GE 15 SIM Final PDF

College of Arts and Sciences Education
2nd Floor, DPT Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
THE UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: GE 15: Environmental Science
Name of Teacher:
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY, NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
Prepared by: Hazel G. Carreon, PhD

Christian Dell A. Gentallan
Jason Ben R. Paragamac
Ronnel P. Senining
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COURSE OUTLINE: GE 15 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Course Coordinator :
E-mail :
Student Consultation :
Mobile :
Phone :
Effectivity Date : Blended (On-line with Face to face or Virtual
Sessions)Time Frame : 54 Hours
Student Workload : Expected Self Directed Learning
Requisites : None
Credit : 3 units
Attendance Requirements : A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or Face to Face sessions.
COURSE INFORMATION
CC’s Voice: Hello! Welcome to this course GE 15-Environmental Science. This

a three
(3) a unit-lecture course that will cover the inland and
marine atmospheric systems and human dimensions
potentially influences the cycle and processes in the global
setting. Moreover, this coursewill give you an overview of
how environment economy, as well associal interaction, to
form communities and within a defined ecosystem.
CO: Studying environmental studies requires a deeper understanding of

other disciplines, including chemistry, earth sciences, biology,
mathematics, engineering, social sciences, and humanities. This
course deals with the holistic study of atmospheric, geophysical,
oceanic, biological, and social sciences. You are expecting to
demonstrate an understanding of how environmental science
works as well as introduce you to the complex processof different,
including, could it be natural or human-made ecosystems.
You expect to evaluate the environment's current conditions and

determine potential threats and hazards associated with rapid
industrial development and rapid population growth. This course
will enable you to learn sustainable and unsustainable
environmental practices as well as the consequence of unplanned
development and enforcement of environmental policies and
regulations and the international commitments of highly
developed, developed, and developing towards gearing towards a
safe and sustainablefuture.
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BIG PICTURE
WEEK 1-3 Unit Learning Outcomes (ULOa):

At the end of the unit, you are expected to identify the nature and scope of
environmental science as well as the basic concepts and principles, theories of
environmental science.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study
of environmental science ULO-1 will be operationally defined to establish a
typical frame inthe field of natural sciences and social influences towards the
quality of life and sustainability. You will encounter these terms as we go
through environmental science studies with how people and intimately
connected and the implications of rapid population growth and towards the
environment. It involves a more comprehensive understanding ofthe ecological
problem, making judgments evaluation of different types of environmentaland
their functions. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty
in theunderstanding of environmental science concepts.
1. Environment - it is a place where different things are such as a wet

or hot environment.
1.1. It can be living (biotic) or non-living (abiotic) community, which
includesthree essential forces: physical, chemical, and natural.
2. Science defines the systematized body of knowledge that builds and

organizes a lot of information in a different form of testable
experiments and predictionsabout everything in the universe.
3. Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field in

science thatintegrates all the physical, biological, and information to
the study of the environment, and the solution to environmental
problems.
4. Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among

organisms, andtheir biophysical environment includes both biotic and
abiotic components.
5. Chemistry. The study of matter, its properties, how and why

substances combine or separate to form other elements, and how
elements interact with energy.
6. Biodiversity is a group of different individual life that inhibit the plant

EArth.That varies on their genetic component and adaptation to the
environment.
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6.1. In the terrestrial biodiversity is composed of animals on land

usually greater near the equator, which is an indicator of the
warming of the climate.
7. Habitat is considered an environment is naturally occurring to

a specificorganism to survive.
7.1. A species habitat is those places where the species can find
food, shelter,protection, and mates for reproduction.
7.2. Both physical and biological features characterize it.
8. Sustainability. The ability of a system to exist continually at a cost, in a

universethat evolves in the state of entropy toward the thermodynamic
equilibrium of theplanet.
8.1. In the 21st century, it generally refers to the capacity for the
biosphereand human civilization to coexist.
9. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that could somehow be

systematized, defend,recommend, and identify what right and wrong
behavior is.
10. For the environmental Ethics is a discipline in philosophy that studies

or focuson the moral relationship among human beings to the value
and moral status ofthe environment, which includes plants and animals.
11. The ecosystem is a community comprised of living organisms in

conjunction orin relationship with the nonliving components of their
specific environment that
interact with each other.
12. Photosynthesis. It is the process of all plants that transform into the
release of energy ATP. During this process, the light energy of the sun
is captured. Thereis a conversion of water, some mineral and carbon
dioxide, and a certain amountof oxygen needed by animals to survive.
13. A species is a basic unit of classifying and identifying the taxonomic

rank of anorganism, as well as a unit of biodiversity.
14. Food Chain. A linear network of links in a food web starting from
producer organisms and ending at apex predator species,
detritivores, or decomposer species.
15. Food Web. The natural interconnection of food chains and a

graphical representation of what-eats-what in an ecological community.
15.1. Another name for the food web is the consumer-resource system.
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ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first
three (3)weeks of the course, you need fully understand the following essential
knowledge that willbe laid down in the succeeding pages. Please be reminded
that you are not limited to referto these resources exclusively. Thus, you are
expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other available
resources in the university library. e.g., e-library, search.proquest.com, etc.
To ensure a sustainable future for ourselves and future generations, we

need to understand something about how our world works, what we are doing
to it, and what wecan do to protect and improve it. The word “science” is
simply an anglicized version of the Latin “Scientia," which means knowledge.
Environment. It is defined as the circumstances surrounding an organism

or group of organisms or the complex social or cultural conditions
affecting each organism in the given biotic and abiotic community.
However, human being inhabits the naturalworld, as well as the, built the
environment or the technological, social, and culturalworld, all constitute
essential parts of our environment.
Environmental Science it is the systematic study of our environment and

our proper place in it. A highly interdisciplinary, integrating natural
sciences, social sciences,and humanities in a broad, holistic study of the
world around us. It is the foundation is ecology and is more concerned
on human impact on the environment.
Kinds of knowledge contribute to solution in Environmental Science

Goal:
Clean Energy Future
1. Ecology. How foes energy production affects populations?

2. Chemistry. How can we make better batteries?
3. Urban Planning. What urban designs can reduce energy use?
4. Sociology. How do people adopt new ideas?
5. Political Science. Which policies lead to sustainable solutions?
6. Engineering. Can we design better vehicles?
7. Economics. What are the benefits and costs of energy sources?
HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTALISM
Environmentalism encompasses environmental health and protection and depicted

as an ideology, philosophy, and social movement, including all aspects covering the
changing environment of the Earth. It began after the industrial revolution when there
was an increase of smoke pollution and chemical discharge which led to the formation
of modern environmental laws. In 1863, Britain’s Alkali Acts were passed to combat air
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pollution. In 1898, Coal Smoke Abatement Society was established in response to coal
combustion leading to heavy smoke in industrial cities. After World War II, the
industrialization expansion was stupendous that led to economic development and
brought nature degradation. With each passing day, the people became environmentally
conscious. With this, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1948
was created to protect and preserve nature in its original form. The Clean Air Act 1956
was formed following the London Smog Episode (Great Smog of London) 1952. It initially
aimed to limit air pollution by controlling the emission of air pollutants.
During 1960-1970 marks the beginning of Modern Environmental Movement and the
establishment of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) which was created to protect animals and
places from human developmental activities. The Green Revolution in Agriculture 1966
was initiated to understand the negative impacts of uncontrolled and unregulated use of
pesticides and fertilizers on the environment. It was intended on improving agriculture
using environmental-friendly techniques. Other environmental movements flourished
during this decade such as NEPA (1969) which aimed to ensure environmental health
by negotiation policies and acts; US EPA which was created in 1970 to monitor human
activities that are negatively impacting the environment of the Earth; and Greenpeace
(1971), a campaign of committed individuals who tried to stop the American Nuclear
Weapon test.
Environmental Justice Movement (1980) is an international movement that aims to

encourage social, economic, and environmental justice by identifying the connection
between health and environmental issues began in response to the unjust treatment of
low-income communities that were exposed to environmental pollution. Thereafter,
many conferences were organized that included Stockholm conference in 1972 (United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment, 1972), Montreal protocol in 1987 (The
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, 1987), and Kyoto
protocol in 1997, etc. People became more cognizant of the environmental problems
attributed by industrialization. The Chernobyl disaster in 1986 was a massive
environmental issue. Hence, the Brundtland Report in 1987 (Our Common Future, 1987)
brought more consciousness among people and the Earth Summit in 1992 discussed
the socio-economic development along with ways to solve problems concerning
environmental protection.
Environmentalism in the new millennium kicked off with the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) 2000 which based on eight goals to be achieved before 2015 which was
reenforced with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) in 2015 as set during the
United Nation General Assembly to be achieved before 2030 that aims for the future
through sustainable approaches. The second Earth Summit which was dubbed as the
World Summit on Sustainable Development was held in 2002 to discuss and organize
sustainable development approaches. The key focus was solving problems of the
growing population along with increasing demand for energy, water, and food resources.
International environmental treaties were also established such as Stockholm
Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants in 2001 which aimed to reduce or limit the
production, manufacturing, and utilization of persistent organic pollutants; and the Paris
Agreement in 2015 that aimed to limit the global emission of greenhouse gases to reduce
rising global temperature, mitigating and adapting to climate change.
Currently, various conferences were held at various locations around the world to
discuss ongoing environmental crises and possible sustainable approaches.
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Environmentalism is constantly developing and dealing with new environmental

concerns including plastic pollution, genetic engineering, global warming,
overpopulation, etc.
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
It studies the ethical basis of environment or discussion of the ethical basis

of environmental protection. It also deals with the moral relationship of human
beings to and the value and moral status of the environment and its nonhuman
content. The ways we interpret environmental issues, or our decisions about
what we shouldor should not do with natural resources, depend partly on our
underlying worldviews. Perhaps you have a primary ethical assumption that
you should be kind to your neighborsor try to contribute in positive ways to your
community. Moral views in society also changeover time. In ancient Greece,
many philosophers who were concerned with ethics and morality owned
slaves; today, few societies condone slavery. Most societies now believe itis
wrong, or unethical, to treat other humans as property.
The Greeks granted moral value, or worth, only to adult male citizens
within theircommunity. Women, slaves, and children had few rights and were
essentially treated as property. Over time we have gradually extended our
sense of moral value to a broader circle, an idea known as ethical extensions.
These philosophical questions are not merely academic or historical. In

2004, the journal science caused a public uproar by publishing a study
demonstrating that fish feel pain. Many recreational anglers had long managed to
suppress worries that they were causing pain to fish. The story was so unsettling
that it made national headlines and provoked fresh public debates on the ethics of
fishing. How we treat other people, animals, or things, can also depend on whether
we believe they have inherent value—an intrinsic right to exist, or instrumental
value (they have value because they are useful to someonewho matters). If I hurt
you, I owe you an apology. If I borrow your car and smash it into a tree, I don't owe
the car an excuse. I owe you an apology—or reimbursement.
Environmental Ethics and Principle:

1. Profound respect for nature
2. Maintain a harmonious relationship with other species
3. Take responsibility for the impact on nature
4. Local and indigenous environmental knowledge should be respected
5. Plan for the long term
MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE
Matter. It is anything that can occupy space and has a mass. Solid, liquid, gas,
plasma, and Bosh Einstein Condensate are the phases of matter that constitute the
arrangement of the structures and properties of atoms. All life is made of matter. It cannot
be created nor destroyed, recycled nor transformed as stated in the Law of Conservation
of Matter. Energy provides the force to hold matter together, tear it apart, and move from
one place to another. The energy in moving objects is called Kinetic Energy, the stored
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energy, latent and ready to use is called Potential Energy, and the energy stored in food
or carbon compounds is called Chemical Energy. Conservation of matter has a direct
bearing on human relationship with the biosphere since we use natural resources to
produce a tremendous amount of disposable goods such as Styrofoam cups, plastics
bags and other synthetic items that aggravate the garbage problem which eventually
becomes a major and permanent pollutants.
Thermodynamics and Energy Transfers
The study of thermodynamics deals with how energy is transferred in natural

processes. It deals specifically with the relationships of heat, work, and energy.
Ecosystem dynamics are governed by physics laws, including the law of conservation of
matter and the laws of thermodynamics. The recycling of matter is the basis of the cycles
of elements that occur in the ecosystems such as solar energy enters the system and is
converted to chemical energy through photosynthesis. Likewise, the chemical energy
stored in the bonds that hold the food molecules together is available for the metabolism
of organism.
The dynamic balance or homeostasis of organisms and ecosystems centers
around an optimum stage that is best suited for the healthy existence of the living system.
Homeostasis which means “to stand equally” refers to the dynamic balance in a living
ecosystem. When a living ecosystem is active, the condition in it is change continuously
in response to many environmental stimuli. It is a condition of fluctuating balance
centered on some ideal state or optimum. This dynamic balance is maintained by active
and opposing adjustments and compensation.
Laws of Thermodynamics
Atoms and molecules cycle endlessly through organisms and their

environment, butenergy flows in a one-way path. A constant supply of energy—nearly
all of it from the sun—isneeded to keep biological processes running. Energy can
be used repeatedly as it flows through the system, and it can be stored
temporarily in the chemical bonds of organic molecules, but eventually, it is
released and dissipated. The study of thermodynamics deals with how energy is
transferred to natural processes. More specifically, it deals with the flow rates and
the transformation of energy from one form or quality to another.
Thermodynamics is a complex, quantitative discipline regarding the relationship
between heat, work, and energy. Heat is the transfer or flow of energy because
of temperature difference. Work is the transfer of energy that is not due to a
difference in temperature. However, both heat and work are significant type of
energy transfer in organisms and ecosystem.
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy is conserved; that is, it is
neither created nor destroyed under normal conditions. Energy may be
transformed, for example, from the energy in a chemical bond to heat energy, but
the total amount does not change.
The second law of thermodynamics states that, with each successive

energytransfer or transformation in a system, less energy is available. That
is, energy isdegraded to lower-quality forms, or it dissipates and is lost, as it
is used. When youdrive a car, for example, the gas's chemical energy is
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degraded to kinetic energy and heat, dissipating, eventually, to space. The

second law recognizes that disorder,or entropy, tends to increase in all-natural
systems.
Ecological Organization
While cellular and molecular biologists study life processes at the

microscopic level, ecologists study interactions at the species, population,
biotic community, or ecosystem level. Species refers to all organisms of the
same kind that are genetically similar enough to breed in nature and
produce live, fertileoffspring. Organisms occur in populations, communities,
and ecosystems. A population consists of all the members of a species living
in each area at the same time. All the populations of organisms living and
interacting in a particular area make up a biologicalcommunity. An ecological
system, or ecosystem, is composed of a biological community and its physical
environment. The environment includes abiotic factors (nonliving
components), such as climate, water, minerals, and sunlight, as well as biotic
factors, suchas organisms, their products (secretions, wastes, and remains), and
effects in each area.
Energy Flow through Ecosystems
The movement of energy through a living system begins with the capture
of sunlight by primary producers, then energy flows through food chains and food
webs in a steady “one way stream”. As it flows, energy is alternately stored and
used to power the life processes of animals through which it moves. The energy
captured by producers and consumers is temporarily stored until one organism
eats another. Each of this storage steps along a food chain or food web are called
a trophic level. The producers represent the first trophic level, herbivores, occupy
the second; carnivores that eat herbivores form the third trophic level, and so on.
There are practical limitations of trophic levels. Every time one organism
eats another, only a small fraction of energy present in the lower trophic level is
stored in the next higher level. Using the ecological rule of 10 or the 10% rule, an
average of only about 10% of energy fixed by plants is ultimately stored by
herbivores. Only 10% of the energy that herbivores accumulate ends up being
stored in the living tissues of carnivores that eat them. And only 10% of that energy
is successfully converted into living tissues by carnivores on the third trophic level.
This inefficient energy chains are called ecological pyramids.
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https://www.google.com/search?q=ecological+pyramid&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwissPn-
xZr5AhWlnFYBHbE5B-EQ_AUoAXoECAIQAw&biw=1242&bih=597&dpr=1.1#imgrc=TPHhniLCofYvWM&imgdii=L1i-
Xe5SQXA_JM
Food Chains and Food Web
Matter and energy are processed through the trophic levels of an

ecosystem via food chains and food web. At each energy transfer point, less
energy is available to do work. So, energy must be supplied to an ecosystem
continuously. A primary producer, a herbivore, and a carnivore form a simple
chain.
https://www.google.com/search?q=food+chainvs+food+web&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwii3biFyJr5AhWGSJQKHaIrDL4Q2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=food+chainvs+food+web&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIGCAAQChAYOgcIABCxAxBDOgQIABBDOgUIABCABFD
pGViML2DWOmgBcAB4AIABwQGIAfwEkgEDMC40mAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWfAAQE&sclient=img&ei=4vfhYqLkJ4a
R0QSi17DwCw&bih=597&biw=1226&hl=en#imgrc=8J2WpAHEoC7G0M
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Take notice of all the animals and plants in most ecosystems, we can see that
feeding relationships usually weave numerous organisms into large, complex, and
dynamic networks called food webs, in which many animals eat several different kinds
of food.
SELF HELP
You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson.
Ahmad, P., Ahanger, M., Alyemeni, M. & Alam, P., 2019. Photosynthesis, Productivity,
and Environmental Stress. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA.
Guzman, R.S., 2018. Environmental Science: Towards a Sustainable Earth. Vibal

Group, Quezon City, Philippines.
Murray, D., 2017. The Global and the Local: An Environmental Ethics Casebook. Brill.
Netherlands.
Nadeem, F., Bhatti, A., Hanif, M., Tauqueer, H., 2020. Environmental Chemistry. A
Comprehensive Approach. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. USA.
Scotford, E., 2017. Environmental Principles and the Evolution of Environmental Law.
Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. United Kingdom.
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 1. Now that you have known the most essential terms in the
study of environmental science. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms.
In the space provided, write the terms, being asked in the following statements:
__________1. It refers to the systematic study of our environment andour place
in it.
__________2. An interdisciplinary science integrating natural sciences, social

sciences, and humanities in broad study of the world around us.
__________3. The circumstances or conditions that surrounds anorganisms or

group of organisms or the complex of social or cultural conditions that
affect an individual or community.
__________4. It is a movement created to protect animals and places from

human developmental activities.
__________5. It is an international movement that aims to encourage social,

economic, and environmental justice.
__________6. Refers to systems that receive inputs from surroundings and

produce outputs that leave the system.
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__________7. It is a law which states that energy is degraded to lower- quality forms,
or it dissipates and is lost, as it is used.
__________8. It consists of all the members of a species living in each area at

the same time.
__________9. It is an inefficient energy chain.
__________10. It is a feeding relationship usually weave numerous organisms into

large, complex, and dynamic networks.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 1. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying
environmental sciences will not be sufficient. What matters is that you should
be able to discuss the inter- relationship environment, development, social
progress, and environmental ethics. Now, I will require you to explain your
answers thoroughly.
1. Define environmental science and identify some important

environmental concernswe face today. Should environmental science
include dimensions? Explain.
2. What is science? Identify and discuss some of its basic

principles.
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3. Draw a diagram showing the difference between a food chain from a food
web.
4. Why is ethics being studied in environmental science. Cite

examples.
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 1. Environmental science is an interdisciplinary science that
ensures a holistic study and understanding of the natural scope of
environmental science and its whole systems. The study of the environment
and human dimensions is an integral part requiresdeeper understanding on
the role of human towards sustainability as well as the sustainable use of
resources and the growing issue and conflicts between the social,
economic, and environment. Based on the definitions and the essential
elements in the study of environmental and the learning exercises that you
have done, please feel free to indicateyour arguments or lessons learned
below.
1. The environment is a complex system where people and nature are

intertwined, andthe unprecedented growth rate of the human population
is the underlying global environmental problem.
2. Ethics and faith base perspectives often inspire people to engage in

natural resource conservation and management, which eventually
influences decision making about environmental issues, which involves
society, politics, culture, economics, values, and scientific information.
YOUR TURN
3.
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4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Q & A LIST
Do you have any questions for clarification?
Questions/ Issues Answers
1.
2.
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3.
4.
5.
KEYWORD INDEX
Environmental Science Conservation Species
Population Ethics Community
Ecological Systems Energy Niche
Climate Change Ecological Pyramid Habitat
BIG PICTURE
WEEK 1-3 Unit Learning Outcomes (ULOb):

At the end of the unit, you are expected to explain how nature and systems
interact and how systems affect one another and identify the major biomes in an
ecosystem.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of environmental
science ULO-1 will be operationally defined to establish a typical frame inthe
field of natural sciences and social influences towards the quality of life and
sustainability. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in
theunderstanding of environmental science concepts.
1. Ecosystem – a biological community of interacting organisms and their physical

environment.
2. Biome – a large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a

major habitat, e.g. forest or tundra.
3. Flora – the plants of a particular region, habitat, or geological period.
4. Fauna – the animals of a particular region, habitat, or geological period.
5. Region - an area or division, especially part of a country or the world having

definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries.
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ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
BIOMES
Biomes are diverse biological communities where various plants and animal
speciesshare common characteristics for the environment, they are thriving in. They
are formed inresponse to a shared physical climate and on the world's different
continents. While theselocal communities have distinctive characteristics, they can
understand concerning a few general groups with the same climate conditions,
patterns of growth, and vegetation types.
https://socratic.org/questions/how-do-biomes-change-with-latitude-1
Tropical Moist Forest
The tropical moist forest supports the world's one of the most complex and
biologically rich biome. These forests do share standard features such as rainfall
and unchanging temperatures. One type of moist forest is the cool cloud forests
found in high mountains where fog and mist provide sufficient moisture for the
vegetation. On the otherhand, the tropical rainforest has an abundant rainfall per year
(more than 200 cm.) and warmto hot temperatures all year round.
TROPICAL MOIST FOREST in Cayo District, Belize

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Hoplopyga-liturata-habitat-in-in-tropical-moist-forest-in-Cayo-District-
Belize_fig14_288699564
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Both tropical moist forests have an old, thin, acidic, and nutrient-poor soil.
However, the presence of species on these forests is overwhelming in the canopy
of the tropical rainforest, where millions of insect species are present. In
mountainous regions,temperatures are more relaxed, and precipitation is usually
more significant at high elevations. Communities can transition quickly from warm
and dry to cold and wet as yougo up a mountain. Vertical zonation refers to the
vegetation zones defined by altitude.
Tropical Seasonal
Although the temperatures are hot throughout the year, wet and dry
seasons arethe distinct characteristics of many tropical regions. These are the
areas that support drought-tolerant forests that are dormant and appear to be
brown during the dry season;however, they will turn into the vibrant green during rainy
months. Tropical seasonal forestshave annual dry seasons but with periodic rain to
support tree growth. The trees and shrubsthat grow in these forests are drought-
deciduous in which during drought or water is unavailable, will lose their leaves
and cease to grow. Moreover, seasonal forests are oftenopen woodlands that grade
into savannahs.
http://w3.marietta.edu/~biol/biomes/tropdry.htm
Tropical Savannas and Grasslands
Both grasslands and savannahs are areas with too little rainfall to support
forests. However, unlike grasslands, the savannahs have thin tree cover. Like
tropical seasonal forests, most tropical savannahs and grasslands have a rainy
season, but typically, rains are less abundant than in a forest. The plants in these
areas have adaptations to survive drought, heat, and even fires. Many of these
plants have long-lived roots that seek deepgroundwater and can persist even the
leaves and stems die.
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https://grasslandsbiomeproject6.weebly.com/tropical-savanna.html
Deserts
Deserts occur when rainfall is rare and unpredictable (less than 30 cm) and
hot orcold yet always dry. The vegetation in deserts is remarkably diverse, although
sparse. Well- adapted plants have water-storing leaves and stems, thick epidermal
layers to prevent excessive water loss and salt tolerance. Most desert plants and
animals are adapting to prolonged droughts, and both extreme heat and cold.
Whenever spring rainfalls, most of these plants blossom and rapidly dispose of
seeds.
The Dessert of the North”La Paz Sand Dunes”, Ilocos Norte, Philippines.
https:www.vigattintourism.com/tourism/articles/The-Dessert-of-the-North-La-Paz-Sand-Dunes
Temperate Grasslands
As in tropical latitudes, temperate (mid-latitude) grasslands occur where

there is enough rain to support abundant grass but not enough for forests.
Generally, grasslandsare involved with diverse grasses and flowering herbaceous
plants or forbs that create acolorful grassland during summer. Vegetation can be
less than a meter in dry grasslandswhile in more humid areas, the vegetation can
exceed two meters. The accumulation of dead leaves during the annual winter
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produces thick and organic-rich soil where roots candig deep to survive drought,
fire, and extreme heat and cold.
https://study.com/academy/lesson/temperate-grassland-biome-climate-plants-animals-locations.html
Temperate Shrublands
Dry environments can be biologically rich, where they can support drought-
adaptedtrees, shrubs, and grasses. In Mediterranean areas, hot season coincides
with dry season creating warm, dry summers and cold, moist winters. Dense
thickets are forming from evergreen shrubs with small, leathery, hard, and waxy
(sclerophyllous) leaves—a cluster of shrub oaks, dry-resistant pines, or other small
trees in sheltering valleys. Due to fuel-richplant assemblage, periodic fires burn
ferociously, allowing plant succession and spring flowers to bloom abundantly.
Temperate shrublands or chaparral (Sp. Thicket) have summer droughts.
Temperate Forests
Temperate forests can be evergreen or deciduous. Temperate, or

midlatitude, forests occupy a wide range of precipitation conditions, mainly
between 30 and 55-degrees. In general, we can group these forests by tree
type, which can be broadleaf deciduous (losing leaves seasonally) or
evergreen coniferous (cone-bearing).
Deciduous Forests. Broadleaf forests occur throughout the world,

whererainfall is plentiful, in mid-latitudes, deciduous forests located
in the forest lose their leaves during winter. The loss of green
pigments in plants produces brilliant colors in the forest during the
autumn season. Broadleaf forests are evergreen or drought-
deciduous, such as Southern live oaks usually found at a lower
latitude. Deciduous forests can regrow very fast sincethey inhabit warm,
moderate climates.
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Coniferous Forests. These forests grow in a wide range of temperatures

andmoisture conditions. They occur in a limited moisture area that
may experience cold climates such as winter wherein moisture is
unavailable (frozen), and hot climates might have a seasonal
drought. It also includessandy soils that hold little moisture that is often
occupied by conifers. Waterloss of these trees reduced by thin, waxy
leaves common to pine needles.The coniferous forest of the Pacific
coast grows in extremely wet conditions.Rainy forests often enclosed
in fog, cool in temperature, and the most humid coastal forests are
known as temperate rainforest. Condensation in the canopy (leaf
drip) is a significant source of precipitation in the understory.
Boreal Forests
Since conifers can survive winter cold, they tend to limit the existence
of boreal forest or northern forest between about 50° and 60° north.
Numerous qualities and types of boreal forest in the mountainous areas are
at a lower latitudewhere dominant trees are pines, hemlocks, spruce, cedar,
and fir. Boreal forest, such as taiga (snow forest), known by its Russian
name, describe as extreme, and ragged edge where forest progressively
gives way to open tundra. In this area, extreme cold and short summer limit
the growth rate of trees. About 10 cm diameterof trees may be over 200 years
old in the far north. Boreal forests occur at high latitudes.
https://depositphotos.com/stock-photos/boreal-forest.html
Tundra
Tundra. It is a treeless landscape located in the mountaintops or high

latitudes, and the growing season of this biome is only two to three months. It
mayhave frosted any month of the year, and most of the year, temperatures
are below the freezing point where only small, hardy vegetation can survive.
Tundra can freeze inany month.
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Arctic Tundra. It is an extended biome that has a short growing

season.Hence, it has low productivity. During midsummer, however,
24-hour sunshine supports the booming of plant growth and plenty of
insect’s life. Arctic tundra is essential for birds as well as to global
biodiversity.
https://alaskaconservation.org/protecting-alaska/priorities/protecting-lands-waters/arctic/
Alpine Tundra. It has a similar environmental condition and vegetation

tothe arctic tundra. It occurs on near mountaintops, and these zones
have ashort and extraordinary growing season. Often one sees a
mind-blowing abundance of flowers in alpine tundra. Hence,
everything must bloom immediately to create seeds in half a month
before the arrival of snow. Numerous alpine tundra plants have deep
pigmentation and weathered leaves to secure against the sunlight in
the thin mountain atmosphere. Compared to other biomes, the tundra
has relatively low diversity.
https://sites.google.com/site/biomesapes/home/tundra/alpine-tundra
MARINE ECOSYSTEMS
The diversity of organism in oceans and seas are no seen effectively. However,
they are also as diverse and complex as terrestrial biomes. The oceans cover three-
fourths of theEarth's surface, and it has an essential role but often unrecognized
compared to terrestrial ecosystems. Most of the marine species depend on
photosynthetic organisms the same asterrestrial animals.
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https://sciencing.com/marine-ecosystem-classification-38170.html
Open Oceans
The open ocean is usually associated with a biological desert since

it generally has low productivity. But like terrestrial deserts, the open ocean
has areasof productive richness and diversity. Fish and plankton abound in
regions such asthe equatorial Pacific and Antarctic oceans, where currents
distribute nutrients. Phytoplankton, free-floating photosynthetic plants,
microscopic algae are essential to support the marine food web.
Oceanographers have discovered thousands of varieties of organisms, and
most of them are microscopic organisms. Open ocean (middle of the Pacific
Ocean) communities vary from surface to hadal zones.
Coastal Zones
Shoreline communities vary in terms of depth, light, nutrient

concentrations, and temperature. Estuaries have high biological productivity
and diversity due to the abundant nutrients that came from the land.
However, excessive loads of nutrients may stimulate bacterial growth that
consumes oxygen in the water, which is more than 200 "dead zones” occur
in coastal zones. Coastal zones support vibrant, diverse biological
communities.
Corals reefs are known in marine ecosystems because of their

exceptional biological productivity and their diverse, beautiful
organisms—reefs form clusters as colonial animals (coral polyps) that
live symbiotically with photosynthetic algae. Calcium-rich coral
skeletons build-up to make reefs, atolls, and islands. Reefs protect
shorelines and shelter of countless species of fish, worms,
crustaceans, and other life-forms. Reef-building corals exist where
water is shallow and clear enough for sunlight to reach the
photosynthetic algae. However, the biggest threat to reefs is global
warming. Elevated water temperatures cause coral bleaching, in
which corals expeltheir algal partner and then die.
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Mangroves are trees that grow in saltwater. They take place along
calm, shallow, tropical coastlines around the world. Swamps help
stabilize shorelines, and they are also significant nurseries for fish,
shrimp, and other commercial species.
Estuaries are bays where river water meets the sea; hence, there is a
mixing of saltwater and freshwater. Salt marshes are shallow
wetlands flooded regularly or occasionally and drained by seawater,
usually on shallow coastlines, including estuaries.
In contrast to the shallow, calm conditions of estuaries, coral reefs,

and mangroves, tide pools may experience violent, wave-blasted
shorelines that support enchanting life-forms. Tide pools are
depressions in a rockyshoreline that are flooded at high tide but retain
some water at low tide. These areas remain rocky, where wave action
prevents most plant growth or sediment (mud) accumulation.
Barrier islands are low, narrow, sandy islands that form parallel to a
coastline. They occur where the continental shelf is shallow, and
rivers or coastal currents provide a steady source of sediments. They
protect brackish (moderately salty), inshore lagoons and salt marshes
from storms, waves, andtides.
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS
Freshwater environments are not that wide as the marine ecosystem, but
they areabundant and center of biodiversity. Most of the terrestrial communities
rely relatively onfreshwater habitats. In the desert, isolated pools, streams, and
even underground watersystems support astounding biodiversity and land animals
with water.
https://ucanr.edu/blogs/blogcore/postdetail.cfm?postnum=28066
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Lakes
Like marine environments, freshwater lakes have distinct vertical
zones. Close to the surface, a subcommunity of plankton, primarily
microscopic plants, animals, and protists (single-celled organisms such as
amoebae), float freely in the water column. Some insects may live at the air-
water interface such as water strider and mosquitoes. The fish move through
the water column, sometimes close to thesurface and sometimes at depth.
Finally, a variety of snails, burrowing worms, fish, and other organisms
occupy the bottom or benthos. They make up the benthic community. They
are reducing the levels of oxygen in the benthic environment, primarily
because there is little mixing to introduce oxygen to this zone. Anaerobic
bacteria (not using oxygen) may exist in low-oxygen sediments. In the littoral
zone,arising of plants such as cattails and rushes grow in the bottom sediment.
Lakes, unless shallow, have a warmer upper layer mixed with wind
and warmed by the sun. This layer is the epilimnion. The epilimnion is the
hypolimnion (hypo = below), a colder, deeper layer that is not combined. You
may have found the sharp temperature limit known as the thermocline
between these layers on theoff chance that you have swum in a moderately
deep lake. Underneath this limit, thewater is a lot colder. This limit is likewise
called the mesolimbic.
Local conditions that influence the characteristics of an aquatic

communityinclude:
1. Excess nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates

2. suspended matter, such as silt that affects light penetration
3. depth
4. temperature
5. currents
6. bottom characteristics, such as muddy, sandy, or rocky floor
7. internal currents
8. connections to, or isolation from, other aquatic and terrestrial system
Wetlands
Wetlands are shallow biological systems where the land surface is

saturated or lowered in the late part of the year. Wetlands have vegetation
that is adjusted todevelop under saturated conditions. These are shallow
and beneficial. These relatively small systems rich in biodiversity and are
essential for both breeding andmigratory birds. Wetlands catch, and often
purify industrial and farm wastewater,while bacteria and plants consume the
nutrients and pollutants in the water. Its biodiversity as wetlands. Wetlands
may gradually convert to terrestrial communitiesas they with sediment, and
as the vegetation slowly fills in towards the center. This process often
accelerated by increased sediment loads from urban development, farms,
and roads.
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Swamps are wetlands with trees.

Marshes are wetlands without trees.
Bogs are areas of concentrated land, and usually, the ground is
comprised of deep layers of accumulated, undecayed vegetation
known as peat.
Fens are like bogs except that they are mainly fed by groundwater, so
they have mineral-rich water and exceptionally adapted plant species.
Bogs are primarily fed by precipitation.
Swamps and marches provide a significant degree of ecological

sustainability. Bogsand fens, mostly nutrient-poor and have limited environmental
efficiency.
Environmental Variables Affecting the Biomes
1. SUNLIGHT. Sunlight powers the photosynthesis that supplies energy to nearly

all life on earth. It is also essential for vision, which many animals rely on for
catching foods, spotting predators, etc.
2. TEMPERATURE. Organisms can survive within a specific, limited range of
temperature. If the body temperature either rises above or falls below that
range, the critical chemical reactions in the tissues get “out of synch” with one
another, resulting in metabolic chaos.
3. WATER AND DISSOLVED SALTS. Precise balance of water, dissolved salts,
and organic molecules in the body fluids of organisms must be maintained to
keep the cells alive. Many plants and animals cannot survive in dry conditions,
such as deserts, because they cannot acquire and store water that are needed
by their body cells. But some organisms cannot equally live in swamps or
marshes because of too much water in the soil. Hence, salinity which is the
concentration of dissolved organic salts, affects the ability of the organisms to
control their water balance.
4. OXYGEN. The concentration of available oxygen can be important limiting
factor in a variety of environments. Bacteria can either be aerobic or anaerobic.
Too much oxygen for anaerobic organisms can be fatal as lack of oxygen is for
aerobic. Air-breathing animals need more oxygen to sustain life.
5. METABOLIC WASTE. All organisms produce metabolic waste products. Plants
release oxygen by day, give off carbon dioxide by night, and discard leaves and
stems on a seasonal basis. Waste products must enter the biogeochemical
cycle wherein they are broken down and carried away.
6. NUTRIENTS. Distribution of nutrients is important in determining where
organisms can grow and where they cannot. The more nutrients available in
each area, the more living things can successfully survive.
SELF HELP
You can refer to the source below to help you further understand the
lesson:
Magill, G., & Potter, J., 2017. Integral Ecology: Protecting Our Common Home.
Cambridge Scholars Publisher. United Kingdom.
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LET’S CHECK
Activity 2. Answer the following questions:
___________________ 1. They are diverse biological communities were

various
plants and animal species share common
characteristics for the environment, they are thriving in.
___________________ 2. These forests share standard features such as
rainfall
and unchanging temperatures.
___________________ 3. These forests have annual dry seasons but with

periodic rain to support tree growth.
___________________ 4. These are areas with too little rainfall to support

forests.
___________________ 5. The plants and animals are adapting to prolonged

droughts, and both extreme heat and cold in this area.
___________________ 6. A rainy forest which is often enclosed in fog, cool in

temperature, and the most humid coastal forests.
___________________ 7. It is a treeless landscape located in the

mountaintops or high latitudes, and the growing
season of this biome is only
two to three months.
___________________ 8. They are free-floating photosynthetic plants,

microscopic algae which are essential to support the
marine food web.
___________________ 9. They are shallow biological systems where the land

surface is saturated or lowered in the late part of the
year.
___________________ 10. They are areas of concentrated land, and usually,

the
ground is comprised of deep layers of accumulated,
undecayed vegetation known as peat.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 2. In this activity, you require to elaborate your answer once again
to each ofthe questions provided below.
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1. Why are tropical rainforests so interesting to scientists and so potentially

valuable to human society?
2. Describe the environmental variables and explain their importance to

plants and animals.
3. Differentiate the following:

a. Tundra from Taiga
b. Temperate Forest from Boreal Forest
c. Wetlands from Lakes
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 2. Make research of the different types of forest in the
Philippines. Provide a clear photo of each type and a description. Include the
different species that are most likely found, their limiting factors, and the threats
it is facing for each type.
Q & A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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KEYWORD INDEX
Biomes Ecosystem Marches
Rainforest Marine Desert
Forest Freshwater Tundra
Taiga Wetlands Swamps
BIG PICTURE
WEEK 4-5 Unit Learning Outcome c (ULOc).

Explain the human population growth, its impacts to the environment and to the
biodiversity.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, essential terms relevant to human population growth, its patterns,
history, and implication to the natural resource will be operationally defined for you to
comprehend ULO-b. You will also be required to refer to the previous definitions found
in ULO-a to connect with the topic discuss under the lesson unit. These are some key
terms that will enable you to grasp the core areas of environmental science.
1. Population. It is the entire pool from which a statistical sample is drawn from a
different group of individuals.
1.1. A population is referring to an entire group of people of different races,
sexuality, and status; objects like material things; events like social
gatherings; hospital or school visitations, and measurements of a distinct
boundary.
2. Demographic Transition. It refers to the shift in the history of birth and death
rates in society because of the absence of science and technology
advancements. There is also an issue on the economic and educational
development, particularly in women that may cause the demographic transition.
3. Population Density. It is the measurement of the given population over volume

respondents.
1.1. It is frequently applied to living organisms, most of the time, to humans.
1.2. It is a key geographical term.
4. Mortality Rate. It is referring to the number of death in a given population over

some time.
5. Sex Ratio. It is a ratio of males to females in a population. In most sexually

reproducing species, the rate tends to be 1:1.
6. Fecundity it is referring in two ways; human demography has the potential for
the reproduction of a listed population as opposed to a single organism. For the
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study in the biological community, it is similar to fertility, wherein it is a natural way

to produce offspring.
7. Demography is referring to the statistical features of the human population. The

demographic analysis can cover whole societies or groups comprising education,
nationality, religion, and ethnicity.
8. Migration. It is referring to the movement of people of different sectors from one

country to another with the intention of the new location, new work or employer,
or for greener pasture.
8.1 The movement is often over long distances and from one country to
another, but internal migration within the city is also possible; indeed, this
is the dominant form globally.
9. Morbidity is a general term meaning the occurrence of disease and illness in a

population.
10. Biodiversity - Biodiversity is all the different kinds of life you’ll find in one area—
the variety of animals, plants, fungi, and even microorganisms like bacteria that
make up our natural world.
11. Taxonomy - Taxonomy is the practice and science of categorization or

classification. A taxonomy (or taxonomical classification) is a scheme of
classification, especially a hierarchical classification, in which things are
organized into groups or types.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
PEOPLE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Humans and the environment, in which our daily lives take place, are intricately
interwoven. Our activities are having an increasingly dramatic and negative impact
on wildlife and ecosystems, endangering not only wild species but also our own
survival. Despite the fact that we completely rely on nature for essential, life-
sustaining services like clean air and water, a predictable climate, and food, these
effects are only getting worse. The unfortunate reality is that we are mostly using the
planet's resources to fulfill our short-term demands, and those who will suffer the
most are the most vulnerable or don't have a voice in how those resources are used
(such as future generations).
Making sure that development and expansion take place without causing
environmental harm and enriching people's daily lives without depleting the
environment is one of the main issues of the twenty-first century. Governments and
people may need to make some challenging decisions about how we define and
reward success in the future.
HUMAN POPULATION
Human population refers to the number of people living in a particular area,

from a village to the world as a whole.The world population now stands at around 7.8
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billion inhabitants, having reached 7 billion milestones in 2011. Demographers expect

the 8 billion breakthroughs in 2023, nine (9) billion by 2037, and projected as high as te
(10) billion in the year 2056. It is common to say that human populations, like that of
the United States, grow at an exponential rate, which means that the annual growth
rate is a constant percentage of the population
Usually, in discussions of population dynamics, birth, death, and growth rates are
expressed as percentages (the number per 100 individuals). The human population is
so huge that percentages are too crude a measure, so it is common to state these rates
in terms of the number per 1,000, referring to the crude rate. Thus, we have the crude
birth rate, crude death rate, and crude growth rate. More specifically, here is a list of
terms that are used frequently in discussions of human population change and will be
useful to us in this book from time to time.
A population is defined as a group of individuals of the same species living and

interbreeding within a given area. Members of a population often rely on the same
resources, are subject to similar environmental constraints, and depend on the
availability of other members to persist over time. Scientists study a population by
examining how individuals in that population interact with each other and how the
population as a whole interacts with its environment. As a tool for objectively studying
populations, population ecologists rely on a series of statistical measures, known as
demographic parameters, to describe that population (Lebreton et al. 1992). The field
of science interested in collecting and analyzing these numbers is termed population
demographics, also known as demography. Broadly defined, demography is the study
of the characteristics of populations. It provides a mathematical description of how those
characteristics change over time. Demographics can include any statistical factors that
influence population growth or decline, but several parameters are particularly important:
population size, density, age structure, fecundity (birth rates), mortality (death rates),
and sex ratio.
HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
The rise in the number of people on Earth is referred to as population growth.

The majority of human history saw a relatively steady population size. Energy, food,
water, and medical care, however, became more accessible and dependable as a result
of innovation and industrialization. As a result, the human population has swiftly
expanded and is still growing, having a significant impact on the planet's ecosystems
and climate. In order to support the world's population while adapting to and minimizing
climate and environmental changes, technological and societal innovation will be
necessary.
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https://ugc.berkeley.edu/background-content/population-
growth/#:~:text=Human%20population%20growth%20impacts%20the,wildlife%2C%20especially%20in%20the%20
oceans.
The expansion of the human population has a range of effects on the Earth
system, including:
•increasing the number of environmental resources being extracted. These

resources include minerals, plants, water, and wildlife, particularly in the oceans,
as well as fossil fuels (oil, gas, and coal). In turn, the removal of resources
frequently results in the release of trash and toxins that degrade the quality of the
air and water and endanger the health of both humans and other species.
• Increased use of fossil fuels to produce electricity, fuel industrial processes,
and power transportation (such as cars and planes).
• An increase in the use of freshwater for industrial activities, agriculture,
recreation, and drinking. Freshwater is extracted from lakes, rivers, the ground,
and man-made reservoirs.
• increasing environmental effects of ecology. To build urban areas, including
homes, shops, and highways to accommodate expanding populations, forests
and other habitats are uprooted or destroyed. In addition, when populations rise,
more land is put to use for farming, including raising crops and caring for animals.
This in turn has the potential to reduce species populations, geographic ranges,
biodiversity, and change how organisms interact with one another.
• Fishing and hunting are being increased, which is reducing the numbers of the
exploited species. If additional resources are made available for the species that
remain in the environment, fishing and hunting may also indirectly boost the
numbers of species that are not fished or hunted.
• increasing the planned or unintentional import and export of supplies, which
increases the spread of invasive species. Invasive species frequently thrive in
disturbed habitats where urbanization has occurred and outcompete native
species. For instance, numerous invasive plant species abound in the areas of
land near to highways and roadways.
• the spread of illnesses. Diseases can spread quickly among and within
communities when people live in heavily populated places. Furthermore,
infections can spread fast to new areas due to easier and more frequent
transportation.
BIODIVERSITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT
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The vast variety of life on Earth is referred to as biodiversity. It can be applied

more precisely to all the species found in a certain area or environment. Every living
creature, including plants, microorganisms, animals, and people, is referred to as
biodiversity. Around 8.7 million species of plants and animals are thought to exist,
according to scientists. However, to far, only about 1.2 million species, the most of which
are insects, have been recognized and described. This implies that the identities of
millions of other creatures are yet unknown.
https://greensaver.org/insights/why-is-it-important-to-conserve-biodiversity/
All of the species that are still living today have developed distinctive
characteristics through many generations that set them apart from other species.
Scientists distinguish between species based on these differences. Different species of
organism are those that can no longer procreate with one another due to their divergent
evolutionary paths. All living things that can reproduce sexually belong to the same
species. Given that there is still a lot of species to be discovered, scientists are curious
about how much biodiversity there is on a global basis. They also research the number
of species that can be found in a single environment, such as a lake, grassland, tundra,
or woodland. Beetles, snakes, antelopes, and many other species can be found on a
single meadow. The warm, humid temperature of tropical regions is an example of an
optimum environmental setting for plant growth in ecosystems that support the greatest
biodiversity. Species that are too small to perceive with the naked eye can also exist in
ecosystems. Microscopically examining soil or water samples reveals a vast array of
bacteria and other microscopic creatures.
The world has certain regions with greater biodiversity than others, including parts
of Mexico, South Africa, Brazil, the southwestern United States, and Madagascar.
Hotspots are places with exceptionally high biodiversity levels. Hotspots are also home
to endemic species, which can only be found in a single place.For the sake of survival
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and the preservation of their ecosystems, all species on Earth cooperate. For instance,
cattle are fed on the grass in pastures. The manure that cattle then create replenishes
soil nutrients and encourages the growth of further grass. Additionally, farmland can be
fertilized with this manure. Humans benefit greatly from many species, especially in the
areas of food, clothing, and medicine.
However, due to human consumption and other activities that disrupt or even
destroy ecosystems, a large portion of the Earth's biodiversity is under danger. Threats
to biodiversity include population expansion, pollution, and climate change. The rate of
extinction of species has increased at an unheard-of rate as a result of these concerns.
Some scientists predict that during the next century, half of all species on Earth will
become extinct. To maintain biodiversity and safeguard endangered species and their
habitats, conservation measures are required.
TAXONOMY, CLASSIFICATION OF ORGANISMS
Taxonomy is the branch of biology that classifies all living things. It was
developed by the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, who lived during the
18th Century, and his system of classification is still used today. Linnaeus
invented binomial nomenclature, the system of giving each type
of organism a genus and species name. He also developed a classification system
called the taxonomic hierarchy, which today has eight ranks from general to
specific: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species.
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https://in.pinterest.com/pin/506936501792112432/
A taxon (plural: taxa) is a group of organisms that are classified as a unit. This can be
specific or general. For example, we could say that all humans are a taxon at the species
level since they are all the same species, but we could also say that humans along with
all other primates are a taxon at the order level, since they all belong to the order
Primates. Species and orders are both examples of taxonomic ranks, which are relative
levels of grouping organisms in a taxonomic hierarchy.
The following is a brief description of the taxonomic ranks that make up the
taxonomic hierarchy. Example of taxonomy is the diagram below, which shows the
classification of the red fox, Vulpes vulpes (sometimes the genus and species names
are the same, even though these are two different ranks).
https://biologydictionary.net/taxonomy/
Many mnemonic devices can be used to remember the order of the taxonomic
hierarchy, such as “Dear King Philip Came Over For Good Spaghetti”.
SELF-HELP
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Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M., 2010. Environmental Science: A Global

Concern. 11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D., and Keller, E., 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th
Edition. John Wiley and Sons, USA
LET’S CHECK
Activity 3: Please encircle the answer under each item that best reflects your thinking.
1. It is referred to as the number of births per 1000 individuals per year.

a. Crude death rate c. Crude birth rate
b. Life expectancy d. Fertility rate
2. This refers to the capacity to become pregnant or to have children.

a. Age-specific birth rate c. Fertility
b. Total fertility d. Sex ratio
3. Which taxonomic rank is more specific than order but less specific than genus?
a. Genus c. Species
b. Family d. Order
4. It describes the occurrence of diseases and illnesses in a population.

a. Prevalence c. Morbidity
b. Incidence d. Fatality
5. It refers to the average number of years a newborn infant can expect to live births.
a. Birth rate expectancy c. Doubling time
b. Rate of natural increase d. Cause-specific death rate
6. Why is taxonomic classification used?

a. It allows each species to be uniquely identified.
b. It gives us an idea of how closely two organisms are related.
c. It has been unnecessary to change taxonomy since Linnaeus invented it
in the 18th Century.
d. Choices A and B only are correct.
7. It refers to the three-stage pattern of change in birth rates and death rates that
has occurred during the process of industrial and economic development.
a. Demographic transition c. Growth rate
b. Sex ratio pattern d. Logistic curve rate
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8. The average number of years n individuals can expect to live given the individual's
present age.
a. Life longevity c. Life expectation of living
b. Life expectancy d. Life transition
9. It is the highest (most general) rank of organisms.

a. Kingdom c. Domain
b. Phylum d. Species
10. It is the branch of biology that classifies all living things.

a. Biochemistry c. Taxonomy
b. Taxology d. Life Science
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 3. The study of population is a complex process where we
investigate how population grows over time and how it affects the nature and quality of
life among different communities and its implication to the limited resources and
sustainability. We use different factors and parameters to examine how the population
will grow shortly and how the resources can sustain this growth.
At this juncture., you will be required to elaborate your answer supported with literature
and data to the following questions.
1. Discuss comprehensively how population growth affects the environment,

economy, and development.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. How population growth rate affects the sustainability of natural resource?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Discuss the effect of overpopulation to biodiversity.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Discuss comprehensively why it is important to protect biodiversity.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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5. Is there a need to limit population growth? Why

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 3. Demographic studies play an important role in studying human
ecology and settlement patterns. It enables urban and environmental planners to design
sustainable communities with the utmost comfort and responsiveness to the growing
population growth and demand for resources. Identifying the key factors affecting
demography will shape the idea of projecting future demand for residential units,
commercial establishments, industrial, and institutional facilities. In this portion of the
group, you will be required to state your arguments or synthesis relevant to the topics
presented on population growth and its effect in biodiversity. I will answer the first two
items, and you will continue the rest.
1. Population projection is a significant undertaking in demographic studies. It

supplies data on how we are going to plan communities mindful of the pressing
issues on population growth and quality of life.
2. The holistic evaluation of the triggering factors of uncontrolled population growth,

a decline of environmental quality, and scarcity of resources is deemed necessary
to attain sustainable development.
3. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
7. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
8. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
9. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
10. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Q&A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORD INDEX
Population Death Rate Biodiversity
Growth Demography Taxonomy
Birth Rate Morbidity Organisms
BIG PICTURE
WEEK 4-5 Unit Learning Outcome d (ULOd)

Discuss how species interaction shape biological communities.
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METALANGUAGE
Below are the essential terms that you are going to encounter in the pursuit of ULOd.
1. Biological Communities – The term biological community refers to all the living
components in an ecosystem. A slightly different concept is encompassed in the
word biota, which refers to all flora and fauna, or plant and animal life, in a
particular region.
2. Predation it is referring to a biological interaction where one organism captures

and kills other organisms, its prey.
2.1. It is one of the known modes of feeding behaviors that includes parasitism
and micropredation and parasitoids.
3. A symbiotic relationship is referring to any close and long-term biological

interaction between two different organisms.
3.1. The organisms, each termed a symbiont, may be of the same or different
species.
4. Mutualism it is referring to a biological and ecological interaction where both

organisms benefit from each other.
11.1. It is one of the known ecological interactions.
5. Parasitism. A symbiotic relationship between species, where one organism, the

parasite, lives on or in another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is
adapted structurally to this way of life.
6. Keystone species. It is a concept that was introduced by Robert T. Paine in

1969. It pertains to species relative to its abundance is a disproportionate effect
on its natural environment.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
A population consists of all individuals of a single species that exist together at

a given place and time. A species is a single type of organism that can interbreed and
produce fertile offspring. All of the populations living together in the same area make up
a community. An ecosystem is made up of the living organisms in a community and
the nonliving things, the physical and chemical factors, that they interact with.
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https://www.bursahaga.com/
The living organisms within an ecosystem are its biotic factors and the physical
and chemical features are abiotic factors. Abiotic factors include resources living
organisms need, such as light, oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, good soil, and nitrogen,
phosphorous, and other nutrients. Abiotic factors also include environmental features
that are not materials or living things, such as living space and the right temperature
range. Energy moves through an ecosystem in one direction.
https://sciencenotes.org/biotic-and-abiotic-factors-in-ecology/
Organisms must make a living. This means that each individual organism must
acquire enough food energy to live and reproduce. A species' way of making a living is
called its niche. An example of a niche is making a living as a top carnivore, an animal
that eats other animals, but is not eaten by any other animals. Every species fills a niche,
and niches are almost always filled in an ecosystem. An organism’s habitat is where it
lives. The important characteristics of a habitat include climate, the availability of food,
water, and other resources, and other factors, such as weather.
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https://slideplayer.com/slide/10578551/
What Is a Community?
A community is the biotic part of an ecosystem. It consists of all the populations
of all the species in the same area. It also includes their interactions. Species interactions
in communities are important factors in natural selection. They help shape the evolution
of the interacting species. There are three major types of community interactions:
predation, competition, and symbiosis.
• Predation is a relationship in which members of one species (the predator)

consume members of another species (the prey).
• Competition is a relationship between organisms that strive for the same
resources in the same place. The resources might be food, water, or space. There
are two different types of competition:
1. Intraspecific competition occurs between members of the same species.
For example, two male birds of the same species might compete for mates
in the same area. This type of competition is a basic factor in natural
selection. It leads to the evolution of better adaptations within a species.
2. Interspecific competition occurs between members of different species.
For example, predators of different species might compete for the same prey.
• Symbiosis is a close relationship between two species in which at least one
species benefits. For the other species, the relationship may be positive, negative,
or neutral. There are three basic types of symbiosis: mutualism, commensalism,
and parasitism.
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https://www.guyhowto.com/symbiosis-definition-types-examples/
A food chain is an arrangement of the organisms according to the order of

predation in which one uses another as a food source. It also shows the flow of energy
in an ecosystem.it allows one to identify what eats what. The trophic level refers to the
position of organisms in the food chain. A food web shows interlocking food chains. It
allows one to see the precise feeding relationship among populations of organisms.
https://biodifferences.net/difference-between-food-chain-and-food-web/
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The food chain is the part of the natural ecosystem in which food, nutrients, and
energy are transmitted from one organism to another organism whereas the food web is
a system in which numerous food chains are interconnected with each other. In an
ecosystem, all living organisms depend on each other for food which develops a food
chain and in this way, they survive and reproduce. But organisms cannot depend on only
one type of food chain so they have to interact with another type of food chain which
eventually leads to the formation of a food web. All types of food chains have sunlight,
producer, consumer, and decomposer as its components.
COMMUNITY STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS
Communities are complex systems that can be characterized by community

structure (the number and size of populations and their interactions) and community
dynamics (how the members and their interactions change over time). Understanding
community structure and dynamics allows us to minimize impacts on ecosystems and
manage ecological communities we benefit from.
A keystone species is one whose presence has inordinate influence in

maintaining the prevalence of various species, the ecological community’s
structure, and sometimes its biodiversity.
Community dynamics are the changes in community structure and composition over
time, often following environmental disturbances such as volcanoes, earthquakes,
storms, fires, and climate change. Communities with a relatively constant number of
species are said to be at equilibrium. The equilibrium is dynamic with species identities
and relationships changing over time, but maintaining relatively constant numbers.
Following a disturbance, the community may or may not return to the equilibrium
state.
Succession describes the sequential appearance and disappearance of species in a

community over time after a severe disturbance. In primary succession, newly exposed
or newly formed rock is colonized by living organisms. In secondary succession, a
part of an ecosystem is disturbed and remnants of the previous community remain. In
both cases, there is a sequential change in species until a more-or-less permanent
community develops.
HUMAN IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT
In contrast to the millions of years that extinctions normally occur, human activity
is directly responsible for hundreds of extinctions in the last two centuries. Humans have
altered the earth in previously unheard-of ways as the twenty-first century goes on.
Human impact on the environment has become one of the main topics all over the world.
Here are some of the negative impacts of human population on the environment:
• Overpopulation
• Pollution
• Global Warming
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• Genetic Modification
• Ocean Acidification
• Overfishing
• Deforestation
• Acid Rain
• Ozone Depletion
SELF-HELP
Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P., and Cunningham, M., 2010. Environmental Science: A Global

Concern.11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D., and Keller, E., 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th
LET’S CHECK
Activity 4. Answer the following briefly:
1. Discuss the features of a biological community.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. Differentiate biological community from ecological system. .

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Are natural resource have effect on the species composition, structure, and
function.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
4. Discuss the importance of community interactions. .

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_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
5. Why organisms compete? Can competition favor or eliminate biological species.

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
6. For an ideal community interaction, what must be observed?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 4. In this activity, you require to elaborate your answer once again to
each of the questions provided below.
1. How human disturbance affects ecosystems?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________
2. Identify physical and biological factors that are most important in shaping the
biotic community.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________
3. What are the factors that limit ecosystem functionality?

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
________
4. Develop a conceptual framework that depicts the relationship between physical,

chemical, and biological factors in shaping communities and maintaining
biological diversity. Discuss your framework comprehensively.
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
________
Discussion of the Framework:
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 4. The approaches of environmental studies viewed as a very
complicated process. With the human population on many ecosystems that are widely
dispersed around the globe also have detrimental impacts on biological communities as
well about sustainability. Ecosystems and communities have evolved to keep abreast of
the changing activities within a specific geographical unit. The physical, chemical and
biological attributes of different communities will determine how our ecosystems will be
in the many years to come. In this part, you require to draw conclusions, perspectives,
and arguments about ecological system functions and communities' patterns from the
unit lesson. I will supply the first two items, and you will continue the rest.
1. Human introduction and removal of biological species in a community have a

profound effect on the community structure and its ecosystem functions. It is
significant to consider long-term studies and investigation before embarking on
this undertaking. It might hamper ecological services performed by organisms,
neither limits ecosystems functionality, adding a new set of organisms in a
community.
2. Species interactions are important in the process of natural selection. Through

these processes, the unique set of organisms and environmental conditions will
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determine key organisms that can continue to flourish and pass off their genes to
their offsprings, which will be the second line of resilient organisms that will shape
a new set of biological communities.
YOUR TURN
3. _______________________________________________________________
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4. _______________________________________________________________
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5. _______________________________________________________________
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6. _______________________________________________________________
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7. _______________________________________________________________
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8. _______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
______
9. _______________________________________________________________
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_______________________________________________________________
______
10. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
______
Q&A LIST
1.
2.
3.
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4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Community Predation Habitat
Species Competition Keystone species
Interaction Symbiosis Ecological structure
BIG PICTURE
WEEK 6-7 Unit Learning Outcome e (ULOe)

To identify human-induced and natural sources of toxic elements and identify
their implications and tendencies to bioaccumulate and bio-magnify affecting the
agriculture sector.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study environmental science
ULOe will be operationally defined to establish a standard frame in the field of natural
sciences about the global issues of environmental toxicology. Pollution as well
occurrence of global diseases affecting human health and the implications of toxic
substances to the food and agriculture sector. You will encounter these terms as we go
through environmental science studies with how people, and development and intimately
connected, and the implications to ecological health and safety. It involves a broader
understanding of toxic and hazardous substances and their corresponding disposal and
treatment processes. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in
the knowledge of environmental science concepts.
1. Toxicology. A scientific discipline that overlaps with biology, chemistry,

pharmacology, and medicine involves studying the adverse effects of
chemical substances on living organisms and diagnosing and treating
exposures to toxins and toxins.
2. Allergens it is an antigen that produces an abnormally potent immune

responsewhere the immune system targets and fights a threat or an invader
that could potentially harm the body. Allergens are recognized by the immune
system to causean allergic reaction.
3. Neurotoxins it is referring to toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue.

Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical, neurological
insults that can adversely affect function in both developing and mature
nervous tissue.
4. Mutagens are a physical or chemical agent that causes an increase in
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D.N.A. modifications by altering the organism's D.N.A.
5. Teratogens. Any agent that can disrupt embryonic or fetal development

causes a child's congenital disability or may completely cease the
pregnancy. These agentsinclude radiation, maternal infections, chemicals,
or drugs.
6. Carcinogens are any substance or agents that promote cancer

development (carcinogenesis), causing genome damage or disruption of
cells' metabolic processes.
7. Persistent Organic Pollutants (P.O.P.s). Organic compounds are resistant to

biochemical, photolytic, and other environmental degradation processes.
Becauseof this, P.O.P.s are sometimes called "forever chemicals," which can
bioaccumulatewith potentially detrimental effects on ecological and human
health.
8. Acute effects. A physiological reaction in a human or animal body which

cause severe symptoms that could rapidly develop through acute exposure
to toxic substances. However, it may lead to chronic health effects if the
cause is not removed.
9. Chronic effects. An adverse effect on animals or the human body with

symptoms that develop slowly, due to prolonged and continuous exposure
to low concentrations of a hazardous substance.
10. Risk assessment. The combined effort of identifying and analyzing potential
eventscan negatively affect individuals, assets, and even the environment.
It also makesmindful judgments on the tolerability of the risk analysis and
examines factors influencing it.
11. Risk Management. The evaluation, prioritization, and identification of risks

followed by coordinated and economical application of resources to control,
monitor, and minimize the probability or impact of unfortunate events or to
maximize the realization of opportunities.
12. Pesticides. Chemical compounds used to eliminate pests, such as insects,

rodents, fungi, and weeds. These chemicals are also used in public health
to kill disease vectors (e.g., mosquitoes) and pests that damage crops.
13. Herbicides. Pesticides used to kill unwanted plants (weeds). There are
selective herbicides that explicitly target a weed/s by interfering with its
growth without harming the desired crop.
14. Insecticides it is any substances that formulate to eliminate or mitigate

insects,including ovicides, which are used against insects and larvicides to kill
insect larvae.
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15. Fungicides. Biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms (plants

or animals) used to kill parasitic fungi, or their spores can cause severe
damage in agriculture, resulting in decreased yield, crop quality, and profit.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the sixth to
seventhweeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential
knowledge thatwill be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you can
refer to other resources; thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research
articles, and other available resources in the university library (e.g., e-library,
search.proquest.com, etc.)
ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY
The World Health Organization (W.H.O.) defines health as a state of

complete physical,mental, and social well-being. A person can be ill to some extent;
however, health can beimproved to live a happier, longer, and more productive and
satisfying lives. The diseasecan also be influenced by environmental factors such
as the Earth's climate system by impairing physical and psychological functions.
Disease is defined as the impairment of an individual's well-being and capacity to
function and is mostly attributed to inadequate behavioral and environmental
change. The factors that result in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) are diet and
nutrition, infectious agent, hereditary qualities, a poisonous substance, injury, and
stress. Environmental health focuses on disease-causing external factors,
including elements of the natural, social, cultural, and technological worlds in which
we live.
GLOBAL BURDEN OF DISEASE (GBD)
Global Burden of Disease (GBD) is a comprehensive regional and global research

program of disease burden that assesses mortality and disability from major diseases,
injuries, and risk factors. It considers the health, social, political, environmental, and
economic factors to determine the cost that particular disease and disability exert upon
the individual and society. Mortality data is now based on Disability Adjusted Life Years
(DALYs) as a measure of disease burden.
Smallpox was completely wiped out in 1977. Polio has been eliminated
everywhere in the world except for a few remote villages in northern Nigeria.
Epidemics of typhoid fever, cholera, and yellow fever are now rarely encountered. AIDS
has become a highly treatable disease. According to the WHO, chronic diseases now
account for nearly 60% of the 56.5 million total deaths worldwide each year and about
half of the global disease burden.
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https://www.google.com/search?q=global+burden+of+disease+&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwia39-oxZX5AhVXz4sBHadgAKYQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=global+burden+of+disease+&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEM
gUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQ6BAgAEB46BwgAEB4QxwNQnAdY9yRgoy5oAHAAeACAAYgBiAH1EZI
BBDUuMTaYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=8FXfYpqnKteer7wPp8GBsAo&bih=597&biw=1226&hl=en#imgrc=2
bvEsQeVXcpGVM
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https://www.google.com/search?q=global+burden+of+disease+world+health+organization2020&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwig5MjKzZX5AhWSxYsBHc99CoAQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=global+burden+of+disease+world+health+organization2020&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoECAAQQzoGCAAQHhAIOgkIABAeEMcDEAg6BAgAE
BhQiQtYvEVgik1oAHAAeACAAaUDiAHKK5IBCjAuMTYuNy4yLjGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&sclient=img&ei=m17fYuCqBpKLr7wPz_upgAg&bi
h=597&biw=1226&hl=en#imgrc=lskEeHCeAW7iQM
Infectious and emergent diseases still kill millions of people. A wide variety of
pathogens afflict humans, including viruses, bacteria, protozoans, parasitic worms, and
flukes. People rarely die from parasites, but they can be extremely debilitating, and can
cause poverty that leads to other deadly diseases. Diarrhea, acute respiratory illnesses,
malaria, measles, tetanus, kill about 11 million children under age 5 every year in the
developing world. Better nutrition, clean water, improved sanitation, and inexpensive
inoculations could eliminate most deaths.
EMERGENT DISEASE
Emergent diseases are those not previously known or that have been absent for
at least 20 years. Rapid international travel makes it possible for these new diseases to
spread around the world at jet speed. Epidemiologists warn that the next deadly
epidemic is only a plane ride away.
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https://www.google.com/search?q=recent+outbreaks+of+lethal+infectious+dises&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwio6Nr6zpX5AhUBzosBHQgRB7QQ2-
cCegQIABAA&oq=recent+outbreaks+of+lethal+infectious+dises&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoLCAAQgAQQsQMQgwE6CAgAEIAEELEDOgUIABCABDoECAAQQz
oHCAAQsQMQQzoICAAQsQMQgwE6BggAEB4QBToGCAAQHhAIOgkIABAeEMcDEAg6BAgAEBhQzhtYtI4BYMWRAWgAcAB4AYABqAOIAek5kgEKMC4zN
S42LjEuMZgBAKABAaoBC2d3cy13aXotaW1nwAEB&sclient=img&ei=DGDfYqiyHoGcr7wPiKKcoAs&bih=597&biw=1226&hl=en#imgrc=5p6SnOyb0q1LNM&im
gdii=YvDjfoi5zwvHPM
Emergent diseases in humans and ecological diseases in natural communities

arise due to stresses in biological systems that upsets normal ecological relationships.
These growing concerns are adverse synergistic interactions between emerging
diseases and other infectious and non-infectious conditions leading to the development
of novel syndemic. Many emergent diseases originated from a non-human animal
species, such as HIV which originated in chimpanzees, and SARS which came from the
Masked Palm Civet native to China.
Factors Contributing to Disease Emergence:
1. Microbial adaption - e.g., genetic drift and genetic shift in Influenza A
2. Changing human susceptibility - e.g., mass immunocompromising with

HIV/AIDS
3. Climate and weather - e.g., diseases with zoonotic vectors such as West
Nile Disease (transmitted by mosquitoes) are moving further from the
tropics as the climate warms.
4. Change in human demographics and trade - e.g., rapid travel enabled

COVID to rapidly propagate around the globe
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5. Economic development - e.g., use of antibiotics to increase meat yield of

farmed cows leads to antibiotic resistance
6. Breakdown of public health - e.g., the current situation in Zimbabwe
7. Poverty and social inequality - e.g., tuberculosis is primarily a problem in

low- income areas
8. War and famine – e.g., Gulf war, Ukraine war
9. Bioterrorism - e.g., 2001 Anthrax attacks
10. Dam and irrigation system construction - e.g., malaria and other mosquito
borne diseases
ECOLOGICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
It is the study of the ecology of infectious diseases. It includes population and

community level studies of the interactions between hosts and their pathogens and
parasites and covers diseases of both humans and wildlife.
Examples:
§ Ebola hemorrhagic fever kills up to 90% of its human victims. A global

outbreak killed ¼ of all the gorillas.
§ Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is caused by a prion. CWD is one of a

family of irreversible, degenerative neurological diseases known as
transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) that include mad cow
disease in cattle, scrapie in sheep, and Creutzfelt-Jacob disease in
humans.
§ Tropical diseases, such as malaria, cholera, yellow fever, and dengue

fever, have been moving into areas from which they were formerly absent
as mosquitoes, rodents, and other vectors expand into new habitat.
Resistance to Drugs, Antibiotics, and Pesticides
The protozoan parasite that causes malaria is now resistant to most drugs, while
the mosquitoes that transmit it have developed resistance to many insecticides. The
following are the reasons for antibiotic resistance to develop - Antibiotics do not work
against certain diseases, e.g., viral infections. They are given when the person could
recover fully without them and starting and not finishing a full prescription. Hence, there
is also a widespread use of antibiotics in animal agriculture.
ECOTOXICOLOGY
Ecotoxicology is the study of toxins (poisons) and their effects, particularly on

living systems because many substances are known to be poisonous to life (whether
plant, animal, or microbial). It is a broad field, drawing from biochemistry, histology,
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pathology, pharmacology, and many other disciplines. Toxin’s damage or kill living
organisms because they react with cellular
components to disrupt metabolic functions. They are harmful even in extremely dilute
concentrations. In some cases, billionths, or even trillionths of a gram can cause
irreversible damage.
https://www.google.com/search?q=top+20+toxic+and+hazardous+substances&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwil-
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ICAAQgAQQsQM6CAgAELEDEIMBOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAVCROFi7hgJgio4CaABwAHgDgAHiAYgBxjKSAQYzLjQ3LjOYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l
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EFFECTS OF TOXINS
Allergens are immune-activating agents. Some allergens act as antigens

directly; that is, white blood cells recognize them as foreign and stimulate the
production of specific antibodies. Certain allergens function indirectly by linking
and modifying the composition of foreign materials and become antigenic and
induce an immune system to the response.Formaldehyde is an excellent example
of a widely used chemical that is a potent sensitizerof the immune system. It is
directly allergenic and can also trigger reactions to other substances. Commonly
used in plastics, wood products, insulation, glue, and fabrics, formaldehyde
concentrations in indoor air can be thousands of times higher than in healthyoutdoor
air. Some people who suffer from sick building syndrome have headaches,
allergies, and chronic fatigue. And other symptoms caused by improperly ventilated
indoor air contaminate with carbon monoxide, mold spores, nitrogen oxide,
formaldehyde, and other pollutants emitted from carpets, furniture, fabrics, and
construction materials and other sources
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Immune System Depressants suppress the immune system. Dead animals contained
high levels of pesticide residues, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and other
contaminants that are suspected of disrupting the immune system and making it
susceptible to a variety of opportunistic infections.
Endocrine disruptors are chemicals that disrupt the natural activity of hormones.
Hormones are chemicals released by cells into the bloodstreams in one part of the
body toregulate the function and development of tissues and organs in the body.
We realize now that some of the most gradual, yet harmful effects of persistent
chemicals such as dioxinsand P.C.B.s are that they interfere with healthy growth,
development, and physiology of avariety of animals—including humans—at shallow
doses.
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cCegQIABAA&oq=suspected+endrine+disruptord&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzoHCAAQsQMQQzoECAAQQzoICAAQgAQQsQM6CwgAEIAEELEDEIMBOgUIABC
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mg&ei=eInfYv7IJM6O0wSSq4ToDg&bih=597&biw=1242&hl=en#imgrc=4ocaqJO1_zaVrM
Hormone mimics have similar shapes to natural hormones and amply their effects.
BPA (Bisphenol A) is known to be a hormone mimic used for plastic products ranging
from water bottles to tooth- protecting sealants. The chemical can cause abnormal
chromosome numbers which is the leading cause of miscarriages and several forms
of mental retardation. It also is an environmental estrogen and may alter sexual
development in both males and females. Bills are considered to ban BPA and certain
phthalates in children’s toys and feeding products.
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SmmAXPop2wBQ&bih=597&biw=1242&hl=en#imgrc=Gbw3ZI298aZTwM
Hormone blockers prevent natural hormones from attaching to their target organ.
Endocrine disruption is linked to increased risk of breast cancer, developmental and
reproductive toxicity, allergies, and immuno-toxicity.
Neurotoxins are a particular class of metabolic poisons that individually attack nerve
cells (neurons). The nervous system has an essential function in controlling the
body activities,especially to a fast-acting and devastating events.
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n#imgrc=0RbbH2sNiwPrBM
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Neurotoxins have different types, and itacts in different ways. Heavy metals like
lead and mercury destroy nerve cells and cause permanent brain damage.
Organophosphates (Malathion, Parathion) and carbamates (carbaryl, zineb,
maneb) inhibit acetylcholinesterase, the enzymes that control the transfer of signals
between nerve cells and the tissues or organs they innervate (e.g., muscle).
Anesthetics (ether, chloroform, halothane, etc.) and chlorinated hydrocarbons
(D.D.T., Dieldrin, Aldrin) disrupt nerve cell membranes needed for nerve action.
Most neurotoxinsare both fast-acting and highly toxic.
Mutagens are agents that damage or modify the genetic material (D.N.A.) in cells,
such as chemicals and radiation. If the cost happens during embryonic or fetal
development, this may contribute to congenital disability. Later in life, genetic
damage can contribute to neoplastic (tumor) formation. If reproductive cells
undergo injury, the effects may be passed on to future generations. Cells have
repair mechanisms to diagnose and repair defective genetic material, but specific
changes may be hidden, and the repair cycle itselfcan be flawed. It is widely agreed
that there is no “safe” threshold for mutagens exposure. Any contact has the potential
to cause harm.
Teratogens are chemicals substance or other factors which cause different

abnormalitiesduring embryonic growth and development. Some chemicals that
are usually not dangerous may cause a severe problem at these vulnerable stages
of life. Alcohol is probably the most popular teratogen in the world. Drinking during
pregnancy can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome—a cluster of complications that
persist throughout a child’s life,including craniofacial abnormalities, developmental
disorder, behavioral problems, and mental defects. Even one alcoholic drink a day
has been associated with reduced birth weight during pregnancy.
Carcinogens are substances that cause cancer, invasive, and out-of-control cell
growthresulting in malignant tumors. Cancer rates rose over the twentieth century
in most developed nations, and cancer is now the second leading cause of death in
the U.S., killingmore than half a million people in 2002.
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AEELEDEIMBOgYIABAeEAg6BAgAEBg6BggAEAoQGFC2EljTSmDpT2gAcAB4AIABvQOIAasdkgEIMi4yNS40LTGYAQCgAQGqAQtnd3Mtd2l6LWltZ8ABAQ&s
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Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification
Bioaccumulation and biomagnification increase concentrations of toxins.

The cell performs a selective absorption and storage of variation of molecules called
bioaccumulation. It allows them to accumulate nutrients and essential minerals, but
at thesame time, they also may absorb and store harmful substances through
these same mechanisms. Toxins that are instead dilute in the environment can
reach dangerous levels inside cells and tissues through this process of
bioaccumulation. The effects of toxins also are magnified in the environment
through food webs. When organisms ingest other organisms making toxins
accumulated from the base and concentrated in the highest trophic level, it is called
biomagnification.
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS (POPs)

Some chemical compounds are volatile and degrade rapidly under most
environmental conditions so that their concentrations decline quickly after
release. Most modern herbicides and pesticides, for instance, promptly lose their
toxicity. Other substances aremore persistent and last for years or even centuries
in the environment. Metals—such as lead—P.V.C. plastics, chlorinated
hydrocarbon pesticides, and asbestos are valuable because they are resistant to
degradation. However, this stability causes problems because these materials
persist in the environment and have unexpected effects far from their original use
sites. Some persistent organic pollutants (P.O.P.s) have become extremely
widespread, being found from the tropics to the Arctic. Long-living top predators
such asbears, humans, raptors, and sharks are where it frequently accumulates.
The following aresome of the most significant concerns:
§ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE). These are known as flame

retardants usually used in textiles and plastics found in computers and
appliances; these chemicals are now found in humans and other species
everywhere globally. Relatively low exposures in the womb or shortly after
birth can irreparably harm children’s reproductive and nervous systems.
§ Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, also

known as C8) are widely used as a nonstick, waterproof stain-resistant product
such as Teflon, Gortex, Scotchguard, and Stainmaster. The industry makes use
of their slippery, heat-stable properties to manufacture everything from
airplanes and computers to cosmetics and household cleaners. This chemical
family has been shown to cause liver damage as well as various cancers and
reproductive and developmental problems in rats. Exposure may be especially
dangerous to women and girls, who may be 100x more sensitive than men to
these chemicals.
§ Phthalates (pronounced thalates) These are present in products such as

deodorants, plastics, and cosmetics. Also present in products used for
children's toys, medical equipment, and packaging for food. Some chemicals
pose a toxic threat to animals found in laboratories as they damage the kidney
and liver and might cause cancer. Many phthalates act as endocrine hormone
disruptors, and have been linked to reproductive abnormalities and decreased
fertility
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§ Perchlorate is a waterborne contaminant leftover of fuel utilized by rockets

andfrom propellants. It includes the cause of pollution in our waters, especially
in waters used for irrigation. Thus, allows it to enter the human food chain.
Perchlorate can interfere with iodine uptake in the thyroid gland, disrupting adult
metabolism and childhood development.
§ Bisphenol A (B.P.A.), widely used in various products such as bottled water

and tooth-protecting sealants. It is a vital component in the creation of
polycarbonate plastics. Furthermore, it is an environmental estrogen and
may alter sexual development in both males and females. It has been found
in humans with or without known chemical exposure. It has been found out
that the presence of such a chemical causes abnormal chromosome
numbers called aneuploidy. Having this kind of abnormality will result in
several forms of mental retardation and miscarriages during pregnancy.
§ Atrazine is a substance applied to crops such as corn, cereal grains,

sugarcanes,and Christmas trees as herbicide in the United States of America.
It is also the cause of damage and disruption to the hormonal functions in
mammals of their endocrinesystem, resulting in low birth weights, disorders
in the neurological services, and abortions.
Chemical Interactions Increasing Toxicity
Interactions happen because some substances have antagonistic reactions

in which materials will interfere with the effects or will somehow stimulate the
breakdown of other chemicals. The reaction occurs in Vitamin E and A, which
enables to diminish the responseof some carcinogens. Subsequently, there are
also materials which occur together in exposures: this is an additive. In essence,
rats exposed to both lead and arsenic show thatthe toxicity level rats are exposed
to double compared to being presented with one of them. The most significant
concern about this is the synergistic effect. An interaction in which one substance
intensifies the impact of another material is called synergism. In essence, exposing
to occupational asbestos, it will increase the rate of lung cancer 20-foldtimes. At the
same time, smoking will also intensify rates of lung cancer by the same amount. In
other cases, workers exposed to asbestos at the same time smoke have a 400-
fold increase in cancer rates. The question now is how many substances, when
combined, will give intensified results? Synergism is an important concept that
considers pollution at the same time. It is the interaction of different materials, which
results in a total effect more significant than the added impact of separate
substances.
Factors Influencing Toxicity
There are several origins of poisonous and dangerous chemicals in the

environment and various factors related to each compound itself. The sources are
toxics and hazardous chemicals in the environment that is related to the release of
chemicals itself. The target of these chemicals is both biotic and abiotic community.
The dose (amount), route of entry, the timing of exposure, and sensitivity of the
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organism all play an essential function in determining toxicity. In this section, we will
look at each of these characteristics and how it affects environmental health.
A. Factors Related to Toxic agent.
1. Chemical composition and reactivity

2. Physical characteristics (such as solubility, state)
3. Presence of impurities or contaminants
4. Stability and storage characteristics of a toxic agent
5. Availability of vehicle (such as the solvent) to carry agent
6. Movement of the agent through the environment and into cells
B. Factors Related to Exposure
1. Dose (concentration and volume of exposure)

2. Route, rate, and site of exposure
3. Duration and frequency of exposure
4. Time of exposure (day, season, year)
C. Related Factors to Organism
1. Storage, cell permeability of agent and resistance to ingestion

2. Ability to metabolize, inactivate, sequester, or eliminate the agent
3. The tendency to activate or alter nontoxic substances, so they become
toxic.
4. Concurrent infections or physical or chemical stress
5. Species and genetic characteristics of an organism
6. Nutritional status of the subject
7. Sex, body weight, age, maturity, and immunological status
Solubility is one of the essential characteristics in determining how,

where, and when atoxic material will move through the environment. It
also includes the body at its place ofaction. The classification of chemical
substances divides into two main groups:
1. those that dissolve more easily in oil.

2. Those that dissolve more easily in water.
Since water is everywhere, water-soluble compounds move rapidly and

widely in theenvironment. They seem to have easy access to most cells in
the body since aqueous solutions bathe all our cells. Molecules that are oil-
or fat-soluble (usually organic molecules)generally need a carrier to move
through the environment, into, and within, the body. Onceinside the body,
however, oil-soluble toxins quickly pass into tissues and cells, since the
membranes that enclose the cells are composed of similar oil-soluble
chemicals. Once theyget inside cells, oil-soluble materials are likely to be
accumulated and stored in lipid deposits. They are protected from metabolic
breakdown and will continue for several years.
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Exposure
Just as there are many sources of toxins in our environment, there are many
routes for entry of dangerous substances into our bodies. Airborne toxins generally
cause moreill-health compared to other sources. Our lungs are programmed to
efficiently exchange gases and, at the same time, absorb toxins. The complication
in measuring toxicity is thatsignificant differences in sensitivity exist between species.
MEASURING TOXICITY
In controlled conditions, it is the most used and widely accepted toxicitytest

to expose a population of laboratory animals to measured doses of specific
substances.This procedure takes so much time, painful, expensive, and debilitating
to the animals usedas specimens in tests. Dose/response curves are not always
symmetrical, making it challenging to compare the toxicity of unlike chemicals or
different species of organisms. A convenient way to describe the toxicity of a
chemical is to determine the dose to whichfifty percent (50%) of the test population
is sensitive. In the case of a lethal dose (L.D.), thisis called the LD50.
Acute and Chronic Doses
Acute effects have been the effects of most toxics we have discussed. They are
caused by a single exposure to the toxin and result in an immediate health crisis
of some sort. An individual survives an urgent crisis due to an acute reaction, most
likely because the effectsare reversible.
If the effects have resulted in becoming permanent, it is a Chronic effect.A constant

effect can result from a single dose of a very toxic substance, resulting from a
continuous or repeated sublethal exposure. We also describe long-lasting
vulnerabilitiesas chronic, although their effects may or may not persist after the toxin is
removed. It usually is challenging to assess the specific health risks of chronic
exposures because other factors,such as aging or joint diseases, act simultaneously
with the consideration under study.
RISK ASSESSMENT
Risk is the possibility or results of suffering harm or loss by hazard and an

indicationof the severe damage. Risk assessment (R.A.) is the scientific process of
estimating the threat that hazards pose to human health. It is the overall process
of hazard identification, risk analysis, and risk evaluation. Risk assessment for
identified toxicity hazards (for example, lead) includes collection and analysis of
site data, development of exposure and risk calculations, and preparation of
human health and ecological impact reports.
Exposure assessment is the process of estimating, measuring, characterizing,

andmodeling the following:
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1. magnitude
2. frequency
3. duration, and
4. route of exposure to a possible toxin.
Toxicity assessment weighs all available evidence and estimates the potential
for adverse health effects to occur. Risk assessment can also define as the
process of determining potential adverse health effects of exposure to pollutants
and potentially toxicmaterials. Exposure to toxic air pollutants can intensify your health
risks. For example, if you live near a factory that discharges cancer-causing
chemicals and inhale contaminated air,your chance of getting cancer can increase.
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1. Identification of the hazard. It is using to evaluate if any situation

may have the potential to cause harm and consists of testing
materials to determine whether exposure is likely to cause
health problems. One method used is to investigate populations
of people who are exposed previously. For example, to
understand the toxicityof radiation produced from Radon (Rn)
gas, researchers studied workers in uranium (U) mines.
Another method is to conduct experiments to test effects on
animals, such as monkeys, rats, or mice.This method has drawn
augmenting criticism from groups who believesuch experiments
are unethical. Another approach is to try tounderstand how a
particular chemical works at the molecular level ofcells.
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2. Dose-response assessment. This next step involves identifying

relationships between the dose of a chemical (therapeutic drug,
pollutant, or toxin) and the health effects on people. Some
studies include administering reasonably high doses of a
compound toanimals. The results of exposures will be different
illnesses, or symptoms, such as tumor or rashes development,
are recorded for varying doses.
3. Exposure appraisal. This step evaluates the duration, frequency,

andintensity of human exposure to a particular chemical pollutant
or toxinin the environment. It includes some discussion of the size,
nature, andtypes of human populations exposed to the agent.
The total population exposed to the agent is directly proportional
to the hazardin the society.
4. The risk to an individual is generally more significant closer to the

source of exposure. Like dose-response assessment, exposure
assessment is difficult. The results are often controversial
because of difficulties in measuring the concentration (conc.) of a
toxin in doses since it is as small as parts per million, billion, or
even trillion.
5. Risk characterization. This final step aims to delineate health risk

in terms of the magnitude of the health issues and concerns that
might result from exposure to a particular pollutant or toxin. It is
necessary to identify the hazard or danger, complete the dose-
response assessment, and evaluate the exposure assessment, as
outlined. This method involves all the uncertainties of the previous
actions and results are again likely to be controversial
TOLERANCE
It is the ability to resist or withstand stress from exposure to a pollutant or

harmfulcondition. It can develop for some contaminants in some populations, but
not for all pollutants in all communities. Tolerance may result from behavioral,
physiological, or genetic adaptation.
Behavioral tolerance results from changes in the behavior; for example, mice
learnto avoid traps.
Physiological tolerance as a result when the body of an individual adjusts to

tolerate a higher level of pollutant.
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SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Agriculture is a science and art of growing plants and other crops, and the
raising of animals for food, other human needs, or economic gain. When they are
sustainable managed, they can help preserve and restore critical habitats, protect
watersheds, and improve soil health, and water quality. However, when practiced
without care, it presents the greatest threat to species and ecosystems.
Negative Impacts of Agriculture on Environment
§ Land Transformation due to the use of land to yield goods and services.
Examples for this are deforestation to create gardens/park; drainage of
wetlands to grow crops like rice; and landscape degradation through
activities like road construction for transport of agricultural produce.
§ Land Degradation which is the long-term decline in ecosystem function and
productivity such as soil erosion, soil exhaustion, soil salinization,
overgrazing, frequent burning, and loss of soil biodiversity due to use of
agrochemicals like pesticides. The pesticide is a general term for a chemical
that kills pests, usually a toxic chemical, but sometimes we also consider
chemicals that drive pests away from pesticides. Some pest control
compounds kill a wide range of living things and are called biocides.
Herbicides are chemicals that kill plants; insecticides kill insects, and
fungicides kill fungi.
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Types of Pesticides
One way to classify pesticides is by their chemical structure and main

components.Some are organic (carbon-based) compounds. Others are toxic metals
(such as arsenic) or halogens (such as bromine).
Organophosphates are among the most abundantly used synthetic

pesticides. Glyphosate, the single most heavily used herbicide in the United
States, is also known by the trade name Roundup. Glyphosate is applied to
90 percent (90%) of
U.S. soybeans and other crops. "Roundup-ready" soybeans and corn—
varieties genetically modified to tolerate glyphosate while other plants in the
field are destroyed—are the most planted genetically modified crops.
Chlorinated hydrocarbons, also known as organochlorines, are highly
toxic andpersistent to sensitive organisms. In the U.S., atrazine was a heavily
used herbicideuntil overtaken by the usage of glyphosate. Corn crops in the
U.S., around 96 percent, are applied with atrazine to control weeds in the
cornfields.
Fumigants are generally small molecular compounds, like ethylene

dibromide, methylene bromide, and carbon tetrachloride. These compounds
can be deliveredin the form of gas for easy penetration into the soil and other
materials. Fumigants are used to control fungus in strawberry fields and
other low-growing crops and prevent decay, rodent, and insect infestations in
stored grain.
Inorganic pesticides are compounds made from toxic elements, like sulfur,
copper, arsenic, and mercury. These elements are considered a broad-
spectrum poison because they are highly poisonous and indestructible,
which means they stay in theenvironment forever. They usually act nerve
toxins. Historically, the primary pesticide applied to apples, and other
orchard crops were arsenic powder, but traces of the dust remain in
groundwater or soil in many agricultural areas.
Natural organic pesticides, also known as botanicals, are extracts from

plants. Anexample before was nicotine and nicotinoid alkaloids extracted
from tobacco, andpyrethrum, extracted from Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium.
These compounds also include turpentine, phenols, and other aromatic oils
from conifers. These extracts are toxic to insects and may even prevent wood
decay.
Microbial agents and biological controls use living organisms or toxins

extracted from them that are used instead of pesticides. A natural soil
bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis, is one of the chief pest control agents
allowed in organic farming.When eaten, this bacterium targets caterpillars
and beetles and eliminates them by producing a toxin that destroys their
digestive tract lining.
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Impacts of Environment on Agriculture
1. Global warming
2. Heavy rainfall
3. Flood
4. Acid rain
5. Wind erosion
6. Landslide
To satisfy human food and fiber needs, it is very important to make the most
efficient use on non-renewable resources and on-farm resources, to sustain
economic viability of farm operations at the same time enhances the quality of life
for farmers and society. Sustainable agriculture is the practice of farming using
principles of ecology to produce healthful food without compromising the future
generation’s ability to do the same.
Advantages of Sustainable Agriculture
1. Contributes to environmental conservation

2. Prevents pollution
3. Reduces costs
4. Keeps biodiversity
5. Respects the environment
6. Profits farmers economically
7. Preserves social equity
Drawbacks of Sustainable Agriculture
1. Limited use of land which makes it difficult to produce large quantities of food.
Therefore, mass production is not possible.
2. It takes more work since the use of machines is minimal or eliminated, it takes more
time and people to successfully produce plants, which slows down the production.
3. Shorter shelf life since decomposing occurs faster in food that is produced
sustainably, causing it to have a shorter shelf life. If a shipment gets delayed, there
is a big chance that it will never get to the supermarket because it will already be
spoiled.
4. Less fertile lands since it is quite hard to increase the fertility of land just by rotating
crops and without the use of fertilizers and other chemicals.
5. Lower income because the land is used sparingly, the income that is generated
from farming is very limited.
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FOOD AND NUTRITION
Despite dire predictions that runaway population growth would soon lead to
terriblefamines, world food supplies have more than kept up with increasing human
numbers over the past two centuries. The past 40 years have seen especially
encouraging strides in reducing world hunger. More than 850 million people today
are considered chronically hungry: their diets don’t provide the 2,200 kcal per
day, which is deemed necessary for a healthy and productive life. Poverty is the
greatest threat to food security or the ability to obtain sufficient food on a day-to-day
basis. Food security occurs at multiple scales. In thepoorest countries, hunger may
affect nearly everyone.
SELF-HELP
Dalezios, N., 2017. Environmental Hazards Methodologies for Risk Assessment and
Management. IWA Publishing, Canada.
Frumkin, H., 2017. Environmental Health: From Global to Local. 3rd edition. Wiley &
Sons Publishing, USA.
Knowlton, K., Sorensen, C., & Lemery, J., 2017. Global Climate Change and Human
Health: From Science to Practice. 2nd ed. Wiley & Sons Publishing, USA
Lippmann, M., Leikauf, G., 2017. Environmental Toxicants: Human Exposures and Their
Health Effects. 4th ed. Wiley & sons Publishing, USA.
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 5. Now that you have known the most essential terms in the study of
environmental science. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms. In the
space provided, write the terms, being asked in the following statements:
1. It is the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-

being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
2. It refers to the impairment of an individual’s well-being and

ability to function often due to poor adjustments between
theindividual and the environment.
3. It refers to the unwanted change in the environment

caused by the introduction of harmful materials or the
production ofharmful conditions.
4. It is a toxin that increases the risks of cancer.
5. It refers to substances that activate the immune systems.
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6. It refers to chemicals that disrupt normal hormone

functions.
7. It is an agent which damage or alter genetic materials in

cells.
8. It occurs when toxic burden of many organisms at

a lower trophic level is accumulated and concentrated by
apredator in a higher trophic level.
9. It is considered a natural bacterium and one of the chief

pest control agents allowed in organic farming.
10. It is the ability to resist or withstand stress from

exposure to a pollutant or harmful condition.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 5. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying
environmental health and toxicology will not be sufficient. What matters is that you
should be able to identify and discuss different toxic elements present in the
environment, whether naturally occurring or human induced. It is also important to
determine the route and persistence of these pollutants to develop measures and
mechanisms to reduce the risk of potential food contamination and other agricultural
resources. Now, I will require you to explain your answers thoroughly.
1. What is biomagnification? Why is it essential in toxicology?
2. Differentiate acute effects from chronic effects.
3. Identify and discuss comprehensively the components of risk management.
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4. How are toxic elements being deposited in the environment? Can these
toxicelements/ chemicals contaminate the food chain?
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 5. Studying the environment and its components requires a deeper
understanding of the core areas of environmental science. This involves understanding
the influence of human dimensions as well as the natural phenomena that resulted in
different alterations of the natural ecosystems, which eventually creates threats and
danger both the biological, physical, and chemical components of an ecosystem. Also,
this includes the analysis and understanding of how humanmade and natural
components react with one another. Based on the definitions and the essential elements
in the study of environmental and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel
free to indicate your arguments or lessons learned below.
1. Different types of elements, whether naturally present or human-induced,

have implications for biological safety as these elements tend to persist in
the environment due to its non-biodegradable nature. Since it continues, it
poses threats to human health as well as security and food safety.
2. The disease is considered an environmental response or an imbalance

within an ecosystem. This signifies that the carrying capacity of the
environment has been reached which makes a particular ecosystem unable
to function very well that resulted in the or reduce the ability to assimilate
pollutants and recover.
YOUR TURN
3.
4.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Q&A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORS INDEX
Carcinogens Mortality Exposure
Antigens Morbidity Persistence
Risk assessment Mutagens Lethal Dose
Toxicology Solubility Tolerance
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BIG PICTURE
WEEK 8-9 Unit Learning Outcome f (ULOf)

Explain how weather and climate patterns take place; discuss air pollution
sources, water pollution, use, and management; and discuss the implementation of
environmental laws.
METALANGUAGE
In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of geology and Earth's
resources, air pollution, water pollution, and the introduction of environmental are
presented. Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the
understanding of environmental science concepts.
1. Atmosphere. A layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other

material body that is held in place by the gravity of that body.
1.1. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is
high, and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.
2. Temperature. A physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses hot and

cold.
2.1. It is the manifestation of thermal energy present in all matter, which is the
source of heat, a flow of energy when a body is in contact with another
that is colder.
2.2. Temperature is measured with a thermometer.
3. Pressure. The force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit
area over which that force is distributed.
3.1. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure.
3.2. Various units are used to express pressure.
4. Greenhouse effect. The process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere

warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this
atmosphere.
4.1. Radiatively active gases in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all
directions.
5. Greenhouse gases. A gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the
thermal infrared range.
5.1. Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect on planets.
5.2. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.
6. Climate Change. a long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. Often

climate change refers specifically to the rise in global temperatures from the mid-
20th century to present.
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7. Weather. The state of the atmosphere describes the degree to which it is hot or
cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
6.1. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the
troposphere, just below the stratosphere.
8. Climate. The long-term average of weather typically averaged over 30 years.

7.1 Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.
9. Wastewater. Any water that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is
"used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural
activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer infiltration.
10. Scarcity. The limited availability of a commodity may be in demand in the market
or by the commons. Poverty also includes an individual's lack of resources to buy
products.
11. Eutrophication. When a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and
nutrients, which induce excessive growth of algae.
10.1. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.
12. Urban runoff. The surface runoff of precipitation created by urbanization.

11.1. This runoff is a significant source of flooding and water pollution in urban
communities worldwide.
11.2. Impervious surfaces, such as roads, parking lots, rooftops, and sidewalks,
are constructed during land development.
13. Sewage. A type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people.

12.1. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical
and toxic constituents, and bacteriologic status.
14. Environmental Law. A collective term encompassing aspects of the law that
protect the environment.
13.1. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now strongly influenced by
environmental legal principles, focuses on the management of specific
natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries.
ESSENTIAL KNOWLEDGE
AIR, WEATHER, AND CLIMATE
Atmosphere
We live at the bottom of a layered ocean of air that extends upward about 500 km. All
the weather we see is in the lowest 10–12 km, a continually moving layer known as the
troposphere.
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Ceaseless flowing and swirling in the troposphere redistribute heat and moisture from
one part of the globe to another. Short-lived and local patterns of temperature and
moisture we call weather. In contrast, the climate is long-term patterns of temperature
and precipitation. The Earth's earliest atmosphere probably consisted mainly of
lightweight hydrogen and helium. Over billions of years, most of that hydrogen and
helium diffused into space. Volcanic emissions added carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur,
and other elements to the atmosphere.
Clean, dry air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor concentrations vary from near
zero to 4 percent, depending on air temperature and available moisture. Minute particles
and liquid droplets—collectively called aerosols—also are suspended in the air.
Atmospheric aerosols play important roles in the Earth's energy budget and in producing
rain. The atmosphere has four distinct zones of contrasting temperatures due to
differences in the absorption of solar energy.
Troposphere. The layer of air immediately adjacent to the Earth's surface is

called the troposphere (tropein means to turn or change, in Greek). Within the
troposphere, air circulates in great vertical and horizontal convection currents,
constantly redistributing heat and moisture around the globe. The troposphere's
depth ranges from about 18 km (11 mi) over the equator to about 8 km (5 mi)
over the poles, where the air is cold and dense. Because gravity holds most air
molecules close to the Earth's surface, the troposphere is much denser than the
other layers: It contains about 75 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere. Air
temperature drops rapidly with increasing altitude in this layer, reaching about
_60°C (_76°F) at the top of the troposphere.
Stratosphere. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km

(31 mi). It is vastly more dilute than the troposphere, but it has a similar
composition—except that it has almost no water vapor and nearly 1,000 times
more ozone (O3). Near the Earth's surface, ozone is a pollutant, but it serves an
essential function in the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone absorbs specific
wavelengths of ultraviolet solar radiation, known as UV-B (290–330 nm, see fig.
3.10). This absorbed energy makes the atmosphere warmer toward the top of the
stratosphere.
Mesosphere. The third layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere
and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere temperature decreases
as altitude increases. These characteristics are used to define its limits; it begins
at the top of the stratosphere (sometimes called stratopause) and ends at the
mesopause, which is the coldest part of the Earth's atmosphere with
temperatures below -143 degrees Celsius.
Thermosphere. The thermosphere (heated layer) begins at about 80 km. It is a

region of highly ionized (electrically charged) gases, heated by a steady flow of
high-energy solar and cosmic radiation. In the lower part of the thermosphere,
intense pulses of high-energy radiation cause electrically charged particles (ions)
to glow.
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We know this phenomenon as the aurora borealis and aurora australis, or

northern and southern lights.
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Atmospheric Processes
Two essential qualities of the atmosphere are pressure and temperature. The
pressure is force per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of
overlying atmospheric gases on those below and therefore decreases with altitude. We
are familiar with this as barometric pressure, which the weatherman gives to us in units
that are the height to which that pressure raises a column of mercury. When air pressure
is high, it moves downward, which warms the air, changing the condensed water drops
in clouds to vapor; therefore, high-pressure systems are clear and sunny.
Temperature, familiar to us as the relative warmth or coldness of materials, is a

measure of thermal energy, which is the kinetic energy—the motion of atoms and
molecules in a substance.
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Water vapor content is another important characteristic of the lower

atmosphere. It varies from less than 1% to about 4% by volume, depending on
air temperature, air pressure, and availability of water vapor from the surface.
Generalized Circulation of the Atmosphere
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Greenhouse Effect
The greenhouse effect is naturally

a good thing. It warms the planet
to its comfortable average of 15
degrees Celsius and keeps life on
earth livable. Without it the world
would be a frozen, uninhabitable
place, more like Mars. The
problem is, mankind’s voracious
burning of fossil fuels for energy is
artificially amping up the natural
greenhouse effect.
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This phenomenon is called the greenhouse

effect because the atmosphere, loosely
comparable to the glass of a greenhouse,
transmits sunlight while trapping heat inside.
Sunlight makes the earth habitable. While 30
percent of the solar energy that reaches our
world is reflected back to space, approximately
70 percent passes through the atmosphere to
the earth’s surface, where it is absorbed by the
land, oceans, and atmosphere, and heats the https://daisylinden.com/wp-content/uploads/big-size-
planet. This heat is then radiated back up in the greenhouse-photo.jpg
form of invisible infrared light. While some of this
infrared light continues on into space, the vast majority—indeed, some 90 percent—gets
absorbed by atmospheric gases, known as greenhouse gases, and redirected back
toward the earth, causing further warming.
The greenhouse effect is a natural atmospheric process that is necessary for life as we
know it. However, too strong a greenhouse effect caused by the burning of fossil fuels
and deforestation may create adverse environmental change. Greenhouse gases are
a general term for gases that are especially effective at capturing the long-wavelength
energy from the Earth's surface. Water vapor (H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse
gas, and it is always present in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most
abundant human-caused greenhouse gas, followed by methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), and dozens of other gases like ozone (O3), sulfur dioxide (SO2),
Weather and Climate Patterns
Weather is a description of the physical conditions in the atmosphere (humidity,

temperature, air pressure, wind, and precipitation) over short time scales. Weather is
what's happening now or over some short time—this hour, today, this week—in the
atmosphere near the ground: its temperature, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, and
winds. Climate is the average weather and usually refers to average weather conditions
over long periods, at least seasons, but more often years or decades. Since climates are
characteristic of certain latitudes (and other factors that we will discuss later), they are
classified mainly by latitude—tropical, subtropical, mid-latitudinal (continental),
sub-Arctic (continental), and Arctic—but also by wetness/dryness, such as humid
continental, Mediterranean, monsoon, desert, and tropical wet-dry.
Climate changes have continued in more recent —“recent” geologically speaking, that
is. The mean annual temperature of Earth has swung up and down by several degrees
Celsius over the past million years. Over the last 18,000 years, climate change has
greatly affected people during the previous major time of continental glaciations—
changes in Earth's temperature over varying periods during the past million years.
Significant changes correspond to glacial (cool) and interglacial (warm) periods over the
past 800,000 years.
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Data to document and understand climate change come from three main periods: the
Instrumental Record, the Historical Record, and the Paleo-Proxy Record. The use of
instruments to make climate measurements began around 1860. Since then,
temperatures have been measured at various places on land and in the oceans. The
average of these observations produces the graph. Several groups have tried to
reconstruct the average surface temperature of the Earth using available comments.
Temperature measurement has improved dramatically in recent years thanks to such
devices as ocean platforms with automatic weather-monitoring equipment, coordinated
by the World Meteorological Organization. Thus, we have more accurate records since
about 1960.
Historical Records
Paleo-proxy. Proxy data refers to scientific data that are not strictly climatic but
can be correlated with climate data, such as the temperature of the land or sea.
Proxy data provides important insights into climate change. Information gathered
as proxy data includes natural records of climate variability, as indicated by tree
rings, sediments, ice cores, fossil pollen, corals, and carbon-14.
Proxy Climate Records. Ice Cores- Polar ice caps and mountain glaciers have
an accumulation record of snow that has been transformed into glacial ice over
hundreds to thousands of years. Ice cores often contain small bubbles of air
deposited at the time of the storm, and we can measure the atmospheric gases
in these. Two important gases being measured in ice cores are carbon-dioxide
(CO2) and methane (CH4). Of the two, it appears methane most closely follows
climate change determined from the geologic record over the past 1,000,000
years. As a result, CO2 and CH4 are the most relevant proxy for climate change.
The ice cores also contain a variety of chemicals and materials, such as volcanic
ash and dust, which may provide additional insights into possible causes of
climate change. Ice cores are obtained by drilling into the ice.
Tree Rings. The growth of trees is influenced by climate, both temperature, and
precipitation. Many trees put on one growth ring per year, and patterns in the tree
rings—their width, density, and isotopic composition—tell us something about the
climate variability. When conditions are good for growth, a ring is wide; when
conditions are poor, the ring is narrow. Tree-ring chronology, known as
dendrochronology, has produced a proxy record of climate that extends back
over 10,000 years
Sediments. Biological material, including pollen from plants, is deposited on the

land and stored for very long periods in the lake, bog, and pond sediments and,
once transported downstream to the coast, in the oceans. Samples may be taken
of tiny fossils and chemicals in the deposits, and these may be interpreted to
study past climates and extend our knowledge back hundreds of thousand years.
Pollen is useful because:
1. the quantity of pollen is an indicator of the relative abundance of each

plant species
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2. the pollen can be dated, and since the grains are preserved in
sedimentary layers that might be dated, we can develop a chronology
3. based on the types of plants found at different times, we can construct a
climatic history.
Corals. Corals have hard skeletons composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a

mineral extracted by seawater corals. The carbonate contains isotopes of
oxygen, as well as a variety of trace metals, which have been used to determine
the temperature of the water in which the coral grew. The growth of corals has
been dated directly with a variety of dating techniques over short periods of coral
growth, thereby revealing the chronology of climate change over variable periods.
Carbon-14. Radioactive carbon-14 (14C) is produced in the upper atmosphere

by the collision of cosmic rays and nitrogen-14 (14N). Cosmic rays come from
outer space; those the Earth receives are predominantly from the sun. The
abundance of cosmic rays varies with the number of sunspots, so-called because
they appear as dark areas on the sun. The frequency of sunspots has been
accurately measured for decades and observed by people for nearly 1,000 years.
As sunspot activity increases, more energy from the sun reaches Earth. There is
an associated solar wind, which produces ionized particles consisting mostly of
protons and electrons, emanating from the sun.
Adjustments
People can adjust to the threat of global warming in two ways:
Adapt: Learn to live with future global climate change over the next 20 years
because there is warming in the pipeline from greenhouse gases already
emitted.
Mitigate: Work to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and take action to
reduce the undesirable effects of global warming.
Climate Change
Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns
in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole.
Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. These unexpected
weather patterns can make it difficult to maintain and grow crops in regions that rely on
farming because expected temperature and rainfall levels can no longer be relied on.
Climate change has also been connected with other damaging weather events such as
more frequent and more intense hurricanes, floods, downpours, and winter storms.
In polar regions, the warming global temperatures associated with climate change have
meant ice sheets and glaciers are melting at an accelerated rate from season to season.
This contributes to sea levels rising in different regions of the planet. Together with
expanding ocean waters due to rising temperatures, the resulting rise in sea level has
begun to damage coastlines as a result of increased flooding and erosion.
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The cause of current climate change is largely human activity, like burning fossil fuels
such as natural gas, oil, and coal. Burning these materials releases greenhouse gases
into Earth’s atmosphere. There, these gases trap heat from the sun’s rays inside the
atmosphere causing Earth’s average temperature to rise. This rise in the planet's
temperature is called global warming. The warming of the planet impacts local and
regional climates. Throughout Earth's history, climate has continually changed. When
occurring naturally, this is a slow process that has taken place over hundreds and
thousands of years. The human influenced climate change that is happening now is
occurring at a much faster rate.
Global climate varies naturally over time scales from decades to thousands of years and
longer. These natural variations can originate in two ways: a) from internal fluctuations
that exchange energy, water and carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, land and
ice; and b) from external influences on the climate system, including variations in the
energy received from the sun and the effects of volcanic eruptions.
Human activities can also influence climate by changing concentrations of CO2 and
other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, altering the concentrations of aerosols and
altering the reflectivity of Earth’s surface by changing land cover.
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Key Elements to Combat Climate Change
1. Emissions trading to promote cost-effective emissions reductions

2. Technology sharing that would double research investment in clean
energy technology and accelerate the spread of that technology to
developing countries
3. Reduce deforestation, which is a quick and highly cost-effective way
to reduce emissions
4. Help poorer countries by honoring pledges for development assistance to
adapt to climate change.
AIR POLLUTION
The atmosphere has always been a sink—a deposition and storage place—for gaseous
and particulate wastes. When the amount of waste entering an area of the atmosphere
exceeds the atmosphere's ability to disperse or break down the pollutants, problems
result. Air pollution is generally the most widespread and obvious kind of environmental
damage. While developed countries have been making progress, air quality in the
developing world has been getting much worse.
Sources
There are, however, many natural sources of air quality degradation. Volcanoes spew
out ash, acid mists, hydrogen sulfide, and other toxic gases. In many cases, the chemical
compositions of pollutants from natural and human-related sources are identical, and
their effects are inseparable can occur. While the natural sources of suspended
particulate material in the air outweigh human sources at least tenfold worldwide, in
many cities, more than 90 percent of the airborne particulate matter is anthropogenic
(human-caused). Two major categories of pollution sources are stationary and mobile
sources. Stationary sources have relatively fixed locations and include point sources,
fugitive sources, and area sources. Mobile sources include trucks and buses.
Point Sources. Emit pollutants from one or more controllable sites such as power
plant smokestacks.
Fugitive Sources. Generate air pollutants from an open area exposed to wind.
It includes burning for agricultural purposes and dirt roads, construction sites,
farmlands, storage piles, surface mines, and other exposed areas.
Area Source. A well-defined area within which several sources of air pollutants.
It includes small urban communities, areas of intense industrialization within
urban complexes, and agricultural areas sprayed with herbicides and pesticides.
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Categories of Pollutants
Primary. Are those released directly from the source into the air in a harmful
form? These pollutants are emitted directly into the air. They include particulates,
sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.
Secondary. They are modified to a hazardous form after they enter the air or are
formed by chemical reactions as components of the air mix and interact. Solar
radiation often provides the energy for these reactions. Photochemical oxidants
and atmospheric acids created by these mechanisms are probably the most
important secondary pollutants in human health and ecosystem damage.
Secondary pollutants are produced reactions between primary pollutants and
standard atmospheric compounds.
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Criteria Pollutants
The six most common pollutants are called criteria pollutants because the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has set specific limits on the levels of these six,
and they are responsible for most of our air pollution problems. The six criteria pollutants
are; sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, particulates, and lead.
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Sulfur Dioxide. A colorless and odorless gas usually present at Earth's surface
in low concentrations. A significant feature of sulfur dioxide is that once it is
emitted into the atmosphere, it can be converted into fine particulate sulfate and
removed from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition. The primary
anthropogenic source of sulfur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels.
Nitrogen Oxides. Highly reactive gases formed when nitrogen in fuel or

combustion air is heated to temperatures above 650°C (1,200°F) in the presence
of oxygen, or when bacteria in soil or water oxidize nitrogen-containing
compounds. The initial product, nitric oxide (NO), oxidizes further in the
atmosphere to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a reddish-brown gas that gives
photochemical smog its distinctive color. Because of their interconvertibility, the
general term NOx is used to describe these gases. Nitrogen oxides combine with
water to make nitric acid (HNO3).
Carbon Monoxide. Is a colorless, odorless gas that even at very low

concentrations is extremely toxic to humans and other animals. The high toxicity
results from a physiological effect. CO inhibits respiration in animals by binding
irreversibly to hemoglobin. Carbon monoxide and hemoglobin have a strong
natural attraction for one another; if there is carbon monoxide in any vicinity, the
hemoglobin in our blood will take up nearly 250 times faster than oxygen and
carry mostly carbon monoxide rather than oxygen, from the atmosphere to the
internal organs. Effects range from dizziness and headaches to death.
Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. A form of oxygen in which three

atoms of oxygen occur together rather than the usual two. Photochemical
oxidants are secondary pollution arising from atmospheric interactions of nitrogen
dioxide and sunlight. This atomic oxygen then reacts with other molecules of O2
to make ozone (O3). Ozone formed in the stratosphere provides a valuable shield
for the biosphere by absorbing incoming ultraviolet radiation.
Particulate Matter. It is made of tiny particles. The term particulate matter is used
for varying mixtures of suspended in the air we breathe, but in regulations, these
are divided into three categories.
1. PM 10- particles up to 10 micrometers in diameter.
2. PM 2.5- particles between 2.5 and 0.18 microns
3. Ultra-fine particles- smaller than 0.18 micrometers in diameter
Lead. Is an important constituent of automobile batteries and many industrial

products. Leaded gasoline helps protect engines and promotes more effective
fuel consumption. However, the lead emitted into the air with exhaust and has
thereby been spread widely around the world, reaching high levels in soils and
waters along the roadways. Once released, lead can be transported through the
air as particulates to be taken up by plants through the soil or deposited directly
on their leaves.
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Air Toxics
Toxic air pollutants or air toxics are among those pollutants known or suspected to cause
cancer and other serious health problems, either long-term or short-term exposure.
Although most air contaminants are regulated because of their potential adverse effects
on human health or environmental quality, a particular category of toxins is monitored
by the U.S. EPA because they are particularly dangerous. Called hazardous air
pollutants (HAPs), these chemicals include carcinogens, neurotoxins, mutagens,
teratogens, endocrine system disrupters, and other highly toxic compounds. Air toxics
includes gases, metals, and organic chemicals that are emitted in relatively small
volumes.
WATER USE, POLLUTION, AND TREATMENT
Water Resource
Water is a marvelous substance—flowing, rippling, swirling around obstacles in its path,

seeping, dripping, trickling, continually moving from sea to land and back again—the
water we use cycles endlessly through the environment. The total amount of water on
our planet is immense—more than 1,404 million km3 (370 billion gals). The hydrologic
cycle constantly redistributes water. Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle by
evaporating surface water, which becomes rain and snow. Because water and sunlight
are unevenly distributed around the globe, water resources are very uneven.
Water Supply
Rain falls unevenly over the planet. Some places get almost no precipitation, while
others receive heavy rain almost daily. Three principal factors control these global water
deficits and surpluses.
1. First, global atmospheric circulation creates regions of persistent high air

pressure and low rainfall about 20° to 40° north and south of the equator. These
same circulation patterns produce frequent rainfall near the equator and between
about 40° and 60° north and south latitude.
2. Second, proximity to water sources influences precipitation. Where prevailing winds
come over oceans, they bring moisture to land. Areas far from oceans—in a
windward direction—are usually relatively dry.
3. The third factor in water distribution is topography. Mountains act as both cloud
formers and rain catchers. As air sweeps up the windward side of a mountain, air
pressure decreases, and the air cools. As the air cools, it reaches the saturation
point, and moisture condenses as either rain or snow.
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Water Compartments
The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in which

water resides, sometimes briefly and sometimes for eons. The length of time water
typically stays in a compartment is its residence time. A water molecule stays in the
ocean for about 3,000 years, for example, before it evaporates and starts through the
hydrologic cycle again.
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Oceans. Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on Earth. Together, the oceans
contain more than 97 percent of all the liquid water in the world. (The water of
crystallization in rocks is far larger than the amount of liquid water.) Oceans are
too salty for most human uses, but they contain 90 percent of the world’s living
biomass. While the ocean basins really form a continuous reservoir, shallows and
narrows between them reduce water exchange, so they have different
compositions, climatic effects, and even different surface elevations. Oceans play
a crucial role in moderating the Earth's temperature. In tropical seas, surface
waters are warmed by the sun, diluted by rainwater and runoff from the land, and
aerated by wave action. In higher latitudes, surface waters are cold and much
denser.
Glaciers, Ice, and Snow. Of the 3 percent of all freshwater, nearly 70 percent is
tied up in glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields. Glaciers are rivers of ice flowing
downhill very slowly. Now occur only at high altitudes or high latitudes, but as
recently as 18,000 years ago, about one-third of the continental landmass was
covered by glacial ice sheets.
Groundwater. After glaciers, the next largest reservoir of freshwater is held in

the ground as groundwater. Precipitation that does not evaporate back into the
air or runoff over the surface percolates through the soil and into fractures and
spaces of permeable rocks in a process called infiltration. Upper soil layers that
hold both air and water make up the zone of aeration.
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Moisture for plant growth comes from these layers. Depending on the rainfall
amount, soil type, and surface topography, the zone of aeration may be very
shallow or quite deep. Lower soil layers where all spaces are filled with water
make up the zone of saturation. The top of this zone is the water table. Water
tables also rise and fall seasonally, depending on precipitation and infiltration
rates. Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock lying below the water table are called
aquifers. Aquifers are always underlain by relatively impermeable layers of stone
or clay that keep water from seeping out at the bottom. Areas in which infiltration
of water into an aquifer occurs are called recharge zones. The rate at which most
aquifers are refilled is very slow, however, and groundwater presently is being
removed faster than it can be replenished in many areas. Urbanization, road
building, and other development often block recharge zones and prevent
replenishment of essential aquifers. Groundwater stores large resources.
Rivers, Lakes, and Wetlands. Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate
into the ground runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of gravity back
toward the sea. Rivulets accumulate to form streams, and streams join to form
rivers. Although the total amount of water contained at any one time in rivers and
streams is small compared to the other water reservoirs of the world, these
surface waters are vitally important to humans and most other organisms. Most
rivers, if not constantly replenished by precipitation, meltwater from snow and ice,
or seepage from groundwater, would begin to diminish in a few weeks. We
measure the size of a river in terms of its discharge, the amount of water that
passes a fixed point in a given amount of time.
Atmosphere. The atmosphere is among the smallest of the major water

reservoirs of the Earth in terms of water volume, containing less than 0.001
percent of the total water supply. It also has the most rapid turnover rate. An
individual water molecule resides in the atmosphere for about ten days, on
average. While water vapor makes up only a small amount (4 percent maximum
at normal temperatures) of the air's total volume, movement of water through the
atmosphere provides the mechanism for distributing freshwater over the
landmasses and replenishing terrestrial reservoirs.
Availability and Use
Clean, freshwater is essential for nearly every human endeavor. Perhaps more than any
other environmental factor, water availability determines the location and activities of
humans on Earth. Renewable water supplies are made up, in general, of surface runoff
plus the infiltration into accessible freshwater aquifers. About two-thirds of the water
carried in rivers and streams every year occurs in seasonal floods that are too large or
violent to be stored or trapped effectively for human uses. Stable runoff is the
dependable, renewable, year-round supply of surface water.
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Scarcity
Water scarcity occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount, or
poor quality restricts its use. Water stress occurs when renewable water supplies are
inadequate to satisfy essential human or ecosystem needs, bringing about increased
competition among potential demands. Water stress is most likely to occur in developing
countries where the per capita renewable water supply is low. Periodic droughts create
severe regional water shortages. Droughts are most common and often most severe in
semiarid zones, where moisture availability is the critical factor in determining plant and
animal distribution. Undisturbed ecosystems often survive extended droughts with little
damage, but the introduction of domestic animals and agriculture disrupt native
vegetation and undermines natural adaptations to low moisture levels.
Withdrawal
Most water we use eventually returns to rivers and streams. Therefore, it is important to
distinguish between withdrawal and consumption. Withdrawal is the total amount of
water taken from a lake, river, or aquifer. Much of this water is in India for Agricultural. in
Kuwait, where water is especially precious, only 4 percent is used for crops. In the United
States, which has a large industrial sector and a highly urbanized population, about half
of all water withdrawal, and about 80 percent of consumption,
is agricultural.
A tragic case of water overconsumption is the Aral Sea, which lies in Kazakhstan and
Uzbekistan. Once the fourth-largest inland water body in the world, this giant saline lake
lost 75 percent of its surface area and 80 percent of its volume between 1975 and 2004
when, under the former Soviet Union, 90 percent of the natural flow of the Amu Dar'ya
and Syr Dar'ya Rivers was diverted to irrigate rice and cotton. Towns that once were
prosperous fish processing and shipping ports now lie 100 km from the lakeshore.
Vozrojdenie Island, used for biological weapons productions in the Soviet era, has
become connected to the mainland, causing concern about the security of materials
stored there. The salt concentration in the remaining water doubled, and fishing, which
once produced 20,000 tons per year, ceased altogether. Today, more than 200,000 tons
of salt, sand, and toxic chemicals are blown from the dried lake bottom every day. This
polluted cloud destroys pastures, poisoning farm fields, and damages the health of
residents who remain in the area. As water levels dropped, the lake split into two lobes.
The "Small Aral" in Kazakhstan is now being reclaimed.
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Water Pollution
Water pollution refers to the degradation of water quality. From public health or
ecological view, a pollutant is any biological, physical, or chemical substance that, in
an identifiable excess, is harmful to desirable living organisms. Water pollutants include
heavy metals, sediment, certain radioactive isotopes, heat, fecal coliform bacteria,
phosphorus, nitrogen, sodium, and other useful (even necessary) elements, as well as
certain pathogenic
bacteria and viruses. The increasing population often results in the introduction of more
pollutants into the environment as well as greater demands on finite water resources.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Dead organic matter in streams decays. Bacteria are carrying out this decay use oxygen.
A stream with low oxygen content is a poor environment for fish and most other
organisms. A stream with an inadequate oxygen level is considered polluted for
organisms that require dissolved oxygen above the existing level. The amount of oxygen
required for biochemical decomposition processes is called the biological or
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). BOD is commonly used in water-quality
management. It measures the amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they
break down organic matter within small water samples, which are analyzed in a
laboratory. BOD is routinely measured at discharge points into surface water, such as at
wastewater treatment plants.
At treatment plants, the BOD of the incoming sewage water from sewer lines is
measured, as is water from locations both upstream and downstream of the plant. It
allows comparison of upstream, background, BOD, and the BOD of the water being
discharged by the plant. When BOD is high, as suggested earlier, the water's dissolved
oxygen content may become too low to support life in the water. Three zones are
identified:
1. A pollution zone, where a high BOD exists. As waste decomposes,

microorganisms use the oxygen, decreasing the dissolved oxygen content of the
water.
2. An active decomposition zone, where the dissolved oxygen reaches a

minimum owing to rapid biochemical decomposition by microorganisms as the
organic waste is transported downstream.
3. A recovery zone, where dissolved oxygen increases, and BOD is reduced
because most of the oxygen demanding organic waste from the input of sewage
has decomposed, and natural stream processes are replenishing the water’s
dissolved oxygen. For example, in quickly moving water, the water at the surface
mixes with air, and oxygen enters the water.
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Waterborne Diseases
The primary water-pollution problem in the world today is the lack of clean drinking water.
Each year, particularly in less-developed countries, several billion people are exposed
to waterborne diseases whose effects vary in severity from an upset stomach to death.
Fecal Coliform. Because it is challenging to monitor disease-carrying organisms

directly, we use the count of fecal coliform bacteria as a standard measure and
indicator of disease potential. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in water
indicates that fecal material from mammals or birds is present, so organisms that
cause waterborne diseases may be present. Fecal coliform bacteria are usually
(but not always) harmless bacteria that normally inhabit the intestines of all
animals, including humans, and are present in all their wastes. Water with any
fecal coliform bacteria is unsuitable for drinking. One type of fecal coliform
bacteria, Escherichia coli, or E. coli 0157, has caused human illness and death.
Nutrients
Two important nutrients that cause water-pollution problems are phosphorus and
nitrogen, and both are released from sources related to land use. Stream waters on
forested land have the lowest concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen because forest
vegetation efficiently removes phosphorus and nitrogen. In urban streams,
concentrations of these nutrients are greater because of fertilizers, detergents, and
products of sewage treatment plants. The highest concentrations of phosphorus and
nitrogen are often found in agricultural areas, where the sources are fertilized farm fields
and feedlots. Over 90% of all nitrogen added to the environment by human activity
comes from agriculture.
Eutrophication. is the process by which a body of water develops a high

concentration of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus (in the forms of
nitrates and phosphates). The nutrients increase the growth of aquatic plants in
general, as well as the production of photosynthetic blue-green bacteria and
algae. Algae may form surface mats that shade the water and block light to algae
below the surface, greatly reducing photosynthesis. The bacteria and algae die,
and as they decompose, BOD increases, reducing the water’s oxygen content,
sometimes to the point where other organisms, such as fish, will die.
Surface Water Pollution
Pollution of surface water occurs when too much of an undesirable or harmful substance
flows into a body of water, exceeding that body of water's natural ability to remove it,
dilute it to a harmless concentration, or convert it to a harmless form. Water pollutants,
like other pollutants, are categorized as being emitted from the point or nonpoint
sources.
Point sources are distinct and confined, such as pipes from industrial and
municipal sites that empty into streams or rivers. In general, point source
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pollutants from industries are controlled through on-site treatment or disposal and
are regulated by permit.
Nonpoint sources, such as runoff, are diffused and intermittent and are
influenced by factors such as land use, climate, hydrology, topography, native
vegetation, and geology. Common urban nonpoint sources include runoff from
streets or fields; such runoff contains all sorts of pollutants, from heavy metals to
chemicals and sediment. Rural sources of nonpoint pollution are generally
associated with agriculture, mining, or forestry. Nonpoint sources are difficult to
monitor and control.
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Surface Water Pollution Reduction
From an environmental view, two approaches to dealing with surface-water pollution

are:
1. to reduce the sources

2. to treat the water to remove pollutants or convert them to forms that can be
disposed of safely.
Two of the newer techniques are:
1. nanotechnology
2. urban-runoff naturalization.
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Nanotechnology uses extremely small material particles (10−9m size,

about 100,000 times thinner than a human hair) designed for a
number of purposes. Some nanoparticles can capture heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, and arsenic from water. The nanoparticles
have a tremendous surface area to volume. One cubic centimeter of
particles has a surface area exceeding a football field and can take
up over 50% of its weight in heavy metals.
Urban-runoff naturalization is an emerging bioengineering technology to treat

urban runoff before it reaches streams, lakes, or the ocean. One method is to
create a "closed-loop" local landscape that does not allow runoff to leave a
property. Plants may be located as "rain gardens" below downspouts, and
parking-lot drainage is directed to plants instead of the street.
Wastewater Treatment
Water used for industrial and municipal purposes is often degraded during use by the
addition of suspended solids, salts, nutrients, bacteria, and oxygen-demanding material.
Wastewater treatment—sewage treatment—costs about $20 billion per year in the
United States, and the cost keeps rising, but it will continue to be big business.
Conventional wastewater treatment includes septic-tank disposal systems in rural areas
and centralized wastewater treatment plants in cities.
Septic Tank Disposal Systems. In many rural areas, no central sewage

systems or wastewater treatment facilities are available. As a result, individual
septic-tank disposal systems, not connected to sewer systems, continue to be an
important method of sewage disposal in rural areas as well as outlying areas of
cities. The tank is designed to separate solids from liquid, digest (biochemically
change), store organic matter through a period of detention, and allow the
clarified liquid to discharge into the drain field (absorption field) from a piping
system the treated sewage seeps into the surrounding soil. As the wastewater
moves through the soil, it is further treated by the natural processes of oxidation
and filtering. By the time the water reaches any freshwater supply, it should be
safe for other uses.
Wastewater Treatment Plants. In urban areas, wastewater is treated at specially

designed plants that accept municipal sewage from homes, businesses, and
industrial sites. The raw sewage is delivered to the plant through a network of
sewer pipes. Following treatment, the wastewater is discharged into the surface-
water environment (river, lake, or ocean) or, in some limited cases, used for
another purpose, such as crop irrigation. The main purpose of standard treatment
plants is to break down and reduce the BOD and kill bacteria with chlorine.
Wastewater treatment methods are usually divided into three categories: primary
treatment, secondary treatment, and advanced wastewater treatment.
Primary and secondary treatments are required.
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Primary Treatment. Incoming raw sewage enters the plant from the
municipal sewer line and passes through a series of screens to remove
large floating organic material. The sewage next enters the "grit chamber,"
where sand, small stones, and grit are removed and disposed of. It goes
to the primary sedimentation tank, where particulate matter settles out to
form sludge. Sometimes, chemicals are used to help the settling process.
The sludge is removed and transported to the "digester" for further
processing. Primary treatment removes approximately 30 to 40% of BOD
by volume from the wastewater, mainly in the form of suspended solids
and organic matter.
Secondary Treatment. There are several methods of secondary
treatment. The most common treatment is known as activated sludge
because it uses living organisms—mostly bacteria. In this procedure, the
wastewater from the primary sedimentation tank enters the aeration tank
where it is mixed with air (pumped in) and with some of the sludge from
the final sedimentation tank. The sludge contains aerobic bacteria that
consume organic material (BOD) in the waste. The wastewater then enters
the final sedimentation tank, where sludge settles out. Some of this
“activated sludge,” rich in bacteria, is recycled and mixed again in the
aeration tank with air and new, incoming wastewater acting as a starter.
The bacteria are used again and again. Most of the sludge from the final
sedimentation tank, however, is transported to the sludge digester.
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Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Advanced wastewater treatment is used

when it is particularly important to maintain good water quality. For example, if a
treatment plant discharges treated wastewater into a river and there is concern
that nutrients remaining after secondary treatment may damage the river
ecosystem (eutrophication), advanced treatment may be used to reduce the
nutrients.
Chlorine Treatment. Chlorine is very effective in killing the pathogens

responsible for outbreaks of serious waterborne diseases that have killed many
thousands of people. However, a recently discovered potential is that chlorine
treatment also produces minute quantities of chemical by-products, some of
which are potentially hazardous to people and other animals.
Land Application of Wastewater
Applying wastewater to the land arose from the fundamental belief that waste is simply
a resource out of place. Land application of untreated human waste was practiced for
hundreds if not thousands of years before the development of wastewater treatment
plants, which have sanitized the process by reducing BOD and using chlorination.
Wastewater and Wetland. Wastewater is being applied successfully to natural

and constructed wetlands at a variety of locations.33–35 Natural or human-made
wetlands can be effective in treating the following water-quality problems:
1. municipal wastewater from primary or secondary treatment plants (BOD,

pathogens, phosphorus, nitrate, suspended solids, metals)
2. stormwater runoff (metals, nitrate, BOD, pesticides, oils)
3. industrial wastewater (metals, acids, oils, solvents)
4. agricultural wastewater and runoff (BOD, nitrate, pesticides, suspended
solids)
5. mining waters (metals, acidic water, sulfates)
6. groundwater seeping from landfills (BOD, metals, oils, pesticides)
Water Reuse
Water reuse can be inadvertent, indirect, or direct. Inadvertent water reuse results
when water is withdrawn, treated, used, treated, and returned to the environment,
followed by further withdrawals and use. Inadvertent water reuse is common and a fact
of life for millions of people living along large rivers. Many sewage treatment plants are
located along rivers and discharge treated water into the rivers. Downstream, other
communities withdraw, treat, and consume the water. Several risks are associated with
inadvertent reuse:
1. Inadequate treatment facilities may deliver contaminated or poor-quality water
to downstream users.
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2. Because the fate of all disease-causing viruses during and after treatment is not
completely known, the health hazards of treated water remain uncertain.
3. Every year, new and potentially hazardous chemicals are introduced into the
environment. Harmful chemicals are often difficult to detect in the water, and if
they are ingested in low concentrations over many years, their effects on people
may be difficult to evaluate.
Indirect water reuse is a planned endeavor. For example, in the United States,
several thousand cubic meters of treated wastewater per day have been applied
to numerous sites to recharge groundwater and reuse them for agricultural and
municipal purposes.
Direct water reuse refers to the use of treated wastewater piped directly from a
treatment plant to the next user. In most cases, the water is used in industry, in
agri-cultural activity, or for watering golf courses, institutional grounds (such as
university campuses), and parks. Direct water reuse is growing rapidly and is the
norm for industrial processes in factories.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION LAWS AND POLICIES
Environmental law, the branch of law

dealing with conservation and use of
natural resources and control of
pollution, is very important as we
debate environmental issues and
make decisions about how best to

protect our environment. At its core,
then, a policy is a plan or statement of
intentions— either written or stated—
about a course of action or inaction
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intended to accomplish some end. onmental_policy.jpg
Power in Politics. According to some observers, politics is really the struggle for power
among competing interest groups that strive to shape public policy to suit their own
agendas. The political system, in this view, manages group conflict by:
1. establishing rules to ensure civil competition

2. encouraging compromises and balancing interests to the extent possible,
3. codifying compromises as public policy
4. enforcing laws and rules based on that policy.
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Creation of Policies
Laws are rules set by authority, society, or custom. Church laws, social morés,
administrative regulations, and various other codes of behavior can be considered laws
if some enforcement power backs them. Government laws are established by federal,
state, or local legislative bodies or administrative agencies. Environmental law
constitutes a unique body of official rules, decisions, and actions concerning
environmental quality, natural resources, and ecological sustainability. Each branch of
government plays a role in establishing the rules of law. Statute law consists of formal
documents or decrees enacted by the government's legislative branch declaring,
commanding, or prohibiting something. It represents the formal will of the legislature.
Case law is derived from court decisions in both civil and criminal cases. Administrative
law rises from executive orders, administrative rules and regulations, and enforcement
decisions in which statutes passed by the legislature are interpreted in specific
applications and individual cases because every country has different legislative and
legal processes.
International Environmental Principles
The United Nations first convened countries to address the global environment at the
1972 UN Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm. The Stockholm
conference highlighted the international aspects of emerging environmental challenges
and legitimized the environment as an area for international cooperation.
Since the 1972 Stockholm Conference, the world has met regularly in a series of major
summits aimed at shifting the world generally toward a path of sustainability. The most
important by far has been the 1992 UN Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), also known as the Rio "Earth Summit”. Virtually every world
leader attended the Earth Summit, where they agreed to three major treaties –
addressing climate change, biological diversity and desertification.
At both Stockholm in 1972 and at Rio in 1992, the countries adopted a set of basic
principles. Some of these principles are emerging as customary law, helping to resolve
environmental disputes and guide negotiations of the various environmental treaties.
Global Environmental Agreements
Since the 1972 Stockholm Conference, countries have embarked on an ambitious

schedule of international environmental treaty negotiations. Today, these treaties form
the core of international environmental law.
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They can be grouped into treaties aimed at: (1) protecting the global atmosphere,
including preventing climate change and ozone depletion; (2) conserving wildlife and
biological diversity; (3) managing the oceans and marine environment; and (4) regulating
global movement of chemicals, wastes and other hazardous substances.
Representative Global Number of Opened for Entered

Environmental Agreements State Signature into Force
Parties
Global Atmosphere
Montreal Protocol 197 1985 1988
UN Framework Convention on Climate 195 1992 1994
Change
Kyoto Protocol 192 1997 2005
Paris Agreement 166 2015 2016
Wildlife and Biodiversity
Convention on Biological Diversity 193 1992 1993
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety 166 2000 2003
Convention on International Trade in 178 1973 1987
Endangered Species (CITES)
Convention on Migratory Species 120 1979 1983
Convention to Combat Desertification 195 1994 1996
Ramsar Wetlands Convention 168 1971 1975
UNESCO World Heritage Convention 190 1972 1975
Oceans
Law of the Sea Convention 166 1982 1994
Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement 88 1995 2001
Chemicals
Basel Convention on Hazardous Wastes 181 1989 1992
Stockholm Convention on POPs 179 2001 2004
Rotterdam Convention on PIC 154 1998 2004
Minimata Convention on Mercury 128 2013
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Addressing Climate Change

At least since the 1980s,
scientists have warned that
increasing concentrations of
carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases would
warm the earth's atmosphere
and change our climate.
Today, climate change is the
most serious environmental
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challenge of our time, and we
are already seeing its impacts:
increased global temperatures; melting glaciers; reduced Arctic sea ice; increased tidal
and storm surges; and increased heat waves and droughts.
Avoiding the most dangerous impacts from climate change has been a major focus of
international environment law since the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (UNFCCC), which recognized climate change as "a common
concern of humankind" and set out a framework for global action to avoid harmful
impacts. The Convention set an informal goal to reduce emission levels of greenhouse
gases to 1990 levels by the year 2000, but it did not impose any binding targets or
timetables on any country.
Thirty- eight industrialized countries subsequently agreed in the 1997 Kyoto

Protocol to reduce their overall emissions to approximately 5 percent below 1990 levels
by the year 2012. Another agreement in the form of the Paris Agreement, which sits
within the framework established by the 1992 UNFCCC, significantly advanced the
world’s effort to address climate change. For the first time, all countries, including the
two largest emitters (China and the United States), pledged to take serious—if not
binding— commitments.
Reversing Ozone Depletion
Beginning in the late 1970s scientists warned that certain widely used chemicals could
be depleting the earth’s protective stratospheric ozone layer. In response, countries first
negotiated the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and
two years later the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer.
The Montreal Protocol has subsequently been revised or amended every two or three
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years, resulting in a comprehensive phase out of most chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), and

other ozone depleting substances.
Nearly every country in the world has joined the Montreal Protocol and the use of ozone-
depleting substances has plummeted, And the ozone layer is slowly recovering.
Recently, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol have extended it to phase out certain
related chemicals that contribute to climate change.
Conserving Nature
The planet is facing a sixth great wave of extinctions and a general decline in wildlife
and natural habitats. The leading global treaties for conserving nature are the
Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention on International Trade in
Endangered species (CITES) and the Convention on Migratory Species. The 1992
Biodiversity Convention has the general goal of conserving the planet's biological
diversity. The Convention sets an international framework to support domestic
conservation efforts and includes binding protocols on managing genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) and ensuring that local communities share the benefits from
biodiversity conservation. CITES establishes binding controls on international trade in
parts of rare species of animals and plants. For example, CITES prohibits all commercial
trade in elephant ivory, tiger pelts, rhinoceros horns, and thousands of other plants and
animals. The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) provides a framework for
countries to protect the entire life cycle of threatened migratory species. The CMS
includes separate annexes tailored to the needs of specific animals or groups of animals
(for example migratory bats). Other nature conservation treaties protect internationally
important wetlands, natural heritage sites, and certain species such as whales, sea
turtles or migratory birds.
Protecting The Marine Environment
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea sets forth rules for managing the oceans,
including marine conservation. Under the regime, coastal states are responsible for
protecting the marine environment within 200 miles of their coasts, and flag states (i.e.,
the countries that license a particular vessel) are responsible for controlling their ship’s
activities in the high seas beyond 200 miles. More specific treaties limit marine pollution
from ships and regulate fishing for highly mobile fish species that straddle territorial
waters and the high seas.
Regulating Chemicals and Wastes
The global management of chemicals is organized around a non-binding Strategic

Agreement for Integrated Chemicals Management and four global treaties that regulate
hazardous chemicals and wastes. The Rotterdam Prior Informed Consent
Convention requires that chemical exporters ensure that receiving countries have given
their prior, informed consent. Importing governments can then manage the
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environmental and public health risks inherent to hazardous chemicals. The Basel
Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal imposes similar consent requirements for shipments of hazardous
wastes and requires the environmentally sound management of such wastes.
The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants prohibits or

significantly restricts the production and use of some of the world's most environmentally
harmful chemicals, including dioxins, PCBs, and DDT. More recently, the Minimata
Mercury Convention has curbed the multiple pathways of global mercury pollution.
International environmental laws have successfully addressed many serious issues.

Many harmful chemicals are now controlled, the ozone layer is recovering, and
populations of important wildlife species, including whales and sea turtles, are increasing
because of international environmental agreements.
Philippine Environmental Laws and Regulation
Philippine Environmental Laws are simply the collection of laws, regulations, principles,
policies, directives, and agreements enforced by the Philippines’ government and the
environmentally related bodies to govern and regulate the human treatment of the
environment. Philippine environmental laws concern not only man’s physical
environment but his social and economic wellbeing as well. Below are some of the
Philippine Environmental Laws:
A. PD 1586 - Environmental Impact Statement System of 1978

a process involving predicting and evaluating the likely impacts of a project on the
environment during construction, commissioning, operation and abandonment. Section
4 of PD 1586 provides that no person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or
operate any such declared environmentally critical project (ECP) or environmentally
critical environmentally critical (ECA) without first securing an Environmental
Compliance Certificate (ECC). The process assures implementation of environment-
friendly projects.
B. Republic Act 6969 - Toxic Substances, Hazardous And Nuclear Waste Control
Act of 1990
The law aims to regulate restrict or prohibit the importation, manufacture, processing,
sale, distribution, use and disposal of chemical substances and mixtures the present
unreasonable risk to human health. It likewise prohibits the entry, even in transit, of
hazardous and nuclear wastes and their disposal into the Philippine territorial limits for
whatever purpose; and to provide advancement and facilitate research and studies on
toxic chemicals.
C. Republic Act 8749 - Philippine Clean Air Act of 1999

The law aims to achieve and maintain clean air that meets the National Air Quality
guideline values for criteria pollutants, throughout the Philippines, while minimizing the
possible associated impacts to the economy.
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The provisions of this Act extend to the Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS), that
significantly deplete or otherwise modify the ozone layer, and to Persistent Organic
Pollutants (POPs), substances persisting in the environment, bioaccumulating, and
resisting photolytic, chemical and biological degradation and other toxic or poisonous
substances potentially damaging human and animal health and the ecosystem.
D. Republic Act 9003 - Ecological Solid Waste Management Act of 2000

In partnership with stakeholders, the law aims to adopt a systematic, comprehensive
and ecological solid waste management program that shall ensure the protection of
public health and environment. The law ensures proper segregation, collection, storage,
treatment and disposal of solid waste through the formulation and adaptation of best
eco-waste products.
E. Republic Act 9275 - Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004

The law aims to protect the country's water bodies from pollution from land-based
sources (industries and commercial establishments, agriculture and
community/household activities). It provides for comprehensive and integrated strategy
to prevent and minimize pollution through a multi-sectoral and participatory approach
involving all the stakeholders.
F. Republic Act 9729 - The Philippine Climate Change Act of 2009

Anchored on the constitutional provision which states that “it is the policy of the State to
afford full protection and the advancement of the right of the people to a balanced and
healthful ecology in accord with the rhythm and harmony of nature.” It aims to
mainstream climate change into government policy formulations, establishes the
framework strategy and program on climate change and creates the Climate Change
Commission. The law places the cities at the forefront of sustainable urban
development and climate change initiatives.
SELF-HELP
Earthscan, USA
Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global

Concern. 11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.
Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8th
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
LET’S CHECK
Activity No. 6. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the
study of geology and earth resource, water pollution and treatment, and environmental
policy. Let us try to check your understanding of these terms and concepts. In space
provided, write your answers to each of the following questions.
______________________1. The collective term encompassing aspects of the law

that provide protection to the environment.
______________________2. Refers to the process that controls the structure and
properties of the Earth’s crust and its evolution through
time.
______________________3. An agent that cause harm or damage to humans,
property, or the environment.
______________________4. It refers to the probability that exposure to a hazard will
lead to a negative consequence.
______________________5. The process of breaking down of rocks, soil, and
minerals as well wood and artificial materials through
contact with the Earth’s atmosphere, water, and biological
organisms.
______________________6. A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or
compound with a definite chemical composition and a
regular internal crystal structure.
______________________7. Refers to a solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more
minerals.
______________________8. The long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation.
______________________9. Refers to a minute particles and liquid droplets.
______________________10. The general term for gases that are especially effective
at capturing the long-wavelength energy from the earth’s
surface.
LET’S ANALYZE
Activity No. 6. Getting acquainted with the essential terms essential terms and
concepts of geology and earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy.
Now, I will require you to explain thoroughly your answers.
1. Identify and differentiate the different layers of the atmosphere and its unique
features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. What is the difference between climate and weather?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
3. How does greenhouse effect become harmful to the earth?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. How is climate change affecting the planet right now?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. What is air pollution? Discuss comprehensively the sources of pollution and its
corresponding categories.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
6. What is water pollution? How does water resource become polluted?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
7. What are the challenges of implementing environmental laws?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
IN A NUTSHELL
Activity No. 6. Based from the definition of the most essential terms and concepts
of the atmosphere, air and water pollution and environmental laws and the learning
exercises that you have done, please feel free to write your arguments or lessons
learned below.
1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
4. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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Phone No.: (082)300-5456/305-0647 Local 118
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
5. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
Q&A LIST
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
KEYWORDS INDEX
Climate Change Point Sources Estuary
Environmental Law Non-Point Sources Weather
Wastewater Treatment Residence Time Climate
Sewage Criteria Pollutant Atmosphere
103 | P a g e

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College of Arts and Sciences Education

2nd Floor, DPT Building

THE UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Course/Subject: GE 15: Environmental Science

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY, NOT FOR

Prepared by: Hazel G. Carreon, PhD

COURSE OUTLINE: GE 15 – ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

CC’s Voice: Hello! Welcome to this course GE 15-Environmental Science. This

CO: Studying environmental studies requires a deeper understanding of

You expect to evaluate the environment's current conditions and

WEEK 1-3 Unit Learning Outcomes (ULOa):

1. Environment - it is a place where different things are such as a wet

2. Science defines the systematized body of knowledge that builds and

3. Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary academic field in

4. Ecology is a branch of biology concerning interactions among

5. Chemistry. The study of matter, its properties, how and why

6. Biodiversity is a group of different individual life that inhibit the plant

6.1. In the terrestrial biodiversity is composed of animals on land

7. Habitat is considered an environment is naturally occurring to

8. Sustainability. The ability of a system to exist continually at a cost, in a

9. Ethics is a branch of philosophy that could somehow be

10. For the environmental Ethics is a discipline in philosophy that studies

11. The ecosystem is a community comprised of living organisms in

13. A species is a basic unit of classifying and identifying the taxonomic

15. Food Web. The natural interconnection of food chains and a

To ensure a sustainable future for ourselves and future generations, we

Environment. It is defined as the circumstances surrounding an organism

Environmental Science it is the systematic study of our environment and

Kinds of knowledge contribute to solution in Environmental Science

Clean Energy Future

1. Ecology. How foes energy production affects populations?

Environmentalism encompasses environmental health and protection and depicted

Environmental Justice Movement (1980) is an international movement that aims to

Environmentalism is constantly developing and dealing with new environmental

It studies the ethical basis of environment or discussion of the ethical basis

These philosophical questions are not merely academic or historical. In

Environmental Ethics and Principle:

MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE

Thermodynamics and Energy Transfers

The study of thermodynamics deals with how energy is transferred in natural

Atoms and molecules cycle endlessly through organisms and their

The second law of thermodynamics states that, with each successive

degraded to kinetic energy and heat, dissipating, eventually, to space. The

While cellular and molecular biologists study life processes at the

Energy Flow through Ecosystems

Food Chains and Food Web

Matter and energy are processed through the trophic levels of an

Guzman, R.S., 2018. Environmental Science: Towards a Sustainable Earth. Vibal

__________2. An interdisciplinary science integrating natural sciences, social

__________3. The circumstances or conditions that surrounds anorganisms or

__________4. It is a movement created to protect animals and places from

__________5. It is an international movement that aims to encourage social,

__________6. Refers to systems that receive inputs from surroundings and

__________8. It consists of all the members of a species living in each area at

__________9. It is an inefficient energy chain.

__________10. It is a feeding relationship usually weave numerous organisms into