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U CL
ADTIC Publication No. D-102
January 1953
SUN SAND
and
SURVIVAL
An Analysis of Survival Experiences
in Desert Areas
I
AacTc, DESERT, TRopic INFORMATION CENTKR
AIR UNIVERSITY
MAXWZLL AIR FORCz BAsz, AuAMA
ADTIC Publication No. D-102
SUN-SAND
and
SURVIVAL
-.s
An Analysis of Survival Experiences

in Desert Areas
by
Ricumm A. Howmt, Ph.D.
ADTXC Consultant
Amrc, Duma, Tmomc i0romMAlsow Curm

AIR UNIMVRSrY
MAxwL Am lncs Bass, Mm

Personal views or opinions expressed or implied in
this publication are not to be construed as carrying
official sanction of the Department of the Air Force
or the Air University.
D ESERT SURVIVAL presents unique problems not met in other nontem-
. perate areas. Recognizing this, the Arctic, Desert, Tropic Informa-
tion Center commissioned Dr. Richard A. Howard to assemble and
analyze desert survival experiences of World War II, for the purpose of
increasing our knowledge of desert survival techniques and procedures.
To know what World War II survivors did, what they thought, and what
they recommended after having experienced desert survival conditions
is of paramount importance. Sun, Sand and Survival relates and evalu-
ates these experiences.
Dr. Howard, ADTIC consultant, has had long experience in the sur-
vival training of military personnel. He is the author of the ADTIC
Publication T-100 999 Survived which analyzes 1,000 tropical survival
experiences. Dr. Howard's desert study analyzes 382 successful desert
survival episodes and mention is made of an additional 142 individuals
who were lost. The stories show how men without desert background or
mental conditioning met their desert problems. They include examples
of men who left their group and were never heard of again. In the light
of our present knowledge of the water requirements of the human body,
we know that many could have survived had they had a better under-
standing of the requirements imposed by the desert. More survivors
would have returned in better health and endured less discomfort if
advance knowledge had been readily available.
Sun, Sand and Survival will contribute materially to the briefing of
pilots and crews who operate over desert terrain. It gives firsthand In-
formation on what to expect in a great variety of desert areas. It shows.
definitely that deserts are not all alike. Used in connection with ADTIC
Publication D-100 Afoot in the Desert and Air Force Manual 64-5 Sur-
vival, it gives the reader a thorough grasp of techniques and procedures
of desert survival.
PAUL H. NESBITT
Chief, ADTIC
'U
44
2 I
'IL
Ae.-'
V" orj4
P reface .
......................................................... ill
PART I-THE EPISODES
1. BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY ................................. 1
2. NATURE OF THE SAMPLE AND SOURCES OF MATERIAL .............. 2
3. REASONS FOR THE EMERGENCY ............................... 3
4. NATURE OF THE EMERGENCY DESCENT..................................... 4
5. How MEN SAW THE DESERT................................................. 5
PART Il-THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL
1. TRAVEL IN DESERT TERRAIN ................................. 7
a. The Long Walk........................................................... 7

b. Navigation ........ ....................................................... 10
c. Hazards of the Environment............................................ 12
d. Mirages and Illusions ..................................................... 13
2. THE PROBLEM OF WATER..................................................... 14
a. Amounts and Sources ............................ 14

b. Water Purification Metthods ................................... I.....I....16
c. Thirst Quenchers and Water Substitutes........................... 16
3. REST AND SHELTER .............. ......................... 17
4. CL4OTHING AND WEARING APPAREL.........................................18

5. THE HEALTH or Suiwivons.............................................. 20
6. FOOD AND HUNGER ............................................................. 22
a. Rations ...................................................................... 22
b. Plant Materials as Emergency Foods................................ 23
c. Animals as Emergency Foods........................................... 23
d. Foods- Supplied by the Natives......................................... 25
PART III-HAZARDS OF SURVIVAL
1. A N IM AL D AN GER S ..................................................... ......... 26
2. DANGERS FROM PLANT M ATERIALS ... ......... .... .................. .. 27
PART IV-AIDS TO SURVIVAL
1. CONTACT WITH THE NATIVES .. .... ..... 28
2. EMERGENCY SIGNALING AND EQUIPMENT 28
3. RESCUE ACTIVITIES 30
4. SURVIVORS' COMMENTS ON EQUIPMENT 32
5. SURVIVAL TRAINING 32
6. PHILOSOPHY OF THE SURVIVORS 33
Conclusions and Summary 34
Appendix: SIX OF THE BEST DESERT SURVIVAL EPISODES
1. Qattara Depression 37
2. South of Tobruk 38
3. Paralleling the Coastal Road 39
4. Ethiopia .. ............... 40
5. Somaliland 40
6. Arizona 41
PART I
THE EPISODES
1. Background for the Study
T HE MILITARY OPERATIONS of the United knowledge that today's fliers can learn from
States Air Force over desert terrain the difficulties as well as the determination,
took place primarily in the opening phases stamina, and ingenuity of the men who
of World War II. At that time our forces lived these stories.
were scarcely organized for the activities The British Air Force in conjunction with
they were to undertake. Briefing for desert units from New Zealand and South Africa
operations was inadequate; survival train- began military operations* against the
ing had not been organized; survival Italians in the desert areas of East Africa
manuals were not yet written; emergency in 1940. These operations spread to the
equipment was not available either to be western deserts in North Africa against the
carried in the aircraft or to be dropped to combined Axis forces the following year.
survivors on the ground; and rescue organi- With the entry of the United States into
zations to locate and return the survivors this global conflict, small units of the AAF
were still to be formed. However, men flew joined the Desert Air Force in North Africa
over deserts and some of them came down and were incorporated into the DAF. Ur-
on desert terrain and walked home to tell gency demanded that many of these Ameri-
about it. The experiences of these desert can units receive their desert training co-
survivors have now been studied and it is operatively, and it was only after several
felt that analysis of these experiences will months of such training that the Ninth
give some indication of what problems men Air Force was established as an independent
must face in desert emergencies. operational unit. With the invasion of Mo-
This study is a topical approach to the rocco and Tunisia the USAF came into its
problem of desert survival. The stories form- own as an operational force and remained
ing the basis of this study represent first- that way until the defeat of the Axis forces
hand experiences of men who walked the in North Africa. The Allied air units, op-
desert. The things these men saw, the prob- erating from the east and the west, experi-
lems they faceoi, the hazards they endured, enced desert conditions of the most severe
and their adaptations, improvisations and ty. In addition to the fightin units the
solutions
sidreato their
uner problemsaswill
uchtopics be con-
navigation, type.
transport planes the Air
n ofo the Aigga
Transport t
ns Coin-
sidered under such tmand also flew routes over some desert
health, rest, shelter, and hazards of the en-
vironment. This study has been requested
by the Directorate of Requirements of the The desert was left behind as an active
United States Air Forces. It is hoped that theatre of operational warfare when the at-
the study will prove useful not only to the tack shifted to southern Europe and the in-
prcgram of instruction in survival proce- vasion of Europe began in Sicily in 1943.
dures conducted by the USAF throughout From 1943 until the end of the war in
its field of operation but to operating units Europe, only a few outfits operated over
of the Air Rescue Service, the preparation desert areas.
of rescue kits and materials, and the com- The desert training center in southwest-
pilation of survival manuals and specific ern United States was not used to any great
information on areas where the USAF op- extent by the USAF in preparation for the
erates today. I have tried to prepare a war in North Africa. Only a few survival
readable account of what the airmen of stories have been gleaned from training op-
1940-43 endured in the desert with the erations over the North American deserts.
1\
2 SUN-SAND AND SURVIVAL
2. Nature of the Sample and Sources of Material

IT IS CONSIDERED desirable to limit the ture of emergency equipment that can be
scope of this study to experiences of mili- carried; this information is generally not
tary men, primarily Air Force or flying per- available.
sonnel. A great deal has been written about The records of air operations in North
desert areas by explorers and commercial Africa, both of the American forces and of
travelers who have had emergency experi- our allies, as available in the Air University
ences in deserts. However, all of these men Library and in the Historical Archives, were
had a background for the area and were searched to obtain the basic material used
mentally if not physically prepared for the in this report. In addition the published re-
desert. It is felt they would not represent ports of war correspondents, individual war
the same sample as the airmen or soldiers stories, unit histories of our own and allied
who survived in the desert, units supplied material. Military and civil-
The period during which these events oc- ian periodicals published during the war of-
curred was also unusual, but one that was fered some stories, and where possible de-
to be expected in wartime. The number of tailed accounts of these episodes were traced
men and vehicles operating in the desert 'back to the squadron records of the particu-
regions was certainly abnormally large. The lar unit involved. From the squadron rec-
chances of encountering patrols or attract- ords the names and addresses of men in-
ing passing military aircraft represented volved in the survival episode as survivor
conditions not duplicated by explorers who or rescuer were obtained. It has been pos-
were isolated. Military men, for example, sible in the last year to contact many of
who could often depend on water from the these men or their families to piece together
radiators of abandoned vehicles in the des- more details of specific survival stories.
ert or who found rations on the vast sands The records of the British, South African,
of the desert certainly had a different set and New Zealand forces in the African thea-
of chances of survival than the casual ter of operations have been extremely
traveler of today or a generation ago. For valuable. I only regret that more material
these reasons the stories considered in this was not available on the activities of the
study are the experiences of Air Force per- Long Range Desert Patrol which rescued
sonnel as they occurred in wartime. so many desert evadees. The Late Arrivals
The stories were taken from the period of Club with its membership of 365 at the end
1940 and the British operations against the of 1942 would be an additional wealth of in-
Italians in East Africa until the collapse formation if more men could be contacted.
of the Axis forces in North Africa. Only a I have interviewed about 15 American mem-
few stories occurred after 1943. bers of this organization.
The stories used vary considerably in de- Through the kindness and cooperation
tail and completeness. The intelligence re- of many Air Force reserve and active mill-
ports of interviews with survivors are much tary units, interviews have been conducted
inferior to those available a few years later. with groups and with individuals who had
Military records of the early phases of the emergency survival experiences in the
war in North Africa are scanty and in many African desert during the 1940-43 period. I
cases woefully inadequate. What stories are am extremely grateful to all who cooperated
available are often clouded with the effects in this study for making available their
of military censorship. The time and specific records and in some cases reliving a pain-
location of the episode are lacking all too ful experience they wanted to forget.
frequently, yet this information is extremely The analysis covers 382 individual suc-
important in analyzing the actions of the cessful survival episodes. Involved in this
survivors. The type of aircraft flown de- study are accounts of 142 additional men
termines the number of men involved in who were lost, strayed, or died en route. It
any episode as weli as the amount and na- is impossible t6 determine what percentage
p
THE EPISODES 3
this might represent of the total number of cult terrain. The stories reveal a tremendous
men who went down in the desert during amount of individual stamina, for the des-
this period. Only 15 of 365 members of the ert required stamina and the original deci-
Late Arrivals Club of 1942, men who walked sion a man must make to evade and not to
back from desert landings, are included surrender was a difficult one. He faced the
in the study. In 1944 the Air Transport Coin- obstacles of heat, lack of water, distance,
mand recorded 24 persons lost over desert and shortage of equipment. We know that
areas in their operations and that 12 of one man gave up and surrendered to Italian
them survived. It is worth noting in this forces in North Africa only after 14 days of
case that 10 of the 12 men were from 1 of evading. During this time his bare feet had
the 8 planes involved. The details on these become so bruised and infected he could
cases could not be located. Even in the no longer stand on them. This individual,
cases studied it is not possible to safely however, buried himself in a trench in the
say what percentage survived. Some of sand to give the rest of his party 24 hours'
those reported as missing in action were head start before he turned himself over to
prisoners of war. The episodes studied may the enemy.
be relatively small in number but they rep- A sergeant pilot of the Australian Air
resent a great variety of experiences in Forces bailed out of hi. damaged plane with
many types of terrain, under varied condi- wounds in both legs. He used his parachute
tions, and from a miscellany of aircraft. to tie up his wounds and then crawled for
Specifically, these survival episodes oc- 5 days and nights before he reached a
curred in Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, patrol which rescued him.
Egypt, Transjordan, Syria, and Iraq, Iran, A desert march of 510 Ethiopian troops
Saudi Arabia, Ethiopia, Kenya, British and from the Rio Omo to Maji is almost a clas-
Italian Somaliland, and the southwestern sic desert survival episode but is not con-
United States. There are additional large sidered in this study. These men, cut off by
desert areas of the world in which no mill- Italian forces, marched 17 days before they
tary operations took place or for which no were spotted by Kenya patrols and rescued.
military survival stories were found. The They were without provisions after the
deserts of Australia and the vast deserts of third day and eked out an existence by for-
Central Asia are not represented in these aging off the land. Eventually the party be-
episodes. came too weak to hunt and were in poor
Desert survival occurred under the most shape when rescued, but in the 17-day trek
hazardous of conditions in extremely di-fi only four men dropped by the way.
3. Reasons for the Emergency.

DzszRT zMOzNCIS occurred for a va- the area. Four crews reported themselves
riety of reasons. Enemy action caused the lost without landmarks in a sandstorm
majority of descents, directly or indirectly, somewhere over the Egyptian dr 3rt, and
Faulty navigation and subsequent lack of ultimately a lack of fuel forced them to
fuel ranked a close second. A flight of nine abandon their ships.
planes from the Ferrying Command landed Mechanical failure was reported in about
in the desert in 1942 some 500 miles off 10 percent of the cases studied. With no
course. This particular episode was never facilities for salvage of the aircraft, the
explained in the reports examined, but the pilots realized it was a matter of making
lack of landmarks in the Egyptian-Libyan their own repairs or destroying the plane
desert troubled a great many fliers. Wells, and walking back to the base. One pilot
oases, and depressions reportedly all looked who was having fuel supply trouble made
alike. Areas of operation were poorly an emergency landing behind the Axis
mapped and in many cases navigation had lines. As he tried to repair his fighter, he
to be based on tracings from Baedekers of noticed the approach of an Italian truck.
U \
He started the engine again and flew sev- - hands from working with his hot engine
eral miles at a low altitude before power and sun-heated wing surfaces. Another pilot
failure again forced an emergency landing. reported he made seven forced landings be-
This time he was approached by a German fore returning to his base in Egypt.
patrol, and once again he took off and flew Icing conditions led to one emergency
as far as he could. This time, fuel exhausted, crash landing in Algeria. Two crews were
he landed behind Allied lines. His desert forced down by mechanical failure of their
experience consisted primarily of burned aircraft in sandstorms over southern Libya.
4. Nature of the Emergency Descent

IN THE STORIES AVAILABLE, parachute land- and sometimes descending. Another man
ings following bail-outs and emergency in a similar predicament reported he was
crash landings appeared with equal fre- violently airsick for the first time in his
quency, However, most men who made para- life before he reached the ground. The force
chute landings concluded after the sur- of the wind and the abrasive effect of the
vival episode that, where practical, crash sand carried by the storm peppered the legs
landings would be preferable. of one man with pellets so that he could
Parachute landings were generally suc- hardly stand when he reached the ground,
cessful and without incident. Only two ac- and another claimed his face was raw and
counts of broken limbs could be found and his hands bleeding when he landed.
both of these involved legs. One flier whose Finding the crash site of the abandoned
parachute harness was defective landed aircraft or getting together with other crew
with such force he was partially paralyzed members proved to be extremely difficult for
for 24 hours. Some serious abrasions, those men who bailed out. A group of three
bruises, sprains, and other injuries resulted men from a British bomber bailed out as
from the terrain on which the men landed. close together as possible and, while all
Those who landed on relatively smooth rock three evaded capture and reported back to
surfaces or sandy areas were usually free their squadrons, none of them had seen any
of injuries. The greatest number of minor of the others in the course of 4 days' travel
injuries occurred in southern Libya and the over the open desert.
Sinai desert in areas of large and numerous Most of the men who parachuted from
boulders. The accounts from East Africa aircraft reported they at least made an
where shrub vegetation was more abundant attempt to locate their abandoned plane.
report many scratches and sprains due to One group of seven men searched for 3
descent into the thorn scrub. Eleven ac- days before finding the crash on the morn-
counts were found of men landing near the ing of the fourth day. Attempts were made
edge of the Qattara Depression in Egypt; to locate the planes primarily as a source of
all describe the difficulty of landing in such emergency supplies. A few men indicated
terrain. One man, descending too close to they knew they should destroy the aircraft
the edge of this depression with its steep if possible. I could find stories of only 37
and rugged cliffs, tried to slip his chute men who reportedly stayed with their air-
for directional control and landed instead craft until rescued.
on the slope of the cliff. His chute only Crash landings were generally made with-
partially collapsed against the cliff and he out difficulty in the daytime. Bail-outs oc-
was dragged over about 500 feet of ex- curred primarily at night or under storm
tremely rough terrain, conditions when crash landings were con-
Parachute descents during sandstorms sidered too risky. Wheels-down landings
were particularly hazardous. Two men who were reported in 36 instances, indicating
bailed out over a sandstorm reported they the terrain was such that men could plan
were buffeted about by the wind, tossed in a landing. Wheels-up landings were more
all directions, sometimes gaining altitude frequent in occurrence.
THE EPISODES 5
One thing is clear from the stories The pilot passed the word around that
studied: desert landings can and should be emergency bail-out was in order and in-
planned. All too frequently the men structed the crew to amass all emergency
reported they stretched out their last ounce equipment. Each man managed to eat a
of gasoline and then landed with a dead handful of vitamin pills before the bail-out,
engine or abandonel the plane just as it although this procedure was hardly neces-
went into a glide. Many of these pilots re- sary. More important, each man in this
gretted the lack of control at the last min- crew carried a canteen of water on his per-
ute due to lack of power. Two crew mem- son when he left the plane. One man bailed
bers ordered to bail out while the pilot at- out with a .45 and a flashlight in his hands
tempted a dead-sticK landing reported the and retained them when he hit the ground.
plane went into a spin or dived into the Another stuffed his shirt full of oranges and
ground. Generally a lack of choice in a carried others under each arm. The oranges
landing site was the most serious failing in outside his shirt were lost in descent, but
dead-stick landings. The conclusion was this crew had oranges for breakfast in the
often drawn in the reports that with a few desert! Instructions were given to the crew
more gallons of gasoline a safer landing that all except the pilot and co-pilot, the
could have been made. All agreed that last men to leave the plane, were to walk
dead-stick landings in desert terrain are north. Pilt and co-pilot would walk south
dangerous. to meet the group. All of the men landed
Successful planning when the mission
seemed at an end was well demonstrated in safely and, following the pilot's instruc-
many stories. Terrain was selected for the tnons, the entire crew was assembled by
landing, instructions were given for brac- noon the following day.
ing and safety of crew, loose or heavy ob- Planned bail-outs seemed to have better
jects were jettisoned, exit hatches were re- success in placing the individuals reasona-
moved, or other safety precautions taker, bly close together on the ground. In one
when ample warning was given. The sur- particular episode six men landed within
vival of personnel once on the ground was 400 yards of one another. In another the
also correlated with the preemergency men landed in two groups of four, although
planning in a dozen stories. In one of these 8 miles apart. In a less well-organized
episodes a B-24 was nearing the end of its emergency exit, the crew of a light bomber
fuel supply and was flying at 11,000 feet. were scattered over 12 miles of desert.
5. How Men Saw the Desert

DuzRTs are usually defined as areas so cloudless. Both transpiration and evapora-
deficient in moisture that they are unable tion are rapid. The' high atmospheric pres-
to support a vegetation necessary for man sure characteristic of desert areas is re-
to live. There are hot deserts and cold des- sponsible for the constant winds found
erts, but the current study considers only there.
the former type. Hot deserts occur pri- Men who survived in desert areas had
marily in tropical or semitropical belts. much to say about them, good and bad. Des-
They are characterized by extreme changes erts to some were dry, lonely and unfriendly
of temperature, generally hot days and rela- places, but to others the desert in spring was
tively cool nights. Rainfall in such areas is beautiful because it produced beds of flowers
usually seasonal and occurs in torrential in wadis. The oppressive heat of the summer
downpours. The terrain of hot deserts contrasted with the bitterly cold fall nights
varies, but most of them have porous sub- on the.Cyrenaica plateau and with the win-
strata which are altered into vigorous and ter season's freezing cold winds of constant
active land forms by the occasional rains, gale force. The land was described as a mo-
The humidity is generally low and the sky notonous sea of nothingness except for the
hummocks of shrub growth, so flat that an they had time to admire and wonder at the
escarpment or wadi gave physical relief out small kangaroo mice which leaped away at
of all proportion to its size. The floor of the their approach or the myriads of mosquitos
desert was hard-packed sand to some, to and flies that appeared from nowhere to
others solid smooth rock like a paved street, disappear again as rapidly. Survivors even
loose shifting dunes in undulating folds, a
coarse formation of flinty flakes which tore cmened on the
alseodawn aof
the
the shoes, or a coal pile of black boulders the speed with which the sun rose, and the
from the size of tennis balls to massive perfect sunsets over the desert flatness.
rocks as big as houses. The men cursed the This study is based on the stories of men
heat, the cold, the mirages and illusions, who learned about the desert the hard way,
the constant wind that carried sand into yet lived through their experiences to tell
their food, eyes, nostrils and mouths, yet about them.
-0
I\
PART 1I1 -
THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL
1. Travel in Desert Terrain
a. The Long Walk rest taken. The wreckage of the plane was
THE STORIES of desert survivors are pri- located when for
thing useful possible for salvage
the desert of any-
trek. Supplies
marily those of men who walked out. The tigueu o h eette.Sple
decision to travel or not to travel in the were distributed for equal weight loads and
decsio rtotrael
nt t trvelin he routes carefully planned. Command was
desert campaign was one based on military designated or assumed, and travel and ra-
necessity. The men did not expect search tion plans settled.
parties or rescue organizations to look for When a Wellington bomber crashed a
them. Rescue organizations had not yet short distance south of Tobruk behind Ger-
been formed and what searching took place man lines, the crew of six headed into the
was organized by other men in their own d es te heir plaewasnto par
survivors fully expected in aeser t he l as toe r
squadrons. Most acionundr sudy
all ase ofemegeny allel the coast and walk east to the British
all cases of emergency action under study lines. They walked for 29 days and covered
to make their own way back to their bases. 350 miles before they were through. One of
Significantly, very few men stayed for any the party was forced to surrender because
length of time near their downed aircrafte of infected and painful feet. Another of the
If the emergency landing had taken place party was killed when the evadees came
behind enemy lines or in proximity to mili- upon a German truck at dawn one morning
tary activity the decision had to be made and saw the driver asleep on the ground.
he tc and
quickly. Many men, especially among those They dce
The decidedto to caue
capture the truck and ride
interviewed, decided to surrender to the back to their lines, but unfortunately the
Axis troops rather than face the prospect of back of the truck was loaded with sleeping
a long or suicidal hike across the desert. German soldiers and one man was killed in
This was'not always due to fear; in many the melee which followed their attack on
cases it was the only action available to the the driver. The rest of the party escaped,
individual because of a lack of equipment however, and four men returned safely.
or water or the fact that the men were in- In the far eastern part of Africa another
jured and needed medical attention. British bomber crash-landed in Ethiopia.
Generally in North Africa the decision The crew of six was shaken up and one of
was made quickly. Two courses of action the men injured his foot in the landing.
predominated. One group of men planned After burning the plane the six started
to walk parallel to the coastal road and ap- walking. Their supplies consisted of 2 1/ gal-
proach the British lines eastward. The Ions of water and a small amount of food.
other group headed south into the desert in They walked all that day and through the
an attempt to contact wandering tribes of night, navigating at first by compass and
Arabs, the Long Range Desert patrols then by the stars. The second day the heat
known to be operating there, or to come to became so unbearable they could only walk
an oasis which they knew was visited peri- for 15 minutes at a time across the alternat-
odically by Allied forces. ing bands of rough lava and soft shifting
If the emergency had occurred far away sand. After covering 10 miles in these short
from the fighting front, considerable time walks of the second day, the party stopped
could be taken to organize the trek. The in the shade of a solitary tree to rest until
crew, if it had been scattered in parachute sunset. At dusk they started again but
descent, could be gathered together. In- could only walk for an hour and a half be-
juries could be treated and a few hours of fore exhaustion set in. They started again
the next morning but walked only until this time. If he continued to hike until 8:00
nine before one man collapsed exhausted. a.m. his distance for the 11 V2 hours was
As they were now down to 6 pints of water, 18 miles.
they talked over the situation. It was de- The story showing the most stamina was
cided to divide the water and the three that of an Australian sergeant pilot who
stronger men would go on, even in the heat was shot down in his Kittyhawk. With both
of the day. These three were never seen legs wounded he bailed out of his aircraft
again. The weaker and slower three cpn- and landed in the desert. He used his para-
tinued walking as their strength permitted, chute to bind up his wounded legs but
sometimes for 10 minutes at a time, again found he could not stand on his feet. So,
for 100 yards before resting. They passed 4 knowing his need for medical attention, he
days at this slow speed before it was neces- crawled day and night, dragging his legs,
sary to stop in the shade for 2-days' rest. for 4 days and nights. He found that by
The ninth day of their survival episode they night he was so exhausted he couldn't sleep
started out again, 10 minutes of walking and so he kept crawling. He reached the
and then a rest. After three spells of this point of exhaustion on the fifth day and
they were all exhausted. Defeated, they re- found that his mind was beginning to
turned to their tree to rest in the shade. wander. It was on the fifth day he was
They had been without water for 4 days found by a desert patrol. He had been with-
and their tongues had started to peel. Later out food or water for the entire period.
that day they were sighted by a passing One admonition appeared frequently in
plane and rescued, the survival stories: if you have no idea
From the stories available of men who where you are, stay put until you do. You
walked back, the majority had easier times are better off near the plane, or making
and went shorter distances. The average short treks to establish your locality, or
length of time spent walking or evading waiting until nightfall to determine direc-
was 5 days, but periods of 20 days or more tions. Do not begin aimless wandering while
are not uncommon. The party out for 29 completely lost in the desert.
days represented the longest period of un- In some cases a crew reached immediate
aided desert survival in the stories collected. agreement and course of action. In other
In the 103 cases studied where the travel cases plans were talked over for considera-
distances were given and seemed reliable, ble time before a decision was reached. In a
the greatest distance covered by a group of few cases the plan was dictatorial on the
survivors was 350 miles and the average part of the pilot. Only in a very few cases
around 50 miles. At the beginning of his did groups break up and go in different
survival experience, an uninjured man in directions.
average territory seemed to be capable of The decision to walk back to Allied lines
walking 12 to 18 miles a day. One story, was made for one group of airmen. Their
reliably documented, reports that a man situation on crashing near El Alamein
covered 50 miles in 24 hours. As the sur- seemed so hopeless that they walked to the
vival episode continued, with heat and lack nearest German outpost, waved a white
of food and water taking their tolls, the shirt and surrendered. The Germans re-
distance he covered became shorter. Gen- ceived the group, gave them directions to
erally this was noticeable around the fifth British lines and sent them off. It seems
day, and by the fourteenth day many men the German outpost had been cut off for 36
were down to 1 to 2 miles a day. hours without water and communications
A captain of the Royal Army Medical and they wanted no prisoners or additional
Corps became isolated from his outfit in members in their party. It took the men 3
the Western Desert and walked 140 miles in days under artillery fire to reach the British
11 days. He carried 60 pounds of rations, lines but they did, much chagrined at their
water and gear. He usually hiked from 8:30 situation.
p.m. until 3:30 a.m., covering 12 miles in Considerable difference in practice was
\I
4 A IA
THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL 9
found in the time of day when traveling territory, these men suffered in the long
was done and in the amount undertaken. run. Collapse came more quickly the sec-
Traveling by night had its advantages in ond time, and the distance covered and
the Egyptian and Libyan deserts. The ter- walking time decreased rapidly with each
rain was usually open and navigation was collapse from exhaustion.
possible by the stars. The nights were more The effects of the heat and the sun and
pleasant and the lanu cooler. In fact the the continued exertion took its toll on
nights were often cool to the point where many. Four men who started walking in
many men expressed the necessity of wrap- the southern Libyan desert dropped one by
ping their parachutes around them to keep one until only one was left. When he was
warm even while walking. The disadvantage picked up some 10 days and 210 miles from
of traveling at night was the inability to the spot where he had started he was out
see immediate objects. In the boulder- on his feet and did not even see the rescue
strewn areas this proved painful in stubbed party. He was lifted bodily and placed in the
toes and barked shins. One man even fell truck and when he recovered hours later he
into a wadi and received some painful was still convinced he could have reached
bruises. Without the proper signaling equip- his destination, some 80 miles farther on.
ment it was impossible to signal at night to By far the best procedure seemed to be to
attract passing aircraft, and identification establish a regular pattern of walking and
of camps, vehicles, or planes was difficult. resting depending on the capabilities of the
Desert mechanized patrols rarely operated individual or the group. The most fIre-
at night so that contact with them was not quently adopted plan was to rest for half
possible. Survivors reported that while they an hour following every hour of walking.
covered greater distances at night they A few men adopted a practice of walking
were always afraid they would pass some half an hour and resting 15 minutes, and
critical landmark, a well, or a friendly base. a few who walked in the day walked until
Traveling by daytime in the Egyptian- noon and rested from 1 to 3 hours before
Libyan desert area also had disadvantages, walking again.
The principal one was the extreme heat. Specific hints on travel in desert areas
Not only the direct rays of the sun but the were given by the evadees. The most fre-
hot winds and the hot terrain bothered va- quent suggestion c.ered was that of watch-
rious survivors. Visibility was also affected ing the color cL the terrain very care-
by a ground haze in the middlc of the day fully. These men pointed out that the na-
and by mirages. Both of these hampered ture and consistency of the substratum,
travel and signaling. Generally most men and therefore the footing, could be deter-,
in the Egyptian-Libyan desert area found mined by the color of the land. In Syria the
it most satisfactory to travel in the early areas of loose sand which were difficult to
morning hours around dawn until the heat traverse were red. In southern Libya spe-
of the day set in, and then again in the late cific warning was given against the black
afternoon, areas called "sabahas," which were soft and
The stories from East Africa were evenly afforded only difficult footing. Coastal sands
divided between those who walked at night in North Africa were particularly con-
and all night and those who walked only demned as areas for walking. The survivors
in the day. Several groups indicated the described their paths along these areas as
density of the thorn brush, the painful "plod, plod, plod." In open desert areas
spines, and the chance of encountering several men gave warning against walking
animals made them decide to travel in the too close to bushes. Bushes generally had
daylight hours. areas of soft sand at least on their lee side,
An unfortunately large number of men and a path too close to these bushes slowed
walked continuously from the time of the down a man's speed. In the Egyptian-
descent until they were exhausted. While Libyan desert area warning was also given
this initial effort covered a great deal 6f against chotts, salt lakes, and crystalline.
- \I
covered swamps. These areas are not only pression formed such formidable terrain
difficult to traverse but are dangerous. The and such difficult walking that they then
chott may be covered with a crust 2 to 3 decided to cut across the depression. They
inches thick, with a few inches to many descended the precipitous slopes of the de-
feet of soft mire underneath. Salt lakes and pression and spent the eighteenth day
chotts caused severe salt burns, alkali burns walking across the lake bed. Here they found
on the feet, legs and even hands of some the going rough, for the surface of this lake
men who tripped and fell in such areas, bottom consisted of wave-like mounds of
Warning was given about wadis or gul- crusty sand and salt, each some 18 to 24
leys in the northern deserts. One survivor inches from the next. Two days were spent
had the rare opportunity of watching a wadi in the depression and by the twentieth day
fill with a flood of water following a sudden all suffered from alkali burns and their
and torrential rainstorm farther inland. He shoes long since had been wired together.
described this onrush of water as being On the twenty-fourth day they came to a
2Y/2 to 3 feet deep and approximately 1/2 large salt lake where progress was further
mile wide. He stated that in a matter of 2 impeded. Here they found the mosquitoes
hours the wadi was again completely dry. unbearable; they climbed again to the sur-
A party of men in British Somaliland was face of the terrain surrounding the depres-
successful in following a small stream to sion and were promptly spotted by a passing
the coast, where they were rescued, but patrol and taken to their base. The men had
three parties isolated in the Western Desert covered 300 miles in their trek over some of
area tell of difficulties in following dry the most difficult walking in North Africa.
stream beds. Apparently the wadis they fol- One can conclude from the desert sur-
lowed led to depressions or sinkholes and vival episodes that it is a poor practice to
the men were forced either to retrace their travel in wadis except for purposes of con-
steps or to climb steep-sided slopes. Such cealment or in a search for shelter and
blind depressions have no outlets and rep- water.
resent old lake beds or sinkholes in the
desert. b. Navigation
When four American fliers were forced to
bail out of their bomber following enemy MzN who traveled the desert at night in-
action in North Africa, they met on the variably oriented themselves by the stars.
ground and surveyed their situation. Two Those who traveled by day used compasses
of the men had leg Injuries sustained on when they had them. Only one story was
, landing. The heat was severe and they had found expressing difficulty in using a com-
little water; nevertheless, they decided to pass and that took place in Ethiopia. The
walk east and parallel the coastal road. The men concluded that a lode of Ironstone rock
footwear of this group consisted of flying produced enough deflection in their com-
boots, which they soon admitted was the pass to take them 30 miles off their esti-
poorest type of footwear for the trek they mated route. Considering this story at the
had undertaken. Loose rock on the area present time it is hard to believe that a lode
made poor footing and on the sixth day one of that magnitude exists. In addition 30
man with a lacerated foot was forced to miles represents at least 1 full day's travel.
drop behind. On the eighth day another One can conclude these survivors made the
man left the party. The two remaining mistake of not checking their direction of
suffered from an intense sandstorm on the travel often enough to recognize this de-
tenth day of their survival episode and were flection and probably they did not check
nearly drowned in a torrential rain on the their compass against-the sun or the stars.
fourteenth day. By the fifteenth day they It Is of prime importance in any emergency
had reached the edge of the Qattara De- travel to use all possible directional aids and
pression and decided to try and walk around to check one against the other frequently.
this area to the north. The edges of the Ge- All survivors concluded that a compass
'II
was a most necessary part of equipment circles or large arcs before realizing their
for desert travel. Many said it should be difficulties.
personal equipment and carried on the A marine pilot who made an emergency
wrist or in the pocket. A few suggested a landing in the Arizona desert of the south-
compass be added to the escape kit they western United States took all proper pre-
were issued. One man suggested in an offi- cautions of immediately spreading his para-
cial document that a small sextant be placed chute on the ground and putting rocks on
in every plane for emergency navigation, the edges so that it would be most visible
Without a compass landmarks had to be from the air. Then he decided to walk to
depended on for local navigation. These led his crashed plane at what he estimated to
to difficulties in many cases. Mirages caused be a distance of 500 yards from his landing
considerable trouble. Ground haze through- spot. He reached the plane to find it com-
out the day obscured vision. Distances pletely gutted by fire; then he was unable
particularly are known to be deceptive in to retrace his steps to find his parachute
the deserts and survivors reported difficulty again in the 5 days he spent wandering in
not only in estimating distances but also in the fiat desert.
estimating the size of objects. In southern Navigational difficulties of a different
Egypt one survivor reported that large type were experienced in Ethiopia, Kenya,
boulders always appeared smaller than they and Somaliland by the British fliers. Here
were and in other cases small obstacles ap- the density of the thorn brush, even though
peared insurmountable. it was primarily acacia with small leaves,
Survivors both in Saudi Arabia and in made it extremely hard to navigate from
Tunisia warned that it is difficult to main- one point to another. In this area men re-
tain a single landmark in navigation. Sev- sorted to following animal trails in the hope
eral groups reported they found it necessary they led to rivers or water holes. Elephant
to take turns keeping an eye on a specific trails seemed to offer the best and clearest
mountain or peak or object which was their route to the few men who reported them.
goal. Objects had a way of vanishing in In the Sinai desert area and in portions
some cases when the eye was moved for an of Egypt, travel routes were frequently used;
instant, and in other cases so many peaks fliers who found them just rested on the
or hills looked alike that the individual trail. One man encountered a camel cara-
could not determine which had been his van almost immediately after he hit the
original objective. In Tunisia specific warn- trail, although he reported it bothered him
ing was given of the frequent occurrence of that he had not seen them approach, for
twin peaks which on first glance seemed they suddenly appeared out of a mirage.
reliable landmarks. The men found after a Another commented that It was awfully
short time of traveling that instead of one hard to be alone in his section of the desert,
such landmark there might be several to a for in every direction he looked he saw
dozen twin peaks in the vicinity, wandering tribes, camel herds, or people
The Great Sand Desert, which was the watching him.
emergency landing site of several groups of Two survivors independently suggested
men, also caused navigational difficulties, that survivors pay attention to the wind as
In these rolling sand hills it was impossible an aid in navigation. One of these men on
to keep one objective in view and even their the Arabian peninsula noted that the wind
footmarks failed to give them a consistent blew consistently from the same direction.
path to look back upon. The other, in the Libyan desert, made the
The extreme flatness of other stretches same comment and added that he was able
of desert terrain in North Africa made quickly to judge his direction of travel by
navigation difficult. With absolutely no the angle at which the wind blew his clothes
landmarks to follow, no objectives to sight, or struck his body. It may be possible in cer-
several parties reported they walked in tain areas to orient oneself in relation to the
direction of the prevailing winds, once it is irritations which were often severe. One
established that these are consistent. story reports that abrasion of the eyes by
the pai'icles of dust reached the point where
c. Hazards of the Environment first the man's eyes watered so that he
could not see, and eventually the watering
MEN who walked across the North African stopped and only "emery cloth eyelids re-
deserts had much to say about, the local mained," making life very difficult for him.
environment and little of it was complimen- Protection against dust and sand was
tary. The contrast of temperatures bothered obtained by survivors in a variety of ways.
them most of all. It was extremely hot dur- Strips of cloth bound round the head with
ing the day and often bitter cold at night, small slits for visibility functioned like
especially during the months of January "snow goggles." Cotton, grass, cotton waste,
and .February. The bright sun was hard on bandage material were all used to stuff the
their eyes, extremities, and skin. Blinding ears. Cotton and axle grease were reportedly
effects of the sun reflecting off the terrain used in the nostrils.
caused many men to express concern re- Ektreme winds blew up sandstorms which
garding sunglasses. Several resorted to lasted from a few minutes to 21/2 days, ac-
building fires and smoking their goggles in cording to the survivors' experiences. Gener-
order to secure more protection against the ally the survivors reported that they could
glare. Several suggested that extra plastic see the approach of such storms and were
colored slip-on lenses should be available able to take proper precautions; however,
to fliers for emergency use over regular sandstorms completely surprised a few
goggles. groups of men and led to navigational diffi-
Light-skinned men tended to sunburn culties. None of the men who experienced
faster and more severely than darker- sandstorms in the northern desert under-
skinned men. A few commented that no rated the power and danger of such storms.
amount of previous suntanning seemed to Protection from the storms was uppermost
make any difference. in their minds, judging from the reports
The heat affected their feet and hands. available. Most men found what shelter
Survivors reported that the earth became they could from rock cairns, natural ledges,
so hot their feet were blistered through boulders, depressions, or wells. A consider-
their shoes, and one man wanted to know able number had time to dig depressions
if asbestos shoe soles of the slip-on or clamp- and rig a shelter of some sort from blan-
on variety were not possible. Exposure of kets, parachutes, or tarpaulins. A few men
bare hands to the sunlight resulted in pain- wrapped themselves in their parachutes and
ful burns. A few reported they found it endured the storm in a prone position.
necessary to walk with their arms folded Nearly all of these men had some comment
and their hands in their armpits to keep to make on orientation before, during, and
their hands comfortable and protected. after a sandstorm. The warning was specifi-
Placing sunburned hands in bare armpits cally given that it is necessary to mark your
apparently gave considerable relief, since direction of travel adequately before the
armpits represented one of the few places storm hits. A few men commented that when
on the body where the men could find con- the storm was over they had no idea of which
tinuous perspiration for cooling effect, way they had been traveling and that all
The persistent winds in the North African their landmarks were forgotten, obliterated,
desert area seemed to have no cooling effect, or indistinguishable. The general plan of
and several men found that the constant marking routes prior to a sandstorm was to
blowing of the wind "got on their nerves." place a stick of some kind indicating direc-
More significant is the fact that the constant tion. One man oriented himself with only
winds usually carried an amount of sand or one rock a few feet in front of the position
dirt particles. These particles got in eyes, where he lay. He commented that after the
ears, nostrils, and mouths and caused storm he learned that one point was not
adequate and recommended a row of.stones, the lack of intermediate terrain, which was
sticks, or heavy gear about 10 yards in obscured by the mirage. Mirages hampered
length to give adequate directions following the vision and navigation to the extent that
such an emergency. they sometimes concealed objectives in
Several parties reported they learned the travel. In general it was reported that mi-
hard way to keep their mouths shut in the rages "magnified some objects and con-
desert. This was meant in two ways, that cealed others."
breathing through the mouth caused ex- One man hunting- for animal food in the
cessive drying and that talking not only heat of the day reported that he no sooner
got on the otWiers' nerves but also caused sighted an animal than it ran into or hid
excessive drying of the mucous membranes. in a mirage.
The lower layer of hot air which causes
d'. Mirages and Illusions the mirage, commonly called desert haze,
hampered vision and distorted objects. This
MiRAGES are common in desert areas. They was reported in several cases of signaling
are optical phenomena due to refraction of difficulties. Sighting a rifle on an object was
light by uneven density distribution in the apparently very difficult due to the haze
lower layer of the air. The most common low on the desert.
desert mirage occurs when the air close to Several reports from survivors appear to
the ground is much warmer than the air be cases of imaginary illusions associated
aloft, as during the heat of the day. Under with the haze or mirage effects of the heat.
this condition atmospheric refraction is less One group was looking for a hill for a van-
than normal and the image of the distant tage viewpoint so long that the entire party
low sky appears on the ground looking ex- began to see hills in all directions. They
actly like a sheet of water. Distant objects finally held a conference to iron out their
may appear to be reflected in the "water." difficulties and all settled on one hill which
When the air close to the ground is much the group should approach. All men in the
colder than the air aloft, as in the early party reportedly saw the hill, and the group
morning under a clear sky, atmospheric re- walked an estimated 9 miles looking for the
fraction is greater than normal. When this hill which never existed and which eventu-
condition occurs distant objects appear ally just disappeared into the desert flatness.
larger and closer than they actually are, Dawn and dusk Illusions also occurred
and objects below the normal horizon are and were reported in the survivors' stories.
visible. In case the density distribution in One group was severely troubled with the
the lower layers is such that the light rays falsdawn spectral light on the western
from an object reach the observer along norizon. The fact that the sun at first ap-
two or more paths he will see a distorted peared to be rising In the west caused
image or multiple images of the object. anxious moments.
Another party contained one Individual
Reports of mirages were very common in who claimed he saw a flashing beacon on
the survival stories examined. In-most cases the evening horizon. These men were in the
they were recognized as mirages and caused Qattara Depression. The pilot explained the
only minor difficulties. No story reported illusion by the occasional focusing of the
any illusions on the part of survivors that light of a very bright star near the horizon
these mirages actually represented bodies through the residual heat waves of the cliff
of water, before them. But the one crew member was
The principal difficulties resulting frum so convinced It was a beacon that he finally
the aspect of mirages was that of traveling, started walking alone to investigate this
Distances could not be judged because of object and was never seen again.
-\
2. The Problem of Water*

a. Amounts and Sources Water was carried on the survival trek
in every imaginable type of container. Can-
WATER was the primary concern of men teens were mentioned most frequently, but
isolated In the desert. Some mention was improvised containers from parts of the air-
made of water in every survival story craft, tin cans, ration cans, jerry cans,
studied. bottles, covers to the aircraft, covers of
The amount of water on hand at the first-aid kits, and even shoes were all pressed
time of the survival episode varied from into service.
none at all to as much as 10 gallons per per- Generally the liquid drunk was water,
son in the case of a large bomber which but many of the British survivors indicated
crash-landed. These men commented that they
tmy preferred
f th sweetened
e t teav inindiced
place of
10-gallon containers were too large and water in their canteens. They felt the tea
heavy to carry over the desert with them quenched their thirst more readily than
and strongly recommended that no larger plain water. A specific warning was given
than 2-gallon cans be used as emergency by one British survivor against having milk
supplies in the future. in the tea. He commented that the milk
It was impossible to draw any satisfactory soon became sour and that it was Impossible
conclusions on the length of time men were to remove that taste from the canteen dur-
able to travel without water or with mini- ing the rest of his survival period. One
mum amounts. Survivors reported they were American flier reported he had not dared
without water from the start of their epi- to leave his weekly ration of beer at the
sode until they were rescued, but no dur- base and so carried it with him on his mis-
ation of time would be stated. Five days was sion. He does not state whether this was
the longest case examined where the men an acceptable fluid under desert conditions.
stated they had no water and specified the Wine was utilized by seven survivors, and
length of time. Fourteen cases were studied two men reported they always "fortified"
where the reports stated the men had no their canteens with whiskey before starting
water for 3 days. on a mission. Alcohol accelerates dehydra-
The amounts of water various survivors tion, but the bolstering of morale might
had is also questionable. Canteens men- have been a compensating factor.
tioned in the stories could have been quart, Water was considered a precious item by
2-quart, or gallon units. "Gallons" could all of the men involved In the stories studied.
have been Imperial or American units. The supplies were carefully carried and zeal-
"Cans," "bottles," and "Jugs" are Indefinable ously guarded. The doctrine of rationing
terms in the present analysis. Men stated (erroneous as It was) was well impressed on
they had "swallows," "small amounts," "the the flier during that period of war opera-
usual ration," or "a canful" of water. The tions. However, rationing practices varied
temperature, conditions of exposure, and considerably. Some drank no water for as
time of year are all variables In water re- Ion as the could hold out. Some started
quirements and are not clearly stated in o they could ol t. Soe tarted
thefrom the beginning of the episode to form
t few
uriva stoe thahabit pattern of drinking. The majority of
A few men commented that they were those who commented reported they drank
well hydrated before their emergency de- no water the "first day." Water was rationed
scent and others commented they wished one mouthful per hour, a mouthful morn-
they had been. Only one man stated it had one moutht, a hour, a the en-
been his practice to drink as much water as Ing and night, a mouthful at the end of
he could hold tartng out
he culdholdbefre
before starting es-
ut oon aa des- of therest
each stop,
day. A few storiesonly
or water In the middle
commented that
ert Il.B=i4on, injuried men needed and were given ad-
e reader b rat vtpert se tions A r fe ditional rations. Three stories reported that
Do.wn, r atest Intionon atr r . leaders had difficulty in enforcing rationing,
but only one reported actual violation of at the surface of the ground, or be unmarked
rationing procedure. except by trails leading to them. One cis-
The North African desert during the pe- tern was so well hidden that a passing Arab
riod of 1941 through 1943 offered a most un- pointed out the opening to it only a few
usual spectacle of abandoned and derelict yards from where the man stood. A party
vehicles due to the advance and retreat of of survivors scanning the terrain with field
both Axis and Allied forces. Survivors re- glasses noticed a large can sitting in the
ported in great numbers that they had been open desert. They walked nearly a mile to
able to get water from' derelict vehicles, investigate and found a cistern or well near
either from the radiators or from aban- the can.
doned supplies. A British paratrooper of The cisterns may be underground laby-
the Special Air Service was able to walk 200 rinths and hold thousands of gallons of
miles using wvater from derelict trucks. This water. They may be deep or shallow. Sur-
condition represents an unusual source of vivors found some with stairs leading down
water for desert survival, yet the records of to the water level, others with knotted ropes
at least eight parties indicate the men failed for descent, still others with only a rope
to consider this source of water. Two groups attached to a cloth bucket (usually hidden
commented that days after leav',.ig a vehicle under a rock nearby) as the only means of
they thought they should have checked the getting water. Several parties of survivors
radiator for water, utilized the shroud lines of a parachute as
Past civilizations have found water in the a cord for lowering a container to the water
desert, and many areas of North Africa are level. Another group, without sufficient
dotted with oases, wells, and cisterns. Only length of rope to reach the water level,
one survival story told of a man trying to lowered one member by his ankles until he
Tlnd water by digging and then giving it up. was able to fill their containers.
He learned later that day how futile his The sides of the wells and cisterns may be
attempt would have been when he met an solid stone or, if they are in loose rock or
Arab who led him to a well and then low- sandy areas, may be supported and strength-
ered a bucket an estimated 50 feet to reachrec snd in ars
ened various ay or
ways.SuSurvivors rength-
reported
water. Desert wells may be artesian and the walls to be lined with closely fitted
flowing in the established oases, or still rocks, well-plastered mortar, or roots of
water in open areas. Survivors who reached desert shrubs.
oases enjoyed their fill of water in the hot- deer shrubs.
test parts of the desert. Other survivors The rain water found In cisterns was usu-
found wells in which the water was scanty. ally sweet, although it was reported in some
Some survivors juyously discovered wells stories to be dirty or contaminated by ani-
only to find them completely dry. mals or full of insects and algae. The wells
In addition to wells, many sections of the possessed sweet water or water varying in
desert have cisterns. These are cavities or saltiness from slightly salty to extremely
caverns dug into the ground by past civili- brackish, according to the reports of the
zations for the purpose of collecting the oc survivors. Shallow wells tended to be more
casional rain that falls in the area. It is salty than others, but one survivor who had
likely that the numerous dry "wells" re- used a well prior to his survival episode
ported by survivors were actually cisterns. reported the water was much saltier during
From the survivors' stories, cisterns appear his summer visit than it was when he needed
in numbers along the north coast of Africa; it in the spring of the following year.
and they are found frequently along wadis One old-timer who served twice in Africa
in the interior. One man even suggested complained that in World War I the practice
that survivors head for the wadis and search was to pump the wells or cisterns dry when
carefully for holes in the banks in which an army was forced to retreat, but that in
water is collected. These cisterns may be the current war the wells were either col-
well marked, have only a small pile of rocks lapsed by explosives or were contaminated
by the addition of mineral oil or diesel fuel purify the water they obtained from the
to render them useless.' natives and the water they located them-
Reports from survivors in Ethiopia in- selves in wells or cisterns. In most cases
dicate that many of the wells in that area purification proved impractical. The usual
have water heavy in mineral salts, called agents available today, halazone, globuline,
magnesium or magnesia in the reports, and or iodine, were not mentioned in the survival
that this water acts like a good dose of stories studied. Only seven accounts men-
Epsom salts. In Syria one survivor mentioned purification of water by boiling. One
tioned that the water was hardly potable of these reports tells of a thirsty party
because of the heavy sulphur odor and which found a well of dirty water and, risk-
taste. Men who used extremely brackish ing the consequences, drank their fill. Then
water in emergency conditions indicated they boiled 7 gallons of water to carry with
they suffered badly from the heavy salt them. Another group mentioned they care-
content. Drying and cracking of the lips, fully marked all their water supplies as
less endurance, and exhaustion and col- boiled water and unboiled water.
lapse were all blamed on brackish water.
In the numerous stories of British, South c. Thirst Quenchers and Water Substitutes
African, and New Zealand survivors in East
Africa, many reported dependence on sur- AT certain times of the year in North Af-
face water for drinking purposes. Men drank rica the desert climatic conditions are such
from water holes which they had stumbled that dew forms. Four survivors reported they
on or had located by following animal collected dew in the mornings from bushes,
trails. One group of survivors following an their equipment, or rocks. One man reported
elephant trail were able to get sufficient he arranged rocks to collect dew and man-
water from the deep elephant tracks in the aged to fill his canteen before he started
trail. walking.
Most of these men related that the water Grass was chewed by two men in the
holes were completely fouled by the animals survival accounts as a means of allaying
that visited them. One man reported the thirst. Another party reported they chewed
water so fouled by urine that he could aloe berries for their moisture content. One
hardly stand the odor but his need was group found snails, bit off the ends and
greater than his taste. Wells in the Red Sea sucked the juices to relieve their thiist. One
area and on the Arabian peninsula were party reported they had no water or food
also reported fouled by camels. for 3 days and chewed desert scrub for
Several men approaching the Qattara moisture. Four men indicated they kept
Depression encountered a torrential rain- pebbles in their mouths to keep the saliva
storm and were able to refresh them- flowing. One of these said the stones did
selves in the pelting rain, wash, and fill all little good and that after swallowing some
available containers in the sudden and un- small stones he substituted a piece of string
expected shower. Another pilot reported he and kept one end dangling from his lips so
watched a wadi fill with water from a he would not swallow it. Chewing gum to
shower farther south and was able to get relieve thirst was also mentioned in the
water from this unexpected source. These stories, however one of these men wished
two accounts are the only ones reporting for plain gum and not the candy-coated
rain as a source of drinking water in the type, which only made his mouth more
desert. sticky.
There were no comments on use, desire From the Arizona desert in southwestern
for, or lack of salt tablets in the stories United States there is one survival story of
studied, a Marine pilot who crash-landed In the fiat
desert. He had no canteen but he was able
to find a barrel cactus. He was able to re.
MosT of the survivors realized they should move the top from this cactus and dig out
chunks of the pulp with the lid of a ration The lips were the first portion of the
can he found in the desert. These he chewed mouth to dry out and crack and become
to relieve his thirst. When he decided to painful. Many survivors were able to keep
move on he filled the pockets of his flying a layer of grease on their lips during the
suit with pieces of the cactus pulp for survival period. After 5 days of dessication
future use. Similar stories are not expected some men reported the skin began to peel
from the African deserts. Cacti are not off their tongues and mucous membranes.
native there and only the Opuntia or flat- One British party in British East Africa
stemmed prickly pear type of cactus exists suffered greatly from a lack of water. Endur-
where introduced by men or escaped from ing thirst for 3 days the men in desperation
former cultivation, moistened their lips with alcohol from their
Survivors commented on the necessity of compasses. On the sixth day of their trek
keeping the moutn shut and breathing they found a water hole but reported by
through the nose to reduce water loss and this time their lips were badly blistered
prevent the drying of mucous membranes. and swollen.
They also warned against excessive conver-
sation as a means of losing water and felt 1 one s of ist
the fm h
the less said in the desert trek the better. 1940 through 1943 period of the last war
In order to accomplish this end one sur- reported the men using urine to quench
vivor recommended carrying a grass stem their thirst. It is well for the present day
or straw in the mouth and breathing f ier to keep in mind that alcohol in any
through this. He believed it prevented dry- form is to be considered as food and not as
ness and also gave him something to keep water; additional water is required to digest
his mind on while walking. By shifting the and excrete the alcohol. In an emergency
position of the straw he was able to direct situation where partial dehydration is to be
a flow of air to various parts of his mouth expected, beer, wine, whiskey, or alcohol in
and he felt this relieved him. any form is to be avoided.
3. Rest and Shelter

ONLY ONE GROUP in the survival stories sand, and three men reported the pressure
studied reported they encountered a rain- of the sand on their bodies gave valuable
storm. This group was delighted to have the physical relief to tired muscles and allowed
torrential rain clear the air, supply them them to relax. Two men commented they
with drinking water and refresh their were unable to sleep on the surface of the
bodies. They had been walking for 14 days at ground but that if they could bury their
the time and went on for 11 days more after bodies they relaxed and did sleep.
the rain. Shelter from the elements in the Men in the rocky desert areas or those in
desert Involved protection from the sun and areas of tufted grass hummocks, desert
heat and the occasional sandstorm, not shrub, or thorn shrub often rigged shelters
from rain. from parachutes using the vegetation to
Men surviving in the desert made the support these shelters.
most of their location to find shelter and to One party of four, camped near a shallow
obtain rest. By far the majority of men re- desert well with an adequate4 supply of
ported they slept in depressions they made water, reported they soaked their shelter
in the ground and that they covered these and themselves with water periodically to
depressions with parachutes, blankets, or obtain relief from the heat by evaporation.
tarpaulins. Men without such Items of Numerous comments on the fly and sand
equipment resorted to covering their bodies fly situation indicated that rest without
with sand during the heat of the day for protection in the daytime was difficult in
protection from the sun, to reduce water many parts of the desert. Apparently the
loss, or for the cooling effect of the deep insects were not troublesome at night. The
flies were described in glowing and profane the well. The men designated one of the
terms and apparently were abundant and pools as a bath and all enjoyed a refresh-
pesky, to put it mildly. ing swim. Another pool was reserved for
Survivors also made use of natural desert drinking water. Once in the cistern the men
features for shade or shelter. One party in discovered a ledge off to one side and they
East Africa camped in the shade of a soli- brought their luggage into the cave and
tary tree for 2 days and continuously prepared to camp there. Later in the eve-
changed position with the movement of the ning the well became so cool one man
shadow. Many found rock cairns already climbed the rope to the ,surface to collect
built and used the shade; others built cairns blankets and parachutes for warmth. On a
for shade. Desert tombs or Holy Men tombs later ascent he spotted a passing plane and
were used by several survivors for the night's the group was rescued.
rest or for a daytime shelter. The tomb was A single story was found of a survivor
all too suggestive, was one man's comment. who reached the north coast of Africa and
Survivors who found caves utilized them. slept on seaweed drift which he accumulated
Several men made the suggestion that the from the beach. He commented that it was
banks of wadis were particularly good places rough and scratchy.
to look for erosion caverns which offered The change in temperature at night oc-
shelter. These apparently varied in size casioned many remarks from the survivors.
from small caves which would sleep two Those that traveled in the day and rested
men lying side by side to majestic caverns or slept at night reported that ground pro-
which held parties of 10 and 14. Two men tection from the dampness was needed. A
reported sleeping in hyenas' caves in East few indicated that the dew which collected
Africa, but both men commented on the on their apparel made them cold. The night
stench in their accommodations. The wadi air was described as penetratingly cold in
caves were used by the Bedouins with regu- January and February in North Africa, and
larity, and the comment was made that in many men were forced to wrap themselves
the heat of the day the best place to look in parachutes for warmth. Several parties
for natives was in the wadi caves. Warning reported they were forced to sleep together
was expressed that caves used by Bedouin for mutual warmth.
were generally infested with fleas, lice, and A few men had sleeping bags available
other vermin. One man found enough grass for their squrvival episode. One of these men
in one cave to offer a good rest but the bugs commented that he had a colony of fleas in
soon drove him out. He retaliated by burn- his sleeping bag after only a few days in
ing all the straw ne could find in the cave the desert.
and then utilized the smoky but vermin- Sand invaded all types of shelter and
free cave for 3 days. sleeping accommodations, and in open areas
The most remarkable story of shelter was the men were often forced to shake out their
found in the report of a party near exhaus- gear several times in the course of the night
tion which found a cistern containing a for comfort. Sandstorms also produced
small amount of water in three bottom special problems of protection and shelter.
pools. A knotted rope enabled one of the Parachutes were generally pressed into use
party to descend and inspect the cistern, as head coverings and often a great many
and his report of cool water promptly layers of cloth were required to keep the
brought the remainder of the party into sand out.
4. Clothing and Wearing Apparel

ONLY A FEW COMM on clothing were
rNTs Men who flew in regulation flight clothes
found in the survival stories studied, but a experienced little difficulty on the desert
great many statements were made on the with this apparel. One-piece flying suits
footgear worn or available to them. offered the best protection against the desert
I , \
environment and were generally comforta- the ankle protection against boulders and
ble. Men who flew in sport shirts or thin thorns. Ankle support was specifically men-
bush shirts commented on the inadequacy tioned many times as essential in desert
of this protection against the sun, desert hiking. Type of footwear other than GI
cold, insects, thorns, and rocks. shoes came apart in the course of desert
In general the clothing the men wore marches. The men were forced to repair
stood up well in the survival experience. No their shoes by sewing, wiring or tying them
stories of improvising shirts or trousers together with strips of parachute cloth or
were encountered. Clothing was generally shroud lines. The men noted that with each
worn; none was reported discarded, and, if repair job the shoes became a little harder
anything, the feeling was that more cloth- on the feet.
ing would be desirable. Sand and gravel getting into the shoes
Helmets were generally supplemented by bothered many men. It was especially
the additional protection of parachute troublesome to one survivor who slashed
cloth. The men apparently adopted the his shoes with a jackknife for better ventila-
Arab-type hats, which could be made easily tion. His comment was, "Never again."
from parachutes. A few men wore towels on Several survivors mentioned a heavy
their heads forprotectidn and disguise. One clamp-on crepe rubber sole used by the
man commented that a white linen head- German forces as the best answer to desert
dress was the best head covering for the travel. They felt that cushion rubber soles
desert. with cleats cut in the bottom would be ideal
for desert walking and traction, but felt
Stockings and socks caused a few cort that the firmness of leather soles was also
menits from the men who walked the desert. desirable. The clamp-on soles were needed in
Woolen socks were indicated as perferable their opinion. One chap wanted to know if
to cotton socks, and the short-topped civilian asbestos clamp-on soles were not practical
socks were roundly condemned by three men to neutralize the heat of the desert terrain.
who wore them.
thee The general
sldin effect
lw sckskep don was
Ito that
he to u of ralie
Strips te aothcloth were
parachute dert wrapped
train.
these low socks kept sliding down into the around shoes by survivors for traction and
shoes and made walking difficult. One man insulation.
said that he would never again wear a pair A few survivors indicated they had taken
of mended socks on a mission, atreair
he drnedhimelf.Hisroug least those
ork off their shoes for certain periods. Several
of these were forced to cross salt flats
caused him considerable foot trouble, or
marshy areas and decided to do it barefooted
Several men suggested that all desert to save their shoes. Invariably a barefooted
clothing should either have elastic margins hike across a salt flat or mire resulted in
to the necklines, sleeves, trouser legs, and alkali burns of the feet. A few indicated that
tops of socks and gloves or be equipped with they removed their shoes for comfort during
drawstrings in these regions. They men- rest stops and cautioned against this prac-
tioned that the circulation of air was gener- tice as their swollen feet went into the shoes
ally desirable but that many times the dust with reluctance or not at all. A party of six
and sand combination made it preferable to was forced to walk barefooted because they
tightly seal the openings. could not get their swollen feet back into
On the subject of shoes the survivors who their shoes.
commented, and there were many, were Off the coast of North Africa a pilot was
unanimous in their opinion that GI shoes forced to ball out into the Mediterranean.
with high leather tops were the best. He took off his shoes while in the water to
Civilian-type shoes, low-cut shoes, sandals, make his progress to shore with the aid of a
tennis shoes with cloth tops, and flying Mae West a bit easier. Once on shore he
boots were all reported as causing trouble walked 8 miles over the hot terrain to his
during the survival experience. The men base and was hospitalized for 5 weeks with
wanted the ankle support of high shoes and burned and blistered feet.
5. The Health of Survivors
IN GENERAL the desert appears to be a, experience the sun and heat of the desert
healthy place, judging from the survivors' area caused the greatest difficulties. Sun-
reports. Afflictions were relatively minor burn and the effects of glare were the most
ones other than those caused directly by the severe hardships the men experienced. Sun-
sun or heat. Many men commented on their burn on hands apparently was particularly
physical condition before the emergency as painful to the survivors. Treatment of sun-
directly related to much of their success or burn while en route consisted of using burn
many of their difficulties during the period ointment found in the first-aid kits, and
of survival. Those in top physical shape improvised treatment with cooking oil,
with well-developed endurance and con- poultices of juicy plants, and lubricating oil.
ditioned muscles were able to complete the Gloves or hand coverings were made from
long walk or survival experience better than articles of clothing or parachutes specifically
those reporting themselves, in poor shape. to prevent sunburn.
Many of the pilots noted they had had An individual tried to protect his body
nothing to eat prior to flying that fateful by smearing the exposed portions with
mission. Explanations were given to indi- "grease" from the bodies of snails he found
cate that the nature of the food at their in the North African desert. He concluded
messes, specifically high in starch content this was useless, actually. caused greater
in a few cases, was known by the pilots to condensation of sweat and added to the
cause gas at altitude. As a result these men temperature, and increased the desire for
never ate prior to flying a mission. The same water.
men reported they wished they had had a The heat of the desert sands caused pain-
meal before the long survival experience ful burns or over-heating of the feet of many
they then undertook. Two pilots commented survivors. A few men reported they tried to
that they had "tanked up" on cold water counteract the heat by wrapping their shoes
before the mission and that this led to dif- in several layers of parachute cloth. Blisters
ficulties of dizziness and cramps while in from wearing poor shoes -were reported fre-
the air and also immediately after they quently. A great many men had much to
reached the ground. A great many survivors say on the nature of the footwear best for
mentioned that after their experience they desert marching. The concensus was that
would drink their fill before starting out on high-topped GI shoes were the best.
a mission just in case It ever happened Blisters on the feet were treated as well
again, as possible. Band-aids from the first-aid
Enemy action accounted for the majority kits were frequently mentioned but always
of the wounds and injuries the men received accompanied by the comment that the
before reaching the ground. Interestingly, band-aids were too small or the adhesive
of the 10 accidents reported all injuries sections too short or too dry.
were to the feet or legs. Only 12 men were Five men reported a condition of athlete's
hurt in leaving the aircraft by bailing out. loot as it affected their travels in the desert.
Six of these were cases of abrasions and six One of these men stated that a very slight
were cases of sprains. None of the accounts case of athlete's foot spread so that not only
reported injuries in crash-landing, but 32 his toes were cracked but the soles of his
cases of Injuries following parachute de- feet were split and extremely raw in a mat-
scent were found. These were sprains, abra- ter of a few days. All five agreed that a case
sions, cuts, and one case of paralysis. One of athlete's foot was one of the worst hazards
man who lost both his shoes and socks in they could imagine for desert survival. All
the shock of his parachute opening reported five felt that a change of socks would have
his feet badly cut on landing in a flint- helped but that none were available.
strewn desert area. The effects of dust or blowing sand were
During the course of the desert survival indicated by a great many men. One com-
'Ii
"4
mented, "Don't remove your sunglasses for areas. Men without the protection of fine
even 1 minute in the desert," and referred mesh nets or repellents resorted to wrap-
to the trouble he had had getting particles ping themselves in parachute cloth, alter-
of sand from his very dry eyes. Medical re- nately giving in to the heat and to the at-
ports on many of the survivors indicated a tacks of these flies. Three cases of nausea,
mild to serious sinusitis following the des- vomiting, and muscular ache were found in
ert experience, probably due to irritation by the survivors' stories. The symptoms usually
-the dust particles. The men commonly used passed after several days of rest. It is pos-
filters of cotton, grass, and other materials sible these symptoms indicated sand fly
in the nostrils to keep the sand out and fever.
found them worthwhile. Men complained Collapse in the desert may be attributed
continuously of sore eyes due to the glare to effects of the heat or to simple physical
and the abrasion of dust particles on the exhaustion. One survivor reported using an
eyelids and eyeballs. The report that eye- ammonia inhaler to treat other members
lids fdlt like emery paper indicates the of his party. Another reported that applica-
degree of discomfort that can result from tions of a bottle of shave lotion he had along
dust. were the best treatment. The heat caused
Skin irritations from the blowing sand dizziness in many of the survivors and all
were minor, although a few reports of skin men who reported such symptoms also re-
dermatitis from sand in the beard were ported they rested for a few hours to several
found. However, skin abrasions from falls days following such attacks. A general corn-
and bumping into rocks caused considera- plaint was the inability to sleep because of
ble comment. Skin abrasions in the desert exhaustion.
seem to result in desert sores; these troubled Intestinal and urinary troubles were ex-
a majority of the survivors. Desert sores perienced by a few survivors. These were
were painful and very slow in healing. Sores attributed to food and water, or the lack of
were reported to last days and even weeks. it, and also to sleeping on the ground. Men
The survivors acknowledged that fair- who were fed by wandering tribes after
skinned men not only burned more easily several'days without food and water re-
than darker-skinned men but also developed ported severe attacks of indigestion from
desert sores more readily. Generally the des- dates, rice fried in oil, and especially from
ert sores contained pus and the large scabs the Arab bread. Only three cases of desert
which formed over these sores were difficult dysentery were found in the stories studied,
to retain in place. Attempts were made by but all of these reported the dysentery to be
survivors to cover their wounds with band- extremely painful and accompanied by a
ages or improvised bandages of clothing or high fever necessitating a rest for a few
parachute cloth, but without ointment days. Four men reported that the cold
the bandages stuck and caused further nights and the lack of proper ground sheets
discomfort. resulted in chills and stomach cramps.
The attraction of flies to the open wounds The lack of water for extended periods of
disturbed the survivors greatly. All felt the time had definite effects on the health of
flies, everywhere abundant, were sources of the survivors. Both shrinking and swelling
the infections which followed. The men of mucous membranes of the mouth were re-
chased the flies to the point of distraction, ported. One man reported his tongue was so
and then inevitably ignored the flies and large he felt he couldn't keep it in his
took the consequences. mouth. Several men commented their mu-
One man reported abrasions from the cous membranes began to peel, and enough
heavy salt concentration in his clothing. He accounts were available to conclude that 5
attempted to shake the salt out periodically days of dessication, on the average, would
by heavy kneading or beating the garments bring on this condition. Cracked lips and
against rocks. tongues were reported frequently and Indi-
Sand flies were troublesome in certain cated as extremely painful.
Difficult and painful urination was a and to brush teeth was noted in the sur-
common complaint of survivors after 3 to vival reports. Generally the men objected
4 days of desert survival. A few men com- to the smell of their own bodies and of their
mented they had had no bowel movements companions, but recognized that nothing
during the period of survival. In one case could be done about it. All felt that a change
this was 21 days with a minimum amount of of clothing, especially socks, would have
food and water. made their trek a bit easier. If the
Survivors from Morocco, Tunisia, and men did find sufficient water, they all took
British East Africa reported infections from baths or enjoyed swims in oases, streams,
spines and other plant parts. These were or cisterns. This was more for physical re-
apparently cactus spines in the first two lief from the heat than for cleanliness, al-
locations, and spines from acacias and though one hardy soul suggested that hard-
similar trees in the East African area. water soap be added to the emergency
The inability to wash clothing and bodies equipment to be carried in the desert.
6. Food and Hunger
a. Rations hard candy, toffee, and gum were men-
WITH a shortage of water the immediate tioned,.in that order of frequency, as the
problem before most of the desert evadees, rations carried.
the food supply or shortage of food seemed In 1942 and 1943 most of the survival
Inconsequential. If the men had rations stories dealt with American fliers and here
they ate them, or tried to, depending on the the rations carried became D and K rations,
amount of water available. Men short on with Horlicks' milk tablets, hard candy,
water had little desire for food although one Charms, and gum following in that
man reported 'his hunger pains did not frequency.
bother him after the fifth day. Thoughts of The D ration, a concentrated chocolate
food entered the minds of only a few sur- bar, was thoroughly despised as a survival
vivors. Few attempts were made to ration ration In the desert. The hard candies were
the supplies of food available, according to mentioned favorably in some stories; a mint
the stories studied. Generally desire dic- flavor and acid-lemon or acid-lime flavor
tated the use or rejection of food. Men sup- were indicated where preference or specific
plied food by the natives after a period of comment was made. Horlick's malted milk
near starvation generally suffered from tablets were desired in larger numbers by a
cramps, severe Indigestion, or an uncom- few men. The comments on the caramels
fortable feeling. After such experiences the were that these candies were disagreeable
men preferred to do without food until they under desert conditions and generally in-
were sure of its purity, creased thirst.
The rations carried by the survivors Such rations as the men did have were
varied considerably with the period of op- generally eaten cold or uncooked and the
eratlon and the types of planes flown. In foraged materials were eaten raw or un-
the early period of these survival stories, cooked in all but a few instances. A very
1940 Into 1942, British rations were men- few men indicated they were able to roast
tioned most frequently. In the episodes or half-roast some of their food. One man
which occurred in late 1942 and 1943 traveling along the north coast of Africa
American rations, particularly D and K reported he boiled his food in sea water.
rations, were mentioned. Men smoked very little if at all during
Tins of bully beef, biscuits, corn, toma- desert survival episodes. Smoking tended to
toes, iron rations, concentrated food tablets, dry out the mouth according to some re-
vitamin pills, Horlick's milk tablets, con- ports, but the majority of the men who com-
densed milk, tea, dates, sugar, caraniels, mented on smoking mentioned they were
just too dry and that cigarettes did not sucked grass, chewed grass, boiled grass for
even seem desirable. dinner and supper, and even argued over
A good story of the use of rations in the which grass had the most flavor when eaten
course of desert survival involves a mem- raw and when cooked.
ber of the Long Range Desert Patrol who A party in the Western Desert of Egypt
was isolated in the desert. He found an old found aloe berries in quantity and ate these
opened can of condensed milk in a former for both moisture and food. A comment was
camping spot. Small bits of curled dried made that the partially ripe berries were
milk clung to the sides of the can. Nearby better than the fully mature ones. Aloe is
were the sun dried tea leaves previously dis- the source of a well-known bitter medicine.
carded from a pot of tea. The survivor in his It is possible that the bitter principle is not
desperation for a spot of tea added the old present in the berries of this plant but in
tea leaves and water to the milk can and general aloes are not recommended as a
brewed some "terrible" tea. This same sur- palatable item of food.
vivor planned to walk to the Sarra oasis in In southern Libya one group tried to eat
hopes of rescue or at least of finding some the wild melons found growing on the des-
water. As he walked in that direction he ert. They found the leaves and the fruits to
recalled that on an earlier stop at the oasis be extremely bitter but the seeds, particu-
he had discarded some lentils from his mess larly those of very old and dessicated melons,
kit. He remembered the exact rock where to be as palatable as sunflower seeds.
the lentils were dumped. When he reached In the deserts of East Africa, Kenya, and
th oasis the well had been destroyed and Somaliland men ate roots which, they com-
no water was available, but behind the rock mented, always grew vertically in the
were the lentils which had preyed on his ground and which were hard to dig from
mind. He recovered the lentils but con- the dry soil. A party in East Africa in des-
cluded they were too hard and dry to be peration decided to try eating some of the
eaten. berries they saw but they made it a suicide
pact. Each man was to eat the berries at
b. Plant Materials as Emergency Foods the same time so that if they were poisonous
the entire party would die. They lived.
PLANT maurials did not enter Into the The pods of the acacias were tried by a
survival picture as important sources of group of survivors in Ethiopia but no fur-
emergency foods in desert areas. In gen- ther comment was made on the edibility
eral the men apparently did not see plants of these fruits. The young pods of these
which they considered worth trying or else trees may be palatable depending on the
the comments indicate that the vegetation species and some of the older pods may
was so burned up in the heat as to be possess gums which are reasonably edible.
unusable. Dates were supplied to many survivors
Survivors chewed grasses in the full ex- by Arabs and Bedouin. Only one survival
tent of the range of desert episodes. Alfa story reports that a man found a small un-
grass in Tunisia was mentioned in half a inhabited oasis consisting of some grass
dozen stories where the men pulled the and three date palms. He ate the green
stalks and chewed on the soft bases. In dates with relish.
Libya men sucked on grasses for what lit-
tle moisture and food value they could find. c. Animals as Emergency Foods
In the Sinai Desert one man commented
that the grass was abundant but the MosT of the survivor stories coivtain some
animals had beaten him to all the suc- reference to animal life seen or shot, caught
culent parts. A party in British East Africa and utilized for food. More men and parties
found all the grass burnt up and not even used gazelles for food than any other ani-
one blade was green enough to eat. Several mal. The gazelles were wary and hard to
men in Ethiopia reported that for days they stalk; invariably it was a running and gen-
I
erally lucky shot 'that enabled the party to gent, or poisonous. One of the first rules of
obtain these animals. A party of three ate survival dealing with plant materials is to
well for 6 days on gazelle meat, which they avoid unfamilar plants with milky juices;
reported always abundant. The gazelles this should apply to chewing them for bird-
caught ranged in size from scarcely larger lime as well as using them for food.
than a rabbit to animals of 75 to 100 Chickens were bought from parties of
pounds. The gazelles were eaten raw and Arabs by some men and several stories men-
the meat was described as juicy or dry, tioned eating the chickens raw. One inan
tasty or obnoxious, stringy or tender. Rela- expressed amazement at seeing' a chicken
tives of the gazelle, the dik-dik of East loose in the desert. He commented that the
Africa and the gazelline antelope or gere- Arabs usually keep the chickens inside their
nuk, were shot by parties in Ethiopia and houses and he wondered how'this one
Kenya. A kid goat was reported in one sur- managed to escape unnoticed. By stalking
vival story as wandering around the desert it carefully he was able to catch the bird
"yelling its head off." The survivor had raw and after killing it he "devoured" it raw.
kid for supper that night and reported it Chickens' eggs were procured from pass-
good. ing natives according to some survival
A thub, a large spiny-tailed lizard of the stories, and one party found an owl's nest
Arabian Peninsula, was used as emergency and ate the eggs therein. They commented
food by a group of three men- A large gray that the eggs contained half-developed
lizard and plain "lizards" figured In the embryos.
menus of six other stories from North "Kangaroo mice" were reported as food
Africa. The lizards were hunted by one material in two stories. One other account
party in holes in the ground, under rocks, told of catching brown mice in the desert,
and in crevices in the rocks. A survivor in and gray rats in old dugouts, and using
Arizona caught lizards on the branches of both for food. Land tortoises were eaten by
trees. He killed and skinned them with his survivors in East Africa. One survivor found
sharpened belt buckle and ate them raw. it difficult to crush the shells; he was forced
All lizards were reported to be fast-traveling to drink the blood and eat only what mus-
animals and required agility to catch. cles he could pull from the shell of one
Birds of various kinds were hunted and tough animal.
when caught used for food. The "habara," Insects served as food in six stories. One
a bustard the size of a small turkey with a man had no trouble catching beetles; he
peculiar habit of running, then flying a reported taking off the hard parts and
short distance, and then running again, eating the softer bodies. Grasshoppers and
proved to be excellent eating for several locusts were used after the wings and hind
parties. Six additional stories reported legs were removed. Another survivor re-
hunting bustards but with unmentioned ported his diet Included large files which he
success. A party in Ethiopia shot a crow and ate by holding on to the wings.
a small hawk which were "half roasted" Desert animals which were seen by sur-
and used for food. A party in British East vivors but not mentioned as being eaten in-
Africa made an attempt to catch birds us- cluded: ostriches, foxes, grouse, hyenas,
ing a birdlime. The birdlime was prepared jackals, bats, solpuggids, and prairie dogs.
by chewing the sticky succulents of the Survivors who reached the coast used a
area. While these men showed ingenuity in variety of sea food. Peri-winkles, sea ur-
their attempt to obtain food material, the chins, oysters, crabs, and fish were collected
practice was a dangerous one for partially and eaten. The fish were generally found
dehydrated men in a desert. The succulents stranded on the beach in a partially dried
of Africa, which have a sticky principle and condition or impounded in tidal pools where
so would make satisfactory birdlime, have they were easy to catch.
a milky Juice. They belong to families of One group of survivors heading for the
plants which ar generally bitter, astrin- Mediterranean coast of the Western Desert
A4

were desperate for both food and water. rials mentioned as purchased or supplied
They noticed that one stretch of rocky des- during the course of survival episodes were:
ert appeared to be paved with small land camel's milk and goat's milk, bread, butter
snails. One adventurous member of the floating in honey, rice, roasted truffles, cof-
party started biting the soft point of the fee, dates, and goat meat. The men found
shell and sucking out the juices. Another the bread unpalatable as it usually caused
member of the party tried it and reported severe indigestion and cramps. The camel's
the odor and taste caused him to become milk was occasionally mentioned as diluted
nauseated. However a short while iater he with water. Two men reported the rice
too was hunting out the snails and sucking served had been cooked in rancid oil or ran-
the juices and eating the meats. Eventu- cid butter and this was either refused or
ally the men registered the complaint that eaten with subsequent troublesome diges-
the birds were beating them to the snails tive effects.
and that all the shells were empty. How- Dates were served ripe or immature. It
ever, by diligent searching they were able was mentioned in one survival story that
to locate enough full shells to keep them in about 10-percent of the ripe dates contained
fair condition until they reached the large fat juicy worms which tasted exactly
coastal road and were rescued, like the date. He added that if you forgot
d. Food Supplied by the Natives about the worm all went well, but it was
WANDERING tribes of native Arabs, Be- hard to keep from looking for the insect.
douin, and Jews, were reported in some sur- One pilot spent a month wandering about
vival stories. These tribes supplied various the desert aided by Bedouin. Finally the
survivors with food materials, meals, or tribe gave him a she-camel and showed him
kept them for periods of 1 to 30 days. how to milk her. With proper directions for
The survivors were usually able to get travel he started off to his own lines riding
chickens and eggs, which they knew and the camel and living off her milk. Both the
trusted as items of food. Other food mate- camel and the lieutenant were rescued.
PART IlI
HAZARDS OF SURVIVAL
1. Animal Dangers
S URVIVORS IN DESERT AREAS found little

in the way of large wild life to bother
reported were diagnosed as sand fly fever
resulting from desert experiences with these
them. It proved to be'the flies, sand flies, small insects. However, the worst effect on
mosquitoes, ticks, lice, and fleas which were most men encountering sand flies was the
most irritating and annoying. constant scratching resulting from the
Large dangerous animals were reported bites of these insects. Apparently repellents
in a very few accounts. Men in Kenya and were not in the emergency gear issued or
British East Africa saw lions and one group carried at this period, for no mention is
reported they bumped into a herd of ele- made of it in the stories studied. Several
phants which took no notice of them. Lions men tried various means of getting relief
prowling in the night were scared away by from the sand flies. The most common
a Very pistol discharged by two British method was to chew up a cigarette and then
fliers. The men who slept in hyenas' cave in smear the juice on the body. This method
Kenya wondered what would happen if the was also suggested as useful in killing body
animals returned, lice.
The only man who suffered injuries from Mosquitoes were locally abundant in the
large animals are reported in three indi- desert areas, especially near the coastal
vidual accounts from North Africa. One areas and around inland marshes. Mos-
man, approaching a herd of camels, was quitoes generally appeared in numbers at
kicked by an animal. Another man reported dusk. One man reported them to be so bad
he was bitten on the top of the head by a that he was forced to get into his sleeping
camel while talking to the rider. The third bag for protection; however, by 8 p.m. the
survivor commented on the vicious, starved mosquitoes had disappeared and he was
Libyan dogs and reported that one "nipped" able to continue walking unmolested.
him and then trailed him for miles across Fleas and lice were picked up in Arab
the open desert. He had no food and was and Bedouin quarters; many men noted
afraid the animal meant further personal their abundance in caves formerly used for
attack. shelter by the nomads. Any building was
Most of the survivors' stories contained sure to be swarming with biting insects in
some mention of the flies. These are re- the desert and survivors gave specific warn-
ported to be extremely abundant even in ing against sleeping in such quarters.
remote areas of the desert. Comments were A single episode of trouble with ticks was
made that the flies descended from nowhere reported. One story mentioned that a small
and that rest or sleep in the middle of the snake had crawled into the man's sleeping
day was impossible because of these swarms bag. Three men reported thay had been bit-
of flies. One man reported he was not ten by scorpions. Two of them reported the
bothered by fies until the day he slipped animal to be a small yellow scorpion which
and scratched his arm; almost immediately is almost harmless; the third man described
fles appeared and, try as he would, he could a large black scorpion which can be deadly.
not keep them from his minor wounds. In Kenya Colony several men reported that
6%nd flies were even more troublesome in caterpillars dropped from the trees and
that they are small, can crawl through the left large painful weals if they landed on
finest nets, and bite painfully. Three cases exposed flesh.
26
HAZARDS OF SURVIVAL 27
2. Dangers from Plant Materials

A FEW SURvIVORS mentioned their diffi- Also mentioned in the survival reports of
culties with spiny desert shrubs. The spines spiny or dangerous plants was the thistle,
of some of the acacias caused trouble in probably Eryngium. One man in the Egyp-
East Africa; these could be easily removed tian desert said this plant was so thick that
it was impossible to walk or sit down with-
from the flesh. By contrast, cactus spines out being pricked by the spiny leaves and
have retrorse barbs; the men who reported flowers.
injuries from these plants commented on Plants causing dermatitis were not men-
the difficulty with which the spines were tioned in the survival stories and no diffl-
removed and the frequency of infection in culties were expressed in the stories of the
such wounds, few men who ate plant materials.
0\
AIDS TO SURVIVAL
1. Cottact with the Natives
T HE WANDERING TRIBES of the North continue walking. The Arabs treated one
Africart deserts apparently befriended survivor who had been suffering from nu-
Axis and Allied survivors alike and without merous flea bites with a concoction of salt,
prejudice. One British pilot reported his vinegar, and honey.
host had had a German as a house guest the Payment for services rendered was men-
day before his arrival. Generally the treat- tioned by only three men. One stated that
ment by Arabs and Bedouin was as courte- his host wished a section of his parachute
ous and generous as the situation allowed, and he gave him just that. Another reported
We know, of course, only the stories of those he paid for food with coins from his escape
men who came back to report, kit and that the tribe debated whether to
Identification cards or chits were men- accept United States money. He wished for
tioned in 17 of the stories examined. In all some other unit of money, preferably gold
of these the survivors stated that at least coins. The third man gave his host a pen-
one man in a caravan was able to read the knife in payment for services rendered. A
card and so accept the responsibility for the party of Senussi in North Africa cared for
survivor. One man mentioned that after a group of three men for 6 days and then
long and fruitless conversation with an refused payment of any kind.
Arab in the middle of nowhere the Arab Two cases of theft were reported among
finally mentioned one word he could un- the survival stories. One Arab volunteered
derstand, "New York." Although he was to go for help and stated he would send a
from St. Louis, he promptly accepted the rescue party to the well where the men
identification with the larger city and was were staying. After his departure it was
cared for by the tribe, noted that a blanket and a sleeping bag
The duration of nomad hospitality was were missing. Two days later a search
generally short. Men were supplied a drink party did arrive saying they had been sent
of water or milk, given a little food or a by a native Arab who did not reappear. The
meal, and the contact was broken with the other party reporting a theft suffered the
tribe proceeding on its way. A few men were serious loss of a web belt with attached
boarded for periods of several days. One knife and canteen.
pilot spent a month with a tribe of Bedouin. In the stories from East Africa all of the
Cloth to make a hat was supplied to one natives proved hospitable to the British
survivor for protection against the sun. troops involved in the stories. One chap re-
Another was given a long flowing robe for ported it was difficult, for a time, to make
disguise. Four men reported the tribesmen the Ethiopians understand he was British
helped them repair their shoes so they could because of his dark skin and hair.
2. Emergency Signaling and Equipment
As uxzxpcD ANoMAwOus srruATioN was the men traveled at night and slept in the
revealed in a study of the methods of signal- daytime. 2. Military operations of aircraft
Ing used by survivors. Various factors con- during this same period were conducted
tributed to a situation which reveals that primarily during the daylight hours. 3. No
signaling methods used in desert areas in effective rescue organization or search pro-
1940 through 1942 were ineffective. These cedure was established during the period.
factors are worth considering: 1. Most of 4. Identification of ground parties at night
28
AIDS TO SURVIVAL 29
was extremely difficult and the few night on the ground found themselves in the posi-
signals seen by pilots were generally tion of being unable to identify themselves
ignored. 5. Without proper cover and con- at night to passing aircraft.
cealment and with little chance for hasty Identification during the daylight hours
escape, men on the ground were forced to was almost as difficult. Since the men were
be certain of the identification of passing out in the open, with little opportunity for
aircraft before attempting contact. 6. The cover or hasty concealment and escape, the
ground haze during the *heat of the day ground parties hesitated to signal passing
made visibility difficult for the men on the vehicles or planes unless they were rela-
ground as well as observers in aircraft. 7. tively sure of identification or unless they
Efficient signaling equipment was not gen- were desperate and ready to surrender if
erally available. necessary. This meant that the vehicle or
A variety of stories contained these ob- aircraft had to approach close enough to
servations. Probably a majority of the des- be identified before the evadees would re-
ert survivors traveled at night during at veal their position and attempt contact.
lease part of their emergency experience. In the case of passing aircraft this meant
The men did this for the obvious reasons of a minimum amount of time was available to
comfort from the heat of the day, and the the ground party to attract attention. Sev-
ease of night navigation by the stars in eral parties reported that yelling, waving
contrast to the common lack of landmarks shirts, spreading parachutes, building fires,
for daytime travel. They likewise slept or or discharging flares at the last minute
sought protection and cover during the failed to attract attention of identified
heat of the day. Only a few men indicated Allied aircraft.
in their stories that they marked their Desert haze coupled with the effects of
location during their hours of daylight rest. mirages further complicated the problem of
These men spread their parachutes or daytime signaling. Desert haze was a layer
marked large letters to indicate their posi- of warm air close to the ground which dis-
tion. Thus passing aircraft were seldom torted vision and limited visibility to 400
given distress signals by the evading par- yards in most cases reported. Evadees ex-
ties during their sleeping hours. perienced difficulty in locating passing air-
At the same time the war was conducted craft through this haze. In many of the
primarily during the daylight hours. Night cases of desert haze mentioned the men
bombing tect.uiques had not been perfected. were able to hear the aircraft long before
Landing fields were not equipped to handle they were able to see it. Even when they
night missions and only scattered patrols did locate the aircraft or passing vehicle,
were conducted, generally by soldiers on identification was handicapped because of
foot, during the night. While the survivors the distortion or swimming appearance of
were traveling, relatively few other mill- the object. One survivor commented that the
tary personnel were operating, and the aircraft appeared as though through cheap
chances of rescue or recognition were and wavy glass, and he was never sure of
small. what he saw. Another reported It was easier
Air-ground contact was poor during the to Identify the aircraft by sound than by
early phases of desert operations. Several sight through the haze. Still another party
survivors who were equipped with Very pis- commented that the haze so distorted their
tols or flares indicated that passing aircraft vision that they were never sure of the
ignored their signals or if they did circle exact location of the aircraft and that vari-
the area the men were usually unable to ous members of the party placed the ob-
make satisfactory contact. There were no Ject sighted with discrepancies of 30 de-
reports in the survival stories of the use of grees. How to use a signal mirror under
radio contact with their bases or with pass- these conditions, If one was available, be-
ing aircraft. Emergency radios such as the came a real problem.
Gibson Girl were not mentioned. The men The problem of sighting ground parties
irom the air was equally difficult. Several would be most effective. Another reported
reports were studied in which the crews of that his squadron had adopted the practice,
the aircraft reported they could not be sure after his rescue, that the desert area would
of small objects on the ground because of be monitored for signal fires between 8 and
the distortion of vision in the haze. 10 p.m. each evening as that would be the
A much needed study of emergency most effective time for signaling.
signaling methods in desert areas is indi- The emergency radio, the use of signal
cated by the experiences of these survivors, panels other than parachutes, and colored
Emergency signaling equipment was not smoke grenades were not mentioned in the
generally available to the survivors in the survival stories available. However, the age-
episodes under consideration. Signal mir- old emergency signal of three rifle shots
rors were used in six survival stories and proved effective in the rescue of parties in
in all without success. Various men tried Ethiopia, Tunisia, and the Sinai desert area.
outlining large letters of identification in A practical suggestion worthy of con-
the terrain, and one of these, a large USA, sideration came from one of the survivors
was reported effective. Another signal, large interviewed personally. He felt that all des-
letters of SOS with an arrow indicating the ert rescue gear should include cans of
direction of travel, led to the rescue of a colored powder which the survivors could
party 2 days later. Fires were tried in sev- spread on the desert floor. He compared this
eral dozen cases but nearly all survivors to the use of seamarker dye on the ocean
mentioned one difficulty or another with and suggested either an irridescent pink-
fire signals. Generally these were lack of red powder or perhaps a combination of
fuel, inability to build more than one fire, this with a phosphorescent powder for re-
inability to build a large smoky fire, and the tention of light and night signaling.
lack of matches or other means of starting Several survivors mentioned with dis-
a fire. Fuel was a problem in many desert gust the futility of voice signals in the
areas and survivors warned of igniting desert. They suggested whistles for desert
fires before they were really needed. One survival. A whistle in which the tone could
suggested that fuel should be carried with be varied was felt to be most effective over
men traveling on foot since it was not al- the noise of the winds in the desert areas.
ways available and was usually most diffi- Various men mentioned that trucks passed
cult to find when it was most needed. Ten within yards of the men and that they were
stories were read in which the men had no unable to attract their attention by yelling.
fire-making equipment at all. These men A Taylor Cub which landed near a survivor
did not even carry matches with them prior in Arizona could not be hailed by the sur-
to their emergency descent. One pilot re- vivor and took off a few yards in front of the
ported he tried to make a signaling fire by desperate man. Voices might carry with the
focusing the sun's rays with his flying gog- wind in the desert but certainly were in-
gles. When this failed he tried striking effective against the wind or for even short
stones together to get a spark. With no luck distances cross-wind.
here he tried the "bow and socket" The conclusion can be drawn from these
method with a continued lack of success, stories that emergency signaling presents
One flier who had no matches reported he special problems in desert terrain and en-
was so mad at his situation "he was hot vironments. Special attention must be given
enough to burn himself." to signaling methods and identification
Men who did build fires suggested the methods during dusk and dawn, daylight
conventional signal of three fires in a line and night hours.
3. Rescue Activities
Rescus acnzvm call for cooperation on this cooperation in the survival stories for
the part of both the survivor and the res- desert areas during the 1940 through 1943
cuer. There are many examples of a lack of period. Perhaps the most serious of these
9
w
\,
AIDS TO SURVIVAL 31
was the failure of the survivor to stay in crossing extensive areas of soft sand and
place once he was located. Many stories then traversing the boulder-strewn "Coal"
tell of the party on the ground being located in which the men were downed' The problem
by passing aircraft and having supplies of supplies of gasoline and water for the
dropped to them. With these meager ad- rescuers was a major one and the rough
ditlonal supplies the ground parties moved terrain caused the trucks to break down
on, generally without instructions rcin the repeatedly. By the time the men were lo-
aircraft. This led to additional searcn thne cated by the ground party some of the sur-
on the part of the plane, often involving 3 vivors had started off on foot. An attempt
to 4 additional days before rescue could be to follow them proved futile. Their rolled-up
completed. Seven stories are available from parachutes were located under some trees
survivors indicating that even after the men a few miles farther, but the men were never
had been located by air a few members of found. Four of an original party of eight
the party decided to continue walking and men were lost even after they had been
were never heard of again. In three cases located by air and notified ground rescue
in southern Libya, reported in official docu- teams were on their way. The remaining
ments, the entire parties on the ground were four survivors were taken to an improvised
located and materials dropped to them but landing strip and flown out. Total flying
the men had moved by the following day time involved in this rescue was 120 hours.
and were never located again. One story The land parties covered 1,350 miles in the
told by a survivor reported that the party process of rescue, but due to the foolish-
was seen by a passing aircraft which spot- ness of the survivors the rescue was only 50
ted their parachutes spread out on the percent effective. Four of the men literally
ground. The men accepted the food and lost themselves in the vastness of the area.
water dropped and then rolled up their The problem of signaling in desert ter-
parachutes and awaited rescue. It did not rain comes up again in relation to rescue by
occur to them later in the day that the ground parties. Survivors in the open ex-
planes circling in the distance were looking panses of the desert apparently are as hard
for them and it was several hours before to find as men concealed in the thorn
they recovered their senses and spread their brush. Desert haze limits the daytime visi-
parachutes again. bility of survivors and rescuers alike. Mi-
Survivors were rescued in a great many rages work both ways and stories of men,
ways. Caravans aided many parties. Des- caravans, and rescue parties appearing out
ert patrols found some. The Long Range of mirages indicate that special attention
Desert Patrol of the British Forces was should be given to these problems of es-
particularly effective in locating survivors. tablishing contact. Sound signals proved
Some men were picked up by small aircraft most effective to ground rescue parties in
which landed specifically for the task. Per- the daytime in desert terrain. Men were
haps the most extensive rescue operation located in four cases by the repeated firing
involved a crew of a B-24 down in the black of rifles.
rock area, "the Coal," of southern Libya. Brush fires set by survivors in Kenya and
These men were located after 2 days Ethiopia proved effective in directing res-
and were found in two parties of four men cue parties in the shrub-land desert of East
located 8 miles apart. Supplies were dropped Africa. One party in British East Africa was
to the men and rescue organizations were completely exhausted after 15 days of short
formed. The men, however, could not be water and food rations. They lay under a
relocated by air at the former positions tree and watched the vultures circling over-
taken, and 3 days passed before they were head. It was those same vultures that led
relocated and resupplied. Another 5 days the ground rescue party to their location.
passed during which time a large rescue Survvors also had a lot to say on the sub-
party started to them by truck. The route ject of equipment dropped to them and the
the ground party had to take involved methods in which it was dropped. Oenerally
9r
their most urgently needed item was water. Numerous items of equipment dropped by
Survivors' comments were bitter on the sub- rescue aircraft could not be located in the
ject of water bottles, canteens, or cans of desert terrain. The improvised emergency
water which broke when dropped to them. gear of the period lacked streamers or
There are numerous stories in which every parachutes and was not brightly colored
container of water broke on the fall. The
survivors felt that some special container for clear visibility. One party reported they
should be devised to drop water without found only one of nine packages dropped to
putting the survivor through the agony them in the open desert of Libya in spite of
of seeing much needed water trickle through extensive searching for 2 days. The one
broken containers into the ground. Present- package they did locate contained dry bread.
day rescue gear is adequately packed, The difficulty of finding small objects in the
brightly colored, and generally dropped desert is well indicated in the tale of the Ari-
by parachute. In the period in which these zona survivor who could not relocate his
survival epsidoes took place practically all parachute when he walked an estimated
equipment was improvised. 500 yards from the spot where he had
Dropping gear should also be well marked. spread it out.
4. Survivors' Comments on Equipment
MANY OF THE sutvivons' comments on are items a man should be carrying on his
equipment have already been mentioned in person or have at hand as emergency equip-
other sections of this study. Unfortunately ment in his aircraft. A few additional ma-
all comments found in the survival episodes terials mentioned do not fall into this cate-
represented afterthoughts and indicated gory. Individual survivors wanted hard-
that little planning for emergencies had oc- water soap, a tooth brush, dental floss, read-
cuffed prior to the fateful flight, and that ing material, package tobacco instead of
little briefing had been given on rescue pro- ready-made cigarettes, DDT powder for lice,
cedures or survival activities. Some prior a razor, a sextant, and puzzles.
thought and preparation would have made One survivor who was carrying an alumi-
for easier survival periods. num canteen wanted some sort of plastic
Men who survived and whose stories were guord for the mouth of the canteen and
studied wanted knives, maps, compasses, suggested a small plastic lip for the narrow
matches, first-aid kits, insect repellent, sun- edge of the canteen cup. His experience was
glasses, hats, proper shoes, extra shoelaces, that the canteen and canteen cup often be-
needles and thread, and gloves. All of these came too hot to touch with his lips.
5. Survival Training
SURVIVAL TRAINING OR BRIEFING on survival found the kits inadequate. The men flew in
was woefully inadequate or completely lack- whatever clothing they chose and carried
ing in the cases studied. This is indicated in with them whatever gear they wanted to
the words of the survivors themselves and accumulate and place in their aircraft. One
the reports of their episodes. The men were survivor who bailed out reported there was
not briefed on what to do. Their decisions no sense in walking to the site of his burn-
were their own. It is no wonder that in the ing plane for he knew there was nothing in
.face of obstacles of the desert so many of it he could use.
them surrendered. The stories indicate the The men who had anything to say in
only emergency gear available to the men at their reports on this lack of training and
th. time was the escape kit. Two men equipment were bitterly pointed on the situ-
stated that they had no idea what was in ation. Many of them felt that someone
the escape kit until they were forced to use could tell them what to do. One man corn-
it in an actual emergency, and then they mented, "I know the Germans have books
[.
AIDS TO SURVIVAL 33
telling them how to live in the desert, so and training was felt and something was
why don't we?" done about it. Rescue procedures, organiza-
The many survival manuals, articles, and tions, and survival training developed since
instructions written in the following years 1943 should not permit a repetition of the
indicate that the need for such information inadequacies evident in these stories.
6. Philosophy of the Survivors

Two ALTERNATIVES seemed available to war was just starting and that it would be
the survivor in the deserts of North Africa a long one. I preferred to take my chances
during the war. One was to surrender to the in the fighting, perhaps to make a con-
nearest forces and the other to exist as best tribution to it, rather than sit the damned
he could under the conditions and possibly thing out in some Axis prison camp."
to walk out. The number who did walk out The general feeling expressed by the men
indicates the courage of this group of des- was that their survival depended on their
ert fliers. a4ility to adapt themselves to the existing
One man who chose the desert rather conditions. This called for mental as well
than the nearby Axis lines and walked 200 as physical adaptation. Many of them were
miles in 26 days commented, "I knew the successful.
w0
- - V -p
CONCLUSIONS AND SU.MMY
T Rns sTuy of desert survival episodes is territory men should stay near the site of
not intended to be a statistical study their emergency landing in all but the most
of experiences or chances of survival. It is unusual circumstances; today, developed
intended Instead to present the nature and search and rescue procedures should bring
range of the experiences of military person- a speedy ending to such emergency sur-
nel isolated in desert areas during wartime. vival episodes.
The conditions under which these sur- 4.Duration of the survival episode: This
vival episodes occurred were hazardous. The study is based on successful survival in 382
men had been poorly prepared for the emer- individual episodes. These stories also re-
gency mentally and physically. The episodes vealed that 142 men, at one time associated
took place during a period of World War II with the survivors, were lost, strayed, or
when briefing on emergency procedures was died in the process of the survival episode.
inadequate, survival training non-existent, The episodes took place in 1940 through
rescue organizations and search procedues 1943 and occurred primarily in North and
unorganized, and survival or rescue equip- East Africa. The men who survived were
ment improvised. Most of the men flew with out I to 29 days and traveled 10 to 350 miles
the knowledge that no one would look for across desert terrain. If figures are signifi-
them, unless it was a member of their own cant, they reveal that the average survivor
squadron, and that they were supposed to was out for 5 days and covered an average
get back as best they could, alone and un- of 50 miles in the course of his survival
aided. However, the flux of activity in the episode.
North African desert at least made the act 5 Hazards of the environment: The heat
of survival easier through strictly abnormal and the effects of the sun coupled with a
desert conditions of abundance of vehicles shortage or complete lack of water proved
and personnel in the desert area. to be the most dangerous factor of the en-
1. Reasons for the emergency: Desert vironment for most survivors. The physical
emergencies occurred primarily because of discomfort from the heat of the day and
enemy action. Faulty navigation and lack the heat of the terrain troubled the men.
of fuel ranked second. Mechanical failure The cold nights were mentioned in many
was the third primary cause of the emer- stories. The brightness of the sun or the ef-
gency. fects of glare were also mentioned as criti-
2. Nature of the descent: Parachute land- cal factors in survival cases. Dust, sand, and
Ings following bail-out and crash landings sandstorms figured in a few stories. Ml-
occurred with about equal frequency In the rages and Illusions troubled many survivors
stories available. Most survivors concluded, but primarily as handicaps to travel.
however, that If conditions were favorable 6. The problem of water: Few men landed
a crash landing was preferable because of with sufficient water on their person or in
the source of materials in the aircraft. the aircraft to enable them to travel with-
J. Actio fo/owwng the landing: In all out considering this problem. In nearly all
the stories studied the survivors walked back of the cases the men were obliged to obtain
to their own lines or walked to enemy lines water by searching for wells, cisterns, or
and surrendered. Since no hope was held oases. The survivors indicated in their
out to them of search and rescue by friendly stories a tendency to conserve water by ra-
units, the men usually destroyed their air- tioning, using a variety of rationing pro-
craft and classlled materials and then procedures. Men sought relief from thirst by
ceeded on foot. This Is prescribed action in carrying pebbles In their mouths, chewing
emmay territory. In itlmily or neutral gram azd leaves and sucking Juie from
34
I\
CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY 35
snails. Emergency water supplies were puri- vivors and difficulties resulted from darned
fled by boiling in a few cases, although fuel socks and mended shoes. Athlete's foot ap-
for fires of any kind proved to be a desert parently spread rapidly under desert con-
problem. ditions and proved crippling to afflicted
7. Travel: Men traveled in the daytime survivors. Some men experienced difficulty
and at night. Some tried first one time and in replacing their shoes due to swelling of
then the other. Too many individuals the feet during rest stops. Men who walked
traveled until they were exhausted. It was barefooted had endless difficulties with
evident from the episodes studied that once abrasions and sunburn. Men who walked
a man dropped from exhaustion his suc- barefooted across alkaline swamps or salt
ceeding period of travel and time before fiats reported they suffered from alkali
collapse became progressively shorter. The burns.
most satisfactory time for travel in most 10. Health of survivors: Desert sores which
desert cases proved to be early morning and developed from minor abrasions were ex-
late evening. Inability to signal or to observe perienced by most of the survivors. Desert
surrounding terrain and the poor chances dysentery proved painful. Sunburn was
of making contact with passing vehicles or particularly distressing to fair-skinned in-
planes were objections to traveling at night. dividuals, as were desert sores. The amount
While vision was generally better during the of previous tanning had little effect in mini-
daylight hours, the physical effects of the mizing sunburn to survivors. Sunburned
environment handicapped daytime travel, hands and dryness of eyes and mucous
Frequent rest stops were indicated as de- membranes were the most common com-
sirable in the survival stories. plaints.
8. Rest: Men who traveled at night sought 11. Food and hunger: Men who were short
shelter where they could find it in the heat on water had little, if any, desire to eat solid
of the day. Shelters were found in caves, food. A variety of rations were available to
shade of trees, or rock piles. Many men in- survivors in the aircraft flown. Complaints
dicated the advantages of burying oneself were registered against D rations and cara-
in a shallow depression. A layer of sand over mel candies. Animals were used more fre-
the body while resting was reported to re- quently as emergency foods than were plant
duce water loss and, more important, to materials. Gazelles were used for food most
aid relaxation and allow sleep. Exhausted commoily. Foods were rarely cooked or only
or extremely tired men found it difficult to partially cooked, due primarily to a lack of
sleep in the desert. Shelter was made from fuel.
parachutes, blankets, and other items of 12. Hazards of survival: Small insects such
equipment. Several thicknesses of parachute s flies, sand flies, and mosquitoes proved to
cloth were necessary to keep out the blowing be one of the greatest mental and physical
sand during sandstorms. hazards of the desert terrain. Only one man
9. Clothing and wearing apparel: One- reported he saw a snake. Scorpion bites were
piece flying suits were eminently satisfac. mentioned in three episodes. Survivors saw
tory as desert apparel. Gloves and hats were a great many animals ranging from ele-
the most desirable pieces of clothing men- phants and lions to "kangaroo mice" and
tioned in the survival stories, although head lizards. While some of these could be con-
covering was easily Improvised from pana- sidered dangerous, none of the animals
chute cloth, were more than curious.
Shoes and footwear proved the most vex- Plant spines represented the extent of
ing clothing problem of the survivor. Only hazardous plants in the desert areas. Cactus
the GI high-topped shoes proved to be corn- spines were difficult to remove, while spines
pletely satisfactory. Low shoes, tennis shoes, from acacias and similar plants were re-
flying boots, sandals, all proved trouble- moved with ease.
some. Changes of socks were desired by sur- 13. Contact with the natives: The wan-
36 CONCLUSIONS AND SUMMARY
dering tribes of the desert apparently be- this review that a special study of signaling
friended Axis and Allied survivors without methods is needed for desert conditions.
prejudice. The aid rendered included sup- 15. Survival training.: The men who lived
plies of water, food, and directions; hospi- the survival episodes studied for* this re-
tality for as long as 30 days and transpor- port had had little training or briefing in
tation were afforded more rarely. Paynient survival procedures. This training is given
for services was mentioned in only three today, and many of the hazardous episodes
stories. Only two accounts of thefts were would not be repeated. It is clear from the
reported. stories that survival training is necessary
14. Signaling and signal equipment: Sig- for men who will operate aircraft in desert
nal equipment available to survivors was areas. The number of men who walked away
scanty and unsatisfactory. Signal fires, from parties and went their own way, never
parachutes, signal mirrors, Very flares, and to be seen again, and the hasty, poorly
rifle shots were mentioned In the stories thought out actions of others all indicate
rilehotwith er omento in the trie actions which should not be duplicated fol-
along with letters or marks In the terrain, lowing current training suggestions.
Signaling passing vehicles or attracting 16. Philosophy of survivors: The alterna-
the attention of aircraft proved most diffi- tire to evading following a desert emrec-
cult for survivors. Fires were difficult to tento ea rg, gollo
in s that
horageof
oof aabcaue
buid uel Grund gency under wartime conditions, was that
build because shortage of fuel. Ground of surrendering to the enemy. This study
haze created an unexpected difficulty in dealt only with those men who chose to face
locating a passing plane or vehicle as well the deserts in hopes of reaching the Allied
as in Identifying any object seen. Military lines. Anyone who reads their stories of
activity during the period of these survival successful survival under the most hazard-
episodes was primarily In the daytime. As ous conditions can only conclude that while
the survivors were likely to rest and sleep stamina, equipment, and luck all played a
during the day, this presented a special part, determination and courage were the
problem of signaling. It is apparent from primary characteristics of these men.
0
Six of the E",t Desert Survival Episodes
1. QATTARA DEPRESSION
A bomber on a raid to Crete was badly gorge, 1,000 feet below them. The plane was
damaged in attacks by Messerschmitt fight- smashed and burned and there was no trace
ers. Two and a half hours later, over Africa, of water in the gorge. A search for the
the plane was abandoned. Parachute land- canteen dropped during descent by one of
ing was routine for two men but the third the men was equally futile. That night was
had trouble. Three straps of his parachute spent in a cave.
harness gave way because his quick release At 0300 the following day the two men
was not properly fastened and he was forced started to skirt the mountains to the east,
to hold on to one riser for his life. In this partially hoping to find the lost navigator.
descent he had to drop his canteen. He Six hours of this brought them to another
landed on his back with such force that he small gorge where they again tried to find
was partially paralyzed for 24 hours and water with no success. They located a cave
only able to crawl. For 3 hours he crawled large enough to accommodate both of them
over salt fiats before seeking shelter in a lying side by side and rested there. Their
cave for the night. He crawled another hour only food that day had been aloe berries
the next morning before he saw the pilot they had found in route. They covered
and navigator, and he waved his scarf and themselves with sand in the small cave to
yelled to attract their attention. These two keep cool and remained there the rest of the
men had stayed where they landed for a blazing afternoon.
good night's rest. It occurred to the pilot that all of these
These three men were in serious trouble. mountains were of the same height and
One man was injured and they had no reminded him of seacoast cliff.s and that the
maps, food, or water. Southward, stretched top of the mountain represented a plateau
a salty flat, and a chain of mountains ran that was really the desert floor. They spent
east and west. the evening resting but at 2000 started out
The navigator then mentioned that in to find more aloe berries. In the process of
descent the night before he had seen a this search they located a set of "tired
flashing beacon to the northeast and felt footprints" of the missing navigator. They
they should look for it. The pilot stated, "I searched for him until 0600 and concluded
had seen rather peculiar phenomena of he had crawled into a cave to pass the night
scintillation caused by the stars, i.e., if I and so gave up the search.
placed myself in a certain position I could The fourth day was spent resting, and on
see the glare of a particular star circling the morning of the fifth day they started a
around certain hilltops. This became strong 4 -hour climb to the summit, where they
as a beacon at times and enabled me to see had a view of limitless desert stretching to
my shadow by its light. This is what the the north. They plotted a course of 10 de-
navigator had seen and I forbade him to grees, which they estimated would take
look for it." In spite of everything the navi- them roughly to Fuka. That evering, taking
gator insisted on starting to look for this directions from the stars, they walked on
mirage beacon in the blazing sun of midday very slowly. They walked for an hour and
and was never seen again. rested half an hour until daylight and then
The other two men decided to find the spent part of the morning looking for
plane at all costs and spent part of the shelter. Three more days were spent in the
morning searching. They rested then until same pattern. During this time their supply
evening, when they continued the search, of aloe berries ran out, but the pilot had
and later found the plane at the bottom of a seen some small shells which he broke open
37
with his teeth and from which he sucked Earlier that morning the radio operator had
something. The smell was putrid and caused had a premonition they would meet some-
him to vomit but by the following day, with one that day but the pilot held out little
nothing else available, he was able to with- hope when told about it. However, they
stand the smell and keep the juices on his began to walk faster in hopes of finding
stomach. A very minute quantity of water more snails ahead, and about the time they
was in each shell and he found that 30 of felt they should stop and look for shelter
them would give thirst satisfaction for an from the sun they saw ahead the forced
hour or more. landing strip of BLANK Squadron. Here
On the sixth day the supply of shells ran they were given real water and taken back
out. They could then find nothing but to their base in an ambulance. The navi-
empty ones which the birds had eaten. gator was never found.
2. SOUTH OF TOBRUK
A Wellington II with engine trouble came cooler they built a fire and boiled 7
crash-landed between Tobruk and Matruh gallons of water and made 3 pints of tea.
with one man suffering from face injuries. One man who had collapsed with heat ex-
The crew had in the plane four water bot- haustion was treated with wet rags made
ties, one thermos flask, six tins of tomato from the parachute and soaked in the water
juice, in addition to some iron rations. For of the cistern. For some reason the captain
emergency equipment they had one signal issued quinine tablets to all men at this
mirror, two parachutes, one map, one axe, point, and they decided to spend the night
one compass, two first-aid kits, one Very in this location. During the early morning
pistol, and two flashlights. They walked hours the sound of passing planes awoke
south the rest of that night after burning the men and Very flares were fired without
the plane and carrying the secret docu- acknowledgement. They decided then to go
ments with them. The latter they tore in in the direction of the planes. After a break-
small pieces and buried in three different fast of three biscuits each and one-sixth of a
locations in route. At 1710 they located a can of bully beef, they started off carrying
pile of rocks which proved to be Bir el a 2-gallon drum of boiled water, three ad-
Darwell, and here they found a cistern of ditional bottles of boiled water, and five
dirty water. They rested that first night bottles of unboiled water. They walked until
near the well and at 0930 the following 1200, when they dropped from exhaustion.
morning started walking southeast to the With no shade, they spread a parachute and
Qattara Depression. By 1215 the air and the all crawled under it. The heat of the after-
sand were too hot to continue. Having no noon took its toll and by 1600 they could
shade, they covered their heads with hel- only crawl and their lips were cracked and
mets and jackets and stretched out on the swollen. Two men needed additional water,
sand. By 1500 the heat was unbearable and so one can of tomato juice was diluted and
they concluded they would be better off passed around the crew.
walking. Their water ration during this At 2100 they started walking again, but in
first day was one mouthful per man per I hour they had covered only 2 miles and
hour. Parachutes were cut up for head and one of the crew was near collapse. A 2-hour
foot protection. The heat had had its effects, rest was ordered by the captain. At 2400
and the men were all weak and progress was they started again, this time walking for
very slow. In the late afternoon they saw a 20 minutes and resting for 10. They were
pole which proved to indicate Bir el Qattrini. exhausted at 0200 and another collapse
Here, too, the water was dirty, but they required another rest stop. At 0400 they
drank anyway. They rested until evening walked again for 2 hours. At this time they
in the shade of a pile of rocks. Once it be- fired more Very flares on general principles
SIX OF THE BEST DESERT SURVIVAL EPISODES 39
but sighted no one. A short while later they man came out of the cave to get their para-
found an old gun emplacement where they chutes for warmth. It was at this time that
could make a shelter, and a crashed plane he saw a passing group of Arabs. Two Arabs
added several cans of bully beef to their agreed to return to El Alamein and return
supplies. with camels to take the party out, but when
They tried again to walk in the heat of the Arabs had departed the stranded crew
the day but devoted most of their energy discovered the Arabs had stolen some of their
to searching for more water. Fortunately supplies. They were not sure then whether
one man discovered an unmarked hole in the Arabs would return. Later in the day
the ground which proved to be a cistern. A when the men again climbed from their
knotted rope led into the hole and the cavern they discovered a plane was search-
strongest man in the party descended into ing for them. They signaled with Very flares
the well hand over hand. Here he found an and the plane, a Baltimore, landed in the
underground cavern with three pools. The desert. Two of the crew of six men were too
rest of the party descended or were lowered weak by this time to climb from the cistern
into the cavern where it was cool. They and had to be aided. All six men were taken
swam in one pool and drank their fill from aboard the Baltimore and flown back to
another. At noon it became so cool that one Wadi Natrum.
3. PARALLELING THE COASTAL ROAD
Four men were forced to bail out of their day and on the fourteenth day, a torrential
aircraft after it was damaged by enemy rainstorm. The fifteenth day they came to
action. Two of the men were injured in the Qattara Depression and spent 1 day
landing. The group assembled and decided walking along the edge. Going was very
to evade and walk east paralleling the hard and the following day they descended
coastal road. Their supplies consisted of 3 to what looked like smoother sands in the
bottles of water, 6 tins of beef, 16 packets valley. They spent the seventeenth day
of biscuits, malted milk tablets, gum, toffee, crossing the salt lake in the Depression and
matches, benzedrine, and a compass, found, instead of smooth sand, waves of
The first day was spent exploring their salty ridges 18-24 inches apart. They were
location and treating their wounds. They exhausted after a short time of this type of
found a cairn-marked tank of rainwater walking and found it impossible to sleep.
during this period and drank as much as On the eighteenth day they met a group of
they could. The second day, after a night's Arabs who supplied them with camel's milk
rest, they started walking and continued to and water and hard bread. The bread
walk by day through the fourth day. Dur- caused them "unbearable attacks of indiges-
ing this time they suffered from the heat tion." By the twentieth day they were much
and their flying boots, which were extremely weaker. Their shoes, which had been wired
uncomfortable as hiking shoes, began to go together, began to come apart. The hard
to pieces. By the fifth day they changed salty sand gave way to a thin crust of salt
their plans and started walking at night; over mire, and they found they were break-
however, the loose rock provided poor footing through and sinking into the alkali
ing at night and they suffered further foot mud on every step. Later that day they met
troubles. The sixth day one man collapsed some Bedouin who supplied them with some
and was left behind. A bad foot contributed dates, and the following day another group
to his difficulties. On the eighth day another of Bedouin gave them rice and camel's milk
man dropped behind and after waiting 24 diluted with water. The twenty-second day
hours headed for the coastal road and sur- they reached a Bedouin camp where they
rendered himself. The two remaining men had a meal of dates, rice cooked in oil, and
endured an intense sandstorm on the tenth some very salty water to drink.
I
On the twenty-fourth day they had about that day, at the north end of this-salt lake,
crossed the Qattara Depression when they they met a British patrol and. were taken to
came to a large salt lake. This they were a base hospital.
forced to circle and during this trek they They had walked 300 miles in their 24-
found the mosquitoes unbearable. Later day survival episode.
4. ETHIOPIA
A plane from the South African Air Force strongest men would start ahead hoping to
12th Bomber Squadron crash-landed 20 get aid, and the three weaker individuals
miles inside Ethiopia, in the southern des- would come as best they could. The water
ert region. The six men aboard found they was divided and the three strong men
had only 2 1/ gallons of water, with little started off. They were never seen again.
chance of finding more in that desert ter- The slower three continued walking 100
rain. They walked all the rest of the day, yards at a time and resting. They made one
navigating by compass, only to learn from can of corn do for four meals but found
the stars at night that the compass had additional food by shooting a crow and eat-
been deflected by the ironstone in the area ing it half roasted. Their supply of water
and they were south of their intended was exhausted and their tongues had
coursec started to peel. In this poor condition they
struggled on for 4 days. When they found a
over alternating stretches of lava boulders small tree on the fifth day they rested in its
and soft sand. The heat was overpowering shade for 48 hours. When the sun shifted
and they found they could walk but 15 and the shade moved, they moved with it.
minutes at a stretch. By mid-afternoon they
had covered only 10 miles, so they rested After 2 days of rest they decided to try
till sundown in the shade of an isolated walking again, this time for 10 minutes at
tree. At sundown they started walking a time After three spells of walking, one
again, but collapse came after an hour and man collapsed and they decided to return
a half and they spent the night in the open. to their lone tree. It was here on the tenth
At dawn they started again, with the day of their survival episode they succeeded
hopes of reaching a hill they had agreed on in attracting the attention of a passing
in the distance. The hill proved to be a plane. The plane circled and dropped five
mirage and by 0930 they were again ex- containers of water. All five broke, and they
hausted. They waited until 1730 and tried rescued only one-quarter of one of the con-
walking again, only to give up in an hour tainers. A package of bread dropped to
when one man collapsed. them proved useless, for their dry throats
At this point they were down to 6 pints refused the morsels. Later that day they
of water and so they decided the three were rescued.
5. SOMALILAND
A bomber on a photo reconnaissance flight exhausted. Not wanting to proceed without
was shot down near Afmadu north of Kis- water they spent 2 days trying to find a
mayu Harbor. The plane made a successful water hole. Thirst got the best of them
crash landing in the thorn shrub and the during this period and they resorted to
crew of three, after burning the plane, moistening their lips with alcohol from the
started to walk to the border some 62 miles compass. On the sixth day they succeeded
away In finding a water supply, but by this time
They walked all night through the thorn their lips were blistered and swollen. The
brush and rested in the scrawny shade of snall amount of water enabled them to
some acacias the following day. By sunset walk on and they found a better supply of
of the second day their water supply was water in another hole. At this one they filled
a -
Nk
SIX OF THE BEST DESERT SURVIVAL EPISODES 41
the canvas covering of their first-aid kit as He learned he had walked 50 miles in 24
an improvised canteen. That night they hous after leaving his companions.
were forced to scare away prowling lions The two men at the water hoie had no
with Very flares. food but had adequate shade and water.
On the seventh day they again ran out They tried to catch birds with birdlirne they
of water and did not locate any more until made by chewing sticky succulenL plants
the tenth day. By this time one man was they found, and even improvised a bow and
exhausted and another sick from the heat. arrow from shoestring and branches. They
The third man decided to try and find aid had no success catching game and the land
alone. His instructions to the others were was so scorched by the heat they could not
to wait 3 days at that water hole for his even grass
find the to chew on.
When rescue party had not arrived
Whntersupayhdnoarid
that they were on their
return
rtn aby after
and the end of the third day they decided to
own. proceed in the same direction the single man
This single man filled his water bottle and had taken. One night was spent in a hyena's
started off. He walked through the night den. The following day they found an owl's
until 1000 the next morning, when he col- nest and ate the eggs, which contained
lapsed from exhaustion. Eventually he re- half-developed embryos. They continued on
covered enough to walk on and later that during the fifteenth day of their episode,
day he met two natives who gave him some only to collapse from exhaustion about mid-
goat's milk and led him to a water hole. day. At this point they gave up all hope of
There he fell asleep, and when he awoke the reaching safety or of being rescued and
natives were gone. He decided to remain watched the vultures circling over the small
there and rest, and later that day the na- patch of shade in which they lay. It was
tives returned with a camel. While riding the these same vultures seen by the search
camel he was spotted by a passing plane party that led to their rescue a short time
and was met a few hours later by a truck. later.
6. ARIZONA
A marine fighter pilot on a routine flight I then started back to where I though I left
over the Arizona desert bailed out of his the chute but was unable to locate it. Some
plane when the engine caught fire. Al- Corsairs a mile away seemed to be zooming
though he landed only 25 miles from a large the chute and while hastening in that di-
Army base, he wandered for 4 days before rection I noticed a Taylor Cub come down
he was found. This Is his story. for a landing. I was still too far away to see
"While on the last leg of a routine naviga- it actually land. I don't think I was over
tion flight my engine began vibrating and 400 feet away when it took off. I yelled but
smoking. My division leader instructed me was unable to attract attention.
to bail out. The parachute opened promptly "After wandering around the area In
and afforded an easy descent. On landing I search of water for about an hour I made
opened the parachute to its full extent and for some hills which were due west. The
pinned it down with rocks so that it could time was about 1600 and I decided to get out
be seen by searching planes. I then decided of the sun and rest for a while. Having re-
to go to the scene of the crash hoping that cently seen the training film 'Castaway,' I
parts of the plane were still on fire and I remembered to keep my flying suit fastened
could start a signal. I had no matches with up and my helmet on as protection against
me, in fact I had nothing other than a flying the sun. Locating some rocks which formed
suit and a wrist watch. a square I dug out the soft earth from
"The plane crashed approximately 500 the center with my hands and made a bed.
yards away. The fire was completely extin- "I slept until 0400 at which time I got up
guished by the time I arrived on the scene. and started looking for some water. I was
\1
very thirsty at this point. I recalled reading finally the bow socket method. I walked for
an article at one time which said that cacti several hours that night and then made a
contained water. I experimented with sev- bed in the sandy area.
eral types and found a small barrel type "Up at dawn on the third day I was suc-
was the best suited for my purposes. I cessful in finding another cactus plant and
bashed in the top of it with an empty K in replenishing my pocket supply. I kept
ration can which I had picked up along the walking and on this day made the mistake
way. The pulp contained a great deal of of walking through the desert heat. My
moisture. After quenching my thirst I filled eyes began playing tricks on me and sud-
the inside pocket of my flying suit with the denly I found myself falling. Although I
pulp. This proved to be a wise move as this fell a considerable distance over the side of
particular species of cactus was not readily the hill I sustained no injury other than a
located, bruised wrist. I slept for a while in the after-
"Figuring that my chance of being picked noon and continued walking in the evening.
up would be in the vicinity of the wreck I That night I again made a bed of sand.
doubled back but was unable to find it.
I could see planes searching the area. I "On the fourth day I really began to feel
tried everything I could think of to attract the pains of hunger and thirst. While rest-
their attention. I polished the bottom of my ing in the shade I saw a brown lizard on a
K ration can and tried using it as a mirror; nearby branch. This I killed and skinned
I also made a flag of my undershirt and with my belt buckle which I had sharpened,
waved that to no avail. and devoured. At the same time I caught
"When it became apparent that the a large fly and after stripping off the wings
searching planes were unable to spot me and legs I ate that, too. That night I again
from the air I decided that the best course slept on a sand bar.
was to strike out on my own. After placing "At daybreak on the fifth day I made my
my initials in the sand in letters 30 feet way to the top of a hill and found an artil-
high along with a note I was heading west lery marker. Looking back, I found a Taylor
I struck out for a mountain peak I had Cub searching the area I had just covered,
noticed at sunset the night before, and as the plane approached I signaled by
"I walked for a couple of hours and then pushing the marker back and forth. The
lay down under a dead tree. I kept thinking pilot acknowledged by dipping his wings
that if only I could start a fire my chances and then dropped a canteen and a note to
of being rescued woula be so much better. stay there. Later an ambulance drove up. I
I tried using my goggles to focus the sun's lost 35 pounds but suffered no other ill
rays, tried striking stones together, and effects."
A.
EA.AfA1 UEJU

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UNCLASSIFIED

NEW LIMITATION CHANGE

USAF notice dtd 11 Aug 1971

THIS PAGE IS UNCLASSIFIED

NOTICE: WHEN GOVERNMENT OR OTHER DRAWINGB, SPECIFICATIONS OR OTHER DATA

An Analysis of Survival Experiences

Amrc, Duma, Tmomc i0romMAlsow Curm

MAxwL Am lncs Bass, Mm

PART I-THE EPISODES

1. BACKGROUND FOR THE STUDY ................................. 1

2. NATURE OF THE SAMPLE AND SOURCES OF MATERIAL .............. 2

3. REASONS FOR THE EMERGENCY ............................... 3

4. NATURE OF THE EMERGENCY DESCENT..................................... 4

5. How MEN SAW THE DESERT................................................. 5

PART Il-THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL

1. TRAVEL IN DESERT TERRAIN ................................. 7

a. The Long Walk........................................................... 7

2. THE PROBLEM OF WATER..................................................... 14

a. Amounts and Sources ............................ 14

3. REST AND SHELTER .............. ......................... 17

4. CL4OTHING AND WEARING APPAREL.........................................18

6. FOOD AND HUNGER ............................................................. 22

1. A N IM AL D AN GER S ..................................................... ......... 26

2. DANGERS FROM PLANT M ATERIALS ... ......... .... .................. .. 27

PART IV-AIDS TO SURVIVAL

1. CONTACT WITH THE NATIVES .. .... ..... 28

2. EMERGENCY SIGNALING AND EQUIPMENT 28

4. SURVIVORS' COMMENTS ON EQUIPMENT 32

6. PHILOSOPHY OF THE SURVIVORS 33

Conclusions and Summary 34

Appendix: SIX OF THE BEST DESERT SURVIVAL EPISODES

3. Paralleling the Coastal Road 39

2. Nature of the Sample and Sources of Material

3. Reasons for the Emergency.

4. Nature of the Emergency Descent

5. How Men Saw the Desert

THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL

1. Travel in Desert Terrain

THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL 9

THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL 11

2. The Problem of Water*

3. Rest and Shelter

4. Clothing and Wearing Apparel

5. The Health of Survivors

THE PROBLEMS OF SURVIVAL 25

S URVIVORS IN DESERT AREAS found little

2. Dangers from Plant Materials

1. Cottact with the Natives

6. Philosophy of the Survivors

3. PARALLELING THE COASTAL ROAD

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