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STANDARDS

There are two types of standards namely;

I. De facto standards - refers to a standard that has been established through common usage, rather
than by law or formal agreement. This means that it is a standard that has become widely accepted
and adopted simply because it has been used consistently over time.
II. De jure standards - refers to a standard that is established by law or by some other formal
agreement. This means that it is a standard that has been officially recognized and enforced by a
governing body or regulatory authority For example, there may be de jure standards for
electrical safety that are established by government agencies to ensure that electrical
devices and systems are designed and installed in a way that minimizes the risk of fire or injury

DIGITAL MOGULATION.

Refers to the process of converting digital data or low pass analog to a band pass (higher frequency) analog
signal.

Refers to the process of encoding digital information onto an analog carrier signal for transmission over a
communication channel. In digital modulation, the carrier signal's amplitude, frequency, or phase is varied in
a way that represents the binary digits (0s and 1s) of the digital signal being transmitted.

ADVANTAGES

Improved Signal Quality: Digital modulation can produce a higher quality signal than analog modulation
techniques because it is less prone to interference and noise. Digital modulation techniques can also use
error correction and detection algorithms to improve the signal quality.

Higher Data Rates: Digital modulation allows for higher data rates than analog modulation techniques. This is
because digital signals can represent more information per unit time than analog signals, which are limited
by the bandwidth of the communication channel.

Greater Security: Digital modulation techniques can be designed with encryption and decryption algorithms
that make the transmission more secure. This is important in applications where sensitive or confidential
data is being transmitted.

Flexibility: Digital modulation techniques are flexible and can be adapted to different communication
environments and channel conditions. This allows for efficient use of the available bandwidth and improves
the overall performance of the communication system.

Compatibility: Digital modulation techniques can be backward compatible with existing analog systems,
allowing for a smooth transition from analog to digital technology. This means that digital modulation can be
adopted without requiring a complete overhaul of the existing communication infrastructure.

DISADVANTAGES

Bandwidth Requirements: Digital modulation requires more bandwidth than analog modulation to transmit
the same amount of information. This is because digital signals have a higher information density than
analog signals.

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Complexity: Digital modulation requires more complex encoding and decoding techniques than analog
modulation. This increases the cost and complexity of the communication system.

Synchronization: Digital modulation requires accurate synchronization between the transmitter and receiver
to recover the transmitted data correctly. Any timing errors or phase shifts can cause errors in the received
data.

Power Consumption: Digital modulation requires more power to operate than analog modulation. This can be
a significant issue for battery-powered devices, such as mobile phones.

Interference: Digital modulation is more susceptible to interference from other signals than analog
modulation. This can result in errors in the received data.

Nonlinear Distortion: Digital modulation signals are subject to nonlinear distortion when transmitted over
long distances. This can result in errors in the received data, especially at higher data rates.

There are several types of digital modulation;

ASK – Amplitude Shift Keying

The amplitude of the resultant output depends upon the input data whether it should be a zero level
or a variation of positive and negative, depending upon the carrier frequency.

FSK – Frequency Shift Keying

The frequency of the output signal will be either high or low, depending upon the input data applied.

PSK – Phase Shift Keying

The phase of the output signal gets shifted depending upon the input. These are mainly of two types,
namely Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK and Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK, according to
the number of phase shifts. The other one is Differential Phase Shift Keying DPSK which changes
the phase according to the previous value.

M-ary Encoding

M-ary Encoding techniques are the methods where more than two bits are made to transmit
simultaneously on a single signal. This helps in the reduction of bandwidth.

The types of M-ary techniques are −

 M-ary ASK
 M-ary FSK
 M-ary PSK

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Amplitude Shift Keying

Amplitude Shift Keying ASK is a type of Amplitude Modulation which represents the binary data in
the form of variations in the amplitude of a signal.

Any modulated signal has a high frequency carrier. The binary signal when ASK modulated, gives
a zero value for Low input while it gives the carrier output for High input.

The following figure represents ASK modulated waveform along with its input.

To find the process of obtaining this ASK modulated wave, let us learn about the working of the ASK
modulator.

ASK Modulator

The ASK modulator block diagram comprises of the carrier signal generator, the binary sequence
from the message signal and the band-limited filter. Following is the block diagram of the ASK
Modulator.

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The carrier generator, sends a continuous high-frequency carrier. The binary sequence from the
message signal makes the unipolar input to be either High or Low. The high signal closes the switch,
allowing a carrier wave. Hence, the output will be the carrier signal at high input. When there is low
input, the switch opens, allowing no voltage to appear. Hence, the output will be low.

The band-limiting filter, shapes the pulse depending upon the amplitude and phase characteristics
of the band-limiting filter or the pulse-shaping filter.

ASK Demodulator

There are two types of ASK Demodulation techniques. They are −

 Asynchronous ASK Demodulation/detection

 Synchronous ASK Demodulation/detection

The clock frequency at the transmitter when matches with the clock frequency at the receiver, it is
known as a Synchronous method, as the frequency gets synchronized. Otherwise, it is known
as Asynchronous.

Asynchronous ASK Demodulator

The Asynchronous ASK detector consists of a half-wave rectifier, a low pass filter, and a comparator.
Following is the block diagram for the same.

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The modulated ASK signal is given to the half-wave rectifier, which delivers a positive half output.
The low pass filter suppresses the higher frequencies and gives an envelope detected output from
which the comparator delivers a digital output.

Synchronous ASK Demodulator

Synchronous ASK detector consists of a Square law detector, low pass filter, a comparator, and a
voltage limiter. Following is the block diagram for the same.

The ASK modulated input signal is given to the Square law detector. A square law detector is one
whose output voltage is proportional to the square of the amplitude modulated input voltage. The
low pass filter minimizes the higher frequencies. The comparator and the voltage limiter help to get
a clean digital output.

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Frequency Shift Keying

Frequency Shift Keying FSK is the digital modulation technique in which the frequency of the
carrier signal varies according to the digital signal changes. FSK is a scheme of frequency
modulation.
The output of a FSK modulated wave is high in frequency for a binary High input and is low in
frequency for a binary Low input. The binary 1s and 0s are called Mark and Space frequencies.

The following image is the diagrammatic representation of FSK modulated waveform along with its
input.

To find the process of obtaining this FSK modulated wave, let us know about the working of a FSK
modulator.

FSK Modulator

The FSK modulator block diagram comprises of two oscillators with a clock and the input binary
sequence. Following is its block diagram.

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The two oscillators, producing a higher and a lower frequency signals, are connected to a switch
along with an internal clock. To avoid the abrupt phase discontinuities of the output waveform
during the transmission of the message, a clock is applied to both the oscillators, internally. The
binary input sequence is applied to the transmitter so as to choose the frequencies according to the
binary input.

FSK Demodulator

There are different methods for demodulating a FSK wave. The main methods of FSK detection
are asynchronous detector and synchronous detector. The synchronous detector is a coherent one,
while asynchronous detector is a non-coherent one.

Asynchronous FSK Detector

The block diagram of Asynchronous FSK detector consists of two band pass filters, two envelope
detectors, and a decision circuit. Following is the diagrammatic representation.

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The FSK signal is passed through the two Band Pass Filters BPFs, tuned
to Space and Mark frequencies. The output from these two BPFs look like ASK signal, which is given
to the envelope detector. The signal in each envelope detector is modulated asynchronously.

The decision circuit chooses which output is more likely and selects it from any one of the envelope
detectors. It also re-shapes the waveform to a rectangular one.

Synchronous FSK Detector

The block diagram of Synchronous FSK detector consists of two mixers with local oscillator circuits,
two band pass filters and a decision circuit. Following is the diagrammatic representation.

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The FSK signal input is given to the two mixers with local oscillator circuits. These two are connected
to two band pass filters. These combinations act as demodulators and the decision circuit chooses
which output is more likely and selects it from any one of the detectors. The two signals have a
minimum frequency separation.

For both of the demodulators, the bandwidth of each of them depends on their bit rate. This
synchronous demodulator is a bit complex than asynchronous type demodulators.

Phase Shift Keying

Phase Shift Keying PSK is the digital modulation technique in which the phase of the carrier signal
is changed by varying the sine and cosine inputs at a particular time. PSK technique is widely used
for wireless LANs, bio-metric, contactless operations, along with RFID and Bluetooth
communications.

PSK is of two types, depending upon the phases the signal gets shifted. They are −

Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK����

This is also called as 2-phase PSK or Phase Reversal Keying. In this technique, the sine wave carrier
takes two phase reversals such as 0° and 180°.

BPSK is basically a Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, for message
being the digital information.
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK����
This is the phase shift keying technique, in which the sine wave carrier takes four phase reversals
such as 0°, 90°, 180°, and 270°.

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If this kind of techniques are further extended, PSK can be done by eight or sixteen values also,
depending upon the requirement.

BPSK Modulator

The block diagram of Binary Phase Shift Keying consists of the balance modulator which has the
carrier sine wave as one input and the binary sequence as the other input. Following is the
diagrammatic representation.

The modulation of BPSK is done using a balance modulator, which multiplies the two signals applied
at the input. For a zero binary input, the phase will be 0° and for a high input, the phase reversal is
of 180°.

Following is the diagrammatic representation of BPSK Modulated output wave along with its given
input.

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The output sine wave of the modulator will be the direct input carrier or the
inverted 180°phaseshifted180° input carrier, which is a function of the data signal.

BPSK Demodulator

The block diagram of BPSK demodulator consists of a mixer with local oscillator circuit, a band pass
filter, a two-input detector circuit. The diagram is as follows.

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By recovering the band-limited message signal, with the help of the mixer circuit and the band pass
filter, the first stage of demodulation gets completed. The base band signal which is band limited is
obtained and this signal is used to regenerate the binary message bit stream.

In the next stage of demodulation, the bit clock rate is needed at the detector circuit to produce the
original binary message signal. If the bit rate is a sub-multiple of the carrier frequency, then the bit
clock regeneration is simplified. To make the circuit easily understandable, a decision-making circuit
may also be inserted at the 2 stage of detection.
nd

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

The Quadrature Phase Shift Keying QPSK is a variation of BPSK, and it is also a Double Side Band
Suppressed Carrier DSBSC modulation scheme, which sends two bits of digital information at a
time, called as bigits.

Instead of the conversion of digital bits into a series of digital stream, it converts them into bit pairs.
This decreases the data bit rate to half, which allows space for the other users.

QPSK Modulator

The QPSK Modulator uses a bit-splitter, two multipliers with local oscillator, a 2-bit serial to parallel
converter, and a summer circuit. Following is the block diagram for the same.

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At the modulator’s input, the message signal’s even bits (i.e., 2 bit, 4 bit, 6 bit, etc.) and odd bits
nd th th

(i.e., 1st bit, 3 bit, 5 bit, etc.) are separated by the bits splitter and are multiplied with the same
rd th

carrier to generate odd BPSK (called as PSK ) and even BPSK (called as PSK ). The PSK signal is
I Q Q

anyhow phase shifted by 90° before being modulated.

The QPSK waveform for two-bits input is as follows, which shows the modulated result for different
instances of binary inputs.

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QPSK Demodulator

The QPSK Demodulator uses two product demodulator circuits with local oscillator, two band pass
filters, two integrator circuits, and a 2-bit parallel to serial converter. Following is the diagram for
the same.

The two product detectors at the input of demodulator simultaneously demodulate the two BPSK
signals. The pair of bits are recovered here from the original data. These signals after processing,
are passed to the parallel to serial converter.

Differential Phase Shift Keying

In Differential Phase Shift Keying DPSK���� the phase of the modulated signal is shifted
relative to the previous signal element. No reference signal is considered here. The signal phase
follows the high or low state of the previous element. This DPSK technique doesn’t need a reference
oscillator.

The following figure represents the model waveform of DPSK.

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It is seen from the above figure that, if the data bit is Low i.e., 0, then the phase of the signal is not
reversed, but continued as it was. If the data is a High i.e., 1, then the phase of the signal is reversed,
as with NRZI, invert on 1 a form of differential encoding
If we observe the above waveform, we can say that the High state represents an M in the modulating
signal and the Low state represents a W in the modulating signal.

DPSK Modulator

DPSK is a technique of BPSK, in which there is no reference phase signal. Here, the transmitted
signal itself can be used as a reference signal. Following is the diagram of DPSK Modulator.

DPSK encodes two distinct signals, i.e., the carrier and the modulating signal with 180° phase shift
each. The serial data input is given to the XNOR gate and the output is again fed back to the other
input through 1-bit delay. The output of the XNOR gate along with the carrier signal is given to the
balance modulator, to produce the DPSK modulated signal.

DPSK Demodulator

In DPSK demodulator, the phase of the reversed bit is compared with the phase of the previous bit.
Following is the block diagram of DPSK demodulator.

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From the above figure, it is evident that the balance modulator is given the DPSK signal along with
1-bit delay input. That signal is made to confine to lower frequencies with the help of LPF. Then it is
passed to a shaper circuit, which is a comparator or a Schmitt trigger circuit, to recover the original
binary data as the output.

LINE ENCODING
A line code is the code used for data transmission of a digital signal over a transmission line. This
process of coding is chosen so as to avoid overlap and distortion of signal such as inter-symbol
interference.

Properties of Line Coding

Following are the properties of line coding −

 As the coding is done to make more bits transmit on a single signal, the bandwidth used is
much reduced.
 For a given bandwidth, the power is efficiently used.
 The probability of error is much reduced.
 Error detection is done and the bipolar too has a correction capability.
 Power density is much favorable.
 The timing content is adequate.
 Long strings of 1s and 0s is avoided to maintain transparency.
Types of Line Coding
There are 3 types of Line Coding

 Unipolar

 Polar

 Bi-polar

Unipolar Signaling

Unipolar signaling is also called as On-Off Keying or simply OOK.

The presence of pulse represents a 1 and the absence of pulse represents a 0.

There are two variations in unipolar signaling

 Non Return to Zero NRZ

 Return to Zero RZ

Unipolar Non-Return to Zero NRZ

In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse called as Mark,
which has a duration T equal to the symbol bit duration. A Low in data input has no pulse.
0

The following figure clearly depicts this.

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Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

 It is simple.

 A lesser bandwidth is required.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar NRZ are −

 No error correction was done.

 The presence of low-frequency components may cause the signal to droop.
 No clock is present.
 Loss of synchronization is likely to occur (especially for long strings of 1s and 0s).
Unipolar Return to Zero RZ
In this type of unipolar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its
duration T is less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it
0

immediately returns to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit
duration.

It is clearly understood with the help of the following figure.

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Advantages

The advantages of Unipolar RZ are −

 It is simple.

 The spectral line present at the symbol rate can be used as a clock.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Unipolar RZ are −

 No error correction.

 Occupies twice the bandwidth as unipolar NRZ.

 The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Polar Signaling

There are two methods of Polar Signaling. They are −

 Polar NRZ

 Polar RZ
Polar NRZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data is represented by a positive pulse, while a Low in data
is represented by a negative pulse. The following figure depicts this well.

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Advantages

The advantages of Polar NRZ are −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar NRZ are −

 No error correction.
 No clock is present.
 The signal droop is caused at the places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.
Polar RZ
In this type of Polar signaling, a High in data, though represented by a Mark pulse, its duration T is
0

less than the symbol bit duration. Half of the bit duration remains high but it immediately returns
to zero and shows the absence of pulse during the remaining half of the bit duration.

However, for a Low input, a negative pulse represents the data, and the zero level remains same for
the other half of the bit duration. The following figure depicts this clearly.

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Advantages

The advantages of Polar RZ are −

 It is simple.

 No low-frequency components are present.

Disadvantages

The disadvantages of Polar RZ are −

 No error correction.
 No clock is present.
 Occupies twice the bandwidth of Polar NRZ.
 The signal droop is caused at places where the signal is non-zero at 0 Hz.

Bipolar Signaling

This is an encoding technique which has three voltage levels namely +, - and 0. Such a signal is
called as duo-binary signal.

An example of this type is Alternate Mark Inversion AMI. For a 1, the voltage level gets a transition
from + to – or from – to +, having alternate 1s to be of equal polarity. A 0 will have a zero voltage
level.

Even in this method, we have two types.

 Bipolar NRZ

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 Bipolar RZ

From the models so far discussed, we have learnt the difference between NRZ and RZ. It just goes
in the same way here too. The following figure clearly depicts this.

The above figure has both the Bipolar NRZ and RZ waveforms. The pulse duration and symbol bit
duration are equal in NRZ type, while the pulse duration is half of the symbol bit duration in RZ type.

Advantages
Following are the advantages −

 It is simple.
 No low-frequency components are present.
 Occupies low bandwidth than unipolar and polar NRZ schemes.
 This technique is suitable for transmission over AC coupled lines, as signal drooping doesn’t
occur here.
 A single error detection capability is present in this.
Disadvantages
Following are the disadvantages −

 No clock is present.

 Long strings of data causes loss of synchronization.

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ENCODING SCHEMES

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