Computer Fundamentals

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Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)
Definition of Computer
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information, or data. It
has the ability to store, retrieve, and process data. You probably already know that
you can use a computer to type documents, send email, play games, and browse
the Web. You can also use it to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and
even videos.
History of Computers
ABACUS: it is the first computer in the world. It is a manual mechanical
device developed in china. It was before 1387 AD. Even today, it is still used in many
countries like Japan, India & Russia. This is considered as the first Computer.
Napier’s bones: John Napier a Scottish mathematician invented this device in
the year 1617. Napier’s bones were multiplication table written on the stripes of
bones, ivory, silver or wood. The invention was used for simplifying multiplication,
division and taking square roots and cube roots.
Pascal’s Adding Machine: The great French mathematician Blaise Pascal
invented this machine in the year 1642.It has gears, wheels & dials. This machine
displayed numbers by the rotation of wheel. This machine was used only for
performing addition & subtraction of numbers.
Leibniz’s Calculator or Pascal Calculator: Gotfried Wilhelm Leibniz a
famous German mathematician improved Pascal machine in 1694.
His machine was able to perform all the four basic mathematical operations
such as addition, subtraction, multiplication & division. He introduced shift
mechanism. Moving a digit to right or left is a shift.
Real beginning of Computers

Charles Babbage a British mathematics professor is known as “Father of
Computer”. Because he introduced the concept of General Purpose Computer.
In the year 1822 he introduced a mechanical computer called “Difference
Engine”. Encouraged by the success of the difference engine, he developed another
device called “Analytical Engine” in the year 1837.
Analytical Engine used the concepts of Automated loom & difference
engine. This machine had five units they are input, output, store, mill & control
which are similar to the units of the modern computer.
Generation of Computers
Generation in computer terminology is a change in technology a computer
was being used. Initially, the generation term was used to distinguish between
varying hardware technologies. But nowadays, generation includes both hardware
and software, which together make up an entire computer system.
From the desk of Mr. Manjunatha Balluli, S.M.D College, Ballari Page 1 of 24
Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological

development that fundamentally changed the way computers operate, resulting in
increasingly smaller, cheaper, more powerful and more efficient and reliable devices.
Read about each generation and the developments that led to the current devices
that we use today.
There are totally five computer generations known till date. Each generation
has been discussed in detail along with their time period, characteristics. We've used
approximate dates against each generation which are normally accepted.
Following are the generations of Computers

S.N. Generation & Description
First Generation
1
The period of first generation: 1940-1956. Vacuum tube based.
2 Second Generation
The period of second generation: 1956-1963. Transistor based.
3 Third Generation
The period of third generation: 1964-1971. Integrated Circuit based.
4 Fourth Generation
The period of fourth generation: 1971-1990. Micros Processor.
5 Fifth Generation
The period of fifth generation: 1990-onwards. Artificial Intelligence
First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were
very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity,
generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level
programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they
could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and
paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
Some computers of this generation were:

ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the world's first
operational electronic digital computer, developed by John Mauchly & J. Presper
Eckert of the University of Pennsylvania to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. It
was announced in 1946. The ENIAC, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric
power and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 1,500 relays, and hundreds of
thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945. In addition
to ballistics, the ENIAC's field of application included weather prediction, atomic-
energy calculations, cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition, random-number studies,
wind-tunnel design, and other scientific uses. The ENIAC soon became obsolete as
the need arose for faster computing speeds.
EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the

earliest electronic computers. It was designed by John von Neumann in the year
1945. Unlike its predecessor the ENIAC, it was binary rather than decimal, and was a
stored program computer. It can hold both stored program & conditional control
transfer.
Stored-program concept: Storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to
perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently. The idea was introduced in
the late 1940s by John von Neumann, who proposed that a program be electronically
stored in binary-number format in a memory device so that instructions could be
modified by the computer as determined by intermediate computational results.
Conditional control transfer: This idea gave rise to the notion of subroutines, or small
blocks of code that could be jumped to in any order, instead of a single set of chronologically
ordered steps for the computer to take. The second part of the idea stated that computer
code should be able to branch based on logical statements such as IF (expression) THEN,
and looped such as with a FOR statement. “Conditional control transfer” gave rise to the idea
of “libraries,” which are blocks of code that can be reused over and over.
UNIVAC:(UNIVersal Automatic Computer I) was the first commercial computer

produced in the United States. It was designed principally by Remington Rand in
the year 1951.
IBM-701
IBM-650
The main features/advantages of First Generation are:
✓ Vacuum tube technology were used for internal operations.
✓ Magnetic drums were used for memory.
✓ Punched cards for input and printouts for output
✓ Supported Machine language only
Disadvantages of First Generation

The computers were very large in size.
They consumed a large amount of energy.
They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
They were not very reliable.
Air conditioning was required.
Constant maintenance was required.
Non-portable.
Costly commercial production.
Limited commercial use.
Very slow speed.

Limited programming capabilities.
Used machine language only.
Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
Used punch cards for input.
Not versatile and very faulty.
Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

This generation using the transistor was cheaper, consumed less power, more
compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of
vacuum tubes. Transistor is a device composed of semiconductor material that
amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at Bell Labs. In this
generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and
magnetic disks as secondary storage devices.
In this generation assembly language and high level programming language like
FORTRAN (Formula Translation), COBOL (Common Business Oriented
Language) was used. There was Batch processing and Multiprogramming Operating
system used.
Some computers of this generation were: IBM 1620

IBM 7094
CDC 1604
CDC 3600
UNIVAC 1108
The main features/ advantages of Second Generation are:
✓ Use of transistors
✓ Punched cards for input and printouts for output
✓ Reliable as compared to First generation computers
✓ Smaller size as compared to First generation computers
✓ Generate less heat as compared to First generation computers
✓ Consumed less electricity as compared to First generation computers
✓ Faster than first generation computers
✓ Still very costly
✓ A.C. needed
✓ Support machine and assembly languages
Disadvantages of Second Generation
Cooling system was required
Constant maintenance was required
Commercial production was difficult
Only used for specific purposes
Costly and not versatile
Punch cards were used for input.
Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The third generation of computer is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits
(IC's) in place of transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and
capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby.
This development made computers smaller in size, reliable and efficient.
In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming
Operating System were used.
High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, BASIC,
ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third
generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at
one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first
time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors.
The main features/advantages of Third Generation are:

✓ Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
✓ More reliable.
✓ Used less energy
✓ Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of
computers.
✓ Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
✓ Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
✓ Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is rare.
✓ Totally general purpose
✓ Could be used for high-level languages.
✓ Good storage
✓ Versatile to an extent
✓ Less expensive
✓ Better accuracy
✓ Commercial production increased.
✓ Used mouse and keyboard for input.
Disadvantages of Third Generation
Air conditioning was required.

Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.
Fourth Generation - 1971-90: Micro Processor

The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale
Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other
circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to
have microcomputers of fourth generation. The Microprocessor contains thousands
of ICs. Ted Hoff produced the first microprocessor in 1971 for Intel. It was known as
Intel 4004
Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and
affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution.
In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating
System were used. All the Higher level languages like C and C++, DBASE etc. were
used in this generation.
The main features of Fourth Generation are:

✓ More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
✓ Small in size
✓ Fast processing power with less power consumption
✓ Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
✓ No air conditioning required.
✓ Totally general purpose
✓ Commercial production
✓ Less need of repair.
✓ Cheapest among all generations
✓ All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers
Disadvantages of Third Generation

The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.
Fifth Generation – 1990, Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial
Intelligence) software. AI is an emerging branch in computer science, which
interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings.
Computers can understand spoken words & imitate human reasoning. Can respond
to its surroundings using different types of sensors.
All the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this
generation. AI includes:
✓ Robotics
✓ Neural networks
✓ Game Playing
✓ Development of expert systems to make decisions in real life situations.
✓ Natural language understanding and generation.
The main features of Fifth Generation are:
✓ ULSI technology
✓ Development of true artificial intelligence
✓ Development of Natural language processing
✓ Advancement in Parallel Processing
✓ Advancement in Superconductor technology
✓ More user friendly interfaces with multimedia features
✓ Availability of very powerful and compact computers at cheaper rates
Some computer types of this generation are:

Desktop
Laptop
Notebook
Ultrabook
To develop fifth Generation computers five major programs are being undertaken
they are:
1. MCC Project in USA.
2. DARPA Project in USA.
3. Alvey Program in Britain
4. The ICOT Program in Japan.
5. The Esprit Program.
1. MCC Project in USA: Microelectronic and computer Technology corporation

(MCC) has been set by the IT corporations in USA. MCC is sponsored by
Motorola and National semiconductor (companies manufacturing chips), Digital
equipment’s, National Cash Register (NCR). The MCC experts have to develop
the advanced product development technology and give the results to the
sponsoring corporations for implementation
2. DARPA Project in USA: Defense Advance Research project Agency (DARPA)

allocates funds of the US Government to Information technology projects with
potential Military applications.
3. The Alvey Program in Britain: The Alvey Program is working on four major
technologies, they are intelligent knowledge based systems, software engineering
intelligent user interfaces and VLSI chip architecture.
4. The ICOT Program in Japan: The Japanese Computer Corporations and

Universities have contracted together and have set up a central institute (ICOT)
where program research is undergone. The research is mainly conducted on VLSI
chip technology, advanced computer architecture and system software are
carried out by consortia and universities
5. The Esprit initiative: The Espirt program aiming towards the co-ordination of
research and development in a number of high technology fields. Thus Leading
IT experts throughout the world are working on the development of fifth
generation computers and spending large amount of energy, time money.
Basic characteristics about computer are:

Today’s world is an information-rich world and it has become a necessity for
everyone to know about computers. Purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you
about computer and its fundamentals.
Functionalities of a computer
Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:
• Takes data as input.
• Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
• Processes the data and converts it into useful information.
• Generates the output
• Controls all the above four steps.
Definition
Computer is an electronic data processing device which
• accepts and stores data input,
• processes the data input, and
• Generates the output in a required format.
Advantages
Following list demonstrates the advantages of computers in today's arena.
High Speed
• Computer is a very fast device.
• It is capable of performing calculation of very large amount of data.
• The computer has units of speed in microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picoseconds.
• It can perform millions of calculations in a few seconds as compared to man
who will spend many months for doing the same task.
Accuracy
• In addition to being very fast, computers are very accurate.
• The calculations are 100% error free.
• Computers perform all jobs with 100% accuracy provided that correct input
has been given.
Storage Capability
• Memory is a very important characteristic of computers.
• A computer has much more storage capacity than human beings.
• It can store large amount of data.
• It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio and many
others.
Diligence
• Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness and lack
of concentration.
• It can work continuously without any error and boredom.
• It can do repeated work with same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
• A computer is a very versatile machine.
• A computer is very flexible in performing the jobs to be done.
• This machine can be used to solve the problems related to various fields.
• At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very
next moment it may be playing a card game.
Reliability
• A computer is a reliable machine.
• Modern electronic components have long lives.
• Computers are designed to make maintenance easy.
Automation
• Computer is an automatic machine.
• Automation means ability to perform the given task automatically.
• Once a program is given to computer i.e., stored in computer memory, the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction.
Reduction in Paper Work

• The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in speeding up a process.
• As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem
of maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced.
Reduction in Cost
• Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high but it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction.
Disadvantages
Following list demonstrates the disadvantages of computers in today's arena
No I.Q
• A computer is a machine that has no intelligence to perform any task.
• Each instruction has to be given to computer.
• A computer cannot take any decision on its own.
Dependency
• It functions as per a user’s instruction, so it is fully dependent on human
being
Environment
• The operating environment of computer should be dust free and suitable.
No Feeling
• Computers have no feelings or emotions.
• It cannot make judgment based on feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike a human being.
Applications of Computer
Business
A computer has high speed of calculation, diligence, accuracy, reliability, or
versatility which made it an integrated part in all business organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for:
• Payroll calculations
• Budgeting
• Sales analysis
• Financial forecasting
• Managing employee’s database
• Maintenance of stocks etc.
Banking
Today banking is almost totally dependent on computer.
Banks provide following facilities:
• Banks provide online accounting facility, which includes current balances,
deposits, overdrafts, interest charges, shares, and trustee records.
• ATM machines are making it even easier for customers to deal with banks.
Insurance
Insurance companies are keeping all records up-to-date with the help of
computers. The insurance companies, finance houses and stock broking firms are
widely using computers for their concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information

showing
• Procedure to continue with policies
• Starting date of the policies
• Next due installment of a policy
• Maturity date
• Interests due
• Survival benefits
• Bonus
Education
The computer has provided a lot of facilities in the education system.
• The computer provides a tool in the education system known as CBE
(Computer Based Education).
• CBE involves control, delivery, and evaluation of learning.
• The computer education is rapidly increasing the graph of number of
computer students.
• There are number of methods in which educational institutions can use
computer to educate the students.
• It is used to prepare a database about performance of a student and analysis
is carried out on this basis.
Marketing
In marketing, uses of computer are following:
• Advertising - With computers, advertising professionals create art and
graphics, write and revise copy, and print and disseminate ads with the goal
of selling more products.
• At Home Shopping - Home shopping has been made possible through use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled by the customers.
Health Care
Computers have become important part in hospitals, labs, and dispensaries.
The computers are being used in hospitals to keep the record of patients and
medicines. It is also used in scanning and diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG,
Ultrasounds and CT Scans etc., are also done by computerized machines.
Some major fields of health care in which computers are used are:
• Diagnostic System - Computers are used to collect data and identify cause of
illness.
• Lab-diagnostic System - All tests can be done and reports are prepared by
computer.
• Patient Monitoring System - These are used to check patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest, ECG etc.
• Pharma Information System - Computer Checks Drug-Labels, Expiry dates,
harmful drug’s side effects etc.
• Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used in engineering purpose.
One of major areas is CAD (Computer aided design). That provides creation and
modification of images. Some fields are:
• Structural Engineering - Requires stress and strain analysis for design of
Ships, Buildings, Budgets, and Airplanes etc.
• Industrial Engineering - Computers deal with design, implementation and
improvement of integrated systems of people, materials and equipment’s.
• Architectural Engineering - Computers help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.
Military
Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc.
Military also employs computerized control systems. Some military areas where a
computer has been used are:
• Missile Control
• Military Communication
• Military Operation and Planning
• Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication means to convey a message, an idea, a picture or speech that
is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is meant
for. Some main areas in this category are:
• E-mail
• Chatting
• Usenet
• FTP
• Telnet
• Video-conferencing
Government
Computers play an important role in government. Some major fields in this
category are:
• Budgets
• Sales tax department
• Income tax department
• Male/Female ratio
• Computerization of voters lists
• Computerization of driving licensing system
• Computerization of PAN card
• Weather forecasting
Classification of computers: -
Computers may be classified based on the following: -
1. Operating principles (based on their construction and working)
2. Applications
3. Size and capability (or classification into micro, mini, mainframe and
supercomputers)
1. Classification based on Operating Principles

Based on the operating principles, computers can be classified into one of the
following types: -
a) Digital Computers
b) Analog Computers
c) Hybrid Computers
Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as

discrete or numbers. Digital computers are useful for evaluating arithmetic
expressions and manipulations of data (such as preparation of bills, ledgers, solution
of simultaneous equations etc)
Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the

continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena such
as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.
In contrast, digital computers represent varying quantities symbolically, as their
numerical values change.
Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

computers and digital computers. The digital component normally serves as the
controller and provides logical operations, while the analog component normally
serves as a solver of differential equations.
2. Classification based on area of applications

Modern computers depending upon their applications are classified as: -
✓ Special Purpose Computers
✓ General Purpose Computers
Special Purpose Computers: - A special purpose computer is designed only to meet
the requirements of a particular task or application. The instructions needed to
perform a particular task are permanently stored into the internal memory, so that it
can perform the given task on a single command. It therefore doesn’t possess
unnecessary options and is less expensive.
General Purpose Computers: - A General Purpose computers are designed to meet

the needs of many different applications. In these computers, the instructions needed
to perform a particular task are wired permanently into the internal memory. When
one job is over, instructions for another job can be loaded into the internal memory
for processing. This, a general purpose machine can be used to prepare pay-bills,
manage inventories, print sales report and so on.
3. Classification digital Computer based on size and Capability
Based on size and capability, computers are broadly classified into
A) Microcomputers.
B) Workstations.
C) Mini Computers.
D) Mainframe Computers.
E) Super Computers.
A) Microcomputers (Personal Computer)

A microcomputer is the smallest general purpose processing system. The older pc
started 8-bit processor with speed of 3.7MB and current pc 64-bit processor with
speed of 4.66 GB.
Examples: - IBM PCs, APPLE computers
Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:
1. Desktops
2. Portables
The difference is portables can be used while travelling whereas desktops computers
cannot be carried around.
The different portable computers are: -

1) Laptop
2) Notebooks
3) Palmtop (hand held)
4) Wearable computers
Laptop: - this computer is similar to a desktop computer but the size is smaller. They
are expensive than desktop. The weight of laptop is around 3 to 5 kg.
Notebook: - These computers are as powerful as desktop but size of these computers
are comparatively smaller than laptop and desktop. They weigh 2 to 3 kg. They are
costlier than laptop.
Palmtop (Hand held): - They are also called as personal Digital Assistant (PDA).
These computers are small in size. They can be held in hands. It is capable of doing
word processing, spreadsheets and hand writing recognition, game playing, faxing
and paging. These computers are not as powerful as desktop computers. Ex: - 3com
palmV.
Wearable computer: - The size of this computer is very small so that it can be worn
on the body. It has smaller processing power. It is used in the field of medicine. For
example, pace maker to correct the heart beats. Insulin meter to find the levels of
insulin in the blood.
B) Workstations: -Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications

(CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively
high quality graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen,
large amount of RAM, inbuilt network support, and a graphical user interface. Most
workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type
of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT.
Like PC, Workstations are also single-user computers like PC but are typically linked
together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone
systems.
C) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more

powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually designed to serve
multiple users simultaneously (Parallel Processing). They are more expensive than
microcomputers.
Examples: Digital Alpha, Sun Ultra.
D) Mainframe computers: - Computers with large storage capacities and very high
speed of processing (compared to mini- or microcomputers) are known as
mainframe computers. They support a large number of terminals for simultaneous
use by a number of users like ATM transactions. They are also used as central host
computers in distributed data processing system.
Examples: - IBM 370, S/390.
E) Supercomputer: - Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and

computing speeds which are many times faster than other computers. A
supercomputer is measured in terms of tens of millions Instructions per second
(mips), an operation is made up of numerous instructions. The supercomputer is
mainly used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and engineering
disciplines such as Weather analysis.
Examples: - IBM Deep Blue
Block Diagram of Computer or Components of Computer

A computer can process data, pictures, sound and graphics. They can solve highly
complicated problems quickly and accurately. A computer as shown in Fig.
performs basically five major computer operations or functions irrespective of their
size and make.
These are
Sl. No. Operation Description
The process of entering data and instructions into the

1 Take Input
computer system
Saving data and instructions so that they are available for

2 Store Data
processing as and when required.
Processing Performing arithmetic, and logical operations on data in order

3
Data to convert them into useful information.
Output The process of producing useful information or results for the

4
Information user, such as a printed report or visual display.
Control the Directs the manner and sequence in which all of the above
5
workflow operations are performed.
CPU (Central Processing Unit)
MEMORY UNIT
ARITHMETIC
INPUT UNIT OUTPUT UNIT
LOGIC UNIT (ALU)
Input Devices
Keyboard Output Devices

Mouse CONTROL UNIT
Scanner Monitor.
Touch Screen Printer.
Joy Stick Plotter.
Microphone Speaker.
MICR
OCR BLOCK DIAGRAM OF COMPUTER
OMR
Bar Code Reader
Light Pen
Web Camera Etc.,
Input Unit:
Computers need to receive data and instruction in order to solve any
problem. Therefore, we need to input the data and instructions into the computers.
The input unit consists of one or more input devices. Keyboard is the one of the
most commonly used input device. Other commonly used input devices are the
Mouse, Mice etc. All the input devices perform the following functions.
Central Processing Unit:
The control unit and ALU of the computer are together known as the Central
Processing Unit (CPU).
The CPU is like brain performs the following functions:
• It performs all calculations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all units of the computer.
A PC may have CPU-IC such as Intel 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486, Celeron, Pentium,
Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, and AMD etc.
1. Control Unit: It is responsible for directing and coordinating most of the computer
system activities. It does not execute instructions by itself. It tells other parts of the
computer system what to do. It determines the movement of electronic signals
between the main memory and arithmetic logic unit as well as the control signals
between the CPU and input/output devices.
2. Arithmetic logic Unit: All calculations are performed in the Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU) of the computer. It also does comparison and takes decision. The ALU can
perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc
and does logic operations viz, >, <, =, ‘etc. Whenever calculations are required, the
control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU once the computations are
done, the results are transferred to the storage unit by the control unit and then it is
send to the output unit for displaying results.
3. Registers: It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU. Registers
quickly, accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are being used
immediately (main memory hold data that will be used shortly, secondary storage
holds data that will be used later). To execute an instruction, the control unit of the
CPU retrieves it from main memory and places it onto a register. The typical
operations that take place in the processing of instruction are part of the instruction
cycle or execution cycle. The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the instruction
from main memory and its subsequence at decoding. The process of alerting the
circuits in CPU to perform the specified operation. The time it takes to go through
the instruction cycle is referred to as I-time.
4. Bus: The term Bus refers to an electrical pathway through which bits are
transmitted between the various computer components. Depending on the design of
the system, several types of buses may be present. The most important one is the
data bus, which carries the data throughout the central processing unit. The wider
the data bus, the more data it can carry at one time and thus the greater the
processing speed of the computer. Ex: Intel 8088 processor uses a data bus of 8 bits
wide. Some super computers contain buses that are 128 bits wide.
The main memory is used for the following purposes:
1. Storage of the copy of the main software program that controls the general
operation of the computer. This copy is loaded on to the main memory when the
computer is turned on, and it stays there as long as the computer is on.
2. Temporary storage of a copy of application program instruction, to be received by
CPU for interpretation and processing or execution.
3. Temporary storage of data that has been input from the key board, until
instructions call for the data to be transferred in to CPU for processing.
4. Temporary storage of data, which is required for further processing or transferred
as output to output devices such as screen, a printer, a disk storage device.
Output Unit:
The output unit of a computer provides the information and results of a
computation to outside world. Printers, Visual Display Unit (VDU) are the
commonly used output devices. Other commonly used output devices are printer,
plotter & speaker.
Computer Memory
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information
temporarily or permanently. Memory is an essential element of a computer. Without
its memory, a computer is of hardly any use. Memory plays an important role in
saving and retrieving data. For example, Random Access Memory (RAM) is a
volatile memory that stores information on an integrated circuit used by the system,
software, and hardware. Computer memory is divided into main (or primary)
memory and auxiliary (or secondary) memory. Main memory holds instructions and
data when a program is executing, while auxiliary memory holds data and programs
not currently in use and provides long-term storage.
Types of Memory Devices

SRAM
RAM
DRAM
Main/Primary MROM
Memory
PROM
ROM
EPROM
Cache
EEPROM
Memory Devices
Magnetic Tape Tape Drive
HDD
Magnetic Disk
Floppy Disk
Secondary
(Auxillary) CD-R or CD-RW
Memory Optical DIsk
DVD-R or DVD-RW
Removable Pen Drive

Storage Memory Card
Main Memory or Primary Memory

Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which computer
is currently working. It has limited capacity and data is lost when power is switched
off. It is generally made up of semiconductor device. These memories are not as fast
as registers. The data and instruction required to be processed reside in main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories
• It is known as main memory.
• Usually volatile or temporary memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without primary memory.
• Costlier compared to Secondary Memory.
Types of Main or Primary Memory

➢ RAM (Random Access Memory)
➢ ROM (Read Only Memory)
➢ Cache Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for
storing data, program and program result. It is read/write memory which stores
data until the machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.
Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage
location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same
amount of time. Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer
or if there is a power failure. Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is
often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in
the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types

➢ Static RAM (SRAM)
➢ Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates
that the memory retains its
contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost
when the power gets down due to
volatile nature. SRAM chips use a
matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So
SRAM is used as cache memory and has very fast access.
Characteristic of the Static RAM

➢ It has long life
➢ There is no need to refresh
➢ Faster
➢ Used as cache memory
➢ Large size
➢ Expensive
➢ High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the
data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data
several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because
it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed
of one capacitor and one transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
➢ It has short data lifetime
➢ Need to be refreshed continuously
➢ Slower as compared to SRAM
➢ Used as RAM
➢ Lesser in size
➢ Less expensive
➢ Less power consumption
ROM (Read Only Memory)

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The
memory from which we can only read but cannot
write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such memories
during manufacture. A ROM, stores such
instructions that are required to start a computer.
This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.
Types of ROM
MROM (Masked ROM)
The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set
of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are
inexpensive.
PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The
user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during
programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.
EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of
up to 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The
charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path.
For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window
(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the
quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only

Memory)
The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and
reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take
about 4 to 10 ms (milli second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased
and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing
the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.
Advantages of ROM
➢ Non-volatile in nature
➢ These cannot be accidentally changed
➢ Cheaper than RAMs
➢ Easy to test
➢ More reliable than RAMs
➢ These are static and do not require refreshing
➢ Its contents are always known and can be verified
Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed
up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold
those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts
of data and programs are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating
system, from where CPU can access them.
Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows:
➢ Cache memory is faster than main memory.
➢ It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
➢ It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
➢ It stores data for temporary use.
Disadvantages
➢ Cache memory has limited capacity.
➢ It is very expensive.
Differences between RAM and ROM

S. No RAM ROM
1 It is read/write memory. It is read only memory.
It is nonvolatile or permanent memory; it
It is volatile or temporary; its
2 retains its contents even after the power
contents are lost on power failure.
failure.
It contains information data that are
It contains a copy of operating used repeatedly in system applications
3 system & currently executing for conversion. Preprogrammed
programs. instructions for system initialization &
operations.
User can directly write the User cannot directly write the contents
4
contents into the RAM. into the ROM
It is categorized as Static & It is categorized as MROM, PROM,
5
Dynamic. EPROM, and EEPROM.
As compared to ROM storage In comparison to RAM. ROM has less
6
capacity of RAM is more. storage capacity.
Booting
When we start our Computer then there is an operation which is performed
automatically by the Computer which is also called as Booting. In the Booting,
System will check all the hardware’s and Software’s those are installed or Attached
with the System and this will also load all the Files those are needed for running a
system.
There are two Types of Booting
1) Warm Booting: when the System Starts from the Starting or from initial State
Means when we Starts our System this is called as warm Booting. In the Warm
Booting the System will be started from its beginning State means first of all, the user
will press the Power Button, then this will read all the instructions from the ROM
and the Operating System will be automatically gets loaded into the System.
2) Cold Booting: The Cold Booting is that in which System Automatically Starts
when we are Running the System, For Example due to Light Fluctuation the system
will Automatically Restarts So that in this Chances Damaging of system are
More. and the System will not be start from its initial State So May Some Files will b
Damaged because they are not Properly Stored into the System.
Switch on the Computer
Automatic Execution of ROM

instructions
Loading Operating System

Hard Disk Drive RAM
Booting Process
Power Up
The first step of any boot process is applying power to the machine. When the
user turns a computer on, a series of events begins that ends when the operating
system gets control from the boot process and the user is free to work. When the
computer is turned on, the central processor executes some startup code in ROM
that is located on the motherboard.
Power-On Self-Test
The next step in the boot process is called the POST, or power on self-test.
This test checks all connected hardware, including RAM and secondary storage
devices to be sure it is all functioning properly. After POST has completed its job,
the boot process searches the boot device list for a device with BIOS on it.
Find a Boot Device

The I/O system is essential to the operation of the computer because it
defines the rules for communications between the CPU and the other devices
attached to the computer via the motherboard. The I/O system, sometimes found in
the "io.sys" file on the boot device, provides extensions to the BIOS located in ROM
on the motherboard.
Load the Operating System
Once the hardware functionality is confirmed and the input/output system is
loaded, the boot process begins loading the operating system from the boot device.
The OS is loaded into RAM, and any instructions specific to the particular operating
system are executed. The actual operating system is somewhat irrelevant, as the
computer will follow the same boot pattern in any case.
Transfer Control
Once the previous steps are complete and the operating system is safely
loaded into RAM, the boot process relinquishes control to the OS. The OS then
proceeds to execute any pre-configured startup routines to define user configuration
or application execution. At the end of the handoff, the computer is ready for use.
Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module II)
Input Device:
To interact with your computer, you need input devices. An input device for a
computer allows you to enter information. The most fundamental pieces of
information are keystrokes on a keyboard and clicks with a mouse. These two input
devices are essential for you to interact with your computer. Many other input devices
exist for entering other types of information, such as images, audio and video. Input
devices represent one type of computer peripheral - the other two types are output
devices and storage devices.
Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps in
inputting data or text to the computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of
traditional typewriter, although there are some additional keys provided for
performing additional functions.
Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys
or 108 keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows:

Sl.No Keys Description
1 Alphanumeric/Typing Keys These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and
digit keys (0-9) which generally give same
layout as that of typewriters.
2 Numeric Keypad It is used to enter numeric data or cursor

movement. Generally, it consists of a set of
17 keys that are laid out in the same
configuration used by most adding
machines and calculators.
3 Function Keys The twelve function keys (F1 to F12) are

present on the keyboard which are arranged
in a row at the top of the keyboard. Each
function key has unique meaning and is
used for some specific purpose.
4 Control keys These keys provide cursor and screen

control. It includes four directional arrow
keys. Control keys also include Home, End,
Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).
5 Special Purpose Keys Keyboard also contains some special

purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print
Screen.
Types of Keyboards
1. Normal Keyboard
2. Multimedia Keyboard
Normal Keyboard
This keyboard is also known as standard keyboard which will have 104 keys. Almost all
keyboard should have minimum of 104 keys. This keyboard does not contain any additional keys
in it.
Multimedia Keyboard
The multimedia keyboard is specially designed for the people who are much into
multimedia designing. This keyboard is just like the standard key board, but composed of
additional keys for the multimedia purposes such as multimedia application launch, volume
control and mute button.
MOUSE (Manual Operating User Sensitive Equipment):

Mouse is most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse and sends
corresponding signals to CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called left and right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons. Mouse can be used to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter
text into the computer.
Types of Mouse
Mechanical Mouse
Also called as the ball mouse, a mechanical mouse
has rubber or metal ball on it’s underside. When the ball
rolls, mechanical sensors inside the mouse detect the
direction and move the pointer on the screen of the PC. This
type of mouse requires a flat surface or a mouse pad to
work efficiently. One of the drawbacks of the device is that
it is more prone to attracting dust.
Opto mechanical or Optical-mechanical Mouse

An Opto mechanical or optical-mechanical mouse is
same as the mechanical mouse except that the sensors used in
it are optical and not mechanical. The device is a combination
of optical and mechanical technologies, wherein, the ball is
present but the mouse movement is detected optically leading
to more accuracy.
Optical or Laser Mouse

A laser mouse is the new generation mouse with two
necessary components – light emitter and light detector. A laser
mouse uses laser as the light emitter and has a precise scanning
of mouse movement. You will find a laser mouse ranging
anywhere between 1000-5700 dots-per-inch (DPI).
Advantages
 Easy to use
 Not very expensive
 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of keyboard.
Scanner
Scanner is an input device which works more like a photocopy machine. It converts hard
copy to soft copy. It is used when some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred
to the hard disc of the computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source
which are then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
Types of Scanner
1. Handheld Scanner
2. Flat Bed Scanner.
3. Drum Scanner
Handheld Scanner
A scanner that is moved by hand over the material being captured. Handheld scanners ar
e small & less expensive than their desktopcounterparts but partially rely on the user's dexterity to
move the unit across the paper. Trays are available that keeps the scanner moving in a straight line.
Contrast with flatbed scanner, sheet-fed scanner and drum scanner.
Flat Bed Scanner

Flatbed scanners will take up some desktop space but provide a
lot of bang for the buck. They look like miniature printers with a flip-up
cover protecting the glass platen. Depending on its size, a flatbed scanner
can fit standard or legal-sized documents, and the flexible cover allows
you to scan large items such as books. These scanners are great for
scanning the occasional newspaper article, book chapter, or photograph;
or for those who may need to scan or bulky items such as the cover of a DVD.
Drum Scanner
A type of scanner used to capture the highest resolution from
an image. Photographs and transparencies are taped, clamped or
fitted into a clear cylinder (drum) that is spun at speeds exceeding
1,000 RPM during the scanning operation. A light source that focuses
on one pixel is beamed onto the drum and moves down the drum a
line at a time.
Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to move cursor
position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its
both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket.
The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
The function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly
used in Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and playing computer
games.
Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device which is similar to a pen. It is used
to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It
consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube. When
the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and pen button is
pressed, its photocell sensing element detects the screen location and
sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or
laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted
and by moving fingers on ball, pointer can be moved. Since the whole
device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track
ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.
Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored
in digital form. The microphone is used for various applications like
adding sound to a multimedia presentation or for mixing music.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information
into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or
camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer.
They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the
camera had been pointed at.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks because of a large
number of cheques to be processed every day. The bank's code number
and cheque number are printed on the cheques with a special type of ink
that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.
This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR). The main advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error
prone.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text. OCR scans text
optically character by character, converts them into a machine readable code
and stores the text on the system memory.
Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data
in form of light and dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling
goods, numbering the books etc. It may be a hand held scanner or may be
embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code Reader scans a bar code
image, converts it into an alphanumeric value which is then fed to the
computer to which bar code reader is connected.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the
type of mark made by pen or pencil. It is used where one out of a few
alternatives is to be selected and marked. It is specially used for checking
the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice questions.
Web Camera or Digital Camera

A webcam is a hardware camera connected to a computer that
allows anyone connected to theInternet to view either still pictures or
motion videoof a user or other object. The picture of
theLogitech Webcam C270 is a good example of what a webcam may
look. Today, most webcams are either embedded into the display
with laptopcomputers or connected to the USB or FireWire port on the
computer.
Touch Screen Sensitive or ATM(Automatic Teller Machine)

A touchscreen is a display that also serves as an input device.
Some touchscreens require a proprietary pen for input, though most
modern touchscreens detect human touch. Since touchscreen devices
accept input directly through the screen, they do not require external input
devices, such as miceand keyboards. This makes touchscreens ideal for
computer kiosks, as well as portable devices, such
as tablets and smartphones. It is basically used in ATM (Automatic Teller
Machine) centers.
Output devices
It is device which display or prints the output from the computer.
Electronic or electromechanical equipment connected to a computer andused to transfer data out of
the computer in the form of text, images,sounds or other media to a display screen, printer, loudsp
eaker or storagedevice. Most modern storage devices such as diskdrives and magnetic tapedrives a
ct as both input and output devices, others such as CD-ROM areinput only.
Output
Devices
Softcopy Hardcopy
Monitor
Speaker Printer Plotter
(VDU)
CRT LCD(Liqui TFT(Thin LED(Light Non

Film Emitting Impact Flat Bed Drum
(Cathode d Crystal Impact
Ray Tube) Display) Transisto Diode)
r)
Types of Output Devices

1. Softcopy
2. Hardcopy
Softcopy Output Device

Softcopy devices give screen displayed output which is lost when the computer is turned off.
Softcopy devices enable viewing of work, which allow correction and rearrangement of materials to
suit specific needs. Monitor, PC, projectors and VDT (Video Display Terminals) are the example of
softcopy devices.
Hardcopy Output Device

HardCopy devices give the output in a hardcopy like printed in the paper. The output is
permanent. Printers, plotters are the examples of hardcopy O\P devices because they print the
output in hard paper.
Monitors or VDU
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.
Types of Monitors
1. CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)
2. LCD (Liquid Cr;ystal Display)
3. TFT (Thin Film Transistor)
4. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor
The CRT display is made up of small picture
elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the better the
image clarity, or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter
‘e’ in the word help.These are all old model monitors
A finite number of characters can be displayed on a
screen at once. The screen can be divided into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen
where a standard character can be placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of
data horizontally and 25 lines vertically. There are some disadvantages of CRT:
 Large in Size
 High power consumption
Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that
have reduced volume, weight and power requirement in
comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them
on your wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop computer, graphics
display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight
or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-Crystal Device)
Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. Example are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

LCD stands for Liquid Crystal Display. the main advantage of LCDs are light
weighy, occupy less place, 12v power consumption, low radiation and supports high
resolutions. Some major advantages of using an LCD monitor include:
 These monitors are compact, lightweight, and do not consume much desk
space.
 Secondly, these monitors do not consume much electricity and can even be
operated by using batteries.
 Also, the images transmitted by these monitors do not get geometrically
distorted and have little flicker.
TFT (Thin Film Transistor)

These transistors are used in high-quality flat panel liquid-crystal displays
(LCDs). TFT-based displays have a transistor for each pixel on the screen. This allows
the electrical current that illuminates the display to be turned on and off at a faster rate,
which makes the display brighter and shows motion smoother.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)

LED monitors are the latest types of monitors in the market today. Like LCD, it is again a flat
panel display making use of light-emitting diodes for back-lightning instead of Cold Cathode
Fluorescent (CCFL) back-lightning used in LCDs. Primarily, the display is of LCD only but the back-
lightning is done by LEDs.
LED monitors are said to use much lesser power than CRT and LCD. Thus, they are also
considered environmental friendly. Other core advantages of LED monitors are:
1. They produce images with higher contrast
2. They have less negative environmental impact when disposed
3. Lifespan and durability of LED monitors is more than CRT or LCD monitors
4. Because of the technology, the monitor panels can be made very thin
5. Do not produce much heat while running
Speaker
Speakers are one of the most common output devices used
with computer systems. Some speakers are designed to work
specifically with computers, while others can be hooked up to any
type of sound system. Regardless of their design, the purpose of
speakers is to produce audio output that can be heard by the
listener.
Printer
A printer is an output device that prints paper documents. This includes text documents,
images, or a combination of both.The printed output produced by a printer is often called
a hard copy, which is the physical version of an electronic document.
There are two types of printers:

 Impact Printers
 Non-Impact Printers
Impact Printers
The impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon which
is then pressed on the paper. Here the paper and printer will in contact. It usually
forms the print image by pressing an inked ribbon against the paper using a hammer
or pins. Following are some examples of impact printers.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following:
 Very low consumable costs
 Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image
These printers are of two types
 Character printers
 Line printers
Daisy Wheel Printer

Head is lying on a wheel and pins
corresponding to characters are like petals of Daisy
(flower name) that is why it is called Daisy Wheel
Printer. These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices which require a few letters to be
sent here and there with very nice quality.
Advantages
 More reliable than DMP
 Better quality
 The fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
 Slower than DMP
 Noisy
 More expensive than DMP
Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

In the market one of the most popular printers
is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price.
Each character printed is in form of pattern of dots and
head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or
9*9) which come out to form a character that is why it is
called Dot Matrix Printer.
Advantages
 Inexpensive
 Widely Used
 Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
 Poor Quality
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one
line at a time. In business where enormous amount of
material is printed, the character-at-a-time printers are
too slow; therefore, these users need line-at-a-time
printers. Line printers, or line-at-a-time printers, use
special mechanism that can print a whole line at once; they can typically print the
range of 1,200 to 6,000 lines per minute. Drum, chain, and band printers are line-at-a-
time printers.
These are of further two types

 Drum Printer
 Chain Printer
Drum printer
This printer is like a drum in shape so it is called drum printer. The surface of
drum is divided into number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to size of paper i.e. for a
paper width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed
on track. The different character sets available in the market are 48-character set, 64
and 96 characters set. One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in
speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines per minute.
Advantages
 Very high speed
Disadvantages
 Very expensive
 Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain printer
In this printer, chain of character sets is used so it is called Chain Printer. A
standard character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
 Character fonts can easily be changed.
 Different languages can be used with the same printer.
Disadvantages
 Noisy
Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without using ribbon. These printers
print a complete page at a time so they are also called as Page Printers. This printer
prints without making contact with the paper. They are generally quieter and more
efficient than their impact counterparts. These printers do not use a striking device to
produce characters on the paper; and because these printers do not hammer against
the paper they are much quieter. Following are some non-impacted printers.
These printers are of two types

 Inkjet Printers
 Thermal printers
 Laser Printers
Characteristics of Non-Impact Printers
 Faster than impact printers.
 They are not noisy.
 High quality.
 Support many fonts and different character size.
Inkjet Printers
Ink-jet printer is type of non-impact printer.
It creates output on paper by spraying tiny drops of
liquid ink. Inkjet printer has print-head that can
spray very fine drops of ink. It consists of print
cartridge filled with liquid ink and has small nozzles
in form of matrix. Like dot matrix printer, the
combination of nozzles is activated to form the
shaper of character or image on the paper by
spraying the liquid ink. These printers have
resolution ranging from 300 to 720 dpi.
The ink-jet printers have low price than laser printers. They are also slower and have
low print quality than laser printer. However, They are faster and have high print
quality than dot matrix printers. The printing speed of ink-jet printer is from 1 to 6
pages per minute.
Advantages
 High quality printing
 More reliable
Disadvantages
 Expensive as cost per page is high
 Slow as compared to laser printer
Thermal Printer
Thermal printer is another type of non-impact
printer. It can only print output on a special heat
sensitive waxy paper. The image if the output is
created on the waxy paper by burning dots on it.
For colored output, colored waxy sheets are used.
Thermal Printer produces a high quality printout.
It is quite expansive as compared to other non-impact printers.
Advantages
 No issues with ribbons wrinkling when printing
 Less physical inventory to store
 Eliminates issue of ordering/using wrong label and ribbon sizes
 Direct Thermal Printers don’t need capacity for ribbons so they are more
compact
There are a couple disadvantages to consider when using direct thermal labels.
Disadvantages:
 Labels cannot withstand long exposure to sunlight or extreme heat. Leave a
gas station receipt on your dashboard and you will see it fade from the
exposure. These receipts use similar direct thermal technology.
 Even without sun exposure, the labels will fade over long periods of time. For
labeling boxes kept in inventory for years, direct thermal is not the best
choice.
 Print speeds tend be slower.
 Putting acrylic adhesive tape over a direct thermal label will cause the label to
fade.
Laser Printer
Laser stands for Light Amplification by
Simulated Emission of Radiation. A laser
printer is the fastest and high quality non-
impact printer. It works like a photocopier. The
laser printer transfers the image of output on
paper using LASER technology and toner.
Toner is an ink powder. It is used in laser printers and photocopiers also
Advantages of Laser Printer
 The main advantage of Laser printer is its speed & efficiency at which it prints
high-quality quality graphics & text.
 Laser printers produce high-quality output as compared to other printers.
 Laser printers are quite and does not produce disturbing sounds.
 They are also capable to produce color prints.
Disadvantages of Laser Printer
 The main disadvantage of Laser printer is its cost; they are relatively costly as
compared to other printers.
 The maintenance, repair & servicing charges are also high of these printers.
 Laser printers emit small amount of ozone and are hazardous to health and
the atmosphere.
Plotter
A plotter is a special output device used to produce hardcopies of graphs and
designs on the paper. A plotter is typically used to print large-format graphs or maps
such as construction maps, engineering drawings and big posters. Plotters are divided
into two types:
1. Drum plotters
2. Flatbed plotters
Drum Plotter
A drum plotter is also known as Roller
Plotter. It consists of a drum or roller on which a
paper is placed and the drum rotates back and
forth to produce the graph on the paper. It also
consists of mechanical device known as Robotic
Drawing Arm that holds a set of colored ink pens
or pencils. The Robotic Drawing Arm moves side
to side as the paper are rolled back and forth
through the roller. In this way, a perfect graph or
map is created on the paper. This work is done under the control of computer. Drum
Plotters are used to produce continuous output, such as plotting earthquake activity.
Flatbed Plotter
A flatbed plotter is also known as Table
Plotter. It plots on paper that is spread and fixed over
a rectangular flatbed table. The flatbed plotter uses
two robotic drawing arms, each of which holds a set
of colored ink pens or pencils. The drawing arms
move over the stationary paper and draw the graph
on the paper. Typically, the plot size is equal to the
area of a bed. The plot size may be 20- by-50 feet. It is
used in the design of cars, ships, aircrafts, buildings,
highways etc. Flatbed plotter is very slow in drawing or printing graphs. The large
and complicated drawing can take several hours to print. The main reason of the slow
printing is due to the movement mechanical devices.
Today, mechanical plotters have been replaced by thermal, electrostatic and ink jet
plotters. These systems are faster and cheaper. They also produce large size drawings.
Secondary or Auxiliary Memory or Storage Units

Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower. It
normally stores system programs, instruction and data files. It is also known as
secondary memory. It can also be used as an overflow/virtual memory in case the
main memory capacity has been exceeded. Secondary memories cannot be accessed
directly by a processor. First the data/information of auxiliary memory is transferred
to the main memory and then that information can be accessed by the CPU.
Characteristics of Auxiliary Memory are following −

 Non-volatile memory − Data is not lost when power is cut off.
 Reusable − The data stays in the secondary storage on permanent basis until
it is not overwritten or deleted by the user.
 Reliable − Data in secondary storage is safe because of high physical stability

of secondary storage device.
 Convenience − With the help of a computer software, authorized people can
locate and access the data quickly.
 Capacity − Secondary storage can store large volumes of data in sets of
multiple disks.
 Cost − It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or disk than primary
memory.
Magnetic Tape
 Magnetic tape and the tape drives are analogous to a home tape recorder
system. It uses the same reading and recording techniques as that of the
magnetic disk as the medium used in it is a flexible tape that is coated with
magnetic oxide.
 Since sequential access device means that for n records, where n = 0, 1, 2, 3,

……… if the tape head is positioned at record number 1 then in order to read
the nth record, it is necessary to read all the physical records from 1st to nth
records one at a time. If the head position is beyond the desired record, it is
necessary to rewind the tape for a specific distance and begin reading forward.
 In contrast to the magnetic disk, which is a direct access device, a tape is

sequential in nature. A disk drive doesn’t read all the sectors on a disk
sequentially to get to the desired record, whereas magnetic tape drive read all
the sectors b/w the starting and the desired location of data. Magnetic tape
was the first kind of secondary memory and is still widely used for its lowest
cost; however, it is very slow in speed than all of the secondary
storage devices.
Magnetic Disk
The primary computer storage device. Like tape, it is magnetically recorded
and can be rerecorded over and over. Disks are rotating platters with amechanical ar
m that moves a read/write head between the outer and inner edges of the platter's s
urface. It can take as long as one second to find a location on a floppy disk to aslittle
as a couple of milliseconds on a fast hard disk. See hard disk for more details.
Tracks and Spots

The disk surface is divided into concentric tracks (circles within circles). The thinner
the tracks, the more storage. The data bits are recorded as tiny magnetic spots on the
tracks.The smaller the spot, the more bits per inch and the greater the storage.
Sectors
Tracks are further divided into sectors, which hold a block of data that is read or writ
ten at one time; for example, READ SECTOR 782, WR
ITE SECTOR 5448. In order to update thedisk, one or more sectors are read into the c
omputer, changed and written back to disk. The operating system figures out how to
fit data into these fixed spaces
Modern disks have more sectors in the outer tracks than the inner ones because the o
uter radius of the platter is greater than the inner radius (see CAV). See magnetic
tape and optical disc.
Hard Disk
It is a magnetic disk on which you
can sto re computer data. The term hard is
used to distinguish it from a soft,
or floppy, disk. Hard disks hold more
data and are faster than floppy disks. A
hard disk, for example, can store
anywhere from 10 megabytes to several
gigabytes, whereas most floppies have a
maximum storage capacity of 2.4
megabytes.
A single hard disk usually consists

of several platters. Each platter requires
two read/write heads, one for each side.
All the read/write heads are attached to a
single access arm so that they cannot move
independently. Each platter has the same
number of tracks, and a track location that cuts across all platters is called a cylinder.
For example, a typical 84-megabyte hard disk for a PC might have two platters (four
sides) and 1,053 cylinders. Its rotates 7200rpm (Rotation per Minute)
Note:
1956 On September 13, 1956, the IBM 305 RAMAC is the first computer to be shipped with
a hard drive. The drive contained 50 24-inch platters, was the size of two refrigerators, and
weighed a ton. It could store only 5 megabytes of information and each megabyte cost
$10,000.
In general, hard disks are less portable than floppies

Advantage of hard disk over floppy disk:
 Hard-disk can store more data than floppy disk.
 Hard-disk (say 3,600 revolutions per minutes) can access data 10 times faster than
floppy disk (360 rpm).
Floppy Disk
A soft magnetic disk. It is called
floppy because it flops if you wave it (at
least, the 5¼-inch variety does). Unlike most
hard disks, floppy disks (often called
floppies or diskettes) are portable, because
you can remove them from a disk drive. Disk
drives for floppy disks are called floppy
drives. Floppy disks are slower to access
than hard disks and have less storage capacity, but they are much less expensive. And
most importantly, they are portable.
Types of Floppy Disks

5 ¼ -Inch Drive
A 5 ¼-inch floppy disk drive was common on personal computers that were
produced during the 1980's and were still included on computers in the early 1990's.
A 5 ¼ -inch floppy disk could store between 360 kilobytes and 1.2 megabytes of data.
Some 5 ½-floppy disks could be modified and used to write data to both sides of the
disk. This led to manufacturers producing double-sided drives that could read both
sides of the disk.
3 ½ -Inch Drive
A 3 ½-inch floppy drive is considered a floppy drive because the diskette uses
a magnetic floppy disk that is encased in plastic. A 3 ½-inch floppy disk is capable of
storing 730 kilobytes on a double density disk and 1.44 megabytes on a high density
disk. On older computers the only way to load programs such as Windows 3.0 was to
use multiple disks to install the program.
Zip Drive
Zip drives were introduced by the Iomega corporation in the mid-1990s. A zip
disk was capable of storing 100 megabytes, 250 megabytes and even 750 megabytes
on a single disk. Zip drives were mainly available as a peripheral that could be added
to an existing system. A zip drive carried a high price tag which limited its use and
eventually led to its decline as a popular storage medium.
Advantage of floppy disks compared with magnetic tape

 Random-access processing is possible.
 Quick and direct inquiry to records is possible.
Disadvantage of floppy disks
 Disk packs are more expensive than tape (for the same storages capacity).
 The sequential processing using disks may be slower and less efficient than
sequential processing using tapes.
Optical Disk
These storage devices work on a principle similar to magnetic storage devices;
however, they use light as a media to represent binary information. A very fine laser
beam is projected on the reflecting surface to read data from the disk. By detecting the
light intensity reflected from the surface, the information stored on the disk can be
accessed. Optical disks have a greater memory capacity than most magnetic disks; the
largest ones can store 1.5 gigabytes of information, which is equal to about 700,000
pages of printed material. Optical disks come in sizes ranging from 3.5 to 12 inches (30
cm). They are widely used as auxiliary memory when large memory capacity is
required. Optical Disks can be found in these two forms:
1. Compact Disk (CD-ROM)
2. Digital Versatile/Video Disk (DVD).
Compact Disk (CD-ROM)

The most popular among all optical storage
devices is the Compact Disk Read Only Memory (CD-
ROM) types which are found in almost all computers. It is
non-volatile optical data storage medium using the same
physical format as audio compact disk, readable by a
computer with a CD-ROM drive. CD-ROM is popular for
distribution of large databases, software and especially
multimedia applications. The standard 12 cm diameter
CD-ROM stores about 650MB to 700MB.
A CD-ROM disk is formed from a resin, such as polycarbonate. It consists of

aluminum coated plastic, which reflects light differently for lands or pits, which are
smooth or pitted areas, respectively, that are created in the stamping process.
Advantages of CD-ROM:
a. The storage capacity is enormous.
b. The storage cost is low and access time is relatively fast.
c. Data can be stored for an extended period of time.
d. It is reliable.
The major disadvantage is that CD-ROM cannot be erased and hence the disk
cannot be reused. They are vulnerable to physical damages such as scratches
(especially on the data surface). High temperatures can damage them and strong light
sources.
Note:
WORM (Write Once Read Many): WORM (Write-once read-many) is a variation of
CD-ROM that allows a user to write information on each disk only once, with no
subsequent erasing possibility. A low intensity
laser in the CD controller writes onto the optical disk (but only once for each bit
location).
Compact Disk (CD-RW)

The users may read and write data many times on
Read/Write optical disks. Usually, magneto-optical method is
used to read and write data on this type of disks. Therefore, they
are also called magneto-optical disks. Magneto-optical disks can
be erased and rewritten. The information is written into or read
from the disk by means of the magnetic properties of spots on its
surface. The standard 12 cm diameter CD-RW stores about 650MB to 700MB.
Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD-R)

DVD (“digital versatile disc" or "digital video disc") is a
digital optical disc storage format, invented and developed by
Philips, Sony, Toshiba, and Panasonic in 1995. One of the most
common DVD's is the single-sided, single-layer disc, capable of
holding 4.7 GB. Today they are widely used for storing and
viewing movies and other data. To play DVDs on a computer,
you must have a DVD drive and software DVD player. The
picture is an example of what a DVD movie may look like, in this
example it is a picture of the Matrix movie.
Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD-RW)

Stands for "Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable." A DVD-RW is like a DVD-R but
can be erased and written to again. Like CD-RWs, DVD-RWs must be erased in order
for new data to be added. DVD-RWs can hold 4.7GB of data and do not come in
double-layered or double-sided versions like DVD-Rs do. Because of their large
capacity and ability to be used multiple times, DVD-RW discs are a great solution for
frequent backups. To record data onto a DVD-RW disc, you'll need a DVD burner that
supports the DVD-RW format.
Removable Storage:
Removable storage is any type of storage device that can be removed from a
computer while the system is running.
Example: USB Drive (Universal Serial Bus)
Pen Drive
A pen drive being inserted into a USB port. The definition of a pen drive is
small storage device shaped like a pen with built-in data storage that connects to a
computer by a USB port. An example of a pen drive is a pen with a hidden USB port
for saving data. It is also known as USB flash drive.
Memory Card
A memory card (sometimes called a flash memory card or a storage card) is a
small storage medium used to store data such as text, pictures, audio, and video, for
use on small, portable or remote computing devices. Most of the current products use
flash memory, although other technologies are being developed.
Difference between Primary memory and Secondary memory

Primary memory
 Primary memory is purely made of electronic devices either by transistor or
capacitor.
 It can directly communicate with CPU (Central Processing Unit) hence it is
called main memory.
 It is relatively faster than secondary memory.
 It is needed basically by the system itself for processing functions.
 It is relatively much costly than secondary memory.
 It has less memory space as compared to the secondary memory.
Secondary memory
 It is not purely made of electronic devices.
 It cannot directly communicate with CPU hence it is called auxiliary memory.
 It is comparatively slower than primary memory.
 It is needed basically by users for storing of data and information
permanently.
 It is comparatively much cheaper than primary memory.
 It has a huge memory space as compared to primary memory.
Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I (Module III)
Software:
Software is a set of programs, which is designed to perform a well-defined
function. A program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular
problem.
Computer software, or just software, is any set of machine-readable

instructions that directs a computer's processor to perform specific operations. The
term is used to contrast with computer hardware, the physical objects (processor and
related devices) that carry out the instructions. Computer hardware and software
require each other and neither can be realistically used without the other.
Software is a general term. It can refer to all computer instructions in general,
or to any specific set of computer instructions. It is inclusive of both machine
instructions (the binary code that the processor "understands") and source
code (more human-understandable instructions that must be rendered into machine
code by compilers or interpreters before being executed).
Types of Software
1) System Software.
2) Application Software.
3) Utility Software.
From the desk of Mr. Manjunatha. Balluli, S.M.D College, Ballari. Page 1 of 21
System Software:
System software is computer software designed to operate the computer
hardware, to provide basic functionality, and to provide a platform for
running application software. System software includes device drivers, operating
systems, servers, utilities, and window systems.
System software also includes the boot firmware, which loads (or in some
cases constitutes) the operating system. Firmware is software that has been
permanently stored in hardware (specifically, in non-volatile memory). Thus, it has
qualities of both software and hardware, but it is still software.
Features of system software are as follows:

 Close to system
 Fast in speed
 Difficult to design
 Difficult to understand
 Less interactive
 Smaller in size
 Difficult to manipulate
 Generally written in low-level language
Application Software:
Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment. All software applications prepared in the computer lab can
come under the category of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single program, such as a Microsoft's
notepad for writing and editing simple text. It may also consist of a collection of
programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a
task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Accounting software, enterprise software, graphics software, media players,
and office suites. Many application programs deal principally with documents.
Applications may be bundled with the computer and its system software or
published separately, and can be coded as university projects.[2]
Examples of Application software are following:
 Payroll Software
 Student Record Software
 Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
 Railways Reservation Software
 Microsoft Office Suite Software
 Microsoft Word
 Microsoft Excel
 Microsoft PowerPoint
Features of application software are as follows:

 Close to user
 Easy to design
 More interactive
 Slow in speed
 Generally written in high-level language
 Easy to understand
 Easy to manipulate and use
 Bigger in size and requires large storage space
Utility Software:
Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure,
optimize or maintain a computer. Smaller than an application in size, a utility is a
computer program intended for a particular task; usually pertaining to system
resource management. A good example is Microsoft's Disk Cleanup utility, which is
used to delete unnecessary files and recover disk drive space.
Examples:
 Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses
 Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore
either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an
event of accidental deletion).
 Device Drivers is a computer program that controls a particular device that is
connected to your computer. Typical devices are keyboards, printers, scanners,
digital cameras and external storage devices. Each of this needs a driver in order
to work properly.
Computer Languages
Languages are used for Communication with the System. As we know that
there are also Some Human Languages like English, Punjabi and Hindi those are
used for Communicating with the Other Humans. As we know that different
Humans Understands Different Languages.
For Making a Request to the System, a user can use any Programs, and the
Programs are the Collection of Statements and these Statements are written into the
Some Programming Languages. So that at that Time there are Many Languages
those are also called as the Programming Languages because they are used for
making a Program So that they are called as the Programming Languages.
Types of Computer Languages:

1. Low Level Language (1st GL).
2. Assembly Level Language (2nd GL).
3. High Level Language (3rd GL).
4. Fourth Generation Language (4th GL)

Low Level Language or Binary or Machine:
This is also called as the First Generation Computer Languages. And in these
Machine Languages has developed. The Machine Language Programs contains all
the instructions in the Binary Form and we know that the Program which has
written into the Machine Language are easily understandable to
the computer System. So that it is very difficult to understand for the user because
all the instructions are written into the Form of 0 and 1. Basically this Language
was used for writing the Machine Instructions Means how the Registers will Work
and how they will be Work for Performing the Requests of the users. So that we can
also say that these Languages are used for Internal Structure of the computer
System.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Low Level Languages:
 It consists of binary digits and some symbols.

 It depends on machine.
 Machine language directly executes on computer.
 No need of language translator for machine language.
 Program written in low level language is called object code.
Disadvantages of Low Level Languages:
 It is not easy to understand.

 It is difficult to modify.
Assembly Level Language:

As We know that the Program which is Written into the Machine Language
are very difficult to understand for the user So that there is the Development of the
new Programming Language which is also known as the second Generation
Language Which is also known as the Assembly Language and in the Assembly
Language there are Many Mnemonics those are also Called as the Reserve Words
those are easy to understand to the users and those have Some Specific Meaning.
In the Assembly Language the Programs are written into the Form of some
Words those are Machine Oriented Mans which has the Specific Meaning and the
Words those are easily understand by the Machine Language.
For Example, if a user wants to add two Numbers then he has to use Some
Mnemonics like this ADD A, B in this ADD is the Mnemonics which is used for
performing the Add Operation
Advantages of Assembly Language

1. It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine language.
2. It is easy to locate and correct errors.
3. It is modified easily

Disadvantages of Assembly Level Languages:
1. No Symbolic names for memory locations. You need to keep track of the
exact memory location that a piece of data is stored. That is, you must
manipulate memory locations directly.
2. Hard to read. Although we've made a few improvements by eliminating
hex code, the command names are not always clear.
3. Code is still machined dependent. We haven't really moved that far
away from the machine language - just put pseudo-English labels on it.
We still need to rewrite every piece of code for every machine.
4. Hard to maintain and debug. Finding mistakes in machine code is
difficult. Correcting them or adding new features can also be a challenge.
5. Code must be heavily documented. It's very difficult (if not impossible)
to figure out what a program does by reading the code. Detailed
explanation must be prepared for future coders (including the original
programmer) who need to modify or use the code.
High Level Language or 3rd GL

High Level Programming Languages are User Friendly means the Syntax of
theses Languages is Quite Simple because they Contains all the Words those are in
the Form of English Language but the Main Problem is that they are not Machine
Oriented Means the Program which is written into the High Level Languages is not
understand by the Computer So that the Program Must be Converted into the
Machine Language and the Program which is Written into the Human Language
will cause the Computer in Slow of Processing.
Advantages and disadvantages of High Level Languages:

 It is close to human being
 It is easy to understand
 It consists of English language like structure
 It does not depend upon machine
 It is easy to modify
 The programs written in high level languages is called source code
 Examples of high level languages are BASIC, PASCAL, C/C++ etc.
Disadvantages of high level languages:
 It need language translator to translate into program in to machine language.

 It does not execute directly on computer.
Language Translators or Processors:

A translator is a computer program that performs the translation of a
program written in a given programming language into a functionally equivalent
program in a different computer language, without losing the functional or logical
structure of the original code (the "essence" of each program).

Types of Language Translators or Processors:
1. Assemblers
2. Compilers
3. Interpreters
Assembler
An Assembler is a language translator which converts an assembly program into
machine code.
SOURCE CODE ASSEMBLER MACHINE CODE
An assembler translates assembly language into machine code. Assembly

language consists of mnemonics for machine opcodes so assemblers perform a 1:1
translation from mnemonic to a direct instruction. For example:
LDA #4 converts to 0001001000100100
Conversely, one instruction in a high level language will translate to one or more
instructions at machine level.
Advantages of using an Assembler:
Very fast in translating assembly language to machine code as 1 to 1 relationship

Assembly code is often very efficient (and therefore fast) because it is a low level
language
Assembly code is fairly easy to understand due to the use of English-like
mnemonics.
Disadvantages of using Assembler:
Assembly language is written for a certain instruction set and/or processor

Assembly tends to be optimized for the hardware it's designed for, meaning it is
often incompatible with different hardware
Lots of assembly code is needed to do relatively simple tasks, and complex
programs require lots of programming time
Compiler
A Compiler is a program that translates a high level language into machine
code. The Turbo Pascal compiler, for example, translates a program written in Pascal
into machine code that can be run on a PC.
A Compiler is a computer program that translates code written in a high
level language to a lower level language, object/machine code. The most common
reason for translating source code is to create an executable program (converting

from a high level language into machine language).
SOURCE CODE COMPILER MACHINE CODE
Advantages of using a compiler

Source code is not included; therefore, compiled code is more secure than
interpreted code
Tends to produce faster code than interpreting source code
Produces an executable file, and therefore the program can be run without need
of the source code
Disadvantages of using a compiler

Object code needs to be produced before a final executable file, this can be a slow
process
The source code must be 100% correct for the executable file to be produced
Interpreter
An interpreter program executes other programs directly, running through
program code and executing it line-by-line. As it analyses every line, an interpreter is
slower than running compiled code but it can take less time to interpret program
code than to compile and then run it — this is very useful when prototyping and
testing code. Interpreters are written for multiple platforms; this means code written
once can be run immediately on different systems without having to recompile for
each. Examples of this include flash based web programs that will run on your PC,
MAC, games console and Mobile phone.
SOURCE CODE INTERPRETER MACHINE CODE
Advantages of using an Interpreter

Easier to debug (check errors) than a compiler
Easier to create multi-platform code, as each different platform would have an
interpreter to run the same code
Useful for prototyping software and testing basic program logic
Disadvantages of using an Interpreter

Source code is required for the program to be executed, and this source code can
be read making it insecure
Interpreters are generally slower than compiled programs due to the per-line
translation method
Difference between Compiler & Interpreter

S.No Compiler Interpreter
Translates the high level instruction Translates the high level instruction
1
into machine language into an intermediate code.
executes the entire program at a Executes each and every line

2
time individually.
It quits translating soon after finding

The list of errors that are caused an error, the progression of the other
3
during the process of execution lines of the program will be done
after refining the error.
Autonomous executable file is Interpreter is compulsory for an

4
generated by the compiler interpreter program.
the analyzing and processing time Spends less time for the program
5
of the program is more analyzing and processing.
The resulting code of the compiler In case of interpreter the resulting

6 is in the form of machine code or code is in the form of the
binary format intermediate code.
the resulting code is executed by the Another program interprets the
7
computer hardware resulting code
An interpreter the program
The execution of the program is fast
8 execution speed is comparatively
in the compiler
slow.
9 will verify syntax of program Verifies the keywords of a program.
will verify the entire program at a Verifies the program concurrently in

10
time the editor.
Editor or Loader & Linker
Loader
A loader reads the executable code into memory does some address
translation and tries to run the program resulting in a running program or an error
message (or both)
Linker
A linker combines one or more object files and possible some library code into
some executable, some library or a list of error messages.

Operating System:
An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer
hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The
operating system is an essential component of the system software in a computer
system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function.
OS acts as a interface between the user and computer
Types of Operating System:
Single User Operating System:

A single-user operating system is a type of operating system (OS) that is
developed and intended for use on a computer or similar machine that will only
have a single user at any given time. This is the most common type of OS used on a
home computer, as well as on computers in offices and other work environments.
There are two general types of single-user systems: single task
and multitasking systems. Though this OS can be connected to other systems
through a network, it is still truly only used by a single person and is different than a
multi-user OS.
Types of Single User Operating System

Single User Single Tasking:
A single-user operating system that is a single task system is developed for use
with a computer or electronic device that will only run one application at a time.
This type of OS is typically used on devices like wireless phones and two-way
messaging devices. A single task operating system can only run one program or
application at a time, and so it is not as useful for a computer or other device
intended to run multiple programs at once.
Examples: MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System).
Single User Multi-Tasking:
This is where a multitasking single-user operating system is used instead. A
multitasking OS can run multiple applications and programs at once. This is often
used on computers where someone may wish to navigate the Internet, run a
graphics editing program, play music through a media playing program, and type in
notes in a simple word processing program all at the same time. A single task OS
could not do this, but the multitasking systems are able to handle all of these
processes.
Examples: MS Windows 95, MS Windows 98, MS Windows Xp.
Multi User Multi Tasking:

Multi-user is a term that defines an operating system or application software that
allows access by multiple users of a computer. Time-sharing systems are multi-user
systems. Most batch processing systems for mainframe computers may also be
considered "multi-user", to avoid leaving the CPU idle while it waits
for I/O operations to complete. However, the term "multitasking" is more common
in this context.
Examples: MS Windows NT, UNIX.
Functions of OS
Operating system is large and complex software consisting of several
components. Each component of the operating system has its own set of defined
inputs and outputs. Different components of OS perform specific tasks to provide
the overall functionality of the operating system
Main functions of the operating system are as follows:

 Process Management— The process management activities handled by the
OS are—(1) control access to shared resources like file, memory, I/O and
CPU, (2) control execution of applications, (3) create, execute and delete a
process (system process or user process), (4) cancel or resume a process (5)
schedule a process, and (6) synchronization, communication and deadlock
handling for processes.
 Memory Management— The activities of memory management handled by
OS are—(1) allocate memory, (2) free memory, (3) re-allocate memory to a
program when a used block is freed, and (4) keep track of memory usage.
 File Management— The file management tasks include—(1) create and delete
both files and directories, (2) provide access to files, (3) allocate space for files,
(4) keep back-up of files, and (5) secure files.
 Device Management— The device management tasks handled by OS are—(1)
open, close and write device drivers, and (2) communicate, control and
monitor the device driver.
 Protection and Security— OS protects the resources of system. User
authentication, file attributes like read, write, encryption, and back-up of data
are used by OS to provide basic protection.
 User Interface or Command Interpreter— Operating system provides an
interface between the computer user and the computer hardware. The user
interface is a set of commands or a graphical user interface via which the user
interacts with the applications and the hardware.
Classes of Operating System
Batch processing OS
Batch processing is a technique in which Operating System collects one
programs and data together in a batch before processing starts. Operating system
does the following activities related to batch processing.
 OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and
data as a single unit.
 OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual
information.
 Jobs are processed in the order of submission i.e first come first served
fashion.
 When job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for
the job gets copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.
Advantages
 Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
 Increased performance as a new job gets started as soon as the previous job
finished without any manual intervention.
Disadvantages
 Difficult to debug program.
 A job could enter an infinite loop.
 Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.
Multiprogramming
When two or more programs are residing in memory at the same time, then
sharing the processor is referred to the multiprogramming. Multiprogramming
assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by
organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
Following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
Operating system does the following activities related to multiprogramming.

 The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
 This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
 The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the job in the
memory.
 Multiprogramming operating system monitors the state of all active programs
and system resources using memory management programs to ensures that
the CPU is never idle unless there are no jobs
Advantages
 High and efficient CPU utilization.
 User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
 CPU scheduling is required.
 To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.
Time-sharing operating systems

Time sharing is a technique which enables many people, located at various
terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time. Time-sharing or
multitasking is a logical extension of multiprogramming. Processor's time which is
shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing. The main

difference between Multiprogrammed Batch Systems and Time-Sharing Systems is
that in case of Multiprogrammed batch systems, objective is to maximize processor
use, whereas in Time-Sharing Systems objective is to minimize response time.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the
switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receives an immediate response. For
example, in a transaction processing, processor execute each user program in a short
burst or quantum of computation. That is if n users are present, each user can get
time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few
seconds at most.
Operating system uses CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide
each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed
primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
Advantages of Timesharing operating systems are following
 Provide advantage of quick response.
 Avoids duplication of software.
 Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages of Timesharing operating systems are following.

 Problem of reliability.
 Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
Problem of data communication.
Real Time operating System

Real time system is defines as a data processing system in which the time
interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the
environment. Real time processing is always on line whereas on line system need
not be real time. The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of
required updated information is termed as response time. So in this method
response time is very less as compared to the online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the
operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a

control device in a dedicated application. Real-time operating system has well-
defined, fixed time constraints otherwise system will fail. For example scientific
experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems,
robots, and home-appliance controllers, Air traffic control system etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.

Hard real-time systems
Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard
real-time systems secondary storage is limited or missing with data stored in ROM.
In these systems virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems
Soft real time systems are less restrictive. Critical real-time task gets priority
over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems
have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, Multimedia, virtual
reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers
etc.
MS-DOS
MS-DOS short for Microsoft Disk Operating System) is an operating
system for x86-based personal computers. It was the most commonly used member
of the DOS family of operating systems, and was the main operating system for IBM
PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s to the mid-1990s, until it was
gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user interface (GUI),
in particular by various generations of the Microsoft Windows operating system.
Types of Commands:
 Internal Command.
 External Command.
Internal Command & External Command:

The following is a list of MS-DOS version 5.0 internal and external
commands. The internal commands reside in COMMAND.COM, which loads into
memory when the computer system is started; these commands do not reside on
disk. The external commands are files that do reside on disk and have an extension
of .COM, .EXE, or .BAT. Both command types are executed from the MS-DOS
prompt.
List of Internal Commands:

1) Dir (Directory)
This command gives a listing of most of the files and directories on a
disk (Hard disk and floppy disk). In DOS 3.3 and below, there are only 2
known switches:

C:\>DIR/W - gives the directory listing wide across your screen without times,
dates, and sizes
2) MD or MKDIR (Make Director)

This lets you Make a Directory, hence the MD (MKDIR is a holdover from
UNIX style OS's. If you switch between a UNIX OS and DOS, you may come to
appreciate MKDIR). You type MD followed by a file name. You can nest (Make a
directory within a directory) up to 16 directories on most DOS only systems.
C:\> MD SAMPLE
3) CD (Change Director)
This command lets you change directories. Let's say you are at root (Just a
"C:\>" prompt) and you want to get into a directory named WINDOWS. Type the
following:
C:\>cd windows
You will get a prompt like this:
4) COPY
This command obviously copies files to different spots on your disks.
It does not remove the source file after writing the new file. Usage:
C:\>copy mystuff.doc A:
This example will copy "mystuff.doc" to your A: drive. Here's another
example:
5) RD (Remove Director)
RD will Remove a Directory. Use RD followed by the name of the directory
you wish to delete. You must empty the directory first or you will just get an error
message from DOS. Since DOS 5.00 there has been a nifty utility
called DELETREE which doesn't care if the directory has files in it.
6) CLS (Clear Screen)

This command clears the screen. It also places your cursor at the top left-hand
corner of your screen (Also called the "home position").
C:\>cls
7) TIME
This lets you set your systems time.
C:\>time
Current time is 1:46:11.30p
Enter new time:
C:\>
You don't need to specify the time to the nearest millisecond like DOS displays it, an
hour and a minute will do. Notice the p at the end of the second line. That means it's
P.M. You MUST put a p at the end of your new time or else your computer will be

set to A.M. You can put an a there if you want an A.M. time, or you can just leave it
blank.
List of External Commands:

1) APPEND
This utility is very similar to the PATH environment variable. If you don't
know what the PATH does, I would learn about it first. When a program is run, it
usually has every supporting program in the same directory with it. Example, Word
Perfect 5.1 has some 80 files in its directory (Which does not include documents you
have typed). These include the spell checking program, font files, and printer
utilities ect. When Word Perfect is run, it expects to find all of these files in the same
directory as itself. If some of these files are not there, it chokes and may exit to DOS
or it may just give you an error message. Remember that the PATH allows DOS to
find programs and commands that are not in your current directory. APPEND will
allow Word Perfect to find its files even when they are not in its own directory.
2) ASSIGN
This utility was invented for the first computers with hard drives (Yea, a
loooong time ago!). Back when all you had was a floppy drive (And these where 5
1/4" disks- the original floppies for PC's) programs would only install to drive A:
and B:. If you were one of the lucky few to have a hard drive, you might be out of
luck if you needed to install software on drive C:. ASSIGN changes your drive letter
arrangement. It lets you make your C: drive become your A: or B: drive. Or any
other combination you desire. It was included up through DOS version 5. Here's
how to use it:
C:\>assign x:=y: where x: is the drive letter to be reassigned; and y: is the drive x:
will be assigned to
It accepts one switch, which tells you the current assigned drives:
3) ATTRIB
ATTRIB is used to change a file or directories attribute bit. "What is that?" you
might ask... A files attribute means more in UNIX environments than in DOS, but it
is still important here. A files attribute has four possible settings: ARCHIVE, READ-
ONLY, SYSTEM, and HIDDEN. Any combination of them together is possible.
Switches ATTRIB accepts:
 R stands for the READ-ONLY attribute
 A stands for the ARCHIVE attribute
 S stands for the SYSTEM attribute
 H stands for the HIDDEN attribute
 + adds the selected attribute to the specified file
 - removes the selected attribute from the selected file
 /S performs the attribute change on all files in the directory you specify

4) EDIT
This is a DOS text editor included with DOS 5 and up. Except for the windoze
95/98 DOS, EDIT requires that you have QBASIC in the same directory or in
the PATH. Here are the switches it accepts:
C:\>edit myfile.txt
/B - Forces monochrome mode.
/H - Displays the maximum number of lines possible for your hardware.
/R - Load file('s) in read-only mode.
/S - Forces the use of short filenames.
/<nnn> - Load binary file('s), wrapping lines to <nnn> characters wide.
Wildcards and multiple file specs can be given.
5) CHKDSK
This was the original "disk integrity" program. It checks your file system for
improperly deleted files (Reported as "Lost chains") and other things. It was
included with EVERY version of DOS, even in DOS 6 even though SCANDISK was
available with DOS 6. Here's the switches it accepts:
C:\>CHKDSK
/F automatically fixes any errors found
/V shows every file on your disk
6) FORMAT
FORMAT is used for- you guessed it- formatting disks. This is necessary so
that DOS knows where to put data on a disk. FORMAT writes over every available
sector on the disk, putting "place holders" where every bit can go. It also sets up the
boot sector, root directory, and FAT. FORMAT also detects bad sectors on your disk
and marks them out so DOS won’t try to use them. FORMAT gives you a list of all it
did after completion. If you see that it found bad sectors on a floppy disk, I would
advise throwing it away. Floppies are so cheap you shouldn't risk using a diskette
that is on its way out. Even if you don't consider your data very important, it can be
a hassle to mess with bad floppies.
C:\>FORMAT D:
Computer Virus Definition

A computer virus we can say is a small software program or a piece of code
that is loaded on your computer system while using internet can spread from one
computer to another and running without your knowledge.
Computer viruses can also replicate and they are man-made. How the
replication done in the computer virus? A simple virus that can make copy of itself
over and over again and that would be easy to produce.
Sometimes a simple virus is very dangerous because it stored in your system
available memory and when after some time all the small virus collected it may halt
you system. A virus has a capacity to corrupt the files located in you system and it
also has a capability to spread the virus via e-mail program and effect the system
other email addresses in your online address book.
It can also delete everything on your hard disk that would be the worst case
scenario. A virus can also affect your system security. In 1987, A virus infect
ARPANET, then the Defense department and other universities using large network,
many antivirus programs become available. Such programs are invent because they
check periodically you system and prevent it from known viruses.
Macro virus
Macro virus infect the file hat are created from some application or programs
which are mainly contain macro files like doc, pps, xls, mdb. So basically such virus
infect the files with the macros and also templates and document that are contained
in the file. These virus hide in documents that are shared through network and e-
mail. Macro virus are Relax, bablas, Melissa.A, 097M/Y2K.

Memory Resident Viruses
Resident viruses activated every time the OS runs and end up infecting other
opened files. Such virus usually fixes themselves inside the computer memory, hide
in RAM. Resident viruses are CMJ, meve, randex, mrklunky.
Overwrite Viruses
Overwrite viruses delete the information from the file partially or completely
once it infect a file. It infect only the file content may be change all the content but
the file location and name remains the same, means doesn’t infect the file name and
the location. Overwrite viruses are Trj.Reboot, way, trivial.88.D.
Direct Action Viruses

Direct Action Virus activate when the file containing virus is executed. The
virus take no other action unless an infected file is executed again. Most viruses
avoid this because this is not so productive, but such virus damage in the past.
Direct Action viruses are Vienna Virus.
Directory Virus
Directory virus is also known by cluster virus and file system virus. This can
infect the computer’s directory by changing the path by indication the location. Such
virus located into the hard disk but affect the entire directory. Directory viruses are
die-2 virus.
Web Scripting Virus

Mostly web pages contain complex code to make their web page content
interactive so that such code exploit that cause undesirable actions. Such virus
originates from browser and web pages. Web Scripting viruses include JS.Fortnight
that spread via malicious emails.
Multipartite Virus
This type of virus spread in multiple ways and the taken action depending
upon the type of OS installed and presence of certain files. Most of the time this virus
try to hide in computer’s memory not to infect the hard disk. Multipartite Viruses
are flip, invader and tequila.
Polymorphic Virus
Polymorphic virus encode and encrypt themselves every time they are going
to infect the computer system. For that they use different encryption methods and
algorithms. Since they use different encryption method each time which is difficult
for antivirus to locate and resolve them. Polymorphism viruses are Marburg, tuareg,
Satan bug, elkern.

Worm
Worm is very similar to a virus having a capability to self-replicate which is
leading to negative effect on your system. This consume too much system memory
and also affect web servers and network servers. Worm viruses are lovgate.F,
sobig.D, trile.C, PSWBugbear.B, Mapson.
Trojans horses
This name comes from a software which is very useful software but later do
damage you system after run once. This virus can track the login details of the users
who is online. Example as we all know E-banking is very common, so its
vulnerability of tracing your login details whenever your PC is working without the
support of strong antivirus.
Email Virus
This virus is spread via email, this will hide an email when recipient opens
the mail.
Boot Infectors
This virus type will include boot sector and master boot record types. While
all the viral codes are separated because they infect the hard disks or the floppy. It
include the viruses like the brain virus which is very first wild virus is to be created.
Virus Protection Methods

Protection of virus is well designed software program which is used in
infected computer systems to prevent from viruses, worms and Trojan horses. The
main purpose of using Virus protection is to remove any malicious software code
which is already infects a computer. Most of the virus protection utilities now
bundle anti-spyware and anti-malware ability that belong to anti-virus protection.
To secure internet that include some additional capabilities like anti-spam, anti-
phishing, firewall, optimization of files and file protection.
Detection of Computer Virus

 Your computer slows down without any reason.
 Your computer system has less available memory than it should.
 Unknown programs or files are being created.
 Programs or files become missing.
 Corrupted files.
 Your computer restarts in unusual ways.
 Some files or programs suddenly don’t work properly.
 Strange messages, displays, music or sounds.
 Changed Hard Drive name or Volume name.
 Hard Drives or Disk Drives are inaccessible.
Computer Virus Prevention Tips

 Keep your operating system and software always up-to-date
 Use a firewall
 Use antivirus software
 Don't ignore security warnings from Windows or your antivirus software
 Don't install and use pirated software
 If you don't use Java, then remove or disable it
 Don't click on "OK", "Yes" or "Run" when a pop-up window appears and ask
you to install unknown software. Here's one example: "Your windows computer
could be at risk! Install this repair tool to protect and clean your system by
clicking "Secure Now" as soon as possible" Don't fall for this trick!
 Before you want to install free software (freeware) first check if its reliable by
reading reviews about it
 Always download software from the official link or from a trusted website
 Don't click on a link (in emails or web pages) if you don't trust it.
 Use a secure and safe web browser like Google Chrome or Mozilla Firefox and
keep it updated
 When installing software, always read everything clearly before clicking
"Next", "OK", "Install", "Continue", etc...
 Microsoft recommends that you disable SMB1 on Windows for security
reasons.

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Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Real beginning of Computers

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Each generation of computers is characterized by major technological

Following are the generations of Computers

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

Some computers of this generation were:

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

EDVAC (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) was one of the

UNIVAC:(UNIVersal Automatic Computer I) was the first commercial computer

Disadvantages of First Generation

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Very slow speed.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Some computers of this generation were: IBM 1620

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

The main features/advantages of Third Generation are:

Disadvantages of Third Generation

Air conditioning was required.

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Fourth Generation - 1971-90: Micro Processor

The main features of Fourth Generation are:

Disadvantages of Third Generation

Fifth Generation – 1990, Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

The main features of Fifth Generation are:

Some computer types of this generation are:

1. MCC Project in USA: Microelectronic and computer Technology corporation

2. DARPA Project in USA: Defense Advance Research project Agency (DARPA)

4. The ICOT Program in Japan: The Japanese Computer Corporations and

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Basic characteristics about computer are:

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Reduction in Paper Work

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

Insurance companies are maintaining a database of all clients with information

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

• Surgery: Nowadays, computers are also used in performing surgery.

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

1. Classification based on Operating Principles

Digital Computers: - Operate essentially by counting. All quantities are expressed as

Analog Computers:- An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the

Hybrid Computers:- are computers that exhibit features of analog

2. Classification based on area of applications

General Purpose Computers: - A General Purpose computers are designed to meet

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

A) Microcomputers (Personal Computer)

The different portable computers are: -

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)

B) Workstations: -Workstation is a computer used for engineering applications

C) Minicomputer: - A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more

E) Supercomputer: - Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and

Block Diagram of Computer or Components of Computer

Computer Fundamentals & Office Automation BCA I Sem (Module I)