can be worked out by positioning figures on a plan.
When planning circulation routes it is important to note where exhibits face

each other on opposite sides of a path—visitors will stand back to view them Churchill Museum, Casson Mann, London, UK.
In the early proposal stages Casson Mann
and block the path down the middle. If interactive displays are planned, the developed the idea of a clockwise circulation
designer should anticipate that for every child interacting with an exhibit, around a central interactive table reference area
with separate islands around it. The top image
several others may be looking on to see what is happening. Space should be shows the entrance to the museum and the
found to accommodate these onlookers. Museums and galleries that expect desired direction of circulation around the
exhibition and interactive lifeline table. The centre
visits by school groups often have briefing rooms and classroom spaces image explains the physical and intellectual
where museum staff give health and safety talks and introduce the children to relationship between the lifeline tables and the
surrounding thematic display plinths. The bottom
the displays they are about to see. Space may have to be created for this and image shows possible alternative circulation
factored into visitor-flow planning. routes as generated by the lifeline table and the
thematic plinths.
At crowded and popular “blockbuster” art exhibitions visitors tend to
create a lengthy conga that shuffles from one exhibit to the next. When very
large visitor numbers are expected, the designers has to think carefully about
how the exhibits are positioned and try to give viewers with restricted space
something to see on every part on the route. Frequently, designers are asked
to summarize visitor journeys, estimating the time that an average visitor will
97

spend in each area, known as “dwell-time”. It is usually assumed that a Churchill Museum, Casson Mann, London, UK.
This very long interactive table, called the
museum experience will be approximately 1.5–2 hours and that the sum of all “Lifeline”, is activated by a pressure pad on its rim
the individual dwell-times on the visitor route should add up to this figure. and allows visitors to access both general and
detailed information about Churchill’s life.
Every circulation plan should anticipate the need for visitors to find toilets,
buy things from the museum shop, and eat and drink in a comfortable and
restful space with access to daylight. The width of the circulation routes
should conform to local building regulations; most museums and galleries
prefer at least 1.8 m (6 ft). To accommodate wheelchair users, a minimum of
clearance of 1.2 m (4 ft) between obstructions is recommended.
Trade fairs
Displays for trade shows have to be very open to encourage visitors. Potential
customers will avoid a stand if they have to jostle for space with the
company’s staff. Designers should aim to create 3 m (10 ft) between displays
whenever possible, leaving lots of clear space. Trade exhibitors are prone to
clutter their stands with too many exhibits, driving away potential customers.
Open spaces with good circulation are an invitation to the user, and a clear
signal that the stand is designed to accommodate the browser. Many
exhibitors at trade fairs divide their stands into public, semi-public and private
areas. While the semi-public areas can be compressed—visitors who are
invited into them are happy to sit close to each other— the public ones at the
front need to be widely spaced and inviting, with an easy means of escape.
Visitors find small, enclosed spaces on stands forbidding, and often fear that
a salesperson will trap them into an unwanted conversation or lengthy sales
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5. presentation. Many people prefer to browse before they express an interest in
a product, and resent being persistently questioned by stand staff before they
3-D design skills Developing elevations
have had an opportunity to explore the display on their own. In this way, good
exhibition stands are similar to well-designed shops: they provide
opportunities for visitors to browse before they are approached by sales staff,
with clear opportunities to escape if they have no interest in the products
displayed. The better alternative to an enclosed display is usually an island
installation with space around it on all sides that can be approached from any
direction rather than a forbidding display wall that cuts off the visitors’ exit.
Very occasionally, some displays have the opposite effect and are too open.
Although visitors like easy circulation, an empty space can be forbidding.
Developing elevations
Alongside the plan, designers usually work simultaneously on the elevation
or height of the exhibition structure. Floor layouts that succeed in plan form
are often less successful in elevation, so this aspect of the design may need
to be developed: good schemes work in elevation as well as plan. Also, the
heights of individual elements in an exhibition have to be carefully scrutinized
to ensure that a range of visitors can access them adequately, including
wheelchair users and children.
A number of factors are involved in developing successful elevations:
• The visitor experience can often be improved by the dynamic use of
the height of exhibition spaces. Exhibits arranged along a single line Grand Egyptian Museum, exhibition design by
Metaphor, Cairo, Egypt. The exhibition design
with no deviation in height may appear too uniform. uses very large “landmark” artefacts to signpost
• Large exhibits are navigational tools that help visitors to orientate distinct areas of the display, with smaller displays
placed around them. On the drawing, the
themselves in complex environments. Careful placement of these can designers have categorized artefacts by three
draw visitors from one area to the next. scales: miniature, child size and gigantic.
99

Sonance exhibition stand Design:
Pentagram
Pentagram Design was tasked with creating renderings. The plan clearly shows how the
a range of marketing materials for Sonance, public areas of the stand are generously spaced
a company that sells concealed in-wall and leave plenty of room for the visitor to walk
loudspeakers. After Pentagram created the on the stand from the aisle. Exhibition stands
corporate identity, the 3D designer Lorenzo have to fight for attention in a crowded
Apicella designed an exhibition stand inspired by environment and designers frequently build
the logo. This series of sketches shows how the high to draw visitors’ attention.
plan was evolved through sketches and computer
Above
This drawing shows how the plan was skewed on the rectangular site, as
well as delineating the surrounding aisles and visitor approaches to the site.
Top
The Sonance logo, developed by Pentagram
Design, was the inspiration behind the stand’s
three-dimensional design.
Above
A sketch shows how the designer of the
three-dimensional aspect of the stand, Lorenzo
Apicella, divided up the space into Sonance
product areas, which are roughly represented
by five blocks.
Right
Sketches show early designs for a meeting
area with a sloping wall.
100

5.
Above and below

A CAD visual block model rendered and refined in
Photoshop (above) and a photograph of the final stand (below).
101

• Designers often try to create an impression of orderliness and clarity through
the use of consistent heights for plinths, display tables and signage. This
enables visitors to read separate and diverse displays in the context of a
common system. While it is often not desirable to create one height of
display plinth to serve every objective, it is usually possible to cater for all
artefacts through a handful of common elements of different heights.
• Visitors come in different heights and sizes. Displays have to
accommodate these and must be designed so that all audience
groups have equal access.
The direction of flow

As a rule, Western visitors follow the right-hand wall of an exhibition space,
while studies suggest that in the Arabic-speaking countries of the Middle East
visitors take the opposite route, and by instinct turn left when they enter a
gallery. Other studies have shown that Japanese visitors usually occupy the
centre of a room before following the exhibits around the space. This has an
impact on the placement of exhibit labels and signage. For example, in
Europe or America, if the designer wants viewers to see the label before they
see a painting it has to be on the left side of the picture, and vice versa for a
gallery in the Middle East.
DO… DON’T…
• Generate guiding ideas through research, • Leave too little room between display
mindmapping and personal observation. and create pinchpoints and queues.
• Research and analyze relevant precedents. • Consider your scheme purely from
• Refer to the exhibition strategy when you the standpoint of the plan or layout.
develop the plan. All schemes should be considered
• Use models, sketches and computer three-dimensionally so that the
visuals to envisage how the scheme will elevations are as successful as the plan.
work in practice. • Block fire exits and escape routes.
• Design displays that are inaccessible
to people with disabilities.
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6.
Graphic design skills

This chapter explores how graphics play a key role in
an exhibition, interpreting its theme and being a means
of communicating visually with visitors. It provides
information about the methods that can be used to
reproduce them, and emphasizes the importance of
readable, legible text that can be easily seen by the viewer.
The role of graphics in an exhibition

The graphics for an exhibition are an interpretation of its theme or storyline.
They are an integral part of any show and are conceived in tandem with its
three-dimensional design. Their role as part of the overall concept depends
on a number of factors. Where budgets are low, or if there is an existing
infrastructure of walls and partitions in the exhibition space, graphics tend
to be the main element in the design process. For displays where all
partitions and walls have to be built from scratch, their role tends to be
smaller, though still significant. Graphics are a key part of the visual theatre
of exhibitions and visitor communication. The appropriate treatment of text
is essential to good exhibition design and, if mishandled, the most likely
cause of difficulties for visitors.
Graphic designers who work for exhibitions are often also involved in
other fields such as print or website design. Layout and typography skills
learnt in one medium are transferable to exhibitions, though there are some
obvious differences. Specialized large-format printers are used to reproduce
exhibition graphics on a wide range of materials, which are different to those This page and opposite top
used for print, and which the installers—who have a jargon of their own—fix “Stirling Wilford”, Thomas Manss & Company,
Royal Institute of British Architects, London,
to existing and new walls using a number of methods that may be unfamiliar UK, 1996. Thomas Manss & Company used
to non-specialists. bright colours and cartoon-like drawings to
make this architecture show accessible to a
Directional signs to draw people into an exhibition are often called non-specialist audience. The common
wayfinding graphics. These are intended to tease and entice visitors but approach to invitations, posters, catalogues
and structure helped to tie the disparate
they also serve the practical purpose of showing them where to go. Good elements of the show together and present
wayfinding graphics direct visitors to the exhibition itself and help them to the visitor with a coherent single experience.
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6.
The role of graphics in an exhibition
identify distinct spaces within it. It is important that the graphics can be read
and understood from a distance and are sufficiently bold and noticeable to be
seen in crowded areas. In many cases, graphic designers develop a hierarchy
of signs of differing scales in a consistent style. The hierarchy includes large
external signage, medium-sized area headings, subheadings and diminishes
to object labels. The size and prominence of the text helps visitors to navigate
through the exhibition and develop a map of its content.
Below
Text for modern exhibitions is written and presented to connect with a National Museum of Ethnology, Opera Design,
diverse audience on an emotional as well as intellectual level, addressing Leiden, the Netherlands. The text on the wall
is intended to lure visitors into the exhibition,
different reading abilities, aptitudes and learning styles. The style is layered, though it is unlikely that the text would be
allowing visitors to skim a top level of information when required, or to delve read in its entirety by passersby.
105

deeper if they are seeking more knowledge. Typically, the text should work
alongside other information cues and may be supported by sound clips,
video projections and the scenographic treatment of the display.
Exhibitions, like illustrated books, are rarely “read” in a strictly linear
fashion. For example, like readers, visitors may see a title and skim the
contents until their attention is caught. Their behaviour can be unpredictable.
They may read area or chapter headings after they have seen all the displays,
and some go to the end of the exhibition to find out how it finishes before they Kensington Palace, ACME Studio, Inc., London,
UK, 2010. Screenprinted wall graphics invite
inspect the first area closely. Typically, most visitors view a display before visitors into this space.
looking at a label or explanatory text, for the understandable reason that they
are only interested if the display impresses them. Text is therefore conceived
in the context of visitor behaviour, and it cannot be assumed that
understanding of a display is informed by earlier labels or panel text.
Exhibitions thrive on publicity, and in the often short time they are open
they have to create maximum public impact. Designers of all stripes agree
that to be effective exhibition graphics, however imaginative or creative,
should communicate a clear and consistent message through all media
including banners, brochure design, websites and catalogues. This has many
benefits, but at a basic level consistent use of imagery and text avoids
confusion. For example, entrance signage that differs from an outdoor banner
for the same show might easily mislead a potential visitor into thinking they
were in the wrong exhibition. Graphic consistency helps to establish an
exhibition in the mind of the visitor. According to graphic designers such as
Thomas Manss, consistency does not mean dullness. Tricks, inventive layouts
and vivid colours all have their place, as long as they are subordinate to a
guiding idea that emanates from the designer’s interpretation of the brief.
Where the graphic content overwhelms the subject of the exhibition, or
becomes noticeably divorced from the subject matter, the purpose of the
exhibition is undermined.
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6. Face of Fashion, National Gallery,
London, UK
Graphic design skills Case study
Design: Thomas Manss & Co.

The firm was approached by the National
Gallery to design a book for the “Face of
Fashion” exhibition at the National Gallery in
London. The “Face of Fashion” logotype was
first designed for the accompanying catalogue
book and was subsequently used on posters,
banners, invites and collateral such as make-up
and badges. The consistent use of logotype
and materials helps the visitor to gain a clear
idea of the exhibition and its content.
Above
Exterior banners advertising the exhibition.
Below
Catalogue and cube-shaped invitation.
Above images
The exhibition’s identity was extended to
include carrier bags, press packs, books
and badges.
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Viewing distance:
5m/16ft
Minimum cap height:
75mm/3in
Approx. 315 point
For graphic designers who generally work with printed documents, the Graphics diagram for London Transport Museum,
Ralph Appelbaum Associates, London, UK. This
main challenge posed by exhibition graphics is appreciation of scale. Print diagram shows how designers use scale drawings
graphics are normally designed at a comprehensible scale and can easily with scale figures to determine the correct height
of graphic panels. The height of graphic panels
be output through a normal printer, at A4 or A3, and carefully inspected for will be determined by the needs of the target
nuances in type size. Exhibition graphics, by contrast, are designed on scale audiences. In many cases this will be a
compromise to suit as many visitors as possible
drawings or elevations, typically of 1/10, 1/20 and 1/50. A line of type that without discriminating against disabled visitors.
looks tiny on a 1/50 scale drawing may look ridiculously large on a wall. It is
also crucial to understand how far back viewers will be standing when they
see the type. If they are trying to see it from a distance of, say, 20 m (65 ft),
type that seems large when someone is close to it will be absurdly small.
The golden rule, confirmed by numerous graphic designers, is to print the
type at different sizes, put the printouts on a wall and use instinct to choose
the size that is most appropriate. It is also important to read the architect’s
and designer’s three-dimensional drawings for the exhibition space and visit
the site to appreciate the graphic environment. Most graphic designers
superimpose scale human figures on their drawings to demonstrate the
relationship of any images or texts to the exhibition visitor.
Approaches to exhibition graphics

In many instances, the design of exhibition graphics is constrained by the
client’s “house style”. Corporate clients tend to be wary of deviations from
the strict brand interpretations outlined in their identity manual, and many
marketing experts are steeped in the same culture. Where a house style is
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6. imposed, all exhibition text must use the corporate font and designers are
often required to use standardized layouts and even predetermined corporate
Approaches to exhibition graphics
photography. Many major museums and all commercial clients take this
approach. Their brand is a jealously guarded asset to be applied with
consistency in any publication, website or exhibition. However, brand identity
manuals rarely anticipate exhibitions and the creative task of translating the
brand into a three-dimensional environment.
With a fixed typeface, logo and even suggested layouts there is a danger
that the graphics could become dull and formulaic—less a creative enterprise
than a layout task with no connection to the content of the exhibition. This
dilemma has to be faced by the client as well as the designer. When there is
constant pressure to create interest in a product or new service that is being
launched at an exhibition, the typographical formulas from the brand manual,
already familiar to the market, can seem staid and familiar. The challenge is
therefore to create stimulating graphic work that enhances rather than
dilutes the established brand equity.
Where there is no imposed house style, designers are free to use
“contextual graphics” where typography, images and layout are in sympathy
with the content of the exhibition. Using historical typefaces, colour
combinations and substrates that have a relationship with the content,
contextual graphics evoke the period of the exhibition, or least make reference
to it. This approach is complex and the designer has to make a series of fine
judgements about the appropriateness of the contextual references. Many
exhibition subjects have powerful graphical associations. For example, period
typefaces and layout styles might be used in exhibitions of Pop Art or Art
Nouveau because both subjects have powerful and recognizable visual
associations and typographical styles. These help the designer to use
his or her skills to subtly evoke ideas in the minds of the visiting public.
Herbert Bayer is the inspiration behind a great

deal of modern exhibition design. His Extended
Field of Vision diagram demonstrates the principle
that graphic surfaces should be orientated
towards the viewer for optimal effect.
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House style graphics: London Transport Museum, London
These final production drawings show the printing and material

specifications for the graphic production company for the museum’s
labels, which were produced using Transport for London’s own
corporate font. Within this framework, the designer makes subtle use of
colour, printing method and good layout to produce clear text panels.
Above and below

Good layout and clear distinctions between header and body copy make labels easy to read.
Well-written panel text allows visitors to skim a top layer of information and gain a sense of an
exhibit by reading just titles and captions. If the visitor wants to learn more, they can read the
longer explanatory texts below.
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6.
1/3 1/3 1/3
Above
Designers use grids to give a sense of order and structure to graphic
panels. This panel grid divides the areas of the graphic into equal thirds.
Below
Accessibility experts recommend justifying text on the left only. The ragged
line on the right gives shape to the paragraph and helps the reader to locate
himself along the lines, making the panel easier to read.
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Developing graphic installations
This series of images shows the development of a series
of graphic installations for the London Transport Museum.
Left
The initial concept of a gridded structure
with colour-coded graphics displayed at
different heights.
Below left
A detailed sketch showing a hierarchy of text,
header copy and body copy with illustrations.
Below
Elevation drawing showing experiments
with colour and tone.
112

Left
6. In this elevation more colours and
developed illustrations are introduced
alongside scale figures and graphic
sizes indications.
Below left
Further developed panel ideas
with dimensions.
Below
Photograph of the completed design.
113

Churchill Museum, London, UK
Graphic design: Nick Bell Design;
Exhibition design: Casson Mann
This is an example of the contextual style The combination of static wall graphics and
discussed at the beginning of the chapter. The multimedia displays allowed the designers to
typefaces, colours, layouts and multimedia create a very layered exhibition with many tiers of
displays were chosen to evoke the Churchill information. For example, handwritten notes with
period. There were three “voices” in the exhibition, great historic value could be shown alongside
a narrative voice, Churchill’s own voice and a typeset text, which would allow visually impaired
further voice that expressed the words of the visitors to see the content of the notes more clearly
generals and army staff who worked with Churchill. and with greater magnification. Nick Bell set out to
The Churchill “voice” was expressed in Clarendon, evoke the atmosphere of a pre-digital age office,
an English font that originated in 1845. The “voice” with its typewritten scripts and filing cabinets
of generals and army staff was printed in a font packed with information. All interactive elements of
called American Typewriter, while any other the show followed a style guide compiled by Bell
incidental text was expressed in Motorway, a sans- to create consistency. In line with the spirit of the
serif font used for road signage in postwar Britain. static wall graphics, Bell stipulated that all screen-
Left
Nick Bell was responsible for the overall
graphic content, both static panels and
interactive displays. This meant using
consistent colours, layouts and typography,
and an animation style that suited the content.
Above
Chart showing the colours to be used in
the exhibition’s multimedia displays.
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based information should use the three The design gives an impression of richness Below
6. typefaces as described, and restricted the and complexity with sufficient consistency to Three typefaces were chosen to represent
multimedia designers to using very simple make the overall experience rewarding. The the three “voices” presented in the
animation devices. As a result all presentations buff colour of the files and the green paper labeling. Quotations from Churchill
had to show pictures as if they were sitting on a interleaved within the files evoked the display himself are laid out in Clarendon (below
desk in a wartime office, and all elaborate fades topic. The files were intentionally slightly left), quotations from his staff are in
and “digital age” techniques were intentionally disordered and were shown crammed with American Typewriter (below), and
excluded. Movement on screens was restricted pieces of paper as a busy pre-digital age information labels in Motorway (bottom).
to the horizontal and the vertical, so images and office might have been. The overstuffed
text emerged perpendicular to the edge of the appearance was also intended to
screen, and all diagonal movement of content communicate the fullness of Churchill’s life
was eradicated. These deliberate restrictions and his extraordinary productiveness.
may not have been noticed by the general
public, but are part of the stream of information
that was imparted by the design subconsciously
to the visitor.
Adjust font sizes until

Both fonts are the
same Cap height
Churchill’s quotes: Clarendon Other voices: Typewriter display
I felt as if I were walking ëRandolph was irresistible.

with destiny and that all He had incomparably more
my past life had been but charm, more wit. But Winston
a preparation for this hour is by far the better fellowí
and this trial.
Motorway Bold Numerals

Text: 50pt / Leading 45pt Text: 47.5 / Leading 45pt
Tracking + 2
This exhibition begins in 1940

when Winston Churchill was 65 years old
and war was raging across Europe.
Return: 30pt
The Second World War

won Churchill his place in history.
As Prime Minister, he led Britain
from near-defeat to final victory.
Return: 30pt
In doing so, Churchill became an icon

of what strong leadership should be.
Motorway Medium
Text: 50pt / Leading 45pt
Tracking -1
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Designing for legibility
Legibility refers to the clarity of letterforms, individually and when composed
to form words and lines, and is of paramount importance in exhibition text.
This aspect of graphic design is the one over which designers have the most
control. They are able to space words and paragraphs, vary font sizes and
compose words in groups that make them easily readable by visitors. In many
countries, including the United States and those in the European Union,
disability legislation means designers also have the responsibility to design
textual information that is legible to the wider visiting public—including visitors
with relatively poor eyesight or dyslexia.
Legibility is related to the environment in which the text is situated. Even
well-designed text will not be easily read if the lighting conditions are poor, or
if it is behind reflective glass that makes seeing it difficult. The designer must
also take account of where text is positioned. Text that may be legible close
up won’t be clear if it is placed at the back of a display case, far away from
the viewer. The same goes for signage text. If it is mounted high on a wall it Top
Designer Thomas Manss used individual grids
must be bigger and clearer than text that is at eye level and can be read to create an intriguing and deliberately puzzling
from close by. graphic for the Psion Organizer at an exhibition
of design innovations.
Above
This design by Atelier Brückner is invisible
to the naked eye, but can be read easily with
3D glasses.
CONTRAST Left
Where there is insufficient contrast between the
CONTRAST text and background, type becomes illegible.
CONTRAST
CONTRAST
CONTRAST
The legibility of text is influenced by the contrast between the text colour
and the colour of the background. If they are too similar the text will be difficult
to read and present a problem for the visually impaired. Strong contrasts—
and good lighting— can enhance legibility. Light-coloured text on a dark
background is harder to read than dark text on a light background. The
designer can compensate for this by making the type larger or, in some
cases, bolder.
Accessibility legislation does not set down any rigid guidelines, but it is
difficult to imagine a situation in an exhibition where a type size could be
smaller than 18 points. However, this does not necessarily mean that
18-point text will automatically be acceptable for visitors who are visually
impaired; in many cases, it will not be legible if the lighting is poor or the
text is set too far back.
The designer can always check the legibility of text by printing out a
sample and pinning it on a wall at the intended distance from the viewer.
116

6. Left
Images on a flat wall can be arranged in a number
of ways. In some cases, they will be given equal
Designing for legibility
gaps between the images (top left). In other

cases, the designer will centre the images at
regular intervals (below left).
Centre left
Labels are often placed on an invisible line that
continues around all the gallery walls. The height
of the labels is usually set at the height of the
bottom of the frame of the smallest image.
Bottom left
All plinth labels should be readable for wheelchair
users. Many exhibitors use angled labels that can
be seen equally by wheelchair users and standing
adults and children.
117

Sparking Reaction, Sellafield Visitor Centre, Cumbria, UK
3D Design: Casson Mann; Graphic design: Nick Bell Design
The Sellafield Visitor Centre is sited at a nuclear power

station in the north of England. The centre asked the
exhibition designers to create a space for an open-
ended debate that would allow visitors to express their
views on nuclear reactors and fuel. Polemical
animated texts are projected onto the walls and floors
of the display area, provoking visitors to respond by
writing on interactive screens.
118

6. Designing for readability
Readability refers to the ease with which a piece of text can be comprehended
Graphic design skills Designing for readability
and is influenced by the words used and the complexity of the sentence
structure. Long, complex and specialized words make text less easily
understood by the visiting public, though they may be justified in the right
context. Some exhibiting institutions recommend in their guidelines that all
texts should be readable by an average twelve-year-old. Studies show that
even competent readers are less able to see and understand text in the often
confusing environment of an exhibition, and reading ages are effectively lower
for exhibition texts than for reading in less demanding surroundings, such as
the classroom or home.
Some clients know how to write exhibition texts but many do not.
Guidelines to the Ekarv method for writing readable labels are given below
as an example of good practice, and designers should pass on these on to
their clients if they feel the texts they are given are poorly written or too long
for the exhibition environment.
The Ekarv method, named after Margareta Ekarv of the Swedish Postal
Museum, is a proven set of guidelines, the effectiveness of which has been
substantiated by research and has been widely adopted. This system
addresses both legibility and readability issues, with recommendations
for both text writing and layout. Trained graphic designers will know that
these guidelines are only one of the many sources of information about
readability and legibility, though Ekarv is one of the few devoted to the
exhibition environment.
The most useful guidelines relate to line lengths and paragraphing. Very
long lines are difficult to read and understand. The Ekarv method recommends
that text is delivered in small, bite-size chunks. Designers, it is argued, should
avoid long, densely written paragraphs. Research shows that small, clearly
defined passages are easier to read and digest than long, dense passages.
Users do not always read in a linear fashion, and they often make sense of text
by picking out key words and phrases. Visitors are better able to pick out the
shapes of individual words when they are written in small sentences, and are
less likely to lose their place in the text. Small paragraphs allow visitors to
navigate through a text panel at a glance, picking up key words easily and
quickly. Museum specialists also emphasize the importance of including facts
that may resonate with the audience wherever possible.
1. Use simple language to express complex ideas.

2. Use normal spoken word order.
3. One main idea per line, the end of the line coinciding with the natural
end of the phrase. “The robbers were sentenced to death by hanging”
is short and to the point.
4. Lines of about 45 letters; text broken into short paragraphs of four
to five lines.
5. Use the active form of verbs and state the subject early in the sentence.
119

6. Avoid: subordinate clauses, complicated constructions, unnecessary
adverbs, hyphenating words at the end of lines.
7. Read texts aloud and note natural pauses.
8. Adjust wording and punctuation to reflect the rhythm of speech.
9. Discuss texts with colleagues and consider their comments.
10. Pin draft texts in their final positions to assess effect.
11. Continually revise and refine the wording.
12. Concentrate the meaning to an “almost poetic level”.
For example:
Ken Dixon commissioned this gold

necklace in 1800 as a present for his wife,
Elspeth. The jeweller Joseph O’Neill
manufactured it.
Thieves stole the necklace from Ken Dixon’s

grandson in 1820. It was later restored
to its owner when the thieves were
caught attempting another robbery.
The robbers were sentenced to death by

hanging. One of the thieves said, “I wish
I had never clapped eyes on that
bauble” as he was led away.
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6. Left
In most cases, very long lines of text are avoided,
especially at a low level.
Graphic design skills Designing for readability
Centre left
Area titles or chapter headings are usually
mounted above the heads of visitors so that they
can be seen from a distance.
Bottom left
It is important to check the viewable area available
for a graphic to ensure that it does not run over or
behind an obstruction.
121

Breaking the Rules: The Printed Face of the
Avant-garde 1900–1937, British Library, London, UK
Design: Andrew Kellard Associates
The plan and elevation drawings were produced by the
author for the graphic designer Kevin McKell at Andrew
Kellard Associates. The graphic designer used these
drawings to compose graphics that were later produced
onto a digital vinyl wallpaper and applied to walling
images created by the graphic designer and
superimposed on graphic elevation drawings produced
by the three-dimensional designer. The drawings are
annotated with instructions for the graphic contractor
regarding printing method and materials.
Above and right

Annotated elevations for the graphic contractor
(above) and an example of an elevation shown
both three-dimensionally and flattened out.
122

6.
Above and above right The design of the layout is usually done with low-resolution files. Before
Scale elevation shown without and with the graphic treatment. production, graphic designers will create high-resolution files for printing.
Above
Photograph of the completed elevation. The graphic was digitally printed onto vinyl, which was then applied to a timber backing sheet.
123

Reproducing graphics
Most exhibition graphics are printed by specialist large-format production Table with detailed graphics specifications
for an exhibition.
houses. Traditionally, manual methods such as screenprinting were used but
these are now relatively rare, and most exhibition graphics are produced
from digital files. Digital printing is quick, convenient and accurate. However,
there is no reason why graphics cannot be hand-applied when the creative
strategy calls for this approach.
Ref: Location Size Description Quantity

1 Foyer 7236 mm (285 in) wide x Curved Wall: 2 mm (1∕16 in) Foamex panel, wrap mounted, sealed and 1
1500 mm (59 in) tall applied with UHB tape. ‘Breaking the Rules’ red text is fret-cut, 3 mm
(1∕8 in) Red Foamex, applied with UHB tape. Text height approximately
400 mm (15 in) tall. 16 fret-cut characters in total.
2 Foyer TBC Events & Credits Panel: Photographic prints, crystal sealed, mounted on 1
3 mm (1∕8 in) Foamex. Applied to wall with UHB tape.
3 Foyer TBC Schwitters panel: Photographic prints, crystal sealed, mounted on 3 mm 1

(1∕8 in) Foamex. Applied to wall with UHB tape.
4 Foyer TBC Flickering images panel: Photographic prints, crystal sealed, mounted on 1
3 mm (1∕8 in) Foamex. Applied to wall with UHB tape.
5 Foyer TBC Introduction Panel: Photographic prints, crystal sealed, mounted on 3 1

mm (1∕8 in) Foamex. Applied to wall with UHB tape.
6 Manifesto TBC Manifesto text onto wall: Pantone matched red vinyl title and body text is 1
text standard matt black vinyl applied directly to painted wall. Cap height of
text is 15 mm (5∕8 in).
7 Sound 900 mm (35½ in) wide x Sound Poetry Panel: Photographic prints, crystal sealed, mounted on 3 1
Poetry 600 mm (235∕16 in) tall mm (1∕8 in) Foamex. Applied to wall with UHB tape.
8 Wall 1 Approx. 3000 mm (118 in) x Large graphic on wall 1: Print graphic onto white vinyl, with matt seal to 1
(Front) 3000 mm (118 in) face. Then cut to shape. Apply direct to painted wall. The graphic will run
around the side and back of this wall. Wall is 200 mm (77∕8 in) thick.
9 Wall 1 Approx. 1000 mm (40 in) x Small graphic on wall 1: Print graphic onto white vinyl, with matt seal to 1
(Front) 1000 mm (40 in) face. Then cut to shape. Apply direct to painted wall. The graphic will run
around the side and back of this wall. Wall is 200 mm (77∕8 in) thick.
10 Wall 1 2625 mm (103½ in) x Manifestos Section title: Vinyl matt black text. Text height is 375 mm 1
(Front) 375 mm (14¾ in) (14¾ in) tall. Red arrow is fret-cut, 5 mm (3∕16 in) white Foamex, with
“Cherry Red” vinyl to the front.
11 Wall 1 425 mm (16¾ in) wide x Body text is standard matt black vinyl applied directly to painted wall. 1
(Front) 500 mm (19¾ in) tall
11a Wall 1 750 mm (29½ in) x Wall 1 (Front) quote: Matt White and Pantone matched red vinyl text
(Front) 500 mm (19¾ in) applied to painted plywood.
12 Wall 1 See attached PDF for sizing Wall 1 (Back) graphics: This wall will be covered in approximately 40 A1
(Back) individual blueback posters. Applied using wallpaper in an overlapping
fashion.
13 Wall 1 3700 mm (145¾ in) wide x Wall 1 Lightbox: Text printed onto Backlit cling film (measuring 3700 x 1
(Lightbox) 1350 mm (53¼ in) tall 1350 mm/145¾ in x 53¼ in) and applied to the front of the Lightbox
acrylic.
14 Wall 1 900 mm (35½ in) wide x Wall 1 Lightbox quote: Matt White and Pantone matched red vinyl text 1
(Lightbox) 500 mm (19¾ in) tall applied to painted plywood on the back of Lightbox.
124

6. Vinyl text
Commonly used for signage, vinyl text is cut out of a roll of vinyl film with an
Graphic design skills Reproducing graphics
adhesive backing and is applied by pressing it carefully on to a wall. This is a

tricky process and is usually undertaken by graphics installers. Traditionally, all
the text was cut out of the film by hand, but a digital cutting machine linked to
a computer is now almost universally used. Vinyl cannot be used for long
paragraphs of small text because the internal parts of the letters still have to
be picked out by hand. This process which involves, for example, extracting
the circle in every letter “O”, is called “weeding”. It is possible to print directly
on to vinyl, which is then applied directly to a wall or surface. There is a huge
range of vinyl films, including a frosted version which gives a sandblasted
appearance when it is applied to glass, and coloured translucent films.
Above
Rolls of coloured vinyl with adhesive backing.
Left
Cut-out vinyl text on paper backing before
application.
Below
Lettering applied directly to a wall is often
produced as a “rubdown”. The text is printed on
a backing sheet and literally rubbed onto the wall,
after which the backing sheet is peeled away.
“Rubdown”/dry transfer
“Rubdown” or dry transfer is a method of applying whole paragraphs of
relatively small text to a wall. The text is printed on a film in reverse and the
installer applies it directly to the wall by rubbing the front surface of the film.
This method is more convenient than vinyl for long paragraphs of small text. It
is also possible to apply rubdowns seamlessly to painted walls with no need
for a backing panel. Rubdowns are often used in museums and galleries.
125

Cut-out lettering
It is possible to specify lettering that stands out from a back panel in relief. Above left
The cut-out lettering shown in this image is made
For low-relief letters (up to 10 mm/ 3∕8 in thick), foamex is commonly used. from polystyrene and then rendered in concrete
Other materials include steel, brass, aluminium and Perspex. Metal letters by an exhibition model maker. Designed by Philip
Hughes, Andrew Kellard Associates.
tend to be expensive and are unsuitable for temporary exhibitions. It is
possible to cut letters out of transparent or semi-transparent materials that Above and top
Text cut from metal sheet with a computer-
glow when they are backlit, similar to shop signage. Modern sign-makers controlled milling machine.
use a variety of computer-controlled machines for cutting out letters in relief,
including water-jet cutters, laser cutters and milling machines. Letters can
also be engraved in a solid material.
Inkjet printing
The large-format inkjet printer is the workhorse of the digital printing industry.
It works in the same way as the domestic A4 version, but the carriage is wider
and can accept rolls of material rather than single sheets. Inkjet printers can
be up to 6 m (19 ft 6 in) wide (very exceptionally) and are used with materials
such as paper, film and PVC. The maximum size of the print depends on the
length of the roll used, usually 30 m (98 ft). The prints are usually laminated on
to panels made from MDF (medium density fibreboard), foam core or foamex,
to give them stiffness. They should be sealed with a film to give the finish—
glossy, satin or matt— specified by the designer. A textured over-laminate Above
An inkjet printer printing on canvas.
is often used, to give a strong and durable finish.
Digital photographic printing

The most expensive of the large-format printing methods, photographic
quality printing is less grainy than inkjet printing and more akin to a standard
photograph. Digital photographic prints are sometimes given the name of the
manufacture of the print machine, and so may be called Cibachome or
Lambda prints. Photographic prints are produced on paper sheets, the
maximum size of which is determined by the type of print machine used.
Photographic prints are finished with glossy, satin, or matt seals—the choice
is made by the designer.
126

6. Direct-to-media
Direct-to-media is the process of printing directly on to a substrate such as
timber, board or plastic. The technology is relatively new and is developing

fast. New machinery makes it possible to print on surfaces up to 3 m (10 ft)
wide at high resolution (600 dpi or more). Reproduction varies according to
the substrate, but it is relatively easy to produce a wide range of effects by
printing on surfaces such as corrugated card, open-grain plywood, fluted
plastics and Perspex. In most machines the maximum thickness of the
substrate is about 40 mm (1½ in). The system used to feed panels into the
machine allows the designer to create a design over a number of panels,
which are fed in consecutively. Up-to-date machines are capable of spraying
Below
spot varnish to give a glossy finish to specified areas of the graphic. The Examples of graphics printed onto recycled
prints are not usually sealed. Direct-to-media allows for seamless prints card using a direct-to-media machine.
on very large panels.
127

Dye sublimation is a computer printing process
that uses heat to transfer dye to surfaces such
as fabric or card.
Dye sublimation
Dye sublimation was commonly employed for many different types of
material, but in exhibitions it is now used almost exclusively on fabrics. It is
durable, long lasting and permeates the weave of a fabric extremely well.
Open-weave banners, thick fabrics and gauze-like materials can be printed
by dye sublimation with excellent results.
Silk-screening
Silk-screening is a non-digital process and, as such, is relatively rare. It
involves making a type of stencil, a “screen”, through which ink is forced on
to the substrate. If multiple colours are required, a new screen is created for
each ink. Silk-screening can be useful for applying graphics to an unusual
substrate that won’t fit between the rollers of a digital machine.
Mounting techniques
Inkjet or photographic prints can be mounted “flush” on a board, leaving the
sides of the board exposed, or “wrap-mounted”, which is a little more time
consuming and expensive, and involves wrapping the edges of the print over
to the sides. Where children are likely to pick at the edge of the board, it is
essential to wrap-mount all graphics.
Where graphics are intended to go on a wall, the designer can specify that
the panels are attached with Velcro tabs, so that they can be removed after
the exhibition without damaging the graphics. If double-sided tape is used,
128

Left
6. Backlit duratran images applied to solid acrylic
panels emitting light from the side.
Below left
A duratran image applied to glass with
fluorescent backlighting.
panels are usually destroyed when they are taken off the wall.
It is possible to fix thin graphics mounted on thin (2 mm/ 1∕16 in or less)
foamex around a curved wall. Thicker panels usually crease when they
are forced around a curve and this harms the graphic.
New techniques enable a magnetic layer to be applied to the reverse
of the graphics, which fixes them to a metal subframe or panel and allows
them to be changed if necessary.
129

Outdoor applications
Most graphic production companies use printing inks that are resistant to
weather and the harmful, degrading effects of ultraviolet rays. If there is any
doubt, this should be specifically requested by the designer. All exterior
graphics must be printed on a weatherproof substrate—for example, PVC,
aluminium, glass or stainless steel. Paper and many fabrics are unsuitable
as they rot or degrade.
Above all, outdoor graphics must be fixed to something stable. Large ones
are likely to be subjected to strong winds, and have been known to bend or
break steel supports if the wind factor is extreme. Very large banner graphics
can act like sails and wrench façades from buildings. In some cases, the
designer may have to consult a structural engineer to check the viability of
large outdoor graphic banners.
Pop-up displays
Small pop-up stands that fold down into portable carry cases are common at
trade shows and many clients are familiar with them. They can be kept in the
client’s office and transported to exhibition venues as necessary or, in some
cases, they may be set up by a specialist installer who will also store the
client’s other exhibition equipment. The displays can be purchased through
agents or graphic suppliers, who will usually supply a drawing of the stand
showing its overall dimensions and the materials used. Most pop-up displays
are clad with special roll-up panels attached to a framework with magnetic
strips. Designers should familiarize themselves with how the panels are
arranged, and the kind of graphics that work around this arrangement. It is
important to take care when designing text or logos that straddle the panel
joins. They will look odd if the edges of the joins do not meet precisely.
DO… DON’T…
• Look at models, drawings and sketches • Forget that visitors have differing skills
of a proposed scheme to understand and abilities, and are frustrated by text that
the placement of graphics. is at inappropriate scales.
• Work out the scale of 3-D drawings so • Display text or images at heights where
that graphics can be reproduced at the visitors cannot see them.
appropriate size. • Design lines of text that are too wide to
• Print out graphics at full size and be easily read.
look at them from what will be the • Specify graphics without a proper
visitor’s viewpoint in the exhibition investigation into the materials on which they
environment; adjust the size of text or will be reproduced or the printing methods
images as necessary. that will be used.
• Discuss readability issues with your client
and avoid long passages of text.
130

7.
Lighting

This chapter looks at the key role lighting plays in exhibitions,
and the different effects it can have on exhibits, and on the
exhibition space. It describes the types of light that are used,
and also provides information about developing a lighting
plan, and the set-ups that are available for trade fairs.
How lighting is used in exhibitions

The visual perception of exhibits, spatial relationships, surfaces and graphic
treatments is governed by how they are lit. In the highly artificial environment
of an exhibition, the designer uses lighting to interpret displays and to shape
visitors’ perceptions of their experience. It plays a central role in exhibitions,
and every scheme is considered from this perspective.
Many contemporary designers of exhibition lighting learnt their trade in
the theatre, and the parallels between the two disciplines are obvious. In both,
lighting is adjusted to emphasize changes in mood and tone, and important
dramatic elements are highlighted or banished to the shadows when
necessary. Surfaces can be bathed in coloured light, dramatic sequences
can be created with video projections, and objects can be modelled with
angled lights. As in the theatre or films, exhibition lighting creates hierarchies,
concentrating the richest pools of light on the strongest exhibits or suggesting
equivalence through equal lighting.
The human eye

Interpretative lighting design relies on understanding human perception
and some physiological considerations. Once the receptors in the human
eye have adjusted to a general light level they can discern very small
differences in tone and accent. However, eyes and brains are not designed
to accommodate sudden changes in light. Going into an exhibition is often
like entering a cinema. At first everything seems dark, but after a period of
adjustment it is possible to make out subtle differences in luminance so that
individual people, seats, clothing, etc., can be picked out. Emerging from a
cinema into the midday sun can be dazzling, so that it is difficult to distinguish
one object from another—though after a few minutes the human eye adjusts,
and forms, colours, etc., are recognized. The exhibition experience should
be comfortable on the eye, and the designer should carefully consider
transitions from light to dark spaces and vice versa. Once the visitor has
adjusted comfortably to a low light level, subtle changes in the lighting can
be effective, but large, unplanned variations are tiring and unpleasant. The
designer has a key role in ironing out these problems which, though often
unnoticed by casual visitors, do have a negative impact on the overall
experience of an exhibition.
“Amosphere: Exploring Climate Science”,
Science Museum, lighting design by DHA
Designs, exhibition design by Casson Mann,
London, UK, 2012. Lighting design with
extensive use of coloured light evokes the
earth’s delicate atmosphere.
132

7.
How lighting is used in exhibitions
Lighting

Magna Centre, Rotherham, UK
Design: DHA Designs
At this interactive science centre in a former programmable moving lights to stimulate Concept storyboards for the lighting sequence
steel processing plant, a sequence of light the steel furnace processes. Speakers project of “The Big Melt” contain handwritten notes
displays called “The Big Melt” is staged at a recorded sound track synchronized with the to explain the lighting and accompanying
30-minute intervals. The light show uses light display. sound requirements.
Slag gone Big red moment (more orange than red).

so furnace is Smoke billows.
tipped and Strobes.
steel ‘tapped’. End!
Old Furnace–concept storyboard for lighting–November 1999
As the metals Special effects: pyro sparks shooting upwards and gas flame spurts
melt slag and out of burners set into lip of furnace top and furnace door.
combustion Sound: as before with slight modification to suggest ‘melt’.
can occur. Also cracks and bangs for sparks and fire.
Old Furnace–concept storyboard for lighting–November 1999
134

7.
Lighting Case study
“The Big Melt” light show.
135

Surveying the site
The approach to lighting is determined largely by the nature of the exhibition
venue. There are a number of factors that should be established before any
scheme is embarked upon. Chief among them is the presence of daylight.
Daylight is very powerful compared with most artificial light and will therefore
change the designer’s approach dramatically. Although the movement of the
daily and annual movement of the sun is predictable, daylight varies with
weather conditions. Low cloud cover will make a dramatic difference to the
intensity of the light entering a space. The human eye is able to adapt to the
changes in light levels, but where there is strong sunlight there may be deep
shadows that affect displays.
Until artificial electric lighting became readily available at the beginning
of the twentieth century, nearly all museums and galleries were lit through
skylights above the exhibition hall, with light often filtering through a central
atrium to the floor below. In many cases, this can be very successful. Sir John
Soane pioneered this method in the United Kingdom’s first purpose-designed
public art gallery, the Dulwich Picture Gallery, founded in 1811, which still uses
it very successfully, though artificial lighting has since been added to
supplement daylight when external light levels are low. The use of skylights to
light painting galleries continues to inspire architects. Schemes by Rafael
Moneo (the Stockholm Museum of Modern Art) and Richard Meier (the Getty
Center in Los Angeles) rely on toplight, though in these examples daylight is
controlled by movable electric louvres that open and close according to the
time of day. Modern lighting designers use a daylight study to examine the
likely effects of the sun, and the findings from this study have a large impact
on the lighting scheme proposed.
Trade fairs are particularly dogged by daylighting problems. New exhibition
halls are often clad with glass, with occasional roof lights. The nature of
temporary shows dictates that, at least where small ones are concerned,
designers rarely conduct a proper site survey to inspect lighting conditions.
This makes the lighting unpredictable for exhibitors. The relative strength of
daylight means any artificial light is washed out by direct or indirect sunlight,
especially when the sun is at its lowest and shines directly through windows.
Where possible, it is helpful to perform a site survey. Like a department store
with a number of competing franchises, most exhibitors try to outdo each
other in light output. The lighting designer Dan Heap describes this as a
“lux war” (“lux” is a measurement of illuminance). Most trade fairs are
strongly lit and use a great deal of artificial light.
Daylight is normally totally excluded if there are conservation
considerations. The sun emits ultraviolet rays that are harmful to
many materials—plastics, for example, will often degrade. The usual
National Museum of Scotland, Ralph
approach, therefore, is to blank out windows and create a completely Appelbaum Associates, Edinburgh, UK, 2011.
artificial environment. Ultraviolet-resistant film can be used to cover The re-introduction of heavily filtered natural
light through glass panels on the ceiling was
windows in some circumstances, but has a limited impact on part of a highly successful refurbishment of
fluctuating light levels. this iconic space.
136

7.
Lighting Surveying the site

The site survey should reveal something about the fabric of the
exhibition space, and the designer should check whether there is a lighting
infrastructure, lighting track or suitable downlights. Enquiries should also
be made about the adequacy of the power supply and the routing of cables
to the lighting. If an exhibition is held on a heritage site, it is necessary to
take great care with the existing fabric of the building to ensure that any
new installations do not damage its original features.
The lighting plan

Once a survey has been carried out, the designer can begin to design the
lighting. As with all aspects of exhibition design, the interpretation of the
brief is the key. If it demands that a particular exhibit is a focus of the show,
that exhibit will often be the starting point of the design. The lighting design
is recorded on a lighting plan and may, in some circumstances, be
demonstrated with a three-dimensional visual rendering generated by a
computer package, or a rendered sketch. In some instances, it will show
a series of events in sequence, over a prescribed period; the designer
will produce a storyboard to demonstrate how the lighting changes
during this sequence (see page 135).
Exhibit-focused lighting
For most exhibitions, the light focused on displays (known as “accent light”)
is brighter than the general background light (known as “ambient light”). The
relative contrast between the exhibit and the background gives the exhibition
its drama and focuses the visitor’s attention on the display. The designer has
the scope to create a tightly focused or “contoured” pool of light on the
exhibit, or create a wider beam that lights the area around it. The widest-beam
spotlight available, the Wall-wash, enables the designer to light a whole wall
relatively evenly. A series of Wall-wash lights installed in sequence makes it
possible to create a wide, fairly continuous spread of light over a long wall.
In a windowless space, the designer can use a single focused area of
light to highlight a single display, allowing everything else in the room to
vanish into the shadows. When multiple exhibits are lit, visitors perceive the
journey between the displays, each of which is highlighted in a pool of light.
Each exhibit also reflects light, spreading it throughout the display space.
This reflected light is often sufficient to light doorways and paths between
the displays. Where it is insufficient, extra lights must be added to ensure
that visitors can circulate safely around the exhibition.
The effectiveness of exhibit-focused lighting varies in spaces lit by
daylight. When it is dark outside, accent lights work effectively and visitors
subconsciously perceive the contrast between the well-lit displays and the
darker environment. If the sun is shining brightly, the ambient light levels
rise and the space surrounding the exhibits becomes as evident as the
displays themselves.
138

Left
7. “Ambient light” describes light thrown onto
walls creating an overall brightness.
Lighting The lighting plan
Centre left
“Accent lighting” describes an object illuminated
while the surrounding room is in relative darkness.
Bottom left
“Sparkle”, a third category, describes special
coloured or accented light features intended
to create a spectacle.
139

Types of exhibit-focused lighting
Spotlights
Wall-wash
Contoured spotlight
140

7.
Lighting Environmental lighting
Environmental lighting
In some cases, it may be important to create an even distribution of light White Cube Gallery, lighting design: Dan Heap,
London, UK. This gallery is lit from above through
throughout a space, regardless of the displays. Relaxation and teaching a translucent textile layer called Barisol. The light
areas, and important circulation routes where visitors need more light, are source is mainly daylight, but daylight fluorescent
lamps give additional illumination when natural
examples. Where there are very large exhibits, such as rockets or aeroplanes, light is insufficient. This arrangement gives a very
it may be almost impossible to light each one separately and distinctly, so a general ambient light.
high ambient light level with few or minimal accent-lighted displays may be
preferred. It is also helpful where visitors are expected to do a physical activity,
such as interacting with a mechanical device, playing team games or
dressing in historical clothing.
Visitors tend to find high ambient light more comfortable than accent
lighting, though less dramatic. Lit walls and ceilings create a more pleasant
atmosphere than individual pools of light, particularly for longer visits; for this
reason, offices and public buildings tend to have high ambient light levels.
Dark spaces with low light levels are wearying for visitors, and if they are
expected to spend, say, an hour and a quarter at an exhibition, it is important
to provide areas with higher ambient light levels, where they can rest their
eyes. As stated earlier in this chapter, the transition from low ambient light
levels to areas of high ambient light or daylight must be carefully managed,
to avoid sudden increases in light levels that are uncomfortable to the eyes.
141

Feature lighting
Feature lighting accentuates the contours of the three-dimensional form of a Above and above left
“Great Expectations”, Casson Mann, Grand
design scheme—for example, when the top edge of a wall is outlined with Central Station, New York, USA, 2001. A giant
fluorescent tubes recessed into a purpose-made rebate. Its advantage is that light table acted as both the exhibition display
structure and the main source of illumination
it allows the designer to emphasize the shape of a three-dimensional structure while other sources of light came from coloured
or area, unlike accent lighting which tends to break three-dimensional spaces wall-washes and period chandeliers.
into disparate pools of light. Feature lighting can take the form of an
illuminated outline, or a backlit structure similar to a light box. It is also
used in nightclubs and bars.
Developments such as the use of LED lamps to make walls or surfaces,
and materials with illuminated edges, have made feature lighting easier and
more flexible. New control technologies have enabled designers to create
programmable illuminated surfaces that change colour or pattern as required.
Backlit surfaces can be effective, especially for transparent exhibits, but
backlit walls often create light behind the object being shown, with the result
that the background to the exhibit is much lighter than its front surfaces
making it look like a silhouette. Perhaps the most famous example of a backlit
exhibit is Lenin’s embalmed body in Moscow. It lies on an underlit glass
surface and the light from underneath it shows some details, but the strong
contrast between the illuminated surface and Lenin’s face makes it difficult
to see the texture of his skin. Since he died more than 80 years ago, this
serves a useful purpose.
142

7. Coloured lighting
Lights for most art exhibitions have to be white, though lighting designers are
Lighting Coloured lighting
careful to select either warm or cool tones, depending on the exhibits. Where
the treatment of the subject allows, colours can be used as lavishly as in any
bar or nightclub with spectacular effects. There are several key concepts to
be considered when choosing coloured lighting.
Colour temperature
Colour temperature determines whether light appears warm or cool. Warm
light is reddish, similar to a fireside glow, while a cool light is bluish. Colour
temperature is measured by the kelvin (K) scale, which relates to the colour
of a piece of metal heated to a particular temperature. For example, the
colour of an incandescent lamp is similar to that of metal heated to 2,700˚K.
A fluorescent light might be the colour of metal heated to 3,500˚K. The
kelvin scale runs from around 1,800˚Kelvin (red), through 2,700–3,000˚K
(yellow) to 20,000˚K (very blue) at the upper end. Colour temperature is
neutral at 3,500˚K.
Above and top

Environments are tinted by a combination of
coloured lights and coloured surfaces. When a
coloured light strikes a coloured surface, the result
is a third colour, which is a combination of both.
For example, a red light directed at a green surface
produces a yellow body colour.
Left
Diagram illustrating the Munsell System. In this
system, body colours are classified according to
criteria of brightness, hue and saturation to produce
a complete sample catalogue in the form of a
three-dimensional matrix. “Brightness” refers to the
reflectance of a body colour and “hue” refers to the
actual colour, while the term “saturation” expresses
the degree of colouration, from the pure colour
down to the uncoloured greyscale.
143

Colour rendering
Colour rendering describes how well lighting shows colour on a material. Hong Kong Wetland Park, design: Met Studio,
lighting design: DHA Designs, Hong Kong, China.
Its scale is from 0 to 100—100 is excellent and 0 is awful—and its properties Recessed lighting features above and below this
are most often experienced by shoppers. Large warehouse-like discount graphic panel accentuate the curve of the room.
The graphic panel is lit from overhead spotlights
stores use cost-efficient high-output lighting with poor colour-rendering trained around the wall.
properties. This is usually fine for anyone buying tools or other hardware,
but if they were buying a sweater it might well look different in daylight.
Boutique shops usually use halogen or metal halide lights, which have
better colour-rendering properties. Good colour rendering is important
for exhibitions.
Coloured filters and gels

Coloured filters or gels can be added to some spotlights and most theatre
lights to change the colour of the light output. If the beam of the light is
projected on to a white surface, that surface takes on the colour of the light.
Light reflected from a coloured surface takes on the colour of the surface. Any
colour can be created by combinations of the basic three—red, blue and
green—though a large number of purpose-made gels are available in a wide
range of colours. Coloured lighting effects are also often created by covering
fluorescent lights with coloured sleeves.
144

7.
Lighting Coloured lighting
Above
Hong Kong Wetland Park. Coloured lighting can
be very dramatic, especially when the exhibits are
picked out of virtual darkness as in this display.
Left
Hong Kong Wetland Park. Blue light is often more
effective than red light and is used more
frequently. Bright red lights often appear pink.
145

Modelling a three-dimensional object
Most three-dimensional objects need special leaving no obvious shadows. However, the exhibit
attention during the lighting process. A single will look relatively flat and two-dimensional until a
accent light accentuates the face of an exhibit, third light is added at the rear. Photographers use
leaving its back and sides in relative darkness. a similar process to light portraits.
Two lights positioned at the front model its face,
Spotlight – front elevation
Spotlight – side elevation
Spotlight – isometric
Spotlight – underside
146

7. Lighting for comfort
It is very much part of the designer’s job to ensure that there is sufficient
Lighting Lighting for comfort
light for visitors to navigate through an exhibition, negotiate doorways and—

particularly in an emergency—find exits. In many countries illuminated exit
signs are obligatory, and it is a legal duty to ensure that they can be seen from
all angles. Visitors should also be able to read textual information clearly.
Where light levels are low this may require the designer to devise lighting
solutions to make sure the words on a display are legible, often a
considerable task. This obligation extends to serving the needs of the
wider population, not just the young, fit and healthy. In many countries,
this obligation can be enforced by disability legislation (see chapter 2).
Reflective surfaces often cause reading difficulties and the designer
should avoid pointing lights at glass, especially at a height where their
reflections will dazzle visitors. Problems are often caused by highly polished
surfaces which reflect light into their eyes, and can be solved by avoiding
glossy materials, especially for graphic panels.
Conservation
In most museum and galleries, the exhibits are examined by conservation
experts who make recommendations about the conditions in which they
should be displayed. These include the temperature and humidity in the
exhibition space, and the brightness of the illumination striking the exhibits
(measured in lux). Conditions may vary with each and every display. Fabrics
and exhibits made of paper, such as books, watercolours and manuscripts,
are exposed to a maximum of 50 lux in most European countries and the
United States. Oil paintings are hardier and are frequently displayed under
200 lux. Many materials, such as plastics, are vulnerable to ultraviolet rays
and need to be protected from sunlight. Loans to exhibitions are usually made
with a number of strict stipulations about the amount of light the exhibits are
exposed to for the duration of the show. The harm to an object depends on
the length of the exposure: two days’ exposure to 50 lux is equivalent to a
one-day exposure to 100 lux.
Lighting specifications
The designer records the fittings (luminaires) and bulbs (lamps) he or she
wishes to use on the lighting plan and, possibly, visuals. The luminaires are
chosen to work seamlessly with the overall design philosophy. This means
that antique fittings may be chosen to fit in with a historical show, though most
exhibition luminaires are modern in design. For temporary exhibitions many
institutions and trade fair contractors own a stock of lighting equipment which
the designer will be expected to use.
Luminaires are chosen with a number of considerations in mind, including
ease of installation, performance, flexibility, maintenance and external
appearance. Once they have been chosen, the lamps are selected. Lamp
choice is affected by factors such as lamp life, colour temperature, colour
147

rendition, power output and control options. The designer may also look
at dimming and adjustment options. It is usually part of his or her brief to
provide the client with controls they can understand and are able to use
without supervision. The options will vary according to the project. Some
controls may be programmed through a lighting desk, and others may be
manual and simple.
If the client takes responsibility for maintaining the lighting the
designer may have to create a maintenance schedule. In some cases,
his or her lighting subcontractor may carry this out while the exhibition
is in progress.
Royal Air Force Museum, lighting design: DHA

Designs, London, UK. Concept drawing showing
the proposed treatment of displays. A section
drawing through the exhibition space is
surrounded by detail images of types of light.
148

7.
Lighting Lighting specifications REFERENCES NOTES
Project: Heron Marketing Suite

Date: December 2007—read with Drawing 3541ga Revision 05
Ref:
Fitting Manufacturer’s Lamp

Fitting Type Area Description & Control Gear Finish Accessories Supplier
Ref Reference Type
low voltage D1 Ceiling Light TYRELL 50 Downlight. Use MODE See White 8021-000 Light
downlight Corporation 2035-802 ET-C dimmable electronic Lamp list Honeycomb Corporation
transformers (to suit circuit —and see
loadings i.e. ET-055-C for Accessories
single lamps & ET-105-C list
if in pairs)
low voltage d2 Ceiling Light STARLIGHTS Downlight. Use MODE See White Light
downlight Corporation B 2001-802 ET-C dimmable electronic Lamp list Corporation
FIXED transformers (to suit circuit
loadings i.e. ET-055-C for
single lamps & ET-105-C
for pairs)
Xenon strip tx Ceiling Light Tokistar Cove lighting system, 5w cool 24v Light
cove lighting Coves & Projects Advantage Contractor to determine white Projects Ltd.
Model Flexible Xenon lengths—liaise with Xenon Charlie
Plinths Covelight on Supplier re: Mounting Wadsworth
75 mm (3 in) and transformers, etc.
centres Note straight runs
should be fitted in a
mounting channel
wall light w Wall Kreon Small Square Wall mounted side light— 100w Millerghe Light Years
mounted – Side kr972823 light downwards. Mains qt-de 12 reflector
low – R7s kr770802
low level g Wall iGuzzini B603 iGuzzini GLIM CUBE single Integral Note—fitting iGuzzini
marker mounted – wall BLUE 1w with to be Terrance
in base DIMMABLE DRIVER mounted Goode
board – with Ribbed
SURFACE Lines on
MOUNTS front lens
running up
and down
GLASS WALL NS Mounted ACDC 20 mm (3∕4 in) COVELITE IN 1500 Individually ACDC
behind 18/250 High LENGTHS—HI OUTPUT— controlled Lighting
glass wall Output Cold 1V to 10V DIMMABLE— with 1v–10v Systems Ltd
on floor Cathode NEMESIS 10 GEAR— Ballasts (1
BLUE 246 per tube)
GLASS WALL LH Mounted Light Floor mounted Remote GE Exn Black Light
behind Projects Integral Birdy with 1 m Projects Ltd.
glass wall (3 ft) lead & barndoor Charlie
on floor Wadsworth
Example of a lighting schedule by DHA Designs.

The schedule lists luminaires and lamps. These
fittings would also be shown on accompanying
plans and elevations.
149

Projector lights Above
Martin stand, Euroshop 2008, Dusseldorf,
Projector lights are used to project signs, patterns and images. Some have Germany. Computer controlled projector lights
a digital feed that enables the designer to change the image, though most by the Danish company Martin Professional are
used to create moving flower patterns on the floor.
have a static image or “gobo” (see below) attached to the face of the light.
With the advent of digital lighting, it is now possible to use a computer to
create a pattern on the lens of light.
The gobo
This is a small metal plate out of which a pattern or shape—for example,
a logo—is cut. The gobo is then placed in front of a projector light. The light
shines through it to create a pattern or shape on the floor or a wall.
Fibre optics
In most major museums showcases are lit internally by a bundle of fibre-optic
cables. A source lamp outside the showcase is used to transmit the light
through the cables. The light shines from the end of the cables and is directed
on to the display. The advantage of this system is that the heat source (the
lamp) is at a safe distance from what is being shown, therefore preventing
heat build-up near the display.
Moving lights
Very rarely seen in museums, moving lights are a staple of commercial Above
London Transport Museum, Ralph Appelbaum
exhibitions and, when appropriate, are used to create vibrancy and Associates, London, UK. Images of advertising
dynamism. Motorized lights are commonly used for product launches are projected directly onto the floor in this display.
150

7.
Lighting Lighting specifications
and event lighting. Large ones are programmed on a desk by a lighting Above left
This display by Arno Design is backlit by
designer, who controls how the light moves and creates a sequence of fluorescent tubes concealed within
movements. When the sequence has been set, the desk is removed and translucent walling.
a programmable memory chip that records the sequence worked out on Above
the lighting desk is connected, which continues to deliver the lighting Open Road Tour, Pentagram, touring exhibition,
2003. Coloured parcans clamped to the central
movements when the desk is removed. spine of this tensile structure threw coloured
light on the exhibits.
Backlighting
Many exhibition designers create “glowing” surfaces by lighting translucent
materials from behind. The designer fills a box behind the surface with light,
using soft diffuse lamps like fluorescent tubes. Boxes used for this are usually
painted white inside, to give maximum reflection. In some cases, the designer
may create a hot spot of light on the front of the surface so that the
backlighting forms a frame. Sometimes, he or she may want to produce
a very even light like that in a photographic light box.
Edgelighting
Lighting designers often place a lamp, usually fluorescent, parallel to the
edges of a translucent glass panel to create a glow around a display. If the
panel is engraved, the facets of the engraving glow as they pick up the
light emitted by the lamp.
Parcan
The parcan is literally an open-ended “can” around a lamp, with a frame
in front of the can for filters, and is used in the theatre where it delivers an
intense light to a stage set or scene. Parcans are usually power hungry,
and often have flaps in front, called “barn doors”, for focusing and
shaping the light beam.
151

Panasonic BlueScape stand, Atelier Brückner,
IFA Berlin, Germany, 2003. This photograph
shows the use of light projection on a white
backdrop to communicate the idea of the
“network”, a key brand concept for the client.
Trade fairs
For simple lighting set-ups at trade fairs, the exhibition organizer usually offers
exhibitors basic clip-on lights, which can be ordered by filling out a form.
Anything more complicated usually has to be specially designed and
constructed, and connected to the power supply on the stand.
For large shows, designers order cables, usually called “drops”, that hang
from the roof of the exhibition hall; a bespoke lighting rig is then hung from
these. Scaffolding towers or motorized hoists called “genies” are used to
mount lamps on the rig and focus them on the exhibits. The power supply for
these overhead lights is routed from under the roof structure and, in some
cases, is ordered separately by the designer or contracting company. Rigs
are sometimes available from local suppliers, which saves time and money,
especially in remote locations. Lighting contractors are generally familiar with
the installation process and will be able to help the designer when necessary.
If an overhead rig is not available, the designer has to find an alternative
means of lighting exhibits. “Sticklights” or spotlights on extended arms are
popular and can create a cone of light on a demonstration surface. Storage
areas and cloakrooms need illumination, especially if the lighting in a hall is
inadequate. The light from fluorescent tubes is generally considered sufficient
for areas away from the public gaze.
Professional practice
It is unusual for specialist lighting designers to be employed for small trade
fairs, and the exhibition designer generally specifies the lighting. For larger
budget shows, specialists work with other team members to produce concept
drawings, storyboards, specifications, and lighting plans that show how and
where lamps and fittings will be installed. Lighting designers may be
responsible for the installation of the lights they specify, but sometimes they
simply provide the design and add improvisational tweaks when the lights are
in place. Museums and galleries often appoint lighting design specialists
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7.
Lighting Professional practice
Above
Photograph showing luminaires being installed
before exhibits are placed in a gallery.
Left
“Juan Muñoz: A Retrospective”, Tate Modern,
London, UK, 2008. The spotlights were directed
after the exhibits were arranged.
under contract to provide a specified service throughout the year. In many

instances, the contract includes provisions about repair and maintenance of
existing installations. Particularly in museum work, conservation is a major
consideration and the designer is often responsible for ensuring that major
works of art are not damaged by overheating or excessive light.
Lighting designers are frequently employed to create theatre-style
schemes for one-off events where actors or presenters are on stage; their
experience is essential in the production of video recordings and live
webcasts. Trade shows often involve product launches or presentations.
Lighting design is a key element of these and requires specialist installation
crews, audiovisual support and show management staff.
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DO… DON’T…
• Carry out a site survey wherever possible to • Dazzle visitors with poorly angled spotlights.
assess the conditions in which an exhibition • Train powerful spotlights on monitors,
will take place, and familiarize yourself display cases or other reflective surfaces
with any existing lighting infrastructure and at an angle that will cause discomfort
daylight parameters. to visitors.
• Examine existing electrical installations and • Cover or obscure important exit signs.
determine whether they are adequate to • Assume that everyone has perfect vision.
support new lighting. Consider the routing of Illuminate exhibits so that they are accessible
cables carefully. to the wider visiting public (some of whom
• Plan the lighting early on. It is easier to add may have left their glasses at home!).
it at the beginning of the design process • Create sudden and dramatic changes in light
than at the end. levels from one area to the next. Eyes don’t
• Create a lighting scheme that supports the adjust easily to these.
exhibition structure and helps to convey the • Design over-complicated lighting schemes;
show’s concept. too many ideas tend to create confusion.
• Ensure that all graphical information • Leave important circulation spaces, stairways
that is intended to be read is adequately or doorways in darkness.
illuminated, and check the readability of • Endanger the public through trip hazards or
the information. exposed electrical installations.
• Consider the amount of heat the lighting
will generate. Hot lamps may harm
the exhibits and if the heat build-up is
too great, additional air-conditioning
may be needed.
• Make your collaborators aware of the
lighting solutions you intend to provide
by circulating your lighting plans to all
relevant parties.
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8.
Interactives

This chapter describes how interactive techniques, both
digital and non-digital, can be used to stimulate visitor
involvement in an exhibition. It covers the importance of
approachability and feedback, as well as the need for
design consistency.
Interactive media
As exhibitions reach out to ever more diverse audiences, and compete
with a wide variety of other entertainment channels, interactive media is
no longer a novelty for the museum—it is an expectation. Designing for
interactivity is a complex subject in its own right, and is often dealt with by
specialist media designers and developers. As such, this chapter simply
covers some of the factors that might be of concern to the non-specialist.
Interactives offer a unique and often highly memorable way into the
subject of an exhibition, particularly for younger audiences. The
Launchpad Gallery of the Science Museum in London is an example of
an immensely popular, highly interactive gallery that, at peak times, is
overflowing with children who are learning and playing.
Interactives should feel integrated into the overall experience of an
exhibition—not, as is so often the case, like add-ons. The most successful
pieces are firmly rooted in the narrative of an exhibition, contributing a
level of content through the type of storytelling made possible by their
layered, interactive and sometimes game-like nature. It is therefore crucial,
when briefing interactive designers, that any proposed pieces are
described within their narrative context, along with desired learning
outcomes for the visitors that will use them. It is also critical that
interactives convey content suited to their format—or, rather, that content
determines the type of interactive experience chosen.
Google Web Lab, Science Museum, 2013,
London. Virtual and physical “visitors” could
experience and interact with exhibition content
simultaneously.
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8.
The visitor experience
Interactives The visitor experience
Interaction should be fun! First and foremost, interactives need to engage

visitors through their emotions, before trying to teach or show. Get the visitor’s
attention with something enjoyable, and the more intellectual content or
deeper messaging can follow later. The second most important consideration
for interactives is that they are easily navigable and logical. The quicker the
visitor understands how to use an interactive, the better;
a confusing presentation will result in a rapid loss of attention. Thirty seconds
or less is a standard maximum time to “explain” how an interactive works.
Interactives can be created for single users, or for many people at once,
and both have their advantages and disadvantages. Single-user interactives
create a deep connection between content and person, but only one person
can participate at a time. Multiplayer interactives give roles to more people,
and when they work they can be enormously rewarding, but they can also be
off-putting for some, so designers are wise to consider whether the audiences
of the museum in question will be happy to interact with people they do not
know. Additionally, if a multiplayer interactive relies on a set number of people
to make it work, it will not work on slow days in the museum. Ultimately, the
best interactives should not rely on multiple users to convey their message.
It is worth bearing in mind that in museums, visitors look at other visitors,
and one person’s enjoyment of an interactive can encourage others to have
a go. Interactive designers can play on this, and turn single-user interactives
into group experiences by allowing others to watch or comment, even though
they may not be the ones behind the controls. A “user” need not always be
the person with their hand on the button, so to speak.
Queen Victoria Street, Museum of London,

London, UK. A smartphone app shows historical
events overlaid on contemporary scenes.
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Technology
Interactives can make use of the most sophisticated technology, or they can
be low-tech—or even no-tech. It all depends on the audience and the aims of
the institution, as well as the story that needs to be told. Budget will also play
a part in deciding what kind of interactive is most appropriate.
For electronic and digital interaction, an increasing range of devices are
now being integrated into the visitor experience: hand-held smartphones,
tablets, digital screens and projections. Group interaction usually requires
media that is large-scale, while more personal interaction can be encouraged
through smartphones and tablets. Increasingly, museums are appropriating
existing technologies, such as iPads, and integrating them as a relatively low-
cost interactive portal. “The Memory Palace” temporary exhibition at London’s
V&A, for example, allowed visitors to draw a picture of a memory on to
an iPad; this was then uploaded to an online data base and transformed
into a poster.
Following the flourishing of hand-held technology over the last twenty Below and opposite
London Transport Museum, Ralph Appelbaum
years, personal devices are a natural platform for museum interpretation. Associates, London, UK. The images below show
They have the benefit of being familiar to the user, as well as not costing the visualizations of an interactive map of transport
across London. Visitors choose the type of
museum anything in terms of hardware. However, there is a debate about information they want and the information is
whether hand-held devices are wholly conducive to the museum environment, instantly relayed through an electronic map with
real time camera footage relayed on the screen
as these devices are also used for many other purposes, such as email and above. A photograph of the final map in action
social media. On the other hand, making use of phones and tablets in is shown opposite.
Mainline transport coming in to Main connections made from Further connections made on
Paddington Station Paddington across London journeys that started at Paddington
One person’s journey across Two people’s journey across Four passenger’s journeys Up to 64 passengers’ journeys to
London to work London to work across London to work work across London
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8.
Interactives Controls and interactives
museums creates strong marketing opportunities—visitors can share their

experience on social media while in the exhibition, granting the institution a
kind of buzz that many find desirable.
Sound is a key component of interactive digital media, and designers can
now draw on a range of delivery techniques for audio material—headphones
and localized sound are more traditional examples, while bone-conduction
technology (placing elbows on a surface to conduct sound through the bones
in your arms) offers a more advanced approach.
Digital interactives can be difficult to future-proof as technology changes
constantly. Apps and touchscreens can very quickly seem out of date;
hardware is superseded, apps need to be upgraded or replaced to meet new
expectations, and the way we interact with screens evolves. At the same time,
digital interactives can be incredibly effective because of their similarity to
the devices we surround ourselves with everyday—people feel comfortable
interacting with screens and have more knowledge than ever of how to
use them.
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Interactive designers may arrange to stay in touch with the museum or
institution to roll out an ongoing series of updates, or they may recommend
technologies that do not date as easily as others, such as touch tables rather
than apps. One strategy is to use technologies that have been in existence
for a while, as component and style have been proved to last, at least for a
number of years. The most effective interactives often do not seek to use
the latest technology, but rather work with existing technological “gestures”,
such as using fingertips to zoom in, and exploit these.
Given that the only certainty for technology is further change, the success
of any interactive is always measured by its usefulness, and its relevance to
the exhibition content. The only way to mitigate against obsolescence is the
richness of the interpretation—if the story is strong enough, an older
technological interface can sometimes cease to matter.
What kind of interactive?

Interactives fall into several different categories, ranging from smaller
interactives that allow an individual user to delve further into a topic,
to large-scale spectacles that encourage visitors to interact with others.
“Find out more” interactives

These are layered, often single-user interactives that encourage the visitor to
go deeper into a particular subject. “Find out more” interactives appeal to
visitors of all levels of interest—from those who just want to grasp the big
picture to those who wish to dig deeper. In a pre-digital world, this kind of
knowledge would have been physical and indexed (like a printed book or
portfolio). Now that this information can be presented digitally, the format for
these interactives are usually a screen-based interface navigated by touch.
They can be delivered through installations within the gallery, such as
permanently mounted touchscreens, or through hand-held devices and apps.
“Find out more” interactives are particularly useful for museums that wish
to allow visitors to browse online archives. Layered levels of information
enable visitors to navigate from broad topics to more detailed information,
according to their interests. “Find out more” interactives frequently offer
visitors the chance to follow up an area of investigation after visiting, by
emailing themselves with links or other pieces of information. Sometimes
comment, discussion and feedback spaces are included, to allow visitors the
opportunity to ask questions and see what topics are being discussed by
others. Each of these actions opens up valuable dialogue between museum
and visitor.
Gaming interactives
Gaming interactives use key principles and a non-linear navigation to
encourage users to test themselves, compete or complete a challenge. These
are active ways of using knowledge and are particularly used by science
museums to offer simple explanations of scientific principles. Gaming
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8. interactives appeal to those who learn by doing rather than being shown or
told (sometimes referred to as kinaesthetic learners). These do not need to be
Interactives Environmental interactives
digital—many of the best game-based interactives are mechanical and

kinetic. For example, a see-saw interactive mirrors similar game-like
experiences users may have outside a museum, but within an exhibition can
be used to teach the principles of leverage and balance.
Gaming interactives work by conveying key principles to audiences, then
encouraging them to use this knowledge actively. They are often a great way
of helping visitors to see how dry content can be applied to more exciting
scenarios, which is why they are a popular choice with science museums.
Gaming interactives allow users to test out ideas using trial and error. Visitors
must engage with the principle quickly, learn how to do it, and in some cases
compete or try again and again to achieve the desired outcome. This can be
off-putting for some. If the investment of time and effort does not go to plan, it
can cause users to fail, which is not conducive to learning. Good interactive
designers will be capable of considering these pitfalls, and mitigating them by
minimizing the effort needed to understand what is going on, as well as
offering a range of ways to interact, which leaves room for those who prefer
learning differently.
Environmental interactives
Environmental interactives are immersive interactive experiences, often on a
large scale, intended to connect with users in an emotional and awe-inspiring
way by carrying a powerful, overarching message. Often, these pieces feel
closer to art installations than interactives. One of their primary functions is to
bring together many different types of audience in one space, so that they
connect with the spectacle as well as with each other. The main outcome of
the interactive is often a sensory impression, rather than an intense learning
experience.
Environmental interactives can carry a wide range of content, ranging from
visitor feedback to a linear story to a complex matrix of content that adds up
to a coherent whole. These interactives often take advantage of being able to
tell an overarching story through lots of different pieces of information. They
are also capable of staying up to the minute through live data feeds.
Sometimes the visitor is only expected to look at the spectacle; at other times
they may be encouraged to interact. This sub-set of environmental interactives
uses visitors’ feedback and displays it digitally on a large scale, for the
greatest impact. This “digital narcissism” effect allows visitors to input and
then see their contribution in a public space—for example, the Science
Museum’s Who Am I? galleries in London have a digital loop that links
different floors of the exhibition with a display of visitor Tweets.
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What makes a successful interactive?
Interactives must, above all, be easy, interesting and fun to engage with.
Approachability is key. Visitors must feel as if they can easily discover the
scope of what is required, and be able to navigate through the framework
with a clear idea of what the goals are and how they will achieve them.
Building in opportunities for feedback and encouragement are extremely
useful, too—such as getting a question right, moving up a stage in the
game, or seeing something work in the right way. Consistent interfaces—
both within a single interactive and across a set of interactives—will enable
visitors to get the most out of the experience.
Writing an interactive brief

Owing to the fact that interactives are likely to be delivered by a specialist
consultant, exhibition designers and clients should be able to brief them well
to achieve the best results. A good interactive brief should include:
1. The context of the interactive(s) within the story of exhibition.
2. The key content messages.
3. Key learning outcomes—what should the visitor take away from
the experience?
4. Details of the assets available—this could be a list of objects,
set of reference images, data information or moving film footage.
5. Audience profile—who is the intended audience?
6. Initial specifications of the audiovisual hardware likely to be used.
7. Budget.
Other considerations
When planning interactives in a museum context, there are a number
of factors that should be considered.
How will the content for the interactive be developed?

Content development for interactives is a specialist skill, requiring
collaboration between curator, content developer and interactive designer.
The more complex the interactive, the more rigorous the content development
process needs to be, and the greater the need to test the content and its
arrangement on users, usually during a prototyping phase.
How will the interactive be written?

Good copywriting is essential for interactives. It needs to balance conveying
information with instructions and prompts to encourage users to explore.
Often the scriptwriter for the exhibition will be in charge of writing the text,
with input from the interactive designers so that the interactive functions
as it is meant to.
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8. Expense versus value
Interactives, especially digital ones, can be expensive, so exhibition designers
Interactives Other considerations
should carefully consider their function in telling the story and the audience
they are addressing.
Future-proofing and upkeep

Ensuring the lifetime of interactives, especially digital ones, can be tricky in an
age of constant technological change. Any strategy for interactives should
include the continued upgrading of hardware solutions (for example,
projectors) and, potentially, software upgrades as well. Physical/mechanical
interactives should be accompanied by a manual for care and upkeep, to
maximize their lifespan.
Sound
Sound can be a highly effective component of an interactive, but too often this
is treated as a secondary consideration. Sound should be taken into account
when designing and pacing interactives so that it becomes an integral part of
the final result. Care must also be taken to avoid sound bleed between
spaces. (See also Chapter 9.)
Use the professionals

The advice and expertise of professional interactive specialists cannot be
underestimated, and will result in a much better product that adds significantly
to the visitor experience.
DO… DON’T…
• Work with the client to get detailed • Overcomplicate. Simple interactivity is

feedback and agreement on the more successful, and more memorable.
interactive brief.
• Force all of your knowledge on the visitor
• Work with client to collect great assets at the expense of their experience.
(images, videos, language/quotations, etc.)
to include in the brief, and ultimately, in the • Underestimate the cost of good interaction.
interactive.
• Change the interaction brief once it is
• Ensure that the interactive is fun, easy agreed, unless absolutely necessary.
and rich with ideas.
• Maintain simplicity and accessibility.
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UK Pavilion, Expo 2005, Aichi, Japan
Design: Land Design
Intended to be a showcase of British design, the UK Below

pavilion at the Expo 2005 in Aichi, Japan—designed A plan shows the overall arrangement
by Land Design in collaboration with 2UP— of the interactives within the pavilion.
introduced the visitor to innovative design through a
process of interactive exploration. To ensure good Bottom
visitor flow, the maximum dwell time for each This photograph and visualization show the
interactive was 45 seconds. The communication of central part of the pavilion lit by ambient
ideas was necessarily concise as well as intuitive. projections in which sharks and fish swim up
the walls and across the ceiling. Information
Each station, some of which are illustrated here, was about the technologies on show was made
intended to show how improvements in man-made available on a specially commissioned website
structures often involve the study of natural to allow visitors to research each topic further.
phenomena.
Seeding the Future

Natural Architecture Hanging by a Hair
Natural Designs Seeing with Sound
Tidal Energy Smart Fabric Shark Skin Fabric
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8.
Interactives Case study
“SEEDING THE FUTURE”
Above
A plan, elevation and section for the “Seeding the Future”
interactive show how the height of the interactive table
surface is optimized for all users.
Above and right

A drawing and photograph of the “Seeding the Future”
interactive table, which provided information on the storing
of seeds for future generations to ensure biodiversity.
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Each station was intended to show how improvements in man-made
structures often involve study of natural phenomena. Top row: a
visualization and photograph of the “Natural Architecture” table,
featuring the Eden Project by Grimshaw. Centre row: “Seeing with
Sound” features the bat-inspired technology that allows the sight
impaired to sense their distance from obstructions with an electronic
cane. Bottom row: “Shark Skin Fabric” explains the fabrics used for
swimwear to increase speed.
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9.
Sound and film

This chapter explains how sound and film can be used to
interpret and support the storyline of an exhibition, and
encourage visitors’ full engagement. It provides guidelines
for writing an audiovisual brief, as well as practical advice
relating to the design of an installation.
The benefits of sound and film

Today, audiences are extremely accustomed to ambient sound and moving
images. It is no longer surprising to hear a petrol pump speak, or to be
addressed by a talking head on a video screen in a shop or post office. The
amount of time people devote to watching screens—on their phone, tablet,
laptop, television or in the cinema—comprises a major part of their waking
hours. Consequently, exhibition visitors now expect to engage with a subject
through screen-based media.
Increasingly, our history is captured using sound and film. The way we tell Russian Jewish Museum, Ralph Appelbaum
and share stories is intricately linked to audiovisual material, and the way we Associates, Moscow, Russia, 2012. Due to the
destruction of Jewish artefacts during the
document our lives has evolved to match this. In exhibitions, film is used not Communist era, the story of Russian Jewish story
only in museums that tell of the recent past and current events, but also those is told largely through media (Clockwise)
Remembrance Space, Tolerance Centre (an
that go back further into history. Exhibitions about recent events draw from interactive theatre for school groups), Holocaust
either newly created or pre-existing audiovisual assets, while those that go and Great Patriotic War, Beginnings Theatre.
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9. back into the deeper past can use the creative talents of animators, “Yves Klein: Corps, Couleur, Immatériel”,
Katia Lafitte, Centre Pompidou, Paris, France,
visualizers and directors, recreating a lost world through film. 2006–2007. Designer Katia Lafitte used a number
The benefits of sound and film
Although artefact-based displays are still the staple of most exhibitions of life-sized projections of the artist Yves Klein.
These projections powerfully communicated
and museums, sound and film (now almost exclusively digitally created and how the artist worked by placing him in the
stored) are becoming increasingly integral. For designers, the opportunity same space as the visitor.
to use linear media alongside other, more traditional exhibition techniques
presents an exciting way to engage with the public. (Linear media refers to
multimedia content with a fixed narrative—as with a film—as opposed to non-
linear content, where users control the narrative, as with interactive games.)
Film can even solve the issue of an absence of collections by providing
the core museum experience. One example of this approach is the Jewish
Museum and Tolerance Centre in Moscow. Owing to the fact that very
Sound and film
few objects survived the repression of the Soviet state, the story is told
through linear media, making use of personal accounts, newsreels and
reconstructions. Similarly, in museums that try to reconstruct prehistorical
or early human narratives, film is essential—partly because the world they
try to present is so distant from today, and partly because the cultures that
are the subject of these exhibitions leave behind very few artefacts or
structures. Film can be a way to bring lost worlds to life.
The pitfalls of sound and film

Arguably, the use of cinematic technique in exhibitions has brought museums
into direct comparison with more immersive film experiences—mainstream
cinemas and multiplexes—in both 2-D and 3-D. The prevalence of “trailers” to
advertise blockbuster exhibitions is another example of how museums are
trying to tap into an existing film industry to drive visitor numbers. Where
museums try to mimic the traditional cinema, however, they almost always fail.
Appropriate and successful use of film in an exhibition environment is often
vastly different from the cinema; it prioritizes different features, such as its
capacity to transform space, be played on multiple platforms, and its brevity,
compared with a regular feature-length film. These factors all help to give the
exhibition environment a more layered, customized feeling, constituting an
enhancement of the museum’s collections and stories, not a replacement
of them.
Types of linear media in exhibitions

Linear media within exhibitions tends to fall into one of four broad
categories—short, linear media, environmental media, bespoke
cinematic experiences and special effects.
Short linear media

These are short clips that are usually used to deliver concise messages or
stories in a short space of time. Most commonly, clips will feature interviews,
extracts from archival footage, or short, newly created introductions to the
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Oculus: an eye into St Paul’s, St Paul’s
Cathedral, Ralph Appelbaum Associates,
London, UK, 2012. This immersive 270 degree
environment uses multiple high definition
projectors and computer synchronization to
deliver an ultra-wide video image.
subject matter in question. They are carefully edited for maximum impact—
the aim is to deliver messages simply and clearly in the busy environment of
a typical exhibition where there are many other attractions (and distractions).
Short linear media is capable of incorporating a range of voices. This is
important because it allows for the provision of differing perspectives on a
subject or theme. Depending on the subject matter, these short clips can
be very powerful: the Holocaust exhibition at the Imperial War Museum in
London uses clips in the form of intensely moving first-person accounts direct
to camera to provide a way in to a serious and significant theme.
Environmental media
Environmental media tends to stay in the background. It provides what is
known as an “immersive environment”, and is often intended to create
sensory impressions by summoning a feeling or mood, transporting the
visitor to another time and place by providing a necessary context for
objects or themes.
The ambient, linear content of environmental media provides a
scenographic backdrop, and often works with other exhibition devices
such as objects, lighting and text. Frequently large-scale, it can occupy whole
walls, ceilings and even floors. Soundscapes can be used to great effect to
complement environmental media, too; carefully placed speakers can create
“three-dimensional” sound effects that mimic real-world sounds, such as the
passing of a very fast vehicle.
The pacing of environmental media is very important—too slow and it fails
to engage visitors’ attention; too fast or dramatic and it risks disorientating
them. Creating this material is often iterative and experimental, requiring
constant testing and assessment of sound levels and placement of media
within the space.
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9.
Types of linear media in exhibitions
Sound and film
Bespoke cinematic experiences IBM 100: THINK, Ralph Appelbaum Associates,

New York City, USA, 2011. Multiple exterior LED
Bespoke cinematic experiences are perfect for demonstrating big ideas on screens show live representations of dynamic
a vast scale, and are often used for features such as projection domes or data sets.
planetariums. For this reason, they are popular in science museums, featuring
films about rocket launches, the wonders of flight, space, deep-sea
exploration and the like. They are particularly attractive to younger audiences.
These experiences have also begun to incorporate “4-D” effects—such as
shaking or moving seats, dry ice, wind or splashes of rain. For example, at the
Jewish Museum in Moscow, a 4-D cinema situated at the start of the visitor
journey immerses viewers in the story of the Jews, from their exile from Egypt
to the present day, accompanied by subtle motion, damp mists and 3-D
sound. If combined effectively, and to an appropriate level, these 4-D
elements can all add an extra level of realism for the visitor.
Such experiences, though, are usually expensive and complicated to
create, owing to the amount of new cinematic material that needs to be
created to support them, and the customized camera equipment required
to film them. As a result, a small film industry has sprung up, offering ready-
made content solutions for such experiences. Individual clients rarely
commission one-off projection dome films, and designers should understand
that commissioning this kind of feature is more achievable through an agency
that holds the rights to dome- or planetarium-specific content.
Special effects
Increasingly, linear media can be projected over a wide range of surfaces,
thus transforming a space into an immersive environment enhanced by
certain special effects. One notable example is Pepper’s Ghost, an illusion
technique that make objects (and often people) seem to appear or disappear.
These effects are popular with children, and are a staple of so-called
“haunted” attractions, like castle dungeons and haunted houses. Pepper’s
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Ghosts are now also being used in museums and exhibitions to create
dramatic scenarios that are sometimes, but not always, used to scare visitors.
The technique works by using a sheet of glass and special lighting
effects to reveal or conceal an object in a surprising way, often enhanced
by digital developments, such as augmented reality (AR) and sound effects.
For museums and exhibitions, this requires the correct lighting, suitable
spatial conditions, a substantial budget and enough space to conceal
the equipment.
Writing an audiovisual brief

A good audiovisual (AV) brief will break down into a brief for software and
a brief for hardware. The software brief describes the media that will play in
the exhibition—look and feel, narrative placement, content and tone. AV
hardware briefs are a different matter: these may specify equipment, if
necessary (for example, if a museum would like to reuse existing projectors),
but for new projects, it is best to consult with a hardware consultant for the
best possible solution.
The AV software brief

An AV software brief should be as detailed as possible regarding the elements
about which the designer and client know the most: design and storyline.
Clear information about the positioning of the media within the visitor’s
journey, the assets that are available and the key visitor outcomes that each
piece should achieve will help AV software producers to develop the most
successful and appropriate narrative.
AV software briefs should include the following:
• Overall project summary. A quick summary of the key messages and
vision for the project, dates for opening and an understanding of the
client’s objectives.
• Description of the media designer’s scope. Typically, this includes the
amount of media in the exhibition, and whether or not content
development will fall into the media producer’s scope.
• Where the media will be situated in the exhibition. This will include an
overview of where the media pieces will sit in the exhibition, and will detail
what role they will play in telling the story. This should be supplemented by
plan and section drawings if possible.
• Overall budget and the required breakdown of costs that tenderers
should provide.
• Detailed breakdown of the individual media pieces. This should include:
Main storyline and key messages.
How it will complement the exhibition immediately surrounding it.
Visitor learning outcomes.
• Client assets available (e.g. archival footage, photographic archive).
• Opportunity to film new footage if required/possible.
• Look and feel, and an initial visual treatment. This could describe the type
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X
9. of pace that is expected, the period in which a film should be set, and any
other relevant stylistic features.
Writing an audiovisual brief
• Programme for delivery and details of budget if necessary. Y
The AV hardware brief

Most designers instinctively try to find out as much as they can about
audiovisual displays before speaking to a specialist, and may find themselves
writing briefs that suggest particular technologies. However, it is much more
effective to try to describe the type of experience you would like to see, feel
and hear, without specifying how it should be achieved. This leaves the AV
hardware specialist free to explore and recommend the most suitable Z
Sound and film
technologies for the project’s aspirations and budget. For example, a brief
might specify using a projector, when in fact the desired approach is delivery
of film content in a particular space. By leaving the technology open to the AV
hardware designer, other possibilities could become available: for example,
plasma or LED screens suitable for ambient light levels, picture quality or
maintenance criteria.
The same approach should apply to sound. The designer who asks for
something like “omnidirectional speakers” is usually entering an area they
do not fully understand. It is better to describe the type of sound that is
wanted and leave the specification to the specialists able to weigh up
complex questions of cost, specification and durability. Top and centre
Audio-visual suppliers provide information about
All good audiovisual briefs should include scale layouts and/or elevations the “throw” of light from a projection unit. Using
to show the height of spaces. It is important to mark power supplies on the this information, the designer can draw a section
detailing the distance of the projector from the
plans, too, as well as any features that may affect the media. screen. Visitors should be seated so that they do
not throw a shadow on the screen when taking
Acoustic considerations their seats.
Though the situation is improving, sound remains an afterthought in most Above

With rear projection, the image is projected onto
exhibitions, and there are often fundamental obstacles that prevent designers the back of a translucent cloth. Projecting on the
using sound effectively. Before approaching an audiovisual specialist, it is rear of a screen avoids shadows being cast when
visitors stand in front of the beam.
worth thinking about the degree of acoustic separation between spaces. To
create discrete areas of sound, it is usually necessary to localize any sound
so that visitors are not distracted by noise from other spaces. This can be
done through personal devices (e.g. headphones, acoustic sticks) or through
directed sound that is controlled enough to affect only a small space.
However, this latter approach is rarely completely soundproof from one area
to the next.
When considering the acoustic properties of a space, designers should
pay attention to the materiality of surfaces. Hard floors and walls are reflective
and create messy sound environments as they have no dampening effect.
Using foam, acoustic tiles or fabrics on separating walls can minimize this—
textiles and heavily textured surfaces tend to break up and dissipate sound
waves—but unless the walls are dense it is inevitable that there will be conflict
if sound is used at a high volume.
173

ambient sound that will characterize the space. It will be necessary to make
a note of when peak times are, to assess the level of noise from crowds, and
to find out whether key events take place throughout the day, such as guided
tours. Specialist assessment of the space can be useful, too: acoustic
engineers can use 3-D models of a space to test reverberation in order to plot
any areas that are acoustically difficult. Consulting engineers, such as Arup
in London, have sound laboratories that can accurately model the sound
qualities of a space and enable a designer to “hear” the acoustic properties
of a new building or a refurbished old building during planning stages. This
can help to fine-tune a space before construction begins. Acoustic engineers
can also recommend the use of sound-dampening materials or design
changes that will limit reverberation and uncomfortable sound-spill from one
area to the next, and secure a rich tone that works across the frequencies.
How to ensure quality media

experiences
The quality of exhibition media, like any feature film or soundtrack, is
dependent upon the experience and skill of the director, producers,
technicians and sound designers, and the size of the available budget.
Choosing experienced AV producers and hardware designers will save
a lot of time and money in the long run, and ensure an extraordinary
experience that is worthy of the stories it conveys.
The better the media is integrated into the rest of the exhibition experience,
the more successful it will be at communicating with visitors. Media should
always feel part of the continuing narrative rather than an adjunct. The AV
software and hardware suppliers should be able to work seamlessly with
the exhibition fit-out contractors so that a high-quality audiovisual installation
can be achieved. Early consideration of sound properties and consultation
with experienced acoustic engineers can help to guide the choice of surface
treatments and appropriate technologies.
Limiting factors
There are a number of limiting factors in audiovisual displays, and the
designer’s brief should make clear what these are.
Daylight
For any moving picture display, briefs should specify whether there is daylight
in the space, how strong it can be, and when it is at its most powerful. This
will help avoid washing out many plasmas and projectors, compromising
the content of the film. Knowing this early on in the process will help the
audiovisual specialist to recommend appropriate technologies to provide
reasonable picture quality, even if there is high ambient light. Daylight screens
and projections that provide strong images even in outdoor conditions now
exist (albeit at a cost). If the designer wishes to use media screens, the brief
should include a drawing marking the size and position of any screen on a
174

9. should include a drawing marking the size and position of any screen on a
plan drawing, and show its proximity to light sources, so that the audiovisual
Exhibition Design Limiting factors
specialist can consider what technologies would be appropriate. A daylight

study showing the movement of the sun and its impact on the interior of the
space can also be helpful.
Dust and dirt

Mechanical and electrical installations are compromised by airborne dust and
dirt, so if this could be a problem the fact must be communicated to the
audiovisual specialist. This will ensure that steps can be taken to ventilate
machinery properly and prevent dust coming near it. Audiovisual installations
are sensitive to any interruption in power supply, and electricians often provide
back-up devices that prevent sudden power shutdowns. Video signals through
data cables are susceptible to interference from the electromagnetic fields
generated by power cables, and audiovisual specialists recommend isolating
them. This may necessitate using special trunking for the data cables with built-
in insulation to prevent interference.
Placement of hardware
Audiovisual suppliers will provide information about the “throw” of light from a
projection unit. Using this information, designers can draw a section detailing
the distance of the projector from the screen. This will help to plan the place
where visitors will see the projection best, and help avoid the situation where
visitors cast shadows on the screen because they stand in the way of the
projector. One other option is to rear-project the media: here, the image is
projected on to the back of a translucent cloth. Projecting on the rear of a
screen avoids any shadows being cast.
Selecting equipment
There is a big difference between equipment for short-term audiovisual
installations and long-term solutions for museums or galleries. For temporary
exhibitions lasting a few days or weeks, it is possible to use cheap, readily
available projectors and sound equipment on hire, especially if budgets are
tight. Hire companies provide and install equipment to the designer’s
specifications and take it away when the exhibition ends; in some cases it
may be possible to buy it outright.
Long-term exhibitions require more reliable equipment, which is considerably
more expensive than cheap consumer equivalents, often by a factor of five.
Bespoke delivery technologies, robust projectors and high-end digital screens
will cost more, but will ultimately pay for themselves in terms of maintenance
and durability. Moreover, the quality of specialist equipment is much higher and
can achieve more: for example, recent developments in the blending of multiple
projection images side-by-side has enabled large, high-resolution displays. So
too have developments in “warping”, also using digital techniques, allowing
projection on to contoured surfaces with no loss of sharpness or quality.
175

players are unsuitable for long-term exhibitions and should not be considered.
They are not designed to be used all day for months or years, and will
inevitably fail when their components become worn through overuse. In the
long run, though more expensive, sturdy specialist equipment is less likely to
develop faults and require maintenance.
Specifying equipment and cabling

The sound or film equipment specified by the audiovisual specialist, including
any cabling, should be marked on technical drawings. The designer must
ensure that cables are hidden, but are accessible for maintenance. In all
instances, cabling should be laid before elements such as floors and walls are
installed. Typically, good audiovisual hardware consultants offer advice on
ongoing maintenance and operability of equipment, and in some instances
offer training for staff.
DO… DON’T…
• Use sound and film to add depth to the • Put audiovisual equipment in areas where
theme of an exhibition. Many visitors it might be damaged by dust and dirt.
respond well to audiovisual content, and in
some cases, this may be the only bit of the • Use non-specialist equipment for long-term
exhibition visitors engage with. installations.
• Integrate sound and film into the overall • Use inexperienced contractors for
narrative of the exhibition. installations.
• Develop the content for film and sound at the • Leave audiovisual cables or trailing leads
same time as the exhibition narrative. exposed. The wiring to each electronic
unit should be concealed.
• Examine the exhibition environment and
make sure that light and acoustic conditions • Add sound and film randomly into the
are adequate for audiovisual displays. experience and assume it will tell the story.
• Install acoustic barriers between sound areas

where necessary to avoid sound spill.
• Use your imagination to explore how film and

sound can be used. Exhibitions offer great
potential for the use of film and sound that
far exceed how film and media are used in a
day-to-day context.
176

10.
Materials

This chapter discusses the considerations the designer
must take into account when deciding on materials, such
as their fire rating, durability and whether they are suitable
for a specific purpose. It describes how sample boards can
be used during the selection process, and emphasizes the
increasing importance of using materials that will have
a minimum impact on the environment.
Choosing materials
The range of materials available to exhibition designers continues to
increase as new suppliers and material databases offer more options
than ever before. Not only are there many new manufacturing processes
and technologies, but the materials are produced in quantity, and their
high quality and reliability have opened up a whole new realm of possibilities
to designers. Traditional materials such as timber, aluminium and steel
are also undergoing a revolution; the use of lasers and other
computer-guided equipment increasingly allows components
to be made with extreme accuracy.
178

10.Materials Choosing materials
Above and opposite

“Region and Harbour”, Opera Design,
Rotterdam, the Netherlands, 1995. This map,
designed by Opera Design, uses a wonderful
array of materials including the bristles of
assorted brushes to show land use in the port
and region of Rotterdam. The show depicted
the reconstruction of Rotterdam and the
future for the city, and took place in the former
arrival and departure hall of the Holland
America Line.
179

In all exhibition environments, the fire rating of materials is very important.
Most museums hold extremely valuable collections and the fire performance
of everything that is used in their displays must be checked. This also applies
to trade fairs. In both cases, appointed fire officers are responsible for making
sure individual materials are sufficiently fire retardant. In some cases they test
samples, and often ban materials that don’t reach the required standard. It is
important to understand that the fire rating of a material is determined by how
it is used—for example, combined with other materials or in a particular type
of construction. Or a thick sample might pass a fire test, while a thin sample
of the same material might fail. As fire regulations differ from country to
country, it is not easy to make assumptions when working abroad; if in
doubt, check materials with local fire officers to avoid mistakes.
In addition to fire retardancy, and a material’s aesthetic properties, the
designer must check its durability, order times, price, sheet sizes, ease of
maintenance and assembly time, and the skills of the contractors involved.
Any one of these factors can rule out using the material, so it is worth looking
closely at each one. In reality, many designers develop a palette of materials
they use consistently, introducing new ones cautiously, and only when they
are sure they will perform. It can be embarrassing and expensive if a material
starts to peel or disintegrate unexpectedly.
With natural materials, such as timber, it is necessary to consider how
they will behave in particular environments. Wood swells when it is wet and
shrinks when it dries. In such a case, the designer should ensure that a
material can shrink and expand without cracking or warping.
Increasingly, designers are judging materials from an environmental
standpoint. For example, those that are high in “embodied energy” are less
favoured than ones that are rapidly renewable and low in embodied energy
(see chapter 13). Thus locally sourced and renewable timber (where there is
no scarcity) would normally be favoured over, say, steel (which has high
embodied energy) if a construction could be equally served by both materials.
Using composite materials, such as plywood covered with laminates that
cannot be removed and prevent reuse, is considered an inefficient use of
resources. However, sustainability experts stress that it is often difficult to
make decisions based solely on one factor, such as embodied energy, as the
overall efficiency of a structure, its fitness for purpose and aesthetic criteria
also play a part. On the other hand, good environmentally friendly design
has become such a key consideration that the prevailing opinion is that
sustainability is now central, rather than peripheral, to the success or failure
of a scheme. A green approach to design requires the designer to make
judgements about resources and how appropriate materials are for a
particular purpose. What were once common practices, such as the use
of high-quality materials like marble, granite or steel for temporary
exhibition stands, may become things of the past.
A number of sources of information about green products have been
collated by industry bodies. For example, in the United Kingdom the Building
180

10. Research Establishment has issued a green specification guide that enables
designers to source them without laborious investigation. Such guides are
Materials Deciding on suitable materials
instrumental in helping to embed green practices in the industry.
Deciding on suitable materials

A sample board—materials glued to a board—is useful to show the range
of materials used for each different aspect of an exhibition, and is often shown
to the client as part of a design presentation. It allows the designer to make
minute adjustments to colours and finishes to ensure a good result. In many
cases, the materials that are chosen will last for the duration of just one
exhibition. However, in the light of green design imperatives, materials
that can easily be reused for future shows are preferred. Particularly for
commercial exhibitors, it is essential that colours and textures are consistent
with the visual identity of the company, and that finishes are consistent with
its branding material.
For museum displays some materials, particularly those used inside
showcases, are tested for conservation purposes. A toxic glue that fixes a
laminate, or a painted surface, might be a potential source of pollutants that
can accelerate the deterioration of sensitive artefacts. A material may be
tested for several weeks, and it is advisable to specify alternatives early in the
detailed design phase, and wait for the results of the tests, before ordering it.
Exhibition designers, like architects and interior designers, use swatches
to specify paint colours to contractors, based on charts issued by paint
suppliers. Swatches are often too small for a considered judgement to be
made, and in this case it is often a good idea to obtain samples of the paint
and coat a larger area with it. When choosing materials such as those for vinyl
graphics, designers use Pantone colour references as these are an accurate
match for vinyl colours. Pantone swatches are available from art shops, and
are a standard reference system understood by contractors as well as
designers. Other paint references include the German RAL system, which
is widely used in Europe.
The process of using colour references is simple. Choose a colour, note
down its number and write the number on the technical drawing for the
contractor or on a specifications sheet. Be clear about the way the colour
will be applied—for example, spray or roller finish—the extent of the area to
be covered, the undercoats, primers or base coats required, the probable
number of paint layers, and any clear lacquer topcoat. Most paints are
available in matt, satin or gloss versions.
181

London Transport Museum, London, UK
Design: Ralph Appelbaum Associates UK
The choice of materials used in the display design

for this museum was influenced by the colours,
materials and fixtures and fittings used on the
London transport network itself.
Above
Picture research by designers at Ralph
Appelbaum Associates helped inform fixing
methods and the choice of materials for the
museum. The eventual design of the graphic
walls retained the rugged quality common to
buses, trams and trains.
Left
Sample materials were laid out to see how
they worked together. In a complex design
such as the London Transport Museum, the
contractor can provide material samples and
constructed details.
182

10.Materials Case study
Above
The graphic treatment of the signage was
chosen to match the colours of the metalwork
construction. A complex colour palette was
managed with the use of a guide compiled
by the designers with Pantone, paint and
material references to aid the build and
graphic contractors.
Left
The elements were laid out together on a table
in the design studio for a visual check. Graphic
sizes and the effectiveness of the junctions
were checked at this point before
site work began.
183

DO… DON’T…
• Examine the durability, fixing methods, cost, • Be vague when you specify a material.
sheet size and ease of use of materials. If you are not clear about what you want,
• Check the fire rating of materials to ensure the contractor will decide for you, and you
that they conform to local fire regulations. may not be pleased with the result.
• Specify combinations of materials and types • Ask a contractor to use techniques or
of construction accurately, in conformity with materials they are not proficient with.
local building regulations. Where possible, • Proceed with any construction before
be specific about the supplier of a material, consulting a fire officer, structural engineer
its surface texture, colours (including the or health and safety officer if you think
appropriate paint or the surface treatment) any of the materials involved may require
and the required fire resistance. their advice.
• Ask suppliers to produce prototypes • Allow a contractor to reinterpret or change
wherever possible. your design without your express consent.
• Build a library of samples that you can
refer to quickly and easily.
184

11.
Portable exhibitions

This chapter looks at exhibition systems, generally designed
for use at trade fairs, that are easily transported to a venue
where they are set up on site. The best examples provide
for all the needs of a commercial client in a single unit.
Flexible designs
If designers had to build their own exhibitions, there is no doubt that their
construction methodology would be very different to what it is. For many of
them, the effect of their displays is far more important than the way they are
built, and when allowed free rein designers tend to specify higher quality
(and heavier) materials that would strain the backs of the hardiest contractors.
There is, of course, another way. There are modular, lightweight and portable
exhibition systems that are easily transportable, simple to erect and
environmentally friendly if they are used frequently. Some are excellent
examples of industrial design, and provide flexibility as well as having multiple
Left, bottom left and below

The Burckhardt Leitner Constructiv “Clic”
system is so-named because of the subtle
click sound made by the tubes as they join
together at the nodal points. It is a lightweight
system for single-level displays which allows
the client to store items within the display, and
to attach graphics and integral lighting. The
system packs down into separate tubes and
nodal blocks that fit neatly into a travel case.
The same components are used for walling and
storage and can be internally illuminated (left).
Aluminium rods are joined at node points to
create a framework (below). Lightweight
polypropylene panels are attached to the
frame to make a surface (below left).
186

11.
Portable exhibitions Flexible designs
uses. High-quality systems are usually designed with the needs of trade
customers in mind, and therefore provide walls, storage, graphic display and
lighting within a single integrated unit. The best systems pack down into small
cases for easy transport and storage; many can be transported as aeroplane
baggage and taken directly to an exhibition venue to be erected on site.
The biggest barrier to using modular and portable displays is that they
look too commonplace—which is why they are very rarely seen in museums—
and clients who use them complain that too many of their competitors have
similar products, and that they are not different enough to give their company
a competitive edge. For this reason, many organizations that use these
displays attempt to disguise them with graphics and surface finishes.
However, for many commercial clients they are an easy and relatively cheap
means of maintaining a presence at a particular trade show or conference.
Most systems suitable for trade fairs provide options for mounting
computer screens, brochure display and graphic panels. The panels are Above and above left
Ambassador of Design, Japan, Trans Arts,
normally designed by the designer, and the artwork is sent to a printer who Nosigner, Tokyo, Japan, 2013. This interpretive
outputs the graphics in a format that works with the modular display. Some screen uses bamboo sticks in tension and a
cloth made using the traditional Japanese skill,
systems provide for double-storey construction with staircases and upper- Shinshibari.
storey handrails.
Many designers find exhibition systems an exciting challenge. Designing
them requires spatial as well as industrial-design skills. When erected they
have to be as engaging and stimulating as any display, but it must be
possible to pack them down into a small volume for transport. Because
they are used frequently, they must be designed with longevity in mind,
with hard-wearing joints and graphic surfaces that are resistant to scratches.
The initial outlay for a portable display is often greater than that for a
bespoke exhibition stand, but the ongoing cost of repeat installation is
usually lower as transport and labour costs are smaller. The decision to
buy a modular system is therefore usually made only if several exhibitions
are planned.
187

Open Road Tour,
touring exhibition, 2003
Design: Pentagram
For the hundredth anniversary of Harley-Davidson,
designers Pentagram devised the Open Road Tour,
which travelled to ten cities around the world. Each
event was a weekend-long festival with a museum-
quality display area housed in a series of tents,
with a custom-made circular tent at its core. The
event managed to combine the dignity of a gallery
exhibition with the atmosphere of a local Harley-
Davidson festival.
Top
Entrance to the tent.
Above left
Overall view of the interior of the circular tent.
Above
Plan and section of the central display tent.
Left
A display of petrol tanks.
188

11.
Portable exhibitions Case study
Overall view and details of the “Assembly line”

display of Harley-Davidson artefacts.
Image overleaf
Adventure One (1995) was a self-initiated
feasibility project undertaken by the design
group Imagination. The scheme envisaged
a touring brand experience housed within
seventy 12 m (39 ft) trailers. At each location,
the trailers would be joined together to form
a large and flexible environment. All additional
equipment would be transported within the
same trailers. Structures made using truck
trailers with removable sides are commonly
used for travelling exhibitions and
hospitality units.
189

12.
Technical drawing

This chapter shows how technical drawings develop and
are a visual record of discussions between the designer and
client. It describes the importance of accurate labelling and
explanatory notes, and the need to produce specific drawings
for specialist contractors. It also includes advice about when
it is advisable to contact planning or conservation authorities
in order to obtain their approval of a design.
The purpose of technical drawings

In most cases, no single individual “owns” an exhibition design and has
absolute say over its every aspect. Normally there is a process of negotiation,
proposal and counterproposal that involves a number of people with differing
perspectives. The sketches, concept models and technical drawings
produced by the designer show how the exhibition ideas in the brief could
be realized in an eventual design. Many of the parties to the discussion may
have very little idea how the content they have provided might appear in the
exhibition, so initial sketches and models are able to communicate provisional
options. It is important that these are provisional and are not presented as
final designs, simply because it is unlikely that the designer will immediately
proffer a solution that anticipates all the needs of the client and the exhibition
audience as well as health, safety and security requirements. Normally, it is
also important for the client to feel as if they have put their stamp on the
design in some way, and that the project is a shared vision and not solely
the province of the designer.
The provisional drawings are therefore a record of the discussion process
and incorporate reasonable input from the client. If the client proposes
changes that will make the design ineffective, the designer has to defend his
or her proposal. The models, sketches and drawings are an important means
of showing how a coherent design strategy will be affected by any proposed
changes, and a significant debating tool. At the end of the discussions, the
designer has to turn the provisional drawings into technical drawings that
can be read by contractors and suppliers, and provide the information for
the final built project. As far as possible, the designer must stress that all
changes should be made before the drawings are issued. However, it is
not unusual for a client to change displays even after the build has started,
though there is nearly always a cost implication as contractors charge
additional fees for changes to the original design, especially if they
involve more work and materials.
Initial technical drawings tend to be schematic, developing levels of detail
as the project progresses. Most designers develop their designs through a
number of steps, from an initial feasibility study to an intermediate stage of
schematic design, ending with a detailed design for construction. The detail
required increases with each step until the final drawings are issued. At each
stage, the designer produces drawings at different scales starting with the
192

12. largest, which show the overall site and how the built project will fit within it,
and the key elevations and sections. The structure of the project is then
The purpose of technical drawings
broken down into a series of elements, each smaller than the last, finishing
with details drawn as near as possible to actual size. These drawings
are collated, numbered and given titles, and should show a contractor the
entire project, including all the finishes and dimensions, with no ambiguity.
Orthogonal drawings, such as plans and elevations, are the easiest and
quickest to draw. However, complex structures may need to be drawn in
three dimensions to make details clear to the contractors and avoid
misunderstandings. Where very complex structures are envisaged, it may
be necessary to use exploded diagrams and perspectives, though most
designers try to avoid providing these if flat drawings are sufficient. The focus
for many projects is economy of time and effort, and the quantity and type
Technical drawing
of drawing is carefully considered to avoid unnecessary work but to ensure

clarity of communication.
Labels, details and notes

Technical drawings for exhibitions are similar to those produced by architects
and interior designers. The sole difference is perhaps the need to label plans
carefully and change the labels assiduously when exhibits are moved. Once
the initial visuals and sketches have been produced, participants in the
project often demand plans to show the positioning of the exhibits and how
they relate to each other. This happens quite frequently and the designer has
to keep pace with any changes that are made or risk confusion. When a
layout has been established, particularly for permanent exhibitions, elevations
are often produced to show the vertical relationships. With all exhibition
drawings, figures superimposed on section drawings speak very eloquently
about the relationship of the exhibits to visitors. Drawings of a range of visitors
interacting with displays helps to determine the correct height for display
panels, controls, buttons, screens and other interaction points.
Drawings for interactive devices often need to show the exhibit or display
in a number of modes to make clear how the user interacts with it, and what
changes are triggered by the interaction. This may also be specified in words
on the drawings, detailing the stages in an interaction and the intended visitor
experience. Notes on technical drawings are always expressed in an odd style
that becomes second nature to designers after practice, though it may seem
bizarre to non-designers.
The construction of an exhibition always reflects the quality and accuracy
of the technical drawings. If the designer creates a drawing that can easily be
misinterpreted by a contractor, he or she is unlikely to achieve the desired
results. Some contractors help to resolve problems with drawings, but others
simply substitute their own solutions. When this happens, there is almost no
telling what will be built; certainly, it is unlikely to be what the designer
planned. Contractors may produce their own working drawings from those
provided by the designer. If so, the designer can ask to see them and make
193

Levels of drawing
These images by Casson Mann show a
number of levels of drawing for the Churchill
Museum, London, ranging from overall plans
to detail drawings for production.
Above Opposite top

The overall plan shows circulation and the relationship This drawing shows an individual plinth in plan with both front and
of the plinths to the room and the other displays. rear elevations. Note that the graphics have been applied to the
drawings and can be used by both construction and graphic
contractors. The overhead structure and pillars are also shown.
Opposite bottom
These drawings of the leather cladding for a display plinth show
the exact details required, including the stitching, cut and placement
of the leather over the plinth.
194

12.
Technical drawing Case study
195

small amendments if he or she feels that they deviate from the original design.
Drawings change throughout a project and, where the client needs a quick
answer, initial prices are often estimated before they have been finalized.
If the client agrees the price, the designer can continue to develop the design
but must be mindful that additional details may take the project outside the
contractor’s initial estimate.
Technical drawings always have explanatory notes and include
specifications for materials. Good, accurate notation helps contractors to
build quickly and efficiently, and reduces the need to constantly question
the designer about his or her intentions. The more information the drawings
include, the easier it is to achieve high-quality construction that achieves the
designer’s objectives. All the details required to specify a material should be
available through literature from suppliers—information about, say, timber
flooring should include the length and width of strips, available finishes,
timber types and laying methods. This information should be noted on the
relevant drawing to help the contractor read the designer’s intentions.
Specific technical drawings are produced for specialists such as
electricians, and flooring and lighting contractors. It is important that their
activities are centrally coordinated by the designer or project manager—
Left
Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Ralph Appelbaum
Associates, Exeter, UK, 2011.
Opposite (from top)

Sketch layout shows arrangement of content
across the floorplan; Graphic elevation shows
layout of graphic screens; Section through gallery;
Plan drawing of displays (bottom).
196

12.
Technical drawing Labels, details and notes
Sketch plan
Section A-A Window graphic scrims
Section B-B Open display interactives
Plan
197

Above and below
National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, the Netherlands. These elevation
and plan drawings specify in detail the placement of small artefacts in a
glass cabinet.
198

12.
Technical drawing Official approvals
Official approvals
A number of factors that may have a significant impact on the development Hong Kong Wetland Park, Hong Kong. These
detail drawings explain a water wheel that can
of an exhibition design should be considered early in the design process. be powered by children. Note that the scale figure
If any changes to a structure are envisaged, it is advisable to talk to planning of a child is helpful in explaining the function of
the device. The drawings include a plan of the
or conservation authorities. Similarly, fire precautions and health and safety completed device in the context of the pool in
issues require official approval. Any constraints imposed by the authorities which it turns (bottom left).
can then be factored into the design.
Tenders
Contractors quote on the basis of a package of drawings and documentation.
The drawings must show:
• The relationship of the exhibition space to the overall site (a site plan)
• A plan of the exhibition space with all the exhibit areas
• Elevations and sections that demonstrate the vertical height of
the exhibition
• Detailed drawings that show surface finishes and important junctions
between materials and surfaces
199

• Details of finishes and materials with exact references and,
if necessary, where they can be obtained
• In rare cases, the designer may mock up a detail in card or another
modelling material
• For small exhibitions, electrical information is super-imposed on
the site plan; larger ones require a separate drawing for the sole
use of an electrician
• Ask suppliers to produce prototypes and create samples wherever
possible, so that you can check the quality of the construction and
what the final outcome will look like
• Build a library of samples that you can refer to quickly and easily
Amending drawings
All too often changes are made after the technical drawings have been
issued. These have to be noted on all relevant drawings, and the drawings
must be reissued to any contractor to whom a previous set has been sent.
The date of the amendment must be marked on the drawing and noted.
Often, it is important to telephone the contractor to inform them about the
amendments. The contractor will usually keep the original set of drawings
but mark them as superseded.
DO… DON’T…
• Record discussions and ideas on • Leave anything to chance. If something

scale drawings. can be misinterpreted it will be.
• Increase the detail and accuracy of • Change drawings without telling parties who
the drawings as you come towards will be affected, such as lighting designers,
the construction phase of the project. contractors, subcontractors and clients.
• Ensure that the project can be easily • Invent symbols or drawing elements if well-
understood through a series of drawings, understood conventions already exist.
from large-scale plans of the site and • Specify constructions that are impossible
the overall layout through to detailed to make, or materials that are impossible to
construction drawings that show details obtain. When possible, check the sources of
of material finishes. materials with contractors or suppliers.
• Provide as much detail as possible when
specifying. Show exactly how materials
will be used, on drawings as well as
specification sheets and through labels
on the drawings.
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13.
Construction and delivery

This chapter describes the factors involved in the construction
of an exhibition or display, including the transport of exhibits
and structural elements, collaboration with contractors and
how green design can be implemented. It looks at additional
services that the designer may provide, and gives practical
advice on trade practices and project management.
Construction
Although construction in the exhibition sector is in many ways similar to
construction in the retail sector, it involves a number of unique practices.
Speed is often vital and most exhibition specialists are used to the rhythm of
careful preparation and planning, and short intensive periods of build-up
before the opening of a show. Most venues try to minimize the length of time
for which they are closed, and squeeze the installation and dismantling of
displays into a short period. Construction, graphics, and electrical, multimedia
and lighting installations have to be strictly timetabled, which often means
working late into the night to meet strict deadlines.
First of all, the designer should consider how the elements of an exhibition
or display will be transported and installed. Large constructions have to be
broken into smaller segments for transport and access into the exhibition
space. Many venues, particularly museums, have restricted access and it
may be necessary to consider how to disassemble individual elements in
order to take them through restrictive doors or corridors before they are
reassembled on site. For travelling displays, constant assembly and
disassembly can be inconvenient and expensive, and the designer has to
consider this from the outset. Weight also has a considerable impact when
displays are transported over long distances as freight charges are often
calculated on this as well as volume.
Most displays are designed to be only as durable as they need to be,
given the length of time for which they will be installed. Short-term installations
are relatively crude in construction while permanent ones are often designed
with higher specifications. This applies particularly to how displays are
finished. Non-durable paints that can be easily painted over when they get
dirty are often used for short-term installations. Longer term displays have
durable finishes that will withstand the public handling them over a period of
years without the need for maintenance. Children’s displays are particularly
vulnerable to rough handling, and even temporary ones must be robust. The
designer needs to estimate the effects of use and specify materials
accordingly. Like a stage set, exhibition structures often look rough behind the
scenes, with unfinished walls and large unpainted areas. Although this would
not be appropriate for an interior design scheme, in exhibitions most clients
are keen to spend their money where it can be seen and appreciated, to give
visitors a high-quality experience, and are less concerned about anything that
is not visible the public.
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13.
Construction and delivery Construction
The cost of construction is influenced by a variety of factors, including Opposite top and bottom
PlayStation Exhibit, E-3 Expo, Mauk Design, Los
transport, materials and the labour required to make and install each item. Angeles, USA, 2005. This exhibit for PlayStation
Most designers add as much sophistication to their design as their budget included a two-storey steel frame with a glass
balustrade and an illuminated glass floor. Panels
allows, and often overspecify in the first instance. If the prices quoted by were used above the first-floor deck to partially
contractors mean that particular details cannot be achieved, the designer block the view of the exhibition venue ceiling.
Two-storey or “double-deck” constructions are
meets the contractors to discuss what can be done for the money available, common at fairs where space is limited or
and amends the details to achieve the highest standards that are possible expensive.
and the necessary budget savings. It is preferable to have all elements
Above left and above
constructed off site. As time is always limited, it is easier and faster to Tridonic.Atco stand, Arno Design, Light + Building
reassemble them at the exhibition venue than start from scratch on site. Fair, Frankfurt, Germany, 2008. Most exhibitions
are built off-site and assembled at the exhibition
Many staples of exhibition design, such as glass cabinets and light boxes, venue. This display for a lighting manufacturer
are available from specialist suppliers, who are often able to achieve high- comprises a number of pre-constructed
components rapidly assembled during the short
quality details and engineer specialist features such as fire and security exhibition build-up. Above left is a computer
precautions, and environmental controls for humidity and temperature. These rendering of the final design while the photograph
above shows construction in progress.
are complicated to manufacture and generally time consuming to build, so
the client and designer should look carefully at their schedules to ensure that
they can be constructed in the time available. Generally, the longer the
designer has to prepare for an exhibition, the more he or she is able to use
high-quality specialist suppliers and achieve high-quality details. Poor
detailing and finish often reflect inadequate preparation time.
Working with contractors

As in any industry, there is a range of contractors with a range of specialities.
Very often, the designer employs specialists in lighting, graphic production,
construction, model-making, sound, interaction and projection/moving
images. Different jobs require different skills and it is necessary to examine
the credentials of each contractor—the type of work they have done in the
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past, its quality and what it costs. As with a house builder, before taking on
a contractor it is useful to find out as much as possible about them and see
work they have done. Contractors vary from one-man bands to huge global
conglomerates, and designers normally try to find one that is the appropriate
size for a particular job. Large-scale work demands large contractors, but
the construction for smaller exhibitions can often be handled very
adequately and more cheaply by a small firm as long as it has sufficient
manpower and experience. Each case requires careful judgement,
balancing the cost of hiring an expensive heavily resourced contractor
against the risk involved in using an inexpensive but under-resourced
firm that may be too small to do the job successfully.
It is necessary to develop a relationship of trust with contractors because
the consequences of poor performance, not finishing a job by the time an
exhibition opens, or poor workmanship reflect badly on the designer as well
as the client. Contractors need good organizational skills to avoid difficulties
and the best installations are carefully orchestrated. However, even the most Above and opposite
Antarctic Dome, Inflate/Land Design Studio,
organized contractors can be defeated by a job that is too big for them, or “Ice Station Antarctica”, Natural History Museum,
outside their area of expertise, and designers should use those who are London, UK, 2007. This pneumatic structure was
created to give the impression of an ice station at
most appropriate, not just the ones they know. If a designer is working in the Antarctic. Inflatable structures can be erected
a venue for the first time, and especially if it is abroad, it may be wise to very quickly on-site and make very effective
temporary exhibits. The drawings opposite
choose a contractor who has worked there before. Some venues are give measurements for contractors.
problematic and are governed by complicated rules. In these
circumstances, someone with prior experience of the venue can
be a vital asset.
Contractors’ workloads change during the course of a year. If they are
already working at over their normal capacity, they will increase their charges
if they take on additional projects. By asking several contractors to tender for
the same job, the designer is more likely to identify a specialist with a slim
workload who is willing to charge a reasonable price. However, as with all
construction, the cheapest is not always the best and tenders should only
be sent to contractors who are competent to work on the project.
Sustainable construction
A commitment to sustainability will change how many designers decide on
construction methods. Adherence to the green principles of “reduce, reuse
and recycle” means a less flippant and unthinking use of resources, and a
great deal more consideration given to thoughtful construction methods that
allow for dismantling and reuse. In most cases the exhibition industry (see
chapter 14) is not geared to deal with the intelligent use of resources and,
for the most part, supply chains that will help designers to promote green
methods of construction do not exist. There is considerable scope for new
practices to emerge in the future, arrived at through agreement between
exhibition builders and legally enforceable through construction contracts.
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13.
Construction and delivery Construction
205

Trade fairs
Shipping is often a vital part of the design management of trade fairs stands. Below left, below and opposite
Saloni display, Francesc Rifé, Valencia,
There are a number of firms that specialize in exhibition shipping, taking large Spain, 2005. This display of ceramic wall tiles
containers of display equipment and exhibits to foreign venues. They offer for the Spanish manufacturer Saloni is divided
into a series of pavilions. The designer, Francesc
bespoke services for transporting delicate or valuable exhibits, with additional Rife, used a carefully chosen palette of materials
security personnel where necessary. Reputable shipping agents often have including timber, ceramics, and glass clad
with graphics and laminate to create a number
representatives in almost every country, enabling them to organize shipping of distinct yet complementary areas. The
and delivery at a local level and to avoid some of the worst bureaucratic central circular desk lit from below is clad
with a tiled graphic.
delays. Containers are ordered from the shipping firm and sent to contractors
to be filled. They are then sent by sea to the venue, where the contractors
unpack them. In other instances, when shipping isn’t involved, for example,
a main contractor may hire lorries and organize the transport of the exhibits
and display equipment.
The services provided at a trade fair, and the relevant order forms, are
available from the organizers of the show, with key dates and milestones in
the build-up to the fair. The maximum height of construction is published in
the exhibition manual, with information about any columns or features that
may obstruct a display. The organizers will, on request, send the contractor
a detailed floor plan that shows the exact measurements of any obstructions.
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13.
Construction and delivery Trade fairs

Electrical requirements have to be submitted a few weeks before a show
and any later requests are usually subject to a surcharge. Where large
constructions are envisaged, structural calculations based on the designer’s
drawings must be made by an experienced structural engineer, and submitted
to the venue’s structural engineers for inspection. All these stipulations are in
the exhibition manual, which should be read in detail to avoid later problems.
Trade fairs are subject to the same building and safety codes as other forms
of construction, such as house building. These regulations are frequently
explained in a distilled form in the manual but, like any legislation, they are
often exactingly applied. Exhibitors try to skirt around them at their peril, and
designers must comply with them. In the worst cases, a construction may be
condemned and roped off from the public until remedial work is carried out.
At most trade fair venues the floor is made from rough concrete that is too
unfinished to be used in a display area. This space is often carpeted or, for
most bespoke displays, overlaid with a timber platform on which the displays
will be placed. All electrical wiring is laid under the platform, and holes are
drilled through it to bring the wires up in the right place. Many venues allow
constructions to be hung from cables, called “drops”, which are suspended
from the ceiling to allow exhibitors to hang signage, for example, above the
exhibition stands.
In any trade-fair venue, most exhibitors compete with each other to create
displays that outdo those of their neighbours, so most clients have a vested
interest in building as high as they can within the rules. This involves using
ladders, lifting equipment and scaffolding towers. Construction supervision
legislation often requires designers and design companies to consider these
issues before the start of a project to avoid unsafe practices and accidents.
Short installation periods encourage haste, and there is therefore an element
of danger for contractors if safe practices are not considered. Safety should
be paramount at all times. Mechanisms such as “risk assessments” and
“method statements” maximize the care and forethought given to
construction practices.
The green agenda

Currently, the emission of harmful greenhouse gases into the atmosphere has
risen to the top of the green agenda, driven by climate change. Other issues
of concern to the green exhibition designer are: scarce resources (especially
natural ones), toxic materials (for example, paints and other coatings with
harmful components), toxic processes used in the extraction, production and
refining of raw materials, destruction of environments and biodiversity, waste
produced during production, and the pollution of water supplies or the
overuse of water where it is scarce. It is difficult for designers to act on the
basis of these broad categories. This is why industry bodies such as the
Building Research Establishment in the United Kingdom have issued
guidelines for green specification. Where no data is available, designers often
have to do their own research or work from first principles. However, some
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13. common sense is required. Locally sourced and rapidly renewable resources
are more likely to be environmentally sustainable than scarce materials
Construction and delivery The green agenda
transported over long distances, though each case must be judged on its
merits. Sustainability consultants can be called in to advise on these issues.
There are a number of important concepts that are helpful in
understanding green design, and “embodied energy” is particularly useful.
It is all the energy required to extract and produce a material to a specified
point. Materials that are low in embodied energy are preferred as less energy
is required to extract, refine and process them into a usable state. Timber, for
example, is low in embodied energy as it requires relatively little energy to cut
down a tree, saw it into planks and process the planks for use. Materials such
as steel, which requires very hot furnaces and high energy consumption to be
Natural History Museum of Utah, Ralph
Appelbaum Associates, Salt Lake City, Utah,
USA,2011. This museum attained a LEED Gold
standard award for sustainability and incorporates
important sustainable features such as rainwater
collection, solar energy use, local sourcing of
materials and recycling of construction waste.
209

processed and rolled, are much higher in embodied energy, though in many
cases the performance of steel may justify its use in preference to timber.
Surprisingly, rather than large construction elements, it is the finish materials
such as carpets, stone and wall finishes that are principally responsible for
the embodied energy contained within a building, and can often account for
up to 50 per cent of the total.
Green dos and don’ts
DO… DON’T…
• Try to use materials that are low in embodied • Use materials that have proven toxic
energy, and which can be found locally and impacts on the soil, air and water.
fashioned into building materials as simply • Use composite materials unless they are
as possible without using energy-intensive really necessary. It is difficult to reuse or
extraction procedures. Rapidly renewable recycle sheet materials clad with laminates.
materials are preferred. • Use scarce materials unnecessarily; consider
• Use materials certified by reputable the impact on the areas where those
industry bodies. For example, the Forest materials are sourced.
Stewardship Council provides certificates • Transport materials and labour to distant
for timber that assure users that it is exhibition sites unnecessarily if you can
produced in well-managed forests and reduce the environmental impact this would
according to green principles. involve by using local resources.
• Consider how you can follow the
hierarchical green principles of “reduce,
reuse and recycle”. First, by reducing
the scale of a construction or increasing
the efficiency of the design; second, by
incorporating reused materials; and third,
by considering how materials that cannot be
reused can be recycled.
• Ask questions about the environmental
impact of your actions, deal proactively with
green issues and draw sustainability issues
to the attention of your clients, contractors
and colleagues to encourage them to
cooperate with you.
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13. The designer’s responsibilities
The responsibilities of an exhibition designer vary considerably throughout the
The designer’s responsibilities
industry and may change from project to project. In some cases, often in trade-
fair design, the designer is responsible for the construction as well as the design.
This is called a “turn key” service, and the designer takes charge of every aspect
of the process of exhibiting from hiring contractors to delivering the exhibits to
the site. This type of service requires more project management from the
designer, but the advantage from a client’s point of view is that they can hold the
designer responsible for all aspects of the exhibition, and avoid the complicated
chain of command that often causes confusion when a number of specialist
agencies work alongside each other. The designer is responsible for any fault
with the design but also for the quality and safety of the display construction.
Construction and delivery
In other cases, the designer and contractors are employed separately by

the client, all of them being answerable for their own areas of expertise. This
means the designer is not responsible for the quality of manufacture; however,
he or she has to manage a potentially tricky relationship with the contractors,
whose interests lie in minimizing their scope of work. In these circumstances, the
designer’s specification drawings for contractors must be unambiguous, to
avoid argument or litigation. The designer has to make clear whether or not he or
she is responsible for supervising the site.
In many countries, designers are responsible for ensuring that what they
design will be safe and structurally sound, and hire structural engineers to give
advice on construction details. Increasingly, exhibition designers and contractors
have additional responsibilities for maintaining safe practices on site and
assessing health and safety risks. Governments around the world continue to
legislate in this area, and designers who work internationally have to conform
to new rulings wherever they are practising. In any venue, there are usually
officers responsible for health, safety, fire precautions and accessibility for the
disabled—in the event of any doubt, it is a good idea to show proposals to them
before building starts, to avoid later problems and questions. Designers also
take on the responsibility of ensuring that their proposals satisfy environmental
criteria, with advice from environmental consultants.
Trade practices
Trade practices vary enormously across the world, and it is best to research
contracts and common industry standards before working abroad. In the United
States, most trade-fair activity is unionized and all the work at an exhibition venue
must be done by union members. The unions responsible for carrying out
exhibition work are often affiliated to those of the delivery drivers and shippers,
whose members decide on the fees that should be paid to them for the work
they perform; they have sole responsibility for moving or freighting, which is
known as “drayage”. If a client or a designer even picks up a box in
contravention of union rules, the union may decide to deny them vital services
such as power or lighting.
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In Europe there are very few union practices, thus allowing designers
more freedom to design their exhibitions in the way that best suits them.
Nevertheless, they often find that large contractors have common ways of
achieving particular aims—for example, building walls—and to save the
budget it can be necessary to hire their stock material rather than create
new display equipment. Asian exhibition firms have their own construction
techniques and labour practices. It is often up to designers to investigate local
construction methods and see how they can work with existing systems; and,
if they can’t, decide how to produce suitable alternatives. Labour practices
affect the way exhibitions are designed and detailed. If contractors are not
familiar with a construction method, they will inevitably increase the price
because the job will take them longer. If, as sometimes happens, a few
complicated details consume a disproportionate part of the budget,
discussing the problem with the people concerned often results in finding
good solutions that are within the scope of the contractor’s expertise.
Children’s exhibits
As children tend to wear down materials and mechanisms very quickly, their
exhibits are usually made to a very high specification, suitable for heavy
industrial components. In nearly all displays where there is interactivity,
technical back-up is required to repair broken exhibits. Small children like
to poke their fingers into any holes or gaps in an exhibit, so the designer
must take care to avoid traps that might catch their fingers.
Project management
Once the technical drawings have been issued the project manager, if there
is one, takes over and is responsible for the contractors and suppliers. The
client deals on a day-to-day basis with the project manager, who will share
with the designer the responsibility for delivering on time, within budget and
to a high standard. The project manager should also be responsible to the
designer for maintaining the quality of the design and must take care to
preserve its essential qualities, especially if there are budget constraints.
He or she must ensure that specifications are met or, in some cases, that
reasonable substitutions are made. Careful project management is required
for the implementation of green design, along with good communication
with contractors and a thorough wide-ranging approach to all aspects of
construction, transport and resource management.
Ancillary services
Some exhibition-design companies offer additional services, connected with
the delivery of the design, to their clients. Many provide the “turn key” service
described on page 211, and take responsibility for nearly all aspects of
delivery. Other services are at the request of the client who, if a company does
not have the necessary resources, may ask the exhibition designers to take
on extra responsibilities. Large organizations are often keen to outsource
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13.
Construction and delivery Ancillary services
services to suppliers because this means they do not have to employ Gardens By The Bay, Land Design Studio,
Singapore, China, 2012. This huge greenhouse
personnel in-house. If design companies provide additional resources, such was conceived in conjunction with landscape
as a marketing strategy and help with the management of the stand during designers, architects and environmental and
structural engineers. Narrative interpretation
the show, they must ensure that the income from their clients is sufficient to is ingeniously integrated into an engineered
pay the wages of the individuals they hire. To some degree, big trade-fair garden ecosystem.
design companies are as busy dealing with logistics as they are with design,
and a large part of their effort is often concentrated on delivering the design.
For museum and gallery designers, gathering the information relevant to
the design process is half the task. Although many clients are adept at doing
this and handing the results on to the designers, many are not. If there is
nothing for designers to work on, the design team will be idle. Some design
companies offer their clients a “content management” service to help manage
the flow of information to the designers. Content managers tell the client what
is needed to ensure a successful show, help with the task of carrying out
research and cajole the providers of content.
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Handover
Before a completed design is handed over, the designer produces a checklist,
called a “snagging” list (or a “punch list” in the US), which highlights “snags”
or construction defects. The client often adds their own “snags”. The list is
helpful to contractors as it helps them to focus on outstanding tasks. When all
the construction tasks are complete, the designer must ensure that the client
has a complete understanding of the workings of any sound, projection or
computer equipment, and is aware of any maintenance requirements.
DO… DON’T…
• Consider how constructions or exhibits • Use suppliers whose work is faulty or

will be taken into the exhibition building inconsistent. Wherever possible try to use
and whether doors are wide enough to suppliers or contractors whose work is
accommodate them. proven, without being over-reliant on any
• Design structures that can be broken single provider.
down or dismantled for transport • Agree to arrangements where there are
where necessary—especially for open-ended responsibilities for the
temporary exhibitions. designer or contractors.
• Make clear decisions about how contractors • Leave your client to identify and deal
will work together and organize detailed with faults in construction. All quality
contractual arrangements. issues should be addressed by the
• Manage your projects so that they are project manager and the designer
within cost, health and safety, and before handover.
environmental constraints. • Design or specify constructions that
have structural problems. Where safety is
at stake, you should take all reasonable
steps to identify potential problems and
get competent advice to solve any
potential issues.
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14.
Conclusion

This chapter explores how exhibition design is evolving
with many commercial clients perceiving it as a major factor
in communicating their brand. It discusses the increasing
importance of green issues, and describes how museums,
galleries and other attractions contribute to the economies
of countries throughout the world. It also emphasizes
that designers have a responsibility to use their skills
with integrity.
An evolving discipline
Exhibition innovation has been driven by a new generation of exhibition
professionals with a deep commitment to understanding how best to serve
the needs of visitors. This has led to a more purposeful approach to engaging
the public in activities that respond to differing learning styles and levels of
understanding. It has also helped to inject a measure of fun into exhibitions,
which visitors might have previously attended out of a sense of duty but
which provided little entertainment. Nevertheless, the best exhibitions Above
The Connect Home, Kengo Kuma Associates,
continue to convey ideas but are imaginative in how they are conveyed. Milan Furniture Fair, 2007. This conceptual
Alongside the newer aspects of exhibition practice, designers need many representation of a house demonstrates how
the inside and the outside of a house can be
of the traditional skills of planning spaces that serve the needs of visitors and connected though the use of sustainable materials
respond to developed exhibition strategies. Site analysis and the physical such as bamboo. Sliding bamboo partitions
(sumushiko) create soft divisions between the
linking of spaces to create satisfying visitor journeys remain central to spaces with the intention of decreasing the
exhibition design. Museums that have evolved piecemeal over many sense of rigid boundaries.
decades, by extending galleries, storage and cafés to serve immediate
needs, are often no longer fit to provide what visitors require, and in many
cases need a thorough overhaul. The reworking of spaces to ensure logical
visitor journeys continues to be a major aspect of modern museum practice.
Many clients, particularly in the commercial sector, see exhibiting as a
major element in brand communication. While visitors frequently pay only
passing attention to two-dimensional branding in the form of brochures,
catalogues and promotional material, by creating “brand environments”
exhibitors are able to attract the attention of their audiences and create
deeper responses to what they offer. The brand environment has thus
become a major tool in promoting products and services, and the powerful
“total” and “immersive” exhibition environment, pioneered by the commercial
sector, has become an important influence on museum practice.
Although there is much that is new and innovative in exhibition design,
there are many aspects of the discipline that will be wholly familiar to many
design practitioners and are an application of common sense. As with
product design, interior design and architecture, the exhibition designer is
constrained to think about the ergonomics of the visitor experience. He or
she has to devise displays that the wider visiting public, including disabled
visitors, can see and experience comfortably. The provision of interactive
displays in particular, that are shaped to respond to human dimensions and
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14. capabilities, is a central part of the exhibition designer’s job. In addition,
it is necessary to meet the needs of large groups and the flow of visitors
Conclusion Green design
comfortably, respecting fire and other safety regulations.

For graphic designers, the three-dimensional environment provides
a fascinating opportunity to collaborate with specialists in other fields and
direct interaction and multimedia design. The combination of these powerful
elements has become the springboard for innovation, and a key reason
for the resurgence of interest within exhibitions. In addition, graphic,
interaction and multimedia designers play an essential role in determining
the “voice” of an exhibition, alongside their responsibility to ensure
engagement with its content.
Green design
“Market Values—Smithfield: Past Present and
Green design is an increasingly important issue. Though few countries rigidly Future”, London, UK, 2007. Thomas Matthews is
enforce green legislation at the time of writing, a number have set ambitious a design agency with a commitment to a green
approach to exhibition design. This image shows
targets. The green issue has been discussed fitfully since the 1970s, and the use of fully recyclable cardboard exhibition
though there is a sense that exhibition practices will change there have been panels for an exhibition about the Smithfield meat
market in London. Local printers were used to
few dramatic developments. Inevitably there will be stricter regulation in the minimize the financial and environmental cost of
near future, and governments will begin scrutinizing exhibitions and their transport. Vegetable-based inks were used instead
of more common solvent-based inks. In some
design more closely in order to reduce energy use, greenhouse gases and cases, Thomas Matthews salvages old exhibition
environmentally harmful practices. A stricter legislative regime is coupled with installations and refashions them to produce
new displays. This approach minimizes the
a growing preparedness by institutions and business to tackle green issues, environmental impact caused by the dumping
motivated partly by a change in public attitudes. of obsolete exhibition materials.
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Green issues encourage a holistic approach to activities and construction. This remarkable design by Zaha Hadid Architects
for the proposed Guggenheim Hermitage Museum
Thus, the building and design of exhibitions is seen as just part of their overall in Vilnius, Lithuania, fulfills the clients’ desire for a
impact on the environment. For example, the millions of visitor journeys to landmark building. However, like many iconic
museum structures, it threatens to overwhelm
and from shows weigh heavily in environmental terms, especially when they the exhibits.
involve flights and long-distance car journeys. For this reason, organizations
such as the Cape Town International Convention Centre in South Africa, while
making a business case for expansion, have addressed the carbon cost
of staging larger events that would draw foreign delegates and therefore
significantly more flights to the city. By negating the carbon impact of these
flights through carbon offset, they aim to make a business case that is
environmentally, as well as economically, viable.
At present, many large companies produce corporate social responsibility
reports and have made public commitments to do their business in a
sustainable way. They are asking their suppliers to prove their green
credentials, and any designer making a proposal to one of them would do
well to check its websites or ask to see any policy documents. This would
provide a good reference for making a green pitch. However, despite public
commitments to new targets, in practice the industry is wasteful and has
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14. grown accustomed to a cycle of speedy fabrication and dumping of exhibition
materials, often after only a single use. For trade fair stands, bespoke materials
Conclusion Green design
are routinely discarded after just three or four days’ use. Public exhibitions
usually have a longer run, but materials or building practices are rarely
considered from a green standpoint. Most travelling exhibitions involve long-
distance haulage with its attendant costs to the environment. Inevitably, these
practices will come under review as environmental legislation is imposed.
However, new legislative measures—for example, a tax on materials dumped
in landfill sites—are not the only answer. The better solution is a readiness by
designers, clients and contractors to work in a sustainable way to reduce
harm to the environment.
In many cases, poor practices are caused not purely by poor design or
uncaring attitudes, but by a competitive system of rapid production and
response that leaves little time for intelligent planning of services, sustainable
construction methods and the sourcing of green alternatives. High-quality green
design takes time and a great deal of careful consideration from project
managers, designers, clients and contractors, in order to reduce the use of
resources, increase reuse, reduce transport and increase the percentage of
materials that can be recycled from any given construction. Clients need to add
the necessary time to their schedules and be willing to pay for thoughtful design
and planning that is more environmentally sustainable. This is an unwelcome
message for many clients who are under pressure to attract more visitors to their
exhibitions or generate more sales. What is the incentive to promote green
design when their jobs, their promotion prospects and their prestige are
governed purely by the number of visitors they can attract to their events?
Why spend their precious budgets on sustainable construction when wasteful
(and cheaper) design works equally well? The answer is to ensure that all the
individuals who manage projects are sufficiently incentivized by their institutions
to implement green initiatives. Design awards that recognize good green
practice, whether by contractors, subcontractors, designers, project managers
or clients, sponsored by industry bodies in both the commercial and museum
sectors, might help to drive this agenda.
The future
Museums, galleries and other visitor attractions make a major contribution to
tourism and therefore the economic well-being of any country. People often
return to a place they first visited for pleasure in order to exploit its business
opportunities, so the income generated by ticket sales to exhibitions is often
only a proportion of the wealth created by staging them. So-called “invisible”
earnings, through hotel accommodation, restaurants and other related journey
costs are a further addition to the economic benefits stimulated by exhibitions.
This lesson has not been lost on some of the world’s newly wealthy countries,
which have sought to invest in public museums to display and interpret art,
science and history not only for their own populations but also for new
generations of visitors from overseas.
219

For many countries and their governments, museums, archives and visitor
attractions that explain and interpret the past are of great significance. The
opportunity an exhibition provides to create narratives, supported by artefacts
that evidence the past and help a community to understand its history and the
histories of others, is precious. As communities develop, the need for such
exhibitions becomes part of an economic and political evolution, where
narratives are constructed with the participation of the community and
evidenced through the selective use of an archive. These narratives can be
the cornerstone of an emerging awareness of political and social history.
It is worth mentioning that all interpretations of exhibition themes are by
their nature selective and partial. Those that are historical will be rooted in
current preoccupations and narratives, and will doubtless seem quaint to
future historians. In most cases, interpretations are innocuous—expressions
of opinion based on sifted evidence—and are accepted as such by normally
sceptical exhibition audiences. However, some interpretations are morally
repugnant: history has a number of examples of dishonest exhibitions
mounted in support of odious regimes. Exhibition designers have powerful
tools at their disposal; they must always take care how they use them.
In recent years, exhibits concerning national or cultural identity have
sought to introduce a content development practice termed “co-development”.
Exhibitors around the world have and continue to create exhibitions that
represent cultures and identities other than their own. For example, a national
institution in, say, the United States or Germany might create a display on the
subject of Pacific Islanders from Samoa. In such cases, the display is often
supervised by a curator with knowledge of the Samoan community but
without the consent of that community or local participation. This can, and
has in the past, led to inadequate and patronising displays that paint a
skewed image that causes offence and can lead to allegations of racism. A
co-development approach brings members of a community into the process
of developing the content and design of a display. The consultation process
needs to be well designed and rigorous. Necessarily, co-development will
require choosing representatives of a community with the authority to speak
on behalf of that community and trusting relationship between the parties. It is
certain that any portrayal of a community will arouse some controversy and
criticism, but a well-designed co-development process is a necessary
beginning for such projects.
The opportunities for exhibition designers and professionals have never
been greater. Countries around the globe are discovering that exhibitions are
a sophisticated and significant medium of expression and, judging by the
furious activity in the world’s most prestigious design agencies, we stand on
the cusp of a new era. Centres in countries that have no tradition of exhibiting
will reach out to millions of visitors, many of whom will learn about themselves,
their countries, their history and their traditions for the first time, through the
medium of interpretative design.
220

Endmatter

Accessibility guidelines—excerpts from guidelines
prepared by the Victoria & Albert Museum, London
(courtesy of Barry Ginley/Victoria & Albert Museum)
Entrances/exits Through routes • Keep projections to a minimum

and provide visual and tactile
• Access to be level at entrances and • No change in floor level is preferred.
warnings as well as a guard rail
exits. Thresholds should be flush (flat).
• Primary circulation and escape routes when the overhang projects more
• Provide a clear circulation space should be a minimum of 1500 mm than 100 mm (4 in) at a height
either side of doors or entrance (59 in) wide, or 1500 x 1800 mm of between 300 and 2100 mm
spaces and elevators. (59 x 70 in) at turning points. (12 and 83 in).
• Keep doors open or use automatic • Straight routes, avoiding • Plinths should be a colour that
doors if possible. cul-de-sacs, are best for visitors contrasts with the floor to
with mobility difficulties. increase visibility.
• Entrances to be clearly visible
(for example by using a colour that • Provide a visibility strip between
Interpretative devices and
contrasts with nearby gallery space). 1400 and 1600 mm (55 and 63 in)
audio-visual displays
AFFL on glazed doors or walls.
• Provide a visibility strip between
• Seating should be removable to
1400–1600 mm (55–63 in) AFFL • Provide a high colour contrast
enable wheelchair access.
(above finished floor level) on glazed between floor and walls.
doors or walls. • Dedicated AV areas to have two
• Provide a consistent choice of
wheelchair spaces, with adjacent
• Provide clear operating instructions colours to help locate items such
standard seating.
(for example “push/pull”) and push as entrances, doors, furniture and
plates for doors. display stands. • Activity surfaces or computer
stations to be no higher than
• Provide contrasting door furniture. • Use matt floor finishes to avoid
800 mm (32 in) AFFL and fully
visual confusion caused by
accessible for a parked
Stairs/ramps reflections and glare.
wheelchair, with no solid
• Changes in level should be avoided fronts or obstructions.
Displays
where possible.
• Surfaces, screens and user
• Circulation areas around individual
• Ramps (accompanied by stairs if controls should be adjustable
displays that are not main circulation
necessary) to be used if a change in height and angle.
routes to be 1200 mm (47 in),
in level is required. Ramps to be at
preferably 1500 mm (59 in). • Controls should be fully operable
a 1:20 incline, if possible, with
with one hand, require no tight
frequent flat rest areas. • Objects ideally to be displayed
grasping, or turning of the wrist,
between 750 and 2000 mm
• Clear circulation spaces required and be at least 75 mm (3 in)
(30 and 79 in) from the floor for
with tactile or differently coloured in their smallest dimension, and
ease of viewing.
warning surfaces at the top and colour contrasting. Provide a
bottom of raised areas. • Desk cases to be 800 mm (32 in) place to rest the hand while
from the floor with an overhang, using the controls.
• Mark the edge of each stair step with
and with a 750 mm (30 in) wide
a strip of contrasting colour. • Controls needing precise
clear space underneath for
hand movement should be
wheelchair parking.
750–1000 mm (30–39 in) high.
General seating and rest areas
• The preference is for wheelchair The maximum height for
• Provide plentiful seating with adjacent users to be able to see displays simple push button controls
wheelchair spaces. face on. This can be achieved by is 1200 mm (47 in).
providing a toe space around
• Seating should consist of a firm, fairly • Provide induction loops for
constructed walls, cases and
upright static seat. interpretative devices that use
large plinths to allow wheelchair
sound, marked with the standard
• Provide some seating with arm rests access, or space for a wheelchair
symbol. Provide all audio
or supports either side at 580 mm to draw alongside the case.
information in an alternative
(23 in) above the floor.
• Case background should be in format (for example print).
• Seating should have a heel space a contrasting colour to the object
• All screen programmes should
underneath of at least 100 mm (4 in) exhibited inside, with at least
have clear stationary text.
to make rising easier. 70% contrast between foreground
If subtitling is not possible
and background.
• Ensure that seating contrasts with then a typescript should be
the surroundings. • Position wall-mounted display made available. Indicate the
cases so that the lower edges length of the programme, and
are less than 685 mm (27 in) high. if on auto-timer, when the next
show will start. State if there is
no soundtrack.
222

Endmatter Accessibility guidelines
• Telephone headsets or other Graphic information Where possible avoid busy,

exclusively aural information should confusing images, and consider
• Display graphics should be
have a script. Provide inductive enlarging the important part of
considered as an integral
couplers for handsets, marked with an image.
and essential element of the
a standard symbol. Mount on a
overall design. • Avoid difficult/indistinct typefaces,
desk-height terminal or wall mount
and excessive use of italics or
between 750 and 1000 mm • Sizes of labels and panels should be
block capitals.
(30 and 39 in) above the floor. consistent throughout the exhibition—
it is confusing for the visitor when • Avoid complex mixes of typefaces.
• Provide power points around the
labels and panels change in format
galleries in places where it is likely • Use an appropriate, legible text
and size from one theme to the next.
that portable induction loop systems case—generally lower-case for the
The hierarchy of graphic elements
will be used. main text—in medium to bold.
should be clear and easy for the
• Specify fluorescent lights carefully visitor to understand. • A minimum type size of 18–36pt is
as they can create interference with suitable for most panels/labels. Main
• Labels should be as close to the
hearing aids and induction loops. texts on introductory panels/labels
objects they describe as possible
should be considerably larger—
• Touch screens are useful for visually and section or theme panels should
around 48pt. In-situ mock-ups are
impaired visitors and those with be prominently positioned at the
essential before final approval.
limited manual dexterity. Roller ball beginning of each section or theme.
devices are preferred to mouse • Provide information (such as
• Main panel texts should fall within
controls for similar reasons. panels, labels and instructions
1200–1600 mm (47–63 in) above
for interpretative devices) in an
• Consider providing the ability to the floor when vertically mounted,
alternative form (for example
zoom in on text and images in and 600 mm (24 in) from floor to base
audio or on large-print bats).
computer interactives. The ability of an angled graphics panel.
to alter the contrast of images • Provide Braille labels for all tactile
• All graphics should be prototyped/
could be a useful feature. displays and for objects that
tested in actual conditions for
have high contrast, clear detail.
• Menu options could be given for legibility by user groups prior to
Place Braille labels flat as they
speech output or large print. Sign production to ensure clarity,
are read with the fingertips,
language images could also be legibility, position, height, colour
at a minimum height of 700 mm
included as a menu option. and contrast. All graphics to be
(28 in) AFFL. They should be
lit adequately.
• Consider providing visual information located in a similar position
in an audio format. This could be an • Typefaces should be selected for outside each case, and must be
audio version of text panels/labels clarity and legibility as well as style easy to find by visually impaired
or audio description of visuals. and propriety to the 3D design. visitors. Braille labels should have
a printed text label nearby, to be
• Consider providing space for a • Make all printed matter non-reflective
read by escorts.
guide dog to lie down at an with good contrast between paper
interpretative device. colour, ink colour and type style.
Signs and orientation
• Use dark inks and pale backgrounds;
Tactile displays and visual aids • Information graphics, such as
never use yellow for text, and
explanations for low light levels and
• Where possible integrate tactile avoid pale colours on coloured
“please do not touch” signs, are to
displays—such as museum objects, backgrounds (for example grey
be designed as part of the package
replicas and models—into object on blue) or colours indistinguishable
and not added in as an afterthought.
displays, preferably in quiet places. by people with colour-blindness
These could be identified and (especially red on green). • Make signs at entrances/exits and
visually linked through design, throughout galleries and displays
• Do not mount lettering directly
colour and lighting to the objects. simple, short and consistent in
onto glass.
design and layout.
• It may be necessary to provide
• Graphics/panels/labels should also
supplementary information • Use good contrast (70% minimum)
have good contrast against the
(for example audio programmes) on a matt surface on signs,
background wall or case interior.
at tactile displays. with clear, legible typography,
They should not be in the shadow
and use recognized symbols
• Place tactile displays at a height of the viewer.
where appropriate.
between 710 mm (28 in) and
• Try to avoid the complexity caused by
800 mm (32 in) AFFL, to allow for
running text across photographs or • Large signs to be viewed from 3 m
children and adults to touch, with
around irregularly shaped illustrations. (9 ft 9 in) away, letter heights should
a clearance of 700 mm (28 in) to
Avoid running text across images, as be between 100 and 170 mm (4 and
allow wheelchair access.
this can make the text illegible to 6¾ in). Smaller signs should have
many visually impaired visitors. text at least 70 mm (2¾ in) high.
223

• Use lower-case letters • Ensure lighting on all interpretive Smithsonian Guidelines
predominantly as these are devices does not cause glare,
more easily distinguished by especially on interactive computer
for Accessible
people with dyslexia and a visual screens. Allow individual adjustment Exhibition Design
impairment. If it is necessary to by the visitor where possible.
give a sign a border (e.g. for This comprehensive document, written by
increased contrast) then this should Janice Majewski, is in part based on legislation
be 10% of the width of the sign. including the Americans with Disabilities Act of
1990. It covers such issues as content, label
• Signs to be well lit and be fixed at a
and text design, language usage, audiovisuals
consistent location and a consistent
and interactives, lighting, circulation,
height between 1400 and 1700 mm
emergency egress and access symbols, with
(55 and 67 in) above the floor.
methods for achieving required standards. The
• Visitors should be able to stand/sit document can be downloaded as a PDF at
500 mm (20 in) away from tactile http://accessible.si.edu/pdf/Smithsonian%20
signs, so that they can be touched Guidelines%20for%20accessible%20design.pdf
easily. Tactile signs should be
embossed, not engraved, with
a 15 mm (5∕8 in) minimum
character height.
Lighting and visual contrast

• Avoid extreme contrasts in lighting,
though some contrast is needed to
give form to 3D objects.
• On main circulation routes gradual
changes are helpful, including a
lighting transition zone between the
external environment and lower
light levels in the galleries.
• Ensure all entrances, exits, stairs,
ramps or obstacles are well lit.
• Avoid unexpected shadows, glare
or reflections as these create
visual confusion.
• Provide at least 100 lux of light on
objects, unless conservation
requirements demand lower levels.
• When conservation requirements
demand low light levels, position
objects to allow visitors to
approach them as closely as
possible. Ensure that the
accompanying texts are well
lit, and consider temporary
illumination of objects
(for example by timed push button).
• Cases or areas that are
low-lit should have a notice
explaining that this is to protect
sensitive artefacts.
• Use non-reflecting glass on
cases, displays, paintings,
signs and interactives.
• Ensure that lights (or daylight from
windows) do not dazzle the viewer
and that the viewer does not cast
shadows on the objects. Check this
at the height of a wheelchair user
as well as at standing height.
224

Endmatter Sample storyline Sample storyline
Written by Stephen Bury of the British Library, into the surface of the painting, while events—exhibitions, plays, film,
London, the text below is a model of a brief Schwitters’s Dadaist paintings recycled tram performances—in that city (for example
storyline that gives an introduction to a topic, tickets and other ephemera from ordinary life. Victory over the Sun, St Petersburg).
outlines the curatorial approach and provides
chapter headings to help show natural breaks The avant-garde is traditionally associated 5 Impresarios of the avant-garde: Marinetti,
in the narrative. with Paris or Berlin. This exhibition will look Apollinaire, Breton, Tzara, Rodchenko.
at its presence in many European cities—
London, Brussels, Amsterdam, Groningen, 6 Legacy of the European avant-garde:
Breaking the Rules: Hanover, Munich, Weimar, Zurich, Vienna, photomontage in advertising, the new
Milan, Rome, Barcelona, Madrid, Lisbon, typography, modern music (for example
the Printed Face of the Copenhagen, Warsaw, Kraków, Prague, Michael Nyman’s opera Man and Boy:
Avant-garde 1900–1937 Riga, St Petersburg, Moscow, Vitebsk, Tbilisi, Dada), collage novels, graphic novels,
Bucharest, Budapest. Many participants and artists’ books, concrete poetry, face
The first four decades of the twentieth publications moved between cities, taking painting, Brechtian theatre, method
century saw a remarkable efflorescence advantage of improved railway, shipping and acting, stand-up comedians, the “hates
of European culture associated with the airline routes. Ideas moved more rapidly and loves” T-shirt of Rhodes and McLaren
avant-garde. This was characterized by a than ever before. (Sex Pistols) compared with the manifesto.
rejection of the traditional hierarchies of [This section may possibly be distributed
society and by a challenge to an aesthetic The rise of Nazism (with its “Degenerate Art” throughout the exhibition rather than at the
based purely on nature or on art for art’s and “Degenerate Music” exhibitions) and end or the beginning.]
sake: the role of art and the artist in society Stalinism initially sped up the dissemination
was made problematic. of avant-garde ideas as its participants were
proscribed and forced into exile. Finally, the
The avant-garde manifested itself in a cross-Europe European avant-garde ceased
variety of artistic styles—Expressionism, to function, although its ideas survived in
Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism, Constructivism Bauhaus-influenced art education, modernist
and Surrealism. Traditionally, these ‘isms’ graphic design and performance art, all of
have been seen as discrete movements. which are profoundly influential on current
This exhibition will show that they shared creative players.
many characteristics—for example interest
in the “primitive” and children’s art (in
Expressionism, Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism
and Surrealism) and permeation of most
Structure of the
art forms (theatre, performance, poetry, the exhibition
novel, photography, cinema and music as
well as painting)—as well as many common 1 Enter through a non avant-garde
participants (such as Apollinaire, Breton, environment/room.
Duchamp, Tzara and Malevich), who were
active in more than one “ism”. Another 2 The manifesto: origins, characteristics
deep characteristic was the permeation and functions for the avant-garde. Its
of the media by the avant-garde. For different manifestations—in newspapers,
example, Marinetti and Breton courted little magazines, posters and pamphlets,
the press and manipulated their print and even books (Surrealism). “Rose/
appearances, creating their own media merde” and “bless/blast” dichotomous
images. Breton (in Paris) and Stefan lists, championing of the new and
Themerson (in Warsaw) kept meticulous attacking the old. Influences on the
collections of press cuttings about themselves. avant-garde—primitive art, children’s art,
speed, noise, Jarry, Lautréamont, Freud,
Indeed, the printed format was of great Charlie Chaplin. The “Degenerate Art”
significance to the avant-garde. They and “Degenerate Music” catalogues, with
published manifestos in newspapers their prioritization of the kitsch and neo-
and little magazines and separately as classical, represent the end of the
pamphlets or flyers. They edited and European avant-garde.
published their own little magazines, and
created a cross-European network of 3 Impact of the 1914–18 war: casualty
distribution by cross-advertising other list of the avant-garde—Boccioni,
little magazines in their own. They made Gaudier-Brzeska, Apollinaire, Marc,
livres d’artistes (a direct result of the Macke, etc. Dadaist anti-war stance.
capitalization of the gallery system), and Revolutions in Russia and (post-war)
inexpensive artists’ books made from Germany and Hungary.
wallpaper, collage, rubber stamps,
stencils—even gingerbread. Cubist 4 Theme of the city. Individual cities:
painting and printmaking took fragments— printed avant-garde materials, sound
physical or pictorial—of the newspaper (poetry, music), avant-garde film and
or the ephemeral printed bottle label back photography in and of the city. Important
225

Glossary
Artworking The preparation of a computer Immersive environment/experience way for the designer to sum up their design
graphic for print and screen use. Highly controlled environments with and communicate it in the way it will ultimately
sophisticated multi-media effects and lighting be experienced: through the eyes of the visitor.
Assets The “stuff” of the exhibition, and the
where the visitors are “immersed” in the It is sometimes helpful to think up different
resources clients can draw on to tell their story.
themes and content of the exhibition. journeys for different visitor types, such as a
This general term can refer to objects, images,
school group or a family, to understand what
film, a particular building or location, or even Inclusive design A general approach to
they may each get out of the experience.
opportunities, such as partnerships with designing in which designers ensure that their
universities. products and services address the needs of Plan A drawing showing a design scheme
the widest possible audience, irrespective of from above.
Brand environment An immersive
age or ability (source: UK Design Council
commercial environment where all the Plinth A raised surface within the exhibition
website www.designcouncil.org.uk).
elements of the exhibition are inspired environment onto which objects and graphics
(Also known as Universal design in the US.)
by a company’s brand. can be placed. Generally plinths support the
Induction loop A device used to assist the showcases that contain objects.
Business-to-business (B2B) Exhibitions
hearing impaired by transmitting sound from
or events in which the exhibitor shows Precedents Reference material that shows
a sound system, microphone or other source,
their products to other businesses rather relevant inspirational and/or influential
directly to a hearing aid.
than consumers. examples of built design schemes.
Interactives Interpretive devices that deliver
Circulation The movement of visitors through Primary, secondary and tertiary
feedback to the user. Software or electronic
a three-dimensional space. Good circulation information Layered information is described
interactives use computer systems to deliver
allows visitors to move comfortably around an in terms of whether it is of primary, secondary
feedback. Mechanical interactives react to
exhibition without undue crowding. Circulation is or tertiary importance. This can be a useful tool
user inputs by the use of mechanical elements.
said to be poor if visitor movement is restricted in helping clients prioritize their information and
or fire escape routes or other exits are blocked. Interpretation The explanation and stories. In a traditional exhibition context, this
dissemination of concepts and facts translates to primary panels (large graphic
Content developers/managers
about exhibits to an audience through introductory panels), secondary panels (to tell
Professionals, usually on the staff of a
media such as text panels, video, a mid-level story), and tertiary panels (more
design company, who aid clients with the
interactives and others. detailed stories and object labels).
development of exhibition themes and the
selection and cataloguing of artefacts and Key performance indicator (KPI) A type of Prototype An early mock-up of a design
specimens for exhibition. performance measurement, usually in the form that will be constructed to decide whether a
of written statements. An organization may use particular feature fulfills its function. Prototypes
Contractors Workers appointed by the
KPIs to evaluate its success, or to evaluate the of interactive devices, for example, are tested
design company or the client to carry out
success of a particular activity in which it is by users before final modifications are made,
fabrication and installation of an exhibition.
engaged. Success can be defined as making after which either an improved prototype or
Delivery technique The strategy by which a progress toward strategic goals, but it can also the final designed piece is made.
story will be communicated in the exhibition. be the repeated, periodic achievement of a goal
Risk assessment An assessment of the
(e.g. visitor satisfaction).
Dwell time The average time taken by visitors personal risks that fabricators and installers
at individual exhibits. Key message An overarching statement for are exposed to during the course of
the museum or exhibition that summarizes the constructing or dismantling an exhibition
Elevation A drawing or design that
main understanding that all visitors should gain. (a legal obligation in many countries).
describes a vertical object or structure.
It is not a vision statement for the museum, but
For example, a “wall elevation” is a drawing Section A drawn representation showing a
a short description of the key content/storyline
that shows the features of a wall surface design as if it has been sliced through along
contained in the exhibition.
with doors and windows. a single line.
Layering The process of using a variety
Engagement The process of gaining a Shop drawings Precise drawings of a
of media to communicate ideas to
visitor’s attention and encouraging him to design produced by an exhibition contractor
diverse audiences.
bring his faculties to bear on a topic. to show their tradespeople how they have
Learning outcome Knowledge skills and interpreted the designer’s drawings. These
Exhibitors’ manual A compendium of useful
abilities attained by visitors as a result of a drawings are used by the fabricators during
information compiled by a trade show organizer
visit to a museum or visitor attraction. construction and assembly.
for the benefit of the exhibitor.
Modular exhibition system A manufactured Site The location of the exhibition.
Formative and summative evaluation
flexible temporary exhibit structure made up of
Research carried out on audiences (existing Site plan A plan showing the entirety of
a kit of parts that can be quickly assembled,
and/or potential). Formative evaluation takes the building and the area around it, with
installed and dismantled.
place before a project begins, and can help the exhibition shown within it.
shape the design. Summative evaluation is Moodboards Boards on which images are
Specification Detailed instruction about
done after the exhibition has been delivered and mounted to help clients to understand the
installation or construction methods,
is used to measure the success of the project “mood” or type of experience the designers
materials or finishes issued to contractors.
and understand audience feedback. are trying to evoke.
Stakeholder(s) A person or group of people
Futureproofing The process of considering Narrative visitor journey A description of
who will be involved in the exhibition and
and planning for the future life of an exhibition how a visitor or set of visitors will experience the
design process, but who is not directly on the
or exhibition component, such as media. exhibition. Often written and supported by
client team. Stakeholder engagement and
images, sketches and visuals, narrative journeys
management are often important
feature in stage-end reports and pitches as a
226

Further reading Useful websites
Exhibition designers
Endmatter Further reading /Useful websites
considerations for exhibition designers and may Staniszewski, Mary Anne, The Power of
affect how presentations are structured and to Display: A History of Exhibition Installations
Ralph Appelbaum Associates
whom they are presented. at the Museum of Modern Art, MIT Press,
www.raany.com
Cambridge, MA, 1998
Storyline The content of an exhibition expressed
Nick Bell Design
as a story. Usually a document
Black, Graham, The Engaging Museum, www.nickbelldesign.co.uk
that outlines the premise for an exhibition,
Routledge, Abingdon & New York, 2005
the context, how the exhibition content should be Atelier Brückner
organized and any thesis the exhibition www.atelier-brueckner.de
Brooks, Peter, Reading for the Plot, Harvard
is intended to prove.
University Press, 1992 Casson Mann
Technical drawings Formal drawings, now www.cassonmann.co.uk
usually created on a computer, which are issued Brückner, Atelier, Scenography: Making
Imagination
to building contractors and graphic production Spaces Talk, avedition, 2010
www.imagination.com
facilities to produce and install elements of the
Dernie, David, Exhibition Design, Laurence
exhibition. Kossmann DeJong
King Publishing, London, 2005
www.kossmanndejong.nl
Theme Usually a short sentence describing a key
idea that visitors should understand: for example, Ehmann, Sven, Robert Klanten, and Shonquis Land Design Studio
train travel was invented in the nineteenth century. Moreno, Play All Day: Design for Children, Die www.landdesignstudio.co.uk
Often many themes are grouped in logical Gestalten Verlag, 2009
Metaphor
arrangements to make an overall narrative.
Neuhart, John, Marilyn Neuhart and Ray www.mphor.co.uk
Topic A subject area of the exhibition: for Eames, Eames Design: The Work of the Office
Opera Design
example, nineteenth-century train travel. of Charles and Ray Eames, Harry N. Abrams,
www.operadesign.nl
Inc., New York, 1994
Touch tour A guided tour of a museum for
visually impaired visitors where exhibits can be
touched by hand.
Marincola, Paula, (ed.), What Makes a Great Interaction designers
Exhibition?, Philadelphia Center for Arts and
Action Time Vision
Turn key A service in which companies provide Heritage, Philadelphia, 2006
www.actiontimevision.co.uk
all design, fabrication and installation services for
a completed exhibition. Reinhardt, Uwe, and Philipp Teufel, New AllofUs
Exhibition Design 01 and 02, avedition, 2008 www.allofus.com
Visitor attraction This term describes a wide
and 2010
range of leisure facilities intended to appeal to the Ars Electronica
visiting public. In some instances, exhibiting www.aec.at
Simon, Nina, The Participatory Museum,
bodies that emphasize visitor experience over the
Museum 2.0, 2010 Jason Bruges Studio
acquisition of collections prefer to be known as
www.jasonbruges.com
visitor attractions to distinguish themselves from
Stall, Gert, Martijn de Rijk and Terence Riley,
traditional museum displays. Christian Moeller
IN side OUT ON site IN: Redesigning the
www.christian-moeller.com
Visual identity The “look” of a company National Museum of Ethnology, BIS Publishers,
evidenced through a logo, corporate images, Amsterdam, 2003 Random International
prescribed fonts and other visual indicators. www.random-international.com
Hooper-Greenhill, Eilean, The Educational
Visitor profile/visitor demographic The Small Design Firm
Role of the Museum, Routledge, Abingdon &
types of visitors who will come to an exhibition are www.davidsmall.com
New York, 1999
often described in terms of their profile or
Thoughtden
demographic. This can indicate a great deal of
Hall, Margaret C., On Display: A Design www.thoughtden.co.uk
information, such as where they come from, what
Grammar of Museum Exhibitions, Lund
languages they speak, what they enjoy doing, United Visual Artists
Humphries, London, 1987 (out of print)
what their motivations are, how much money they www.uva.co.uk
earn, or what kind of work they do.
Parker, Lauren, Interplay: Interactive Design
Voices Especially for historical subjects, museum (V & A Contemporary series),
curators and designers report events through the V & A Publications, London, 2004
Lighting designers
eyes of a variety of observers or participants in the Cowi
story. These varied perspectives are often known Moggridge, Bill, Designing Interactions, www.cowi.dk
as “voices”. MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2006
DHA Designs
(with an introduction by Gillian Crampton)
www.dhadesigns.co.uk
Erco
www.erco.com
227

Index
Page numbers in italics refer to picture captions Burckhardt Leitner Constructiv “Clic” display scale issues 99, 102
system 186 see also interactive exhibitions; lighting
A drawings 87–92
aaat + makoto yokozimo Architects Inc. 82
C amendments 200
axonometrics 69
ACME Studio Inc. 106 Cape Town Int. Convention Centre, SA 218
CAD drawings 68, 71, 90, 101
Ambassadors of Design, Japan 187 Casson Mann 43, 88–9, 94–5, 97, 114–15, 118,
circulation routes 64, 95, 96, 97
Anchorage Museum of Art & History, Alaska 40–1 132, 142, 194–5
diagrams 68, 87, 108
Andrew Kellard Associates 122–3, 126 Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France 16,
labels 193
Apicella, Lorenzo 100 17–18, 64, 169
layouts 90, 95, 99, 193
apps children and exhibitions 17, 25, 26, 38, 43, 48–53,
notes 193, 195
Capture the Museum, National Museum of 97, 128, 171, 199, 202, 212
section drawings 66, 72, 72, 88, 148, 165, 173,
Scotland 18 Children’s Project & Discovery Centre, Damascas,
193
Streetmuseum, Museum of London, UK 9, 157 Syria 51
sketches 47, 87, 100
Arctic Study Center, Anchorage Museum of Art Churchill Museum, London, UK 17, 43, 94–5, 97,
technical drawings 66, 176, 181, 192–200
& History, Alaska 40–1 114–15, 194–5
three-dimensional drawings 87
Arno Design 151 co-development 220
Dulwich Picture Gallery, London, UK 11, 136
art galleries & exhibitions 10–11, 13–15, 15, 16, 84 concept boards 82
“Arts of the South Seas” (1946), MoMA, New York, The Connect Home, Milan Furniture Fair (2007),
USA 79 Italy, 216
E
Atelier Brückner 91, 152 construction 64, 186, 193, 196, 200, 202–6 Eden Project, Cornwall, UK 32
“Atmosphere: Exploring Climate Science” (2012), defects 214 Ekarv method 119
Science Museum, London, UK 132 sustainable 204, 208–10 elevations 72, 72, 73, 90, 91, 94, 99, 102, 108, 112,
and trade fairs 206, 208 113, 121, 122, 123, 146, 149 , 165, 173, 193, 194
B and trade practices 211–12 environmental considerations 21, 27, 186, 208–11,
content development 30, 71, 162 217, 217–19 see also sustainability
Barr, Alfred 15, 16
contractors exhibition designers
Bauhaus influence 14, 15, 15
exhibition designers relationship 31, 152, 176, content management 10, 213
Bayer, Herbert 15, 16, 109
184, 193, 196, 200, 203–4, 211 contractors relationship 152, 184, 193, 196,
Bell, Nick (Nick Bell Design) 114–15, 118
graphic contractors 122, 183, 194 200, 203–4, 211
“The Big Melt”, Magna Centre, Rotherham, UK
lighting contractors 148, 152, 196 and digitization 9–10, 19
134–5
safety issues 208, 211 inspiration, sources of 39, 83, 85, 100
Bjarke Ingels Group 7
and technical drawings 181, 192, 193, 194, 196, project management 20, 211, 212
brands and brand environments 7, 18, 19, 20, 27,
200, 204, 211 research 32–3, 36, 38, 46, 48, 56, 83, 102, 208
30, 45, 46–8, 63, 63, 77, 83, 108–9, 152, 181,
tenders 199–200, 204 responsibilities 31, 34, 92, 116, 211, 212
189, 216
and trade fairs 206, 208 role of 20–1, 196
“Breaking the Rules: The Printed Face of the
and trade practices 211–12 “turn key” service 211
Avant-garde” (2008), British Library, London, UK
Craig Thomas Discovery Visitor Center, Jackson exhibition sites
122–3
Hole, Wyoming, USA 62 circulation routes 61, 64, 64, 92, 95, 96, 97,
the brief
Crystal Palace, London, UK 12, 12–13, 61 97–9, 141
cataloguing and recording 31
“The Cult of Beauty” (2011), Victoria & Albert “closed” spaces 63
classification of exhibits 76–7
Museum, London, UK 59 internal organization 64–71
client communication 24–5, 29, 31, 82–3
Cultural Innovations 51 “open” spaces 61, 62, 64
conservation 32
permanent 20, 58
costing 28, 29, 34
exhibition assets 30–1
D signs and signage 58, 59, 60–1, 61
surveying the site 66, 71–4, 87, 136, 138
formative evaluation 32 DEGW see Metaphor
temporary 20, 71, 126, 136, 147, 175, 180, 204,
the ideal brief 24 DHA Designs 132, 134–5, 144, 148, 149
214
institutional/company objectives 26 d’Harnoncourt, René 79
visitor flow 64, 97, 102, 164
interpretive masterplans 28 Danish National Maritime Museum, Helsingør,
exhibition strategy 76–80, 102
legal requirements 32 Denmark 7
exhibitions
marketing 28–9 display techniques
history of 10–18
masterplanning 28 accessibility issues 55–6, 64, 102
importance of 19, 22, 220
messages 26–7 colour 16, 17, 104, 106, 114, 114, 181, 182,
modern 7–10, 18–19, 21, 64, 80, 84, 105, 109,
prescriptive briefs 24 183, 184
216
public funding 29 the “environment” 15
Exploratorium, San Francisco, USA 17, 17
responsibilities involved 31, 34 flexible systems 14–15, 64, 186–9
“Extended Field of Vision” diagram 109
site and building 32 in history 10, 12, 13
the storyline 29–30 linear media 169–72
themes 30 live demonstrations 27
F
time and money 34 modern 13–16 “Face of Fashion” (2007), National Gallery,
British Library, London, UK 122–3 modular display systems 14–15 London, UK 107
British Museum, London, UK 90 narrative design 28, 29–30, 63, 67, 70–1, 84, “Fast and Fabulous from Beijing to Shanghai with
Brückner, Uwe (Atelier Brückner) 91 156 Bombardier” (2005), Milan, Italy 47
Bug Forum, Natural History Museum, London, UK 9 paintings 11, 13–14, 15, 16, 147 film 168–76
Building Research Est., UK 27, 180–1, 208 portable displays 130, 186–9 audiovisual briefs 172–3
228

Endmatter Index
limiting factors 174–6 Land Design Studio 39, 44, 90, 164–6, 213
linear media 169–72
H Launchpad Gallery, Science Museum, London, UK
“hands-on” exhibitions see interactive exhibitions
pitfalls 169 156
Hanover exhibition ground, Germany 8
financial crisis (2007–8) 8 lighting
Harley-Davidson 188–9
fire precautions 92, 102, 180, 184, 199, 203, 211 accent lighting 138, 139, 141, 142, 146
Heap, Dan 136, 141
see also safety issues ambient lighting 138, 139, 141, 141, 164, 173, 174
Holmes Wood 58
“Food: Traditions, Taboos and Delicacies”, backlighting 129, 142, 151
Holocaust exhibition, Imperial War Museum 170
National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, the colour rendering 144
Hong Kong Wetland Park, China 144, 145, 199
Netherlands 49, 50 coloured filters and gels 144
Hughes, Philip (Andrew Kellard Associates) 126
Ford/Aurora project (1998), Berlin, Germany 60 coloured lighting 17, 142, 142, 143–5
Ford VJ Experience, Detroit Auto Show (2007), comfort issues 61, 132, 141, 147
Michigan, USA 45
I conservation issues 32, 63, 74, 136–7, 147, 153,
Forest Stewardship Council 210 “IBM 100: THINK” (2011), Lincoln Center, New 154
forums 9 York, USA 36, 171 daylight 11, 11, 13, 61, 63, 63, 68, 69, 74, 98, 136,
future of exhibition design 219–20 “Ice Station Antarctica” (2007), Natural History 136, 138, 141, 141, 154, 174–5
Futurists 14, 16 Museum, London, UK 204 edgelighting 151
Imagination 45, 46, 47, 60, 61, 63, 85, 189 environmental lighting 141
G Imperial War Museum 170 exhibit-focused 138, 140
interactive exhibitions feature lighting 142
Gardens by the Bay, Singapore 213
bespoke cinematic experiences 171 fibre optics 150
Gehry, Frank 7
and children 17, 43, 48, 49, 50, 52–4, 84, 97, fluorescent lighting 129, 141, 142, 143, 144, 151,
Getty Center, Los Angeles, USA 136
156, 171, 199, 212 151, 152
Google Web Lab (2013), Science Museum,
and copywriting 162 lamps 147–8, 149, 151, 152
London, UK 156
development of 17 light shows 134–5
Grand Egyptian Museum, Cairo, Egypt 86, 87, 96,
in engaging visitors 17, 18, 36, 39, 45, 47–8, 84, lighting designers 19, 136, 143, 151, 152–3, 196
99
141, 157, 160, 169 lighting plans 138, 147, 152, 164
graphics
environmental interactives 161, 170 luminaires 147, 149, 153
and brands 46, 109
“find out more” interactives 160 moving lights 150–1
colour 104, 106, 109, 110, 112, 113, 114, 114–
future-proofing 159–60, 163 parcans 151, 151
15, 116, 128, 181
gaming interactives 160–1 projected light 59, 144, 150, 173, 175
consistency 102, 105, 106, 107, 114
group or individual interaction 157 schedules 148, 149
contextual style 109, 114–15
hand-held devices 158–9, 160 “sparkle” 139
cut-out lettering 126, 126
interactive media 156 specifications 147–8
digital photographic printing 126
kinaesthetic learning 17, 45, 161 spotlights 140, 144, 144, 146, 154
direct-to-media 127, 127
learning outcomes 156, 162 storyboards 134, 138
dye sublimation 128, 128
lighting 141 surveys 136, 138, 154
house style 108–11
role of 156, 164 three-dimensional objects 146
inkjet printing 126, 126
and science exhibitions 8–9, 17, 17, 39, 43, 45, trade fairs 136, 152, 153
installations 112–13
49, 50, 134–5, 156, 156, 160–1, 171 wall-wash lights 138, 140, 142
legibility and readability 105, 110–11, 116–17,
sound 159, 163 linear media
119–21, 130, 147, 154
special effects 171–2 bespoke cinematic experiences 171
mounting techniques 128–9
successful interactives 162 environmental media 170
outdoor applications 130
and technical drawings 193 short linear media 169–70
pop-up displays 130
and technology 158–60 special effects 171–2
printing 104, 108, 122–3, 124–30
see also film; sound London Transport Museum, London, UK 68–9,
reproduction techniques 122–3, 124–30
“Italian Masters” (1940), MoMA, New York, USA 16 108, 110–13, 150, 158, 182–3
role of 104–8
L&T system 14
“rubdown” 125, 125
scale issues 105, 108, 108, 130
J
screenprinting 106, 124, 128 Jewish Museum and Tolerance Centre, Moscow,
M
vinyl text 122, 123, 125, 125 Russia 8, 168, 169, 171 “Machine Art” (1934), MoMA, New York, USA 15, 15
visitors’ relationship with 104–5, 105, 106, 108, Johnson, Philip 15, 15 Magna Centre, Rotherham, UK 134–5
108, 109, 109 “Juan Muñoz: A Retrospective” (2008), Tate Manchester Art Gallery, UK 58
wayfinding graphics 58, 104–5 Modern, London, UK 153 “Market Values—Smithfield: Past and Present”
see also brands and brand environments Jump Studios 52–3 (2007), London, UK 217
The Great Exhibition (1851), London, UK 12, Martin stand, Euroshop (2008), Dusseldorf,
12–13, 61 K Germany 150
“Great Expectations” (2001), Grand Central materials 48, 126, 128, 130, 136, 147, 173, 178–
Kahn, Ned 17
Station, New York, USA 142 84, 196, 200
Kengo Kuma Associates 216
Great North Museum, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK sustainable 27, 180, 209–10, 216, 219
Kensington Palace, London, UK 106
88–9 McKell, Kevin (Andrew Kellard Associates) 122–3
Kiesler, Frederick 14
green design see environmental considerations; Meier, Richard 136
Kossmann.dejong 7
sustainability issues “The Memory Palace” (2013), Victoria & Albert
Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain 7 Museum, London, UK 158
Guinness Storehouse, Dublin, Ireland 46, 63, 63, 85
L Met Studio 144
Lafitte, Katia 169 Metaphor (formerly DEGW) 84, 86, 96, 99
229

Migliore + Servetto 47 Netherlands 179 pop-up displays 130
mindmaps 83 Reptile Gallery, Natural History Museum, London, role of 19–20
models 87, 91–2, 93, 101 UK 12 safety issues 208
for acoustic assessment 174 Rifé, Francesc 206 signposting 60–1, 61
for client presentation 82, 91 “Road to Victory” (1942), MoMA, New York, USA trade practices 211–12
for internal organization 68, 69 15–16 transporting exhibits and displays 66, 74, 186,
in visitor engagement 52, 52–4 Rogers, Richard 16, 17, 64 187, 202, 206, 214
Moneo, Rafael 136 Royal Air Force Museum, London, UK 148 Tridonic.Atco stand, Light + Building Fair (2008),
moodboards 38–9, 56, 85 Royal Albert Memorial Museum, Exeter, UK 66, Frankfurt, Germany 203
multimedia 19, 30, 34, 41, 63, 84, 94, 114, 114, 196
115, 169, 202, 217 see also film; sound Royal Institute of British Architects, London, UK U
Munsell System 143 104
Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy 11
Museum of London, London, UK 9, 157
UK Pavilion, International Expo (2005), Aichi,
Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), New York, USA S Japan 44, 164–6
15, 15–16, 79
safety issues 92, 97, 184, 208, 211, 214 USA Visitor Services Association Bill of Rights 38
Museum of the Portuguese Language, Brazil 8
see also fire precautions
museums
in history 10–11, 11, 12–13
Saloni display (2005), Valencia, Spain 206 V
sample boards 181
modern museums 7–9 Van Gogh exhibition (1935), MoMA, New York,
science centres 8–9, 134
science museums 8–9, 12, 12, 17, 17, 26, 27, USA 15, 16
see also museums
43, 45, 77, 160–1, 171 Victoria & Albert Museum, London, UK 13, 56, 59,
Science Museum, London, UK 52–4, 132, 156,
78, 158
161
N “Science of Spying”, Children’s Museum,
virtual exhibitions 9, 18
visitors to exhibitions
National Gallery, London, UK 107 Indianapolis, Indiana and Science Museum,
bill of rights 38
Natural History Museum of Utah, Salt Lake City, London 52–4
blind and visually impaired visitors 36, 55, 116
USA 64, 70, 209 “Scott’s Last Expedition” (2011), Natural History
comfort issues 28, 38, 61, 92, 97, 98, 132, 141,
National Museum of China 8 Museum, London, UK 39
147, 154
National Museum of Ethnology, Leiden, the Sellafield Visitor Centre, Cumbria, UK 118
disabled visitors 32, 36, 55–6, 64, 74, 96, 98,
Netherlands 48, 49, 50, 71, 105, 198 Shanghai Science and Technology Museum,
102, 108, 117, 147, 216
National Museum of Scotland 18, 136 China 8
dwell time 77, 97–8, 164
Natural History Museum, London, UK 9, 12, 39, 204 Shell exhibition stand concept 61
engagement 17, 36, 38–9, 56, 78, 80, 84, 157,
Nosigner 187 Sir John Soane Museum, London, UK 11
169, 170, 176
social media 28–9, 158–9, 161
and graphics 104–5, 105, 106, 108, 108, 109,
O Sonance exhibition stand 100–1
109
sound 159, 163, 168–76
“Oculus: An Eye into St Paul’s” (2012), St Paul’s layering information 42–3, 160
acoustic considerations 173–4
Cathedral, London, UK 170 learning styles 44–5, 56
audiovisual briefs 172–3
“Open Road Tour” touring exhibition (2003) 151, paths 64, 68–9, 77–9, 138
limiting factors 174–6
188–9 target audiences 18, 32–3, 36, 38, 39, 46, 108
linear media 169–72
Opera Design 48, 49, 59, 71, 105, 179 types of 42–5
pitfalls 169
organograms 31 visitor flow 64, 97, 102, 164
South Kensington Museum, London, UK see
visitor outcomes 26, 161, 162, 172
Victoria & Albert Museum
P “Stirling Wilford” (1996), Royal Institute of British
see also children; interactive exhibitions;
teenagers
paint 16, 181, 183, 184, 202, 208 Architects, London, UK 104
Panasonic BlueScape stand, IFA Berlin (2003), Stockholm Museum of Modern Art, Sweden 136
Germany 152 sustainability issues 20–1, 27, 58, 76, 180, 204,
W
Paxton, Joseph 12, 13 208–10, 218–19 “Water: A Unique Resource” (2008), Zaragoza,
Pentagram Design 100–1, 151, 188–9 sustainable materials 27, 180, 209–10, 216, 219 Spain 92
Piano, Renzo 16, 17, 64 websites 9, 18, 19, 42, 104, 106, 109, 164
Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford, UK 14, 78 T Westphalian State Museum of Archaeology, Herne,
plans 28, 32, 60, 62, 64, 66, 72, 72, 87, 88, 92, 99, Germany 21, 91
Tate Modern, London, UK 153
100, 100, 102, 164, 165 White Cube Gallery, London, UK 141
teenagers and museums 55
lighting plans 138, 147, 152, 164 Who Am I? Galleries, Science Museum, London,
Thomas Manss & Co. 104, 106, 107, 116
PlayStation Exhibit, E-3 Expo (2005), LA, USA 203 UK 161
Thomas Matthews 217
“Pompei & Herculaneum” (2003), British Museum, workshops 26, 30
Thought Den 18
London, UK 90 World Expos 8, 13, 61
Tomihiro Art Museum, Azuma Village, Japan 82
project management 20, 211, 212
trade fairs
Psion Organizer exhibition 116
circulation issues 60–1, 79, 98–9
Y
construction issues 206, 208 “Yves Klein: Corps, Couleur, Immatériel” (2006–7),
R and contractors 152, 206 Centre Pompidou, Paris, France 169
Ralph Appelbaum Associates 28, 31, 36, 40–1, 62, engaging visitors 36
64, 66, 68–9, 92, 108, 110–11, 136, 150, 158, 168, exhibition sites 7, 60–1 Z
170, 171, 182–3, 196, 209 flexible designs 186–9
Zaha Hadid Architects 218
“Region and Harbour” (1995), Rotterdam, the lighting 136, 152, 153
230

Endmatter Picture credits Picture credits
1 © Peter Mauss/Esto 72–73 Philip Hughes 144–145 Met Studio
7 © Photos Thijs Wolzak; Kossmann.dejong 75–79 Philip Hughes 146 © www.erco.com
8 Deutsche Messe 82 makato yokomizo Architects Inc. 148–149 DHA Designs
9 Museum of London 85 Imagination Ltd. 150t Martin Professional
11l Martin Charles 86–87 Metaphor Limited (www.metaphor.eu) 150b Ralph Appelbaum Associates
11r Marc C. Johnson 88–89 Casson Mann; photograph John Mclean 151l Arno Design
12l © The Natural History Museum, London 90 Land Design Studio 151r Pentagram Design, photo: Timothy Hursley
12r © 2003 Photo Scala Florence/HIP 91tl Stefan Brentfuehrer 152 Atelier Brückner/Markus Mahle
14 © Pitt Rivers Museum, University of Oxford 91tr, bl, br Prof. Uwe Brückner 153 © www.erco.com
15l © 2008. Digital Image, The Museum of 91 Andrew Kellard Associates 156 © Science Museum/Science & Society Picture
Modern Art, New York/Scala, Florence © 2003. Library all rights reserved
92-93 © Peter Mauss/Esto
Photo Scala Florence/HIP
157 Museum of London
94 Casson Mann
15r Wurts Brothers; IN34.2 © 2008. Digital
158–159 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
image, The Museum of Modern Art, New York/ 95t + br Casson Mann
Scala, Florence 164t + br Land Design Studio
95bl © John MacLean/View
16 © Photos Philippe Migeat, Georges 164bl Lee Mawdsley & Robin Clark
Méguerditchian/Centre Pompidou 96 Metaphor Limited (www.metaphor.eu)
165t + bl Land Design Studio
17l + r © Exploratorium, www.exploratorium.edu 97 Casson Mann
165br Lee Mawdsley & Robin Clark
18 Thought Den Ltd and National Museums 98 © John MacLean/View
Scotland © 2013 166 left column Land Design Studio
99 Metaphor Limited (www.metaphor.eu)
21 Stefan Brentfuehrer 166 right column Lee Mawdsley & Robin Clark
100-101 Pentagram Design
25 Andrew Kellard Associates 168 © ACCIONA Producciones y Diseño
104 Thomas Manss & Co.
28 Ralph Appelbaum Associates 169 © Centre Pompidou–Bibliothèque Kandinsky
105tl + tr Thomas Manss & Co.
37 © Albert Vecerka 170 © Peter Mauss/Esto
105b Opera Design/Reinout van den Bergh
39 © Photo Nick Wood; Land Design Studio Ltd 171 © Albert Vecerka
106 ACME Studios: art director Andrea Chappel,
40-41 © Chuck Choi designers Malcolm Clarke & Caroline Claisse 173 Philip Hughes
43 John MacLean/View 107 Thomas Manss & Co. 182–183 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
44 Lee Mawdsley/Robin Clark 108 Ralph Appelbaum Associates 186 Burckhardt Leitner
45–46 Imagination Ltd. 109 after Herbert Bayer 187 Design by Eisuke Tachikawa, Nosigner;
Graphic Design by Shun Kawakami (Artless);
47 Carlo Valsecchi 110–113 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
Client: AODJ
47bl + br Migliore + Servetto Architetti Associati 114–115 Nick Bell Design
188–189 Pentagram Design, photo: Timothy Hursley
48–50 Opera Design/Reinout van den Bergh 116t Thomas Manss & Co.
190 Imagination Ltd.
51 Cultural Innovations 116b Atelier Brückner/Dominik Hegemann
194–195 Casson Mann
52–54 Jump Studios 118t Andreas Schmidt
196 © Photo Andrew Lee; Ralph Appelbaum
118c + b Nick Bell Design Associates
58 Holmes Wood
122–123 Andrew Kellard Associates 197 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
59 Opera Amsterdam bv/V&A Images
126tl © Hufton + Crow 198 Opera Design/Reinout van den Bergh
60-61 Imagination Ltd.
127 Thomas Matthews 199 Met Studio
62tl Ralph Appelbaum Associates
129 Tristan Dellaway 202 Mauk Design
62tr Peter Mauss/Esto
133 Casson Mann; Lighting design by DHA 203 Arno Design
62bl + br Ralph Appelbaum Associates
134–135 DHA Designs 204-205 Inflate
63 Imagination Ltd.
137 © Photo Andrew Lee; Ralph Appelbaum 206-207 Francesc Rifé
65 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
Associates
209 © Chuck Choi
66–67 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
139–140 © www.erco.com
213 Land Design Studio
68 Ralph Appelbaum Associates
141 Sarah Morris, installation ‘Los Angeles’,
216 Kengo Kuma & Associates
69tl + tr Ralph Appelbaum Associates © the artist; photo: Stephen White, courtesy
Jay Jopling/White Cube (London) 217 Thomas Matthews, photo: Amy Scaife
69c MFP
142 Seth Taras 218 Zaha Hadid Architects
69bl + br Peter Mauss/Esto
143 centre right © www.erco.com
70 © Chuck Choi
231

Acknowledgements
I am very grateful for the insights provided The encouragement and inspiration of friends
by a number of individuals and companies (Simona Sideri, Joseph O’Neill, Fran Van Dijk,
whose ideas and comments informed my Adrian Campbell, Ed Carpenter, Helen Eger)
understanding of this subject. I have received and colleagues (Belinda Mitchell, Hans
very generous assistance from a number of Bromwich and Lorraine Farrelly of Portsmouth
outstanding designers: Ulla Winkler at Action University and Peter Waters of the University
Time Vision; Ralph Appelbaum, Nick Appelbaum, of the Creative Arts) have sustained me
Phillip Tefft and Vicci Ward at Ralph Appelbaum through the writing of this book. Above all,
Associates; Dinah Casson and Roger Mann of the emotional support of my wife Vanessa
Casson Mann; Douglas Broadley at Imagination; Hogge and Casper, Lydia, Kay, Cliff and
Marcus Nonn at Jump Studios; Peter Higgins Shirlee Hughes have been instrumental to
at Land Design; David Prior at Liminal; Thomas its completion.
Manss of Thomas Manss & Company; Lloyd
Hicks at MET Studios; Stephen Greenberg at I would like to thank the Editorial Director
Metaphor; Nick Bell of Nick Bell Design; Frans at Laurence King, Philip Cooper, for his
Bevers and Jo Pike at Opera Design and enthusiasm for this project. Finally, profound
Lorenzo Apicella at Pentagram. Special thanks thanks to Liz Faber for her patience and
are due to Adam Grater of DHA Designs for expertise, particularly for the first edition.
providing the fine examples of DHA’s work. His For this second edition, deep gratitude to
patient explanation of the principles of lighting Gaynor Sermon for her tremendous attention
helped steer the chapter on that subject, though to detail and professionalism. Again, thanks
I should add that any errors or omissions are to Draught Associates for their tireless work
my own. Thanks also to talented lighting with the design.
designers Dan Heap and Andy Grant for their
insight and assistance. The late Simon Beer
of Integrated Circles generously gave time to
help me understand the world of audio-visual
design and implementation, and I have tried to
relay his words in the relevant chapters without
pretending to have his expertise. Particular
thanks to Charlotte Kingston for her timely and
well-judged support with re-drafting chapters for
the 2nd Edition, most notably Sound and Film
and Interactive Design and to Lydia Hughes for
her thoughtful and dedicated assistance with
image research for the second edition.
I am indebted to a number of individuals at

major institutions for sharing their knowledge
of the preparation and planning essential to
good exhibition installation. My thanks to Barry
Ginley and Linda Lloyd-Jones at the Victoria
& Albert Museum; Jane Samuels at the British
Museum; Jo Quinton-Tulloch, Anthony Richards
and Alex Burch at the Science Museum, London;
Katia Lafitte at the Centre Pompidou; Suzanne
Bardgett at the Imperial War Museum and
Martyn Myrone at Tate Britain. Martyn Best at
Cultural Innovations provided many insights
into the increasingly global world of international
exhibition planning and design. I am indebted
to Stephen Bury at the British Library for allowing
me to use his wonderful storyline from the
exhibition “Breaking the Rules”.
I would like to acknowledge the patient

assistance of the many individuals who have
provided images for this book: Casey Lynn
and Jenni Bell (RAA); Tristan Dellaway, John
Pickford and Madeleine Cooke (Casson Mann);
Dieter Kursietis (Metaphor); Tara Hanrahan
(Thomas Matthews); Martin Krauter (Erco);
Roddy Macintyre (Inflate) and Joana Niemeyer
(Thomas Manss & Co.).
232

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indd 1 25/03/2015 15:44

5. 3-D design skills

6. Graphic design skills

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9. Sound and ﬁlm

11. Portable exhibitions

12. Technical drawing

13. Construction and delivery

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Text © 2010, 2015 Philip Hughes

This book was designed and produced by

All rights reserved. No part of this publication

A catalogue record for this book is available

Designed by Draught Associates

Frontispiece: “The Interpretation Project.”

Cover photograph © doublespace / VIEW

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Who this book is for

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The modern exhibition

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The history of exhibition design

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Florence is an example—great works of art commissioned by patrons such Above left

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“kinaesthetic learners”. These visitors, traditionally poorly served by Above left

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Capture the Museum, National Museum of

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The role of the exhibition designer

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Westphalian State Museum of Archaeology,

How to use this book

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How speciﬁc should a brief be?

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A public exhibition Primary audience Secondary audience

• Children aged 6–12 • Children below 6 and

As a designer, it is essential to test your understanding of the brief by

What kind of language should a

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Institutional or company objectives

Messages and outcomes

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strategies. A coordinated approach that enables an exhibition both to gain

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Ralph Appelbaum Associates, London,

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