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 Contents

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 1 ALCHEMY

CHAPTER 2 ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVILIZATIONS

CHAPTER 3 ASTROLOGY

CHAPTER 4 CELTIC SYMBOLS

CHAPTER 5 CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER 6 DIGITAL

CHAPTER 7 CURRENCY

CHAPTER 8 IDEOGRAMS

CHAPTER 9 LANGUAGE

CHAPTER 10 MANUFACTURING

CHAPTER 11 MEDICAL

CHAPTER 12 MILITARY

CHAPTER 13 MUSIC

CHAPTER 14 MYTHOLOGY

CHAPTER 15 POPULAR GESTURES

CHAPTER 16 RELIGION

CHAPTER 17 SEX AND GENDER

CHAPTER 18 SIGILS AND PAGANISM

CHAPTER 19 TRANSPORTATION

CHAPTER 20 WRITING AND PUNCTUATION

PHOTO CREDITS
INDEX

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 INTRODUCTION

Thumbs up sign.

D o you recognize this symbol? Of course, it’s the “thumbs up” sign. In
the Western world, this is a symbol for something positive. It may mean
“OK,” “Yes,” or “I will.” It might even mean “Good.” In the Middle East,
however, it is considered an extremely rude “up yours” gesture. Every day
of our lives, signs and symbols give us information that we can instantly
file away or put to immediate use. We take for granted these things that we
see every day, but imagine what life would be like without them. The world
would be covered in billboards that spelled out every little thing we need to
do on a daily basis. Imagine traffic without directional, guiding, or even
STOP and GO lights?
Symbols that we encounter every day include traffic signs, business
logos, infographics, directions, and locations. Clocks are symbols that we
use to mark the passage of time, as are calendars. Our cars tell us how fast
we are going, how much gas we have left, and even whether our seat belts
are buckled. At the store, aisle contents are marked, prices are displayed,
and receipts show us what we’ve purchased. We decorate our bodies with
jewelry, tattoos, and piercings—all of which have meaning for the wearer.
Tattoos are often chosen for their “cool” factor, without the wearer having
any idea what the symbol means. Jewelry is not only symbolic on its own
(e.g. wedding rings), but how it’s worn may affect the wearer’s purpose,
too. There are many different ways to represent things visually, but let’s
start with some sign and symbol definitions.
Amulet
An amulet is an ornament or small piece of jewelry thought to give
protection against evil, danger, or disease. Examples of amulets include this
gorgeous Egyptian scarab. By wearing or carrying an amulet, individuals
can protect themselves, with physical barriers against evil or misfortune. If
an individual fails to have the amulet on their person, misery can befall
them at any time.

Egyptian scarab amulet.

Emblem
An embelm is a heraldic device or symbolic object used as a distinctive
badge of a nation, organization, or family. Emblems are heraldic in nature,
meaning they contain images whose individual parts have meaning outside
of their use in the emblem. For example, in the case of these motorcycle
emblems, wheels and pistons are representative of motorized vehicles. Even
standing by themselves the objects have meaning. Emblems are specific to
the group they represent—heraldic emblems represent a particular family or
“house,” and sometimes a particular individual. Numerous heraldic shields
include the image of a lion, the meaning of which changes depending on
what color it is, which direction it’s facing, and if it’s standing up or lying
down. In this case, the lion is standing on one rear leg with the other three
in the air and its tail up. It is described as “a black lion rampant.”
Motorcycle emblems.
A black lion rampant heraldic shield emblem.
Glyph
A glyph is a hieroglyphic symbol or character, a pictograph. A glyph is
typically a vector or line drawing that shows a picture that has meaning
other than what it directly represents. These glyphs, for example, are
actually just lines and triangles, but here they are representing different
metaphysical states by combining the shapes into symbols that have been
adopted and recognized by the group or groups that utilize them most.
Glyphs are frequently abstract, and their meaning must be determined by
research or by gaining access to the knowledge of the group that determined
them. Alchemy, religion, and business make frequent use of glyphs; whole
books have been written on the symbols of alchemy alone. Current research
indicates that there are nearly 5,000 known glyphs for alchemy.
Lines and triangles form these glyphs that represent metaphysical states.
Icon
There are several definitions for icon, from a religious painting to an image
on a computer. An icon is a symbol whose form directly reflects the thing it
signifies. These icons below clearly indicate “telephone,” that is, they
actually look like telephones. Business logos make frequent use of icons,
which are combined with particular colors and letter styles to make a logo
representative of that business alone. Almost all logos are copyrighted or
trademarked by the business that owns them. That is one of the hallmarks of
an effective logo.

Telephone icons.
Ideogram (or Ideograph)
An ideogram, also called an ideograph, is a written character symbolizing
the idea of a thing without indicating the sounds used to say it. Examples
include numerals and Chinese characters. The word ideograph comes from
the Greek idea + graph, which is an instrument used for writing. Numerals
are likely the most commonly used ideograms in the world. Dozens of
languages utilize the Arabic numeral system (0, 1, 2, 3…), even if the actual
word for each numeral is different in that language: uno (Spanish), ein
(German), un (French), iti (Japanese). This sign has no words; through its
use of symbols, it tells us that no swimwear is allowed on the premises. The
symbol shown above is not dependent on the individual understanding of a
particular language (unlike a sign that reads “No Swimwear Allowed” in
English), so individuals can still understand it, no matter which language
they speak. The swimwear is an easily recognized icon, especially in a
setting where such attire is common.

This ideogram conveys “No Swimwear Allowed” without using words.

Insignia
An insignia is a badge or distinguishing mark of military rank, office, or
membership of an organization; it’s an official emblem. So, insignia
(singular or plural) are associated with military or organizational rank
and/or membership in such a group. Above is an example of the hundreds
of ranks, groups, squads, and mission insignia that the US military uses.
We’ll look further at military insignia in chapter 12, Military. Each military
branch has its own insignia, which may differ in color, directionality, or
execution. In addition to rank insignia, military honors and medals are
typically worn on the uniform. Rather than wearing the full-sized medal,
however, the awards are reduced in size to “bar” insignia (a symbol of the
actual medal), which are easier to stack and wear on a daily basis. For
example, the Purple Heart—given when a soldier is injured in combat—is
shown here in both full-size and bar insignia versions.

US Army insignia.
At the top is the Purple Heart as a bar insignia; the bottom is a full-size Purple Heart insignia.
Pictogram (or Pictograph)
A pictogram, or pictograph, is a pictorial symbol for a word or phrase.
Pictograms comprise some of the earliest forms of written language.
Egyptian hieroglyphics have been found that date back to 3000 BCE. Note
that the Egyptian writings are referred to as “hieroglyphics”; these writings
are glyphs in that each symbol represents a word or concept that is depicted
by the glyph. The words “glyph” and “pictogram” are sometimes used
interchangeably. The two white symbols in this sample to the left represent
Shesat (left), goddess of writing and measurement, and Horus (right), god
of the sky. In many pictographic languages, symbols can be combined to
make different words or ideas. In this example from Japanese calligraphy,
the two symbols for “beginning” (gan) and “morning” (tan) combine to
form the Japanese word “Happy New Year.” Although glyphs are
pictograms, but pictograms are not necessarily glyphs. The I Ching, a
Chinese book of divination associated with Confucianism, uses eight
“trigrams” (characters made up of three lines) and sixty-four hexagrams
(characters made up of six lines). Below shows a set of eight hexagrams,
which are glyphs and pictograms at the same time.
Egyptian hieroglyphics for the goddess Shesat (left) and god Horus (right).

“Happy New Year” in Japanese.

A set of I Ching hexagrams.
Sigil
A sigil is an inscribed or painted symbol considered to have magical
powers. Sigils are typically line drawings that adorn doorways, objects, or
locations, and are used to protect these things from evil intent. Many are
specific to a particular demon or other magical creature. The figure shown
above is known as the Horns of Asmodeus. Asmodeus is a king of the
demons in Judeo and Islamic mythology, and painting this symbol on a
doorway was believed to prevent entry by the demon into the household.
When tattooed on a person’s torso, the symbol provides protection against
possession by Asmodeus. In fact, sigils have become very popular in
modern times as tattoos or decorative artwork. Talented artists sometimes
take commissions to create unique sigils for a client. Such sigils often
provide protection from modern-day problems. Sigils aren’t always simple
line drawings; many are complicated, with multiple layers of circles,
pentagrams, and magical words or symbols. The picture above shows the
sigil of the Archangel Michael. In this case, the sigil draws down the
power of Michael to protect the bearer from harm. This is a sigil of
attraction, rather than repulsion.
Archangel Michael sigil.

Horns of Asmodeus.
Sign
A sign is a gesture, action, or object used to convey information or
instructions. “Sign” is another word that has several different definitions,
but in this book we will use the above definition. Signs convey information
in thousands of ways. Some may be purely visual, like this universal STOP
sign, usually used over the top of an icon (e.g. a burning cigarette) to
indicate that the object crossed out is not allowed in the area of the sign, or
a red octagon, universal STOP sign used to control traffic or forbid ingress
into a particular area. The sign may or may not have the word “stop” on it;
frequently, the word for “stop” will be imprinted in the language of the
local residents. With or without writing, the red octagon is recognizable.
Without the words “Come in” on the OPEN sign, we would not be able to
understand what the sign was telling us. In fact, since the sign is red, we
might be led to think that the store was closed. Thousands of signs bombard
us every day with information that is critical, informative, or commercial.
We cannot go anywhere without seeing signs—to the degree that many
people get nervous or anxious when there is no sign telling them where to
go or what to do.

Different types of signs.

Symbol
A symbol is a mark or character used as a conventional representation of an
object, function, or process (e.g. the letter or letters standing for a chemical
element). This definition is at the heart of what this book is about.
Everything previously defined here is a symbol, in addition to whatever else
it may be. Letters are symbols for sounds, pictograms are symbols for
words or concepts, and icons are symbols that frequently stand for complex
objects or ideas. For example, a bluebird with its beak open denotes the
concept of “tweet,” which is used as the logo for Twitter. As we delve
further into the book, we’ll fully explore the concept of symbols and what
they represent.

The chemical symbol for magnesium.

Talisman
A talisman is an object, typically an inscribed ring or stone, which is
thought to have magic powers and to bring good luck. The word “talisman”
has its roots in the Greek word telesma (a religious rite), and thereby gets its
power from an act or “rite” performed by the creator of the talisman. While
amulets are inherently magical (often due to some property of the substance
from which they are made), talismans must be imbued or “charged” with
their protective abilities, such as this talisman from Turkey that is used
against the evil eye. Another famous talisman is the Seal of Solomon signet
ring that it is commonly represented with a pentagram or hexagram (also
known as the Star of David when a hexagram). Legend states that the ring
gave King Solomon the power to speak to animals.

A Turkish talisman to ward against the “evil eye.”

 Now that we’ve established some idea of what symbols are, let’s take a
look at different groups of them according to their use. There are hundreds
of thousands of symbols in use all around the world and we could never
depict all of them in a single book. What we’ve tried to do here is select a
wide variety of different types of symbols and their uses.
This book examines over 1,001 symbols from around the world and
discusses their meaning and history. Symbols are grouped by type (e.g.
religious, mythological, cultural, etc.) to enable the reader to more easily
find symbols in the same usage arena. An index at the back of the book lists
symbols alphabetically, with their accompanying page numbers. We hope
you enjoy this survey of world symbols, find it useful, and perhaps discover
something you didn’t know that becomes meaningful for you.

The Seal of Solomon hexagram.

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 CHAPTER

1
Alchemy

A lchemy was an ancient practice that predated chemistry as we know it.

Before the periodic table organized known elements by their atomic weight,
alchemy offered a structure to practitioners who were trying to explain the
natural world. Specifically, alchemy concerned the transformation (or
transmutation) of matter from one thing to another. This is not simply
altering the state of matter—from solid to liquid, for example—but in fact
changing the nature of the material itself. Of gravest concern was the
attempt to change base metals such as lead or tin into gold. Alchemists
believed that combining the correct material with the proper processes and
symbols would physically change a humble substance into the most
valuable one. The symbols used in alchemy were numerous and complex, in
no small part because alchemists discovered over the centuries that
transmutation was not a simple task. Symbols became more and more
complex as alchemists tried to cram as many magical glyphs and
pictograms into a single, all-powerful character that could perform the
impossible task they sought.

Alchemical symbol depicting metals, directions, elements, and primes.

Alchemical icons.
Alchemy Symbols
The symbols below are some of the simplest of alchemical icons. The
elements of fire, water, air, and Earth are used in a number of pictoral
systems, including astrology, Wicca, herbalism, and the occult. The
symbols for creation, life, death, and terra represent the transition from
creative spark to the return to dust (Earth).
The practice of combining shapes with icons came to be called sacred
geometry, and the depiction of these sacred shapes is an art in itself.
Above, we see a generic alchemical symbol. Within this circle are the seven
planetary metals, the cardinal directions, the four basic elements, the three
primes (mind, body, spirit), and the pentagram. The planetary metals and
the cardinal directions are spelled out in this example, but they each had
their own separate icon in actual practice.

Silver

Gold
Lead

Tin

Iron
Mercury

Copper
Planetary Metals
The seven planetary metals include the following:
Silver is called argentum in Latin, thus the chemical abbreviation for
silver on the periodic table is Ag. The alchemical symbol is the moon,
which was representative of “shine” or “shining.” The moon was also the
ruling planet of Cancer the Crab. We get the word “Monday” from moon.
Gold is aurum in Latin, so the chemical abbreviation for gold is Au. The
alchemical symbol is the sun, the mightiest of celestial bodies and the most
desired of metals. Many icons and talismans were made of gold for the
power that the metal was presumed to have. The sun also ruled the sign of
Leo the Lion, king of the beasts.
Lead is plumbum in Latin, and the chemical abbreviation is Pb. The
alchemical symbol for lead is the icon for the planet Saturn, from which we
get the word “Saturday.” Saturn was a Titan in Roman mythology and the
god of plenty, renewal, and liberation. The Saturnalia in December gave its
traditions of feasting, gift giving, and revelry to the celebration of
Christmas.
Tin is stannum in Latin, and the chemical abbreviation for tin is Sn. The
alchemical symbol for tin is the icon for the planet Jupiter. Jupiter was the
Roman “father god,” creator of all life. Jupiter’s “thunderbolt” became
associated with the planet Jupiter, the largest planet in the solar system.
Iron is ferrum in Latin, and the chemical abbreviation for iron is Fe. The
alchemical symbol for iron is the icon for the planet Mars. Mars was the
Roman god of war, and his icon combines a shield and a lance—the
weapons of war. When humans learned to separate iron from its compounds
in nature, they ushered in the Iron Age (about 1200 BCE). Iron is one of
only three naturally occurring magnetic elements.
Mercury is hydrargyrum (“water silver”) in Greek, and the chemical
abbreviation for mercury is Hg. The alchemical symbol for mercury is the
icon for the planet Mercury. In Roman mythology, Mercury was the
messenger of the gods and was noted for his swift speed. He is often
depicted as wearing winged sandals. Mercury in its liquid form is highly
poisonous to living things; the metal glides in beads over surfaces, and is
sometimes referred to as “quicksilver.”
 Copper is known as cuprum in Latin, and the chemical abbreviation for
copper is Cu. Cuprum means “from Cyprus,” an island famous for its
copper mines since prehistoric times. In the Middle East, copper was used
for jewelry, tools, and armory since about 9000 BCE. Copper is commonly
found in its pure state (a reddish/orange metal) in nature, but its malleability
(or “softness”) made it a poor choice for weaponry. However, when tin was
added to copper, bronze was produced, which was superior in strength to
either element. The alchemical symbol for copper is the icon for Venus.

An astrological chart with the zodiac signs.

Alchemy shared much of its mysticism with astrology, a highly

developed “science” of ancient times which was practiced only by scholars
and priests of the art. Much more of this interconnectedness will be
explored in chapter 3, Astrology. The major alchemical processes (by which
matter was transmuted into other forms and substances) were each assigned
a symbol of the zodiac to represent the process in sacred geometry.
Completion of all of the processes was termed the Magnum Opus (“Great
Work”). The Magnum Opus required working with the materia prima (“first
elements”), such as hydrogen, oxygen, and sulphur. The result of the
Magnum Opus was ultimate purification; that is, the refining of the base or
coarse into perfection.
Most alchemists used many more elements than the primary elements,
assigning each one its own symbol and imbuing it with magical properties
that were unique to it.

The Philosopher's Stone symbolized as the Squared Circle.

The end game of alchemy, of course, was the changing of lead (or other
base metals) into gold. It was commonly believed that the Magnum Opus
would produce a product referred to as the Philosopher’s Stone. It was this
ultimate magical product that would then have the power to produce gold
from any element. The Philosopher’s Stone was usually portrayed as the
Squared Circle: a circle within a square, within a triangle, within a larger
circle. This symbol was also referred to as the Geometric Impossibility
(which secretly pointed to alchemy’s failure to achieve its mission!). This
next section explains the meaning of the four primary elements.

• Fire symbol: Triangle (stylized shape of a flame).

• Air symbol: Triangle with bar (shows that fire consumes air).
• Water symbol: Inverted triangle (stylized shape of pouring water).

• Earth symbol: Inverted triangle with bar (shows that Earth consumes
water).

The nine planets (plus the sun and moon) each have a symbol; the seven
classical planets (the sun, moon, and the five planets visible with the naked
eye, which include Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Mercury, and Venus) also have
alchemical metals associated with them. On the next pages are more
alchemical symbols.

The alchemical symbols of the four primary elements.

The alchemical symbols of the the nine planets (along with the sun and moon) with their
corresponding alchemical metals.
Other Alchemical Symbols
Here is a list of other common alchemy symbols.

Alembic: distilling apparatus with a flask and long beak

Alkali: sodium carbonate

Alkali II: ammonia

Alum: potassium sulfate

Amalgam: a mixture or blend, especially a mercury alloy

Ammoniac: ammonium nitrate

Antimony: antimony sulfide

Aqua Fortis: nitric acid, a solvent for everything except gold

Aqua Reglia: concentrated nitric + hydrochloric acid; dissolves everything

Aqua Regia II: secondary concentration of acids; solvent

Aqua Vitae: “water of life”; ethanol, obtained by distilling wine

Aqua Vitae II: a different alcohol form, probably isopropyl

Arsenic: arsenic trioxide

Ashes: byproduct of burning carbon or other substances

Auripigment: arsenic sulfide (As2S3); or “orpiment”

Bath of Mary: or bain-marie; a water bath; a double boiler

Bath of Vapors: a steam bath

Bismuth: metallic element

Black Sulfur: brimstone; sulfur dioxide (the “stinky” sulfur)

Borax: sodium borate or sodium tetraborate

Borax II: boric acid; hydrogen tetraborate

Borax III: boron oxide

Brick: block made of earthen clay, including sand, soil, and lime
Caduceus: process that combines two opposite things (e.g. oil/water)

Calx: powdery residue from heating of ores and minerals

Caput Mortuum: solid residue resulting from dry distillation (esp. Fe2O3)

Cerusse: antimony trioxide; white antimony

Cinnabar: mercury sulfide (cinnabar is a red mineral containing HgS)

Copper (pure ore): elemental copper

Copper Antimoniate: copper antimony sulfide (CAS)

Crocus of Copper: copper oxide; cuprous oxide

Crocus of Copper II: copper sulfate; Cyprian vitriol; blue vitriol

Crocus of Iron: iron oxide (iron (III) oxide); ferric oxide

Crucible: vessel or container for melting metals

Crucible II: different shape and/or material makeup of crucible

Crucible III: different shape and/or material makeup of crucible

Crucible IV: different shape and/or material makeup of crucible

Day-Night: a full day and night (i.e. twenty-four hours)

Dissolve: breakdown a solid using water

Dissolve II: breakdown a solid using alcohol or acetone

Distill: to vaporize a material and collect the liquid condensate

Gum: resins from various plants; sticky

Gold II: gold sulfate; rare and unstable compound of gold

Half Dram: 1/16 of an ounce (a dram = 1/8 ounce); also 30 grains

Half Ounce: 240 grains (grain = 0.065 grams)

Horse dung

Hour: a time period made up of sixty minutes

Iron (pure ore): elemental iron

Iron II: iron oxide

Iron-copper: an alloy of iron and copper; uncommon

Lead: pure elemental ore

Magnet: process using application of magnetism to material and products

Marcasite: iron disulfide (green vitriol); also arsenic sulfides

Month: thirty days (average); length varied on Gregorian calendar

Night: overnight (about twelve hours); time allowed for a process to work

Oil: any viscous flammable liquid

Philosopher’s Sulfur: sulfur oxides other than sulfur dioxide

Potassium: soft alkali metal element

Powder: finely ground particles of a solid substance

Powdered Brick: reduction of brick block by grinding to finest particles

Precipitate: a solid substance resulting from dissolution

Purify: remove contaminants from a material by chemical processes

Putrefaction: decay and breakdown of organic materials

Quicklime: calcium oxide

Quintessence: the ultimate state of perfection

Realgar: arsenic sulfide (As4S4); or “ruby arsenic”

Realgar II: arsenic oxide

Regulus: the pure ore of a metallic element, especially antimony

Regulus II

Regulus III

Regulus IV

Regulus of Antimony: partially purified elemental antimony

Regulus of Antimony II: pure antimony

Regulus of Iron: iron + antimony = metallic antimony

Retort: vessel for distillation; precursor to the alembic

Rock Salt: sodium chloride; table salt

Rock Salt II: sodium oxide

Salt: the result of combining an acid with a base

Saltpeter: potassium nitrate; used in gunpowder

Salt of Antimony: antimony acetate

Salt of Copper Antimoniate: CAS + acetate

Scepter of Jove: end product of distillation of liquid mercury

Silver II: silver nitrate

Soap: sodium hydroxide + oils or fats

Spirit: any liquid or essence obtained by distillation

Starred Trident: product derived from distillation of material in saline

Stratum Super Stratum: layering one material upon another

Stratum Super Stratum II: layered residue, usually due to filtration

Sublimation: changing from solid to gas without liquid intermediary

Sublimate of Antimony: antimony trisulfide; the mineral stibnite

Sublimate of Copper: copper sulfate

Sublimated Mercury: mercury or mercuric chloride; crystalline mercury

Sublimated Mercury II: mercury sulfate

Sublimated Mercury III: mercury oxide

Sublimated Salt of Antimony: antimony oxide

Sublimated Salt of Copper: copper (II) sulfate

Sulfur: elemental sulfur, one of the Three Primes of Alchemy

Tartar: potassium carbonate

Tartar II: potassium tartrate

Tin: pure elemental ore

Tincture: solution derived from dissolving something with ethanol

Trident: product derived from dissolving material in saline (salt water)

Tutty: zinc oxide left as a byproduct from smelting zinc ore

Urine: usually from horses, unless otherwise specified

Verdigris: copper acetate; used as a dye

Vinegar: acetic acid; a component of aspirin

Vinegar II

Vinegar III

Vinegar of Antimony: antimony triacetate; unstable

Vitriol: sulfuric acid; “oil of vitriol”

Vitriol II: iron sulfate

Wax: beeswax (the only available wax before the eighteenth century)
ALCHEMY SYMBOLS AND PAGAN
PRACTICES
Modern alchemy still has practitioners, many of whom also work at darker
arts. Satanism is an occult art that glorifies the worship of Satan (or Lucifer,
the devil) as a spiritual being and the ultimate deity. Many satanic symbols
are either directly taken from alchemy (sacred geometry), pagan practices
such as witchcraft (the pentagram, inverted), or ancient religious symbols
(the Leviathan cross).

666
The number of The Beast. This is one of the signs of the Apocalypse in the
Book of Revelation (and yes, it’s Revelation, singular, not Revelations).

The number 666.

The Inverted Pentagram
The five-pointed star (upright) was at one time a symbol for the five
wounds of Christ, and so it came to be adopted as one of the symbols of
Christianity. It was also a sign used in witchcraft and Wicca (a “natural
practices” religion). The two lower points touched the Earth, showing the
flow of power and wisdom from the ground up through the practitioner. The
single point aimed at the heavens, demonstrating the continuing flow of
strength upward. By inverting the star, the single point now touched the
Earth, and consequently power flowed from the world through the
practitioner and into the ground, then subsequently into hell to benefit the
lord of the underworld.

Inverted pentagram.
Cross of Leviathan
The cross is a symbol for elemental sulfur (or brimstone), one of the Three
Primes in alchemy (the other two being mercury and salt), from which all
substances are made. The lower part of the symbol is the infinity sign, the
upper the double cross, representing balance between the masculine and the
feminine.

The cross of Leviathan.

Lucifer’s Sigil
This symbol is the mark of Lucifer the Fallen. The points are inverted,
showing Lucifer’s descent into hell.
Quincunx
A quincunx is a pattern of five objects at the corners and center of a square
or rectangle, like the points on the fifth side of dice. Arguably the most
important symbol of alchemy, it represents the actual transitory state of base
metals into gold. It also has spiritual meaning as a symbol for
enlightenment.

Lucifer's sigil.
The quincunx symbol.
Sigil of Baphomet
False accusations from the Vatican that the Knights Templar were
worshipping the deity Baphomet eventually led to the downfall of the order.
The symbol includes the inverted pentagram and the skull of a goat. The
goat has long been associated with Satan, but it may have been borrowed
from Druidism. Cernunnos, the Horned God, was part of the pantheon of
Celtic gods. He was god of fertility, life, animals, and the underworld. This
association made it easy for Baphomet to be co-opted by Satanists.

Sigil of Baphomet.
St. Peter’s Cross
This symbol is often (incorrectly) attributed to Satanism. In fact, it is a
Christian symbol. In the Bible, Peter does not believe that he is worthy of
being crucified in the same manner as Jesus Christ and asks that he be
crucified upside down as a sign of humility.

St. Peter’s Cross.

Alchemy Symbols Used for Other Purposes
The sheer number and complexity of alchemical-style symbols in use in the
past and the present makes it easy for people to get confused about a
symbol’s meaning. Here are some symbols and their doppelgangers.
On the right is the Leviathan cross, a religious symbol of eternal life. On
the lower right is the symbol for OREO™ cookies. There has been a long-
running debate over whether the cookie is using “secret symbols” in its
marketing.

Leviathan cross.
An OREO cookie with a Leviathan cross-looking stamp.
Eye of Ra
Although the Eye of Ra is often times confused with the Eye of Horus, it is
different. The Egyptians believed several goddesses were personifications
of the symbol, including Bastet, Hathor, Mut, and Sekhmet. The Eye of Ra
represented the sun and was associated with the destructive power of the
sun. The Egyptians also used the Eye of Ra to protect not only themselves
but buildings as well. It was also a symbol of royal authority.

The Eye of Ra.

Eye of Horus
This is sometimes referred to as The Left Eye (of Horus). This was an
extremely potent symbol in ancient Egypt; it represented the power of the
Pharaoh. In Egyptian mythology, Horus was god of the sky and was
frequently portrayed as a falcon or a falcon-headed man. His main purpose
was to guard the ruling house of Egypt. The Pharaoh was considered to be
the living embodiment of Horus on Earth, much in the way that Christ was
God made flesh. Ra was originally a sun god, and worshipped in his own
right. In Late Antiquity, the two gods were merged into Ra-Horakhty and
ruled all parts of the world and underworld. The god’s left eye represented
the moon, his right eye the sun.

The Eye of Horus.

All-Seeing Eye
A mystical symbol of protection the world over. Americans will be familiar
with this symbol from the back of the one-dollar bill. Just to add a bit more
confusion, the Eye of Horus is commonly depicted as the All-Seeing eye.

The All-Seeing Eye.

Evil Eye
There are hundreds of depictions of the evil eye, most of them not
associated with the pyramid, as is the case with the All-Seeing Eye. The
evil eye is believed to cause material harm to anyone whose gaze it falls
upon. Below is a traditional Turkish amulet for protection against the evil
eye.

A Turkish amulet to guard against the evil eye.

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 CHAPTER

2
Ancient and Modern Civilizations

T here is inherent difficulty in talking about symbols from ancient times.

It is rare to have written records that survive to the present, and oral
histories are often lost all together, or they are changed so much in being
passed down through the generations that the original meanings have been
lost, as seen below in these Futhark, Norse/Icelandic, and Viking runes (see
chapter 4, Celtic Symbols).
 In this chapter, we’ll look at a number of symbols from different ancient
civilizations as well as those used today. In some cases, the meanings of
various symbols have been agreed upon by a certain scientific group (such
as archeology, anthropology, humanities, and linguistics). In other cases, the
true meanings of the symbols may be a matter of intense debate among
these same groups (e.g. Celtic symbols).
In modern times, various religious, social, and cultural groups have
begun using for their own purposes symbols whose meanings are still being
debated (a number of neo-pagan groups have done this). As a result, the
symbols—and others like them—are spread into popular culture (like TV
shows, books, music, and fashion). Thousands of artists have been inspired
to create their own symbols and often assign meaning to them as well.
Early Futhark, Norse/Icelandic, and Viking symbols used in runes.
Egyptian Hieroglyphics
Many early civilizations utilized symbols that stood in for an entire
alphabet. Most of us are familiar with Egyptian hieroglyphics; those
symbols stood for words and concepts (such as immortality) rather than
representing individual letters. Hieroglyphics also stood for consonants, and
were separated by groups of single, double, and triple consonants. Over the
centuries, the glyphs were assigned to particular letters in the English
alphabet, but this was not a feature of the hieroglyphics originally.
Egyptian hieroglyphics.
Aztec Alphabet Glyphs
The original Aztec language, Nahuatl, was spoken by the people of the
Aztec empire before the Spanish Conquest. It was a series of glyphs that
were used in different ways. Sometimes they were used as pictograms, in
which a symbol meant what it represented (e.g. a dog glyph meant a
physical dog). However, the symbols also sometimes served as ideograms,
in which an idea behind the symbol is represented (e.g. footprints could
mean a trip or traveling). To complicate matters even more, a glyph could
also serve as a phonogram, meaning the symbol represented a spoken
sound.
Aztec alphabet glyphs.
Polynesian and Hawaiian Symbols
These examples show several different symbols described as “Hawaiian
tattoos.” These symbols are characterized by heavy lines with lots of black
work, and strong geometric shapes. The origins of these symbols are
unclear, and looking at the designated “meaning” of some of them raises
more questions than they answer. For example, there have historically been
no wolves, no scorpions, and no rams in Hawai’i—nor any of the Pacific
Islands. Yet, some of the tattoos are designated “wolf’s mouth,” “scorpion,”
and “ram’s horn.” Perhaps the argument can be made that the symbols were
named by European sailors who first encountered the Polynesians in the late
sixteenth century.
The ritual of tattooing is a very important part of many Polynesian and
Pacific Island cultures, including Maori, Samoa, Tahiti, and Hawai’i.
Tattoos were indicators of social status, group associations, wealth, and
one’s ability to endure pain. Tattoos in these regions were made by dipping
the tattoo implement into black dye and then striking the implement with a
hammer or mallet. This broke the skin, causing bleeding and considerable
pain. Men frequently wore epaulet-style shoulder tattoos and inked greaves
on the lower legs. Women were tattooed mainly on the arms, hands, feet,
and ears.
Polynesian symbols.
Polynesian tattoo symbols.
Hawaiian tattoo symbols.
Chinese Kanji Symbols
These are Chinese Kanji symbols. Each one represents a word/concept, like
Egyptian hieroglyphics. These characters can also be described as
“ideographs” because each represents an idea. See chapter 9, Languages,
for more information. The beauty and variety of symbols is endless.
Whether taken from historical sources, or created by artists for modern
rituals and practices, symbols inspire creativity, offer protection, and help
us feel more in control of a chaotic world and our lives within it.

Chinese Kanji symbols.

Tarot Deck Symbols
This set of symbols represent the major arcana of a tarot deck. The glyphs
are handy when reading the various card layouts during a tarot reading.
Zibu Symbols
An interesting application of symbolism has risen in some non-mainstream
religions. For example, Zibu is a belief that centers around a great many
symbols which are believed to have been delivered by (or inspired by)
angels. Zibu believers are encouraged to create symbols and share them
with other believers so that all may be enlightened by them.

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 CHAPTER

3
Astrology

A strology may be the oldest known science that mankind ever mastered.
Nowadays, though, astrology is considered by most people—though not all
—to be good entertainment at best. There are many who practice the art and
who believe in its power to portent. In ancient times, astrology was a high
art that was only practiced by masters of the craft or by high priests and
priestesses. Many rulers employed astrologists to foretell the outcome of
battles and matters of state—even a twentieth-century first lady famously
consulted with a highly-regarded astrologer.
Astrology involves interpreting the movements of heavenly bodies in
the sky (both during night and day) to derive the effects that can be
expected on a person or nation. The date and time of the person’s birth is
critical to preparing their astrological chart; this information tells the
astrologer where in the sky the person’s influencers were at the time of
birth, which thereby determines the future path of those influencers to tell
what the future holds for the believer.
Most important is the position of the sun at birth. The sun determines
which sign the believer was born under, and holds clues to personality traits
and proclivities that the person may have.
In the practice of astrology, the sky is divided into twelve even
quadrants, each permanent and immobile in its location. As the planets
move through each quadrant, they affect the people whose birthdays fall
within that sign. The quadrants are assigned different labels, referred to as
signs, which give the believer an idea of which part of the heavens is
influencing their life. There are many depictions and symbols associated
with the astrological signs. We will look at the most commonly used.
Western Astrology Zodiac Signs
Aries the Ram (Mar 21–Apr 19)

Aries is the first sign of the zodiac, and begins on the day of the spring
equinox. The sign (or glyph) of the ram references the curved horns the
animal is famous for. The ram comes from Greek mythology and the stories
of Jason and the Argonauts. The Chrysomallus was a flying ram with
fleece of gold, and Jason’s kingship depended on obtaining the fleece from
the creature, so the Golden Fleece represents the throne of kingship and
power. Ares (note that the spelling of the god’s name is different from the
spelling of the symbol; aries means “ram” in Greek) was the Greek god of
war, second in the pantheon only to Zeus himself. In Roman mythology,
Ares was known as Mars, and the planet Mars is the ruling body of this
sign. The symbol for Mars is , which is the same symbol used to denote
“male.”
Taurus the Bull (Apr 20–May 20)

Taurus is the most ancient of signs, being established by the Mesopotamian

civilization, which recognized that the constellation of the bull was where
the sun rose on the vernal/spring equinox. This was the case in antiquity.
However, over time, the constellations have shifted position somewhat in
the sky, so the celestial events by which the quadrants were established may
not always quite fit the signs as they did when the art of astrology was
defined. Bulls have been revered since ancient times, being symbols of
strength, fruitfulness, and plenty. The glyph for Taurus references the great
horns of the animal. This sign is ruled by Venus, goddess of love and

beauty, whose symbol is , also the sign of “female.” The symbol refers
to the hand mirror of the goddess, or to a necklace around her neck.
Gemini the Twins (May 21–June 20)

Gemini is drawn from Roman mythology and represents the half-twins

Castor and Pollux. Castor was fathered by a mortal, Pollux by the god
Zeus. When Castor died, Pollux asked to be able to share his own
immortality with Castor so that they could be together forever. Zeus granted
the request and fixed the two in the sky as the constellation Gemini. The
symbol for Gemini is two numeral ones, joined by bars above and below. In
art they are frequently associated with horses and hunting. The ruling planet
of this sign is Mercury, fleet-footed messenger of the gods, whose symbol

is . This symbol references the god’s winged helmet and the caduceus
associated with him.
Cancer the Crab (Jun 21–July 22)

Cancer as a symbol comes from Greek mythology in the form of the giant
crab that tormented Hercules, as the hero fought the hydra. The hydra was
a monster that grew two new heads for every one that was cut off. After
both the hydra and the crab were slain, the goddess Hera placed them in the
sky as constellations. The glyph for the crab refers to the exaggerated claws
of the creature, as well as a connection to both the spiritual and material
realms. The ruling body for the sign of the crab is the moon, whose phases
of waxing and waning produce the changes in the tides we observe on

Earth. The symbol of the moon is , the first quarter or crescent.

Leo the Lion (Jul 23–Aug 22)

Leo is from the Greek leon, meaning “lion.” The glyph is the Greek letter
lambda, first letter of the word “leo”; it is also reminiscent of the shape of a
lion’s tail. Leo as an astrological sign is again drawn from the Labors of
Hercules—slaying the Nemean lion was his first task. The creature had
claws sharper than any sword and its skin was impervious to the weapons of
man. Lions have long been associated with royalty, and the symbol of this
animal can be found on the crests of a number of countries, including Great
Britain, Scotland, Singapore, and Armenia. Asiatic lions—once common in
the area of Greece—went extinct sometime around 100 BCE. The ruling
body of Leo is the sun, the grandest and largest object in the solar system.
Its symbol is . This is also an alchemical symbol for gold.
Virgo the Virgin (Aug 23–Sep 22)

The Virgin is derived from Greek mythology and the story of Parthenos.
The convoluted tale centers on Parthenos’ fear of the wrath of her father
and her determination to live a chaste and perfect life. When she fails in
this, she tries to kill herself but is rescued by Apollo, Greek god of the sun
and sky. Mythologies of several civilizations associate Virgo with the
harvest, since that constellation fills the sky when the wheat was
traditionally harvested. The glyph for Virgo is from the first three letters of
the Greek word parthenos, meaning “virgin.” We also get the word
Parthenon from the same source. This sign (along with Gemini) is ruled by

Mercury, and the symbol is .

Libra the Scales (Sep 23–Oct 22)

The scales are again from Greek mythology and were carried by Themis,
the avatar of divine justice. In the Hindu religion, an avatar is the
representative of a deity made flesh on Earth. Technically, the scales are a
balance rather than a scale, in that the two arms require one thing is
weighed against the weight of another. A scale, on the other hand, can
determine the weight of a singular object without comparing it to something
else. Libra is the only zodiac sign that is not represented by a living creature
of some kind. The glyph for Libra shows the two arms of the balance with
the pivot joint at the top. In the judiciary system, statues of Lady Justice, a
blindfolded woman with a sword, represent fair and unbiased (but final)
judgment. Libra is ruled by the planet Venus, as is Taurus. The symbol of

Venus is , the divine feminine.

Scorpio the Scorpion (Oct 23–Nov 21)

The scorpion represents mystical power. Scorpios are the enigma of the
zodiac—mysterious and secretive even amongst themselves. Greek
mythology has a number of tales of the scorpion. In one, Orion boasts to
the goddess Artemis that he is a better hunter than she. As punishment for
his pride, Artemis sends a scorpion to slay him. There is a mighty battle
which ends with the scorpion killing Orion. Zeus, however, was drawn to
the sounds of the battle, and when Orion was slain, the father of the gods
raised him to the heavens as a reward for his bravery. Not to be outdone,
Artemis raised the scorpion to the heavens as well. Now Orion hunts in the
winter sky but flees in the summer when the scorpion’s image rises. The
glyph for Scorpio represents the stinger tail of the creature. This sign is

ruled by Pluto, whose symbol is (a combination of the P and L in Pluto

and a tribute to astronomer Percival Lowell) or alternatively the symbol

for the Greek god of the underworld.
Sagittarius the Archer (Nov 22–Dec 21)

The archer is most commonly depicted as a centaur (half man, half horse)
with a bow and arrow. The word “sagittarius” is from the Latin sagittarius
for “archer”—in the Roman army a sagittoriorum was a special regiment
made up of archers. In Greek mythology, centaurs were powerful creatures
that excelled at war and hunting. The supreme centaur was Chiron (also
spelled Khiron) who mentored Achilles, the great Greek hero of the Trojan
War, in the skill of archery. Centaurs were revered as creatures of the

highest intelligence and skilled healers. Chiron has his own glyph ,
representing a key (for Chiron) topped with the letter K. The zodiac sign of
Sagittarius ends on the day of the winter solstice—a day highly revered by
pagans and celebrated as Yule; Christians fixed the celebration to the
purported day of Jesus’ birth, and they celebrate it as Christmas. Judaism
and Islam both have their winter celebrations as well. Sagittarius is ruled by
the planet Jupiter (representing bounty, good humor, and courage), whose
symbol is . This glyph refers to Jupiter/Zeus’s lightning bolt or staff.
Capricorn the (Sea) Goat (Dec 22–Jan 19)

Capricorn is variously referred to as the goat or the sea-goat (due to its fish
tail). The creature is half goat, half fish, and its glyph combines the glyph
for ram/goat with that for fish. Another of the oldest zodiac signs,
Capricorn was the half goat, half fish god of wisdom and water in Sumerian
astrology. Later, in Babylonian times, Capricorn came to additionally
represent intelligence, creativity, and magic. The planet Saturn rules

Capricorn, and Saturn’s symbol is , which resembles the sickle of the

god of seed-sowing, the harvest, and time. Saturn was also considered to be
the father of Cronus/Kronos (first of the Titans) and the grandfather of
Zeus.
Aquarius the Water-Bearer (Jan 20–Feb 18)

The Greek legend of Ganymede tells the tale of the water-bearer. The boy
Ganymede was allegedly so beautiful that Zeus had an eagle fly down to
Earth and capture him and bring him back to Olympus, where he served
water and wine to the gods. Ganymede is also the name of the planet
Jupiter’s largest moon that is slightly larger than the planet Mercury. The
Babylonians and Egyptians associated Aquarius with the annual floods that
both civilizations experienced; the rivers flooded, it was said, when the
water-bearer dipped his jar into the current. The glyph of Aquarius
represents waves of water. The sign is ruled by the planet Uranus, which is
associated with uprisings and revolutions. Indeed, the planet was discovered
around the period of the French Revolution. The symbol for the planet
Uranus is , which honors the discoverer of that planet, William

Herschel. Alternatively, the symbol is also used, referring to the

combined symbols for “sun” and “Mars,” since it was believed that Uranus
received its power from those two bodies.
Pisces the Fishes (Feb 19–Mar 20)

Pisces ends the zodiacal year. It is a symbol of death and renewal. The “Age
of Pisces” began about 1 CE and will continue until 2150. This period
covers the death and resurrection of Christ; the Greek word ikhthus,
meaning “fish,” was used as a code name for Christ by early Christians.
There is also the biblical story of Jesus feeding the masses with bread and

fishes. Chi Rho (two Greek letters superimposed on each other) is a

commonly seen symbol for Christ even now. The ruling planet for Pisces is
Neptune, whose symbol is , representing the trident of Neptune, Roman
god of the sea.
Chinese Astrology
Chinese astrology is like Western astrology only in appearances. As
previously mentioned, the Western zodiac consists of twelve quadrants that
divide up the Earth’s orbit, each attributed to a particular “sign” with its
own ruling planet and constellation. Each of the signs has mythology and
characteristics associated with it, and an individual’s sign is determined by
the position of the sun at the moment of his or her birth. So, the Western
zodiac is linked to movements of stars and planets through space.
Chinese astrology, however, does not use constellations or the positions
of objects in the sky; instead, the Chinese zodiac measures the passage of
time, with regards to the five elements (or “phases”) of Chinese astrology:
Earth, Water, Fire, Wood, and Metal (sometimes called “Gold”).
The Chinese zodiac symbols operate on a sixty-year cycle, with the signs
rotating every twelve years, multiplied by their rotation through the five
phases. For example, a person born in the year 1960 is a Rat in the Chinese
zodiac, and every twelve years, the Year of the Rat recurs. However, a
person born in the Year of the Rat 1972 is a Water Rat, while the person
born in 1960 is a Metal Rat. The person born in 1984 is a Wood Rat, and
the person born in 1996 is a Fire Rat. Another Fire Rat year won’t occur
until the year 2056.

The five elements (or phases) in Chinese astrology.

Some Western astrologers draw parallels between the Chinese and

Western signs by using the position of the planet Jupiter in each
constellation. For example, Jupiter is in the constellation Cancer during the
Chinese Year of the Horse, and in the constellation Sagittarius in the Year of
the Rat. However, Chinese astrology becomes exceedingly difficult when
the deeper aspects are examined.
 Sticking with our Rat example, the Rat is considered a yang symbol
whose principal season is winter and whose principal month is December.
In Chinese philosophy there are two principles: the yin, which is feminine,
negative, and dark and the yang, which is masculine, positive, and bright.
The interaction between the yin and yang influences all things. The Rat
starts the lunar year in Chinese astrology, whereas Aries starts the yearly
cycle in Western astrology. In addition to the twelve-year cycle,
consideration must be given to the sixty-year cycle in Chinese astrology, in
addition to the division of the day into two-hour time periods (referred to as
shichen). Rat rules the time shichen of 11 p.m. to 1 a.m.; the exact hour of
the day at which you were born determines your “secret” sign. A Rat born
at 6 a.m. has a secret sign of Rabbit.
There are also trines (Rat is First Trine), stems (Rat is Positive), fixed
elements (as opposed to the elements that fluctuate on the sixty-year cycle
—Rat’s Fixed Element is Water), and directionality (Rat is Due North).
What follows is a consolidated list of the Chinese astrological
characteristics of each animal year.

This is the traditional yin-yang symbol. The yin is the dark swirl and the yang is the white swirl.
Year of the Rat
YEARS: 2020, 2032, 2044
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Sagittarius
STRENGTHS: wise, unique, determined, and inventive
WEAKNESSES: nervous, acquisitive, ruthless
MATCHES WITH: Dragon and Monkey
MISMATCHES WITH: Horse
ELEMENT: Water
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Ox
YEARS: 2021, 2033, 2045
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Capricorn
STRENGTHS: loyal, honest, observant, cautious, and determined
WEAKNESSES: stubborn, self-righteous, judgmental, petty
MATCHES WITH: Snake and Rooster
MISMATCHES WITH: Goat
ELEMENT: Earth
YIN / YANG: Yin
Year of the Tiger
YEARS: 2022, 2034, 2046
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Aquarius
STRENGTHS: unconventional, outspoken, enthusiastic, and adventurous
WEAKNESSES: anxious, aggressive, and short-tempered
MATCHES WITH: Horse and Dog
MISMATCHES WITH: Monkey
ELEMENT: Wood
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Rabbit
YEARS: 2023, 2035, 2047
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Pisces
STRENGTHS: gentle, intuitive, clever, and faithful
WEAKNESSES: insecure, vain, and pessimistic
MATCHES WITH: Goat and Pig
MISMATCHES WITH: Rooster
ELEMENT: Wood
YIN / YANG: Yin
Year of the Dragon
YEARS: 2024, 2036, 2048
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Aries
STRENGTHS: courageous, charismatic, passionate, and intelligent
WEAKNESSES: stubborn, inflexible, and brash
MATCHES WITH: Rat and Monkey
MISMATCHES WITH: Dog
ELEMENT: Earth
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Snake
YEARS: 2025, 2037, 2049
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Taurus
STRENGTHS: sensual, enigmatic, sympathetic, and beautiful
WEAKNESSES: vain, overly materialistic, and sneaky
MATCHES WITH: Rooster and Ox
MISMATCHES WITH: Pig
ELEMENT: Fire
YIN / YANG: Yin
Year of the Horse
YEARS: 2026, 2038, 2050
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Gemini
STRENGTHS: witty, easy-going, outspoken, and honest
WEAKNESSES: impatient, self-centered, and impulsive
MATCHES WITH: Tiger and Dog
MISMATCHES WITH: Rat
ELEMENT: Fire
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Goat (or Year of the Sheep)
YEARS: 2027, 2039, 2051
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Cancer
STRENGTHS: romantic, charming, compassionate, gentle
WEAKNESSES: disorganized, indecisive, and timid
MATCHES WITH: Rabbit and Pig
MISMATCHES WITH: Ox
ELEMENT: Earth
YIN / YANG: Yin
Year of the Monkey
YEARS: 2028, 2040, 2052
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Leo
STRENGTHS: popular, confident, charming, and excited
WEAKNESSES: opportunistic, arrogant, and distrustful
MATCHES WITH: Rat and Dragon
MISMATCHES WITH: Tiger
ELEMENT: Metal
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Rooster
YEARS: 2029, 2041, 2053
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Virgo
STRENGTHS: brave, witty, charming, and talented
WEAKNESSES: reckless, insensitive, and controlling
MATCHES WITH: Ox and Snake
MISMATCHES WITH: Rabbit
ELEMENT: Metal
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Dog
YEARS: 2030, 2042, 2054
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Libra
STRENGTHS: protective, likable, witty, and helpful
WEAKNESSES: stubborn, pessimistic, and cynical
MATCHES WITH: Horse and Tiger
MISMATCHES WITH: Dragon
ELEMENT: Earth
YIN / YANG: Yang
Year of the Pig (or Year of the Boar)
YEARS: 2019, 2031, 2043
WESTERN ASTROLOGY SIGN ASSOCIATION: Scorpio
STRENGTHS: responsible, creative, intelligent, and thoughtful
WEAKNESSES: gullible, materialistic, insecure, and hot-tempered
MATCHES WITH: Rabbit and Goat
MISMATCHES WITH: Snake
ELEMENT: Water
YIN / YANG: Yin
 CHINESE ASTROLOGICAL ANIMALS PER BIRTH YEAR
Rat 1900 1912 1924 1936
Ox 1901 1913 1925 1937
Tiger 1902 1914 1926 1938
Rabbit 1903 1915 1927 1939
Dragon 1904 1916 1928 1940
Snake 1905 1917 1929 1941
Horse 1906 1918 1930 1942
Goat 1907 1919 1931 1943
Monkey 1908 1920 1932 1944
Rooster 1909 1921 1933 1945
Dog 1910 1922 1934 1946
Pig 1911 1923 1935 1947
 CHINESE ASTROLOGICAL ANIMALS PER BIRTH YEAR
Rat 1948 1960 1972 1984
Ox 1949 1961 1973 1985
Tiger 1950 1962 1974 1986
Rabbit 1951 1963 1975 1987
Dragon 1952 1964 1976 1988
Snake 1953 1965 1977 1989
Horse 1954 1966 1978 1990
Goat 1955 1967 1979 1991
Monkey 1956 1968 1980 1992
Rooster 1957 1969 1981 1993
Dog 1958 1970 1982 1994
Pig 1959 1971 1983 1995
 CHINESE ASTROLOGICAL ANIMALS PER BIRTH YEAR
Rat 1996 2008 2020 2032
Ox 1997 2009 2021 2033
Tiger 1998 2010 2022 2034
Rabbit 1999 2011 2023 2035
Dragon 2000 2012 2024 2036
Snake 2001 2013 2025 2037
Horse 2002 2014 2026 2038
Goat 2003 2015 2027 2039
Monkey 2004 2016 2028 2040
Rooster 2005 2017 2029 2041
Dog 2006 2018 2030 2042
Pig 2007 2019 2031 2043

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 CHAPTER

4
Celtic Symbols

T he ancient Celts (pronounced with a hard “c,” like “cat”) were a people
who lived from about 2000 BCE in what was the Iron Age. They ranged
widely across much of Europe, including France and the Iberian Peninsula.
Their sophisticated art and culture was much admired by other groups they
came in contact with, and as a result, a great deal of their art and symbology
was heavily borrowed by non-Celtic tribes. This, combined with the fact
that Celtic traditions were passed on orally, has made defining exactly what
constitutes “Celtic culture” difficult. The map below shows the general
bounds of the Celtic migrations, although a number of lone Celtic
individuals have been discovered in places as unlikely as Mongolia and
China.
When we talk about Celtic symbolism, most of us automatically think of
the Celtic knot, which may be round, square, or any shape at all. The
complex interweaving of the cords is believed by many to represent the
circle of life, the birth-death-and-renewal of all living things. These ideas of
meaning seem to have been attached to the knotwork only in the time since
the Celts became Christians (around 700 CE). Prior to this, the knotwork
was always geometrical; no representations of people, animals, or plants
were seen. It is widely held that the pre-existing pagan religion of the Celts
may not have allowed them to depict images of things made by the Creator.
Islam has a similar proviso against depicting people or specific images in
religious art. Emphasis in Islamic art is on the meaning of things—their
essence—rather than on representation of the object itself. We’ll have more
on Islamic art in chapter 16, Religion. For the purpose of this chapter,
“Celtic” refers to the body of art that features intricate designs utilizing
curves, knots, empty space, and blackwork.

Map of Celtic peoples in 2 BCE.

Celtic Symbols
Other than the Celtic cross (which is Christian), the figures on these pages
show examples of Celtic knotwork. This type of work is more “modern,”
as demonstrated by the tails of the cords (each strand of the knot) being
attached (or tucked in) at the ends, again to imply unity. Earlier examples
typically have the cord ends unraveled.

Celtic knot.
 Celtic cross.

Open-ended knotwork can represent “no beginning and no end” or

infinity. However, Celtic scholars tend to agree that to the ancient Celts, the
knotwork was purely decorative; it was a pretty space-filler at the ends of
artwork and everyday objects. Our modern sensibilities need to see meaning
in such intricate patterns, but—at least in Pre-Christian Celtic art—there
seems to be no such meaning. Once Christianity replaced pagan beliefs,
Celtic knotwork exploded in popularity, and its influence can be seen in
many other cultures such as Norse Viking, Germanic, and Spanish.
This example of Norse Celtic artwork above is identifiable by not only
the subject matter (Odin’s Raven), but by the heavy lines and sense of
movement. Norse work is typically bolder than Celtic, and often depicts
animal (zoomorphic) and pagan religious images. This image of Thor’s
hammer shows the use of blackwork to fill visual space. Such images make
popular tattoos since the lines are simpler than other Celtic art, and the
blackwork makes the tattoo stand out on the bearer’s body.
Celtic art may be more popular now than it ever was. The applications
are essentially endless, since nearly any design can be reimagined to fit the
extremely broad definition of “Celtic.” The Celtic people are commonly
thought of as the Irish, the Scots, and the Welsh. The differences between
them are largely political—though if you ask a Scot or an Irishman they
will expound upon how their culture differs from the others.

Various depictions of Celtic knotwork.

The Raven of Odin in Norse Celtic style.

Thor's hammer.
Irish Symbols
Celtic art survived much longer in Ireland than the rest of Europe and
utilized spirals and S-shapes in many of its works. “Irish” Celtic art in
modern times is often colorful, emphasizing the colors of the Irish flag:
green, white, and orange. Symbolism in Irish Celtic art often includes
shamrocks (luck), the Tree of Life (life), and crosses (spirituality).

The flag of Ireland.

 A Celtic cross.

A shamrock of Celtic knotwork in an endless knot.

A Celtic symbol of the Tree of Life.
Scottish Symbols
Continuing with the notion of Celtic culture, we look at the Scots—a clan-
type civilization that has struggled to maintain a separate identity since
being conquered by the British Empire. A symbol of the Scots is the thistle,
an extremely thorny plant with a lovely purple flower, which grows in any
soil type and condition. It’s a fitting representation of the Scots people as a
tough, hard-to-displace group with a beautiful heart, and roots in the rock.
The heart and soul of the Scots are the clans. A clan represented a
family, as well as friends and allies. Though much of clan society was
wiped out, clan identity remains. Badges and shield emblems of the
different clans (as well as Tartan designs) are still worn with pride by
descendants of those families.
Badges consisted of an emblem (e.g. a cat, a sword, a tree) as well as a
motto. These were frequently in Latin, the language of scholars of the time.
In addition to a badge, most clans had their own tartan pattern. Tartans
are combinations of horizontal and vertical bands that were woven into the
cloth in different colors and used to make kilts. Sometimes erroneously
referred to as a “plaid,” the tartan is a cultural icon of Scotland. The chart
below shows some clan tartans.
A thistle flower, the symbol of Scotland.
Scottish shield emblems.
 Tartans of famous Scottish clans.

Most clans had one pattern. However, the most prominent clans may
have had two or more, as evidenced by the MacDonalds, who not only had
a dress pattern and a hunting pattern, but also different patterns for different
branches of the family, or clan. Historically, tartans were a method of
communicating clan affiliation amongst other clansmen. In modern times,
they are mostly worn on ceremonial occasions.
 Modern Scotland also has two different flags: the Lion Rampant (the
yellow) and the Saltire (the blue). The Lion Rampant (which refers to the
position of the lion on the flag) is the Royal Standard of Scotland, while the
Saltire (also known as St. Andrew’s cross) is the country’s official national
flag.

The Scottish Saltire flag.

The Scottish Lion Rampant flag.

Welsh Symbols
The Welsh are commonly believed to be descended from Celts who
migrated out of central and western Europe into ancient Britain. The latest
research, however, shows that Welsh Celts may have moved north out of
Spain and Portugal. Carvings on rocks in the area, along with current DNA
evidence, indicate that Welsh Celts were still on the Iberian Peninsula after
European Celts had moved into Britain. Additionally, the Welsh language is
quite different from other Celtic and Germanic languages such as English.
Of note, the Irish brought Gaelic to Scotland around 400 CE, and Scottish
Gaelic is still spoken in the Highlands and the Western Islands. “Irish” is
the official state language of the Republic of Ireland, which differs
somewhat from the Scottish Gaelic. Both nations use English for matters of
state, though. When we look at Welsh symbolism, the first image we find is
the Welsh dragon. This symbol is prominently displayed in many places in
Wales, and is itself an icon separate from the Red Dragon. Cymru is the
Welsh word for Wales. The Welsh Dragon is described in heraldry as “a
dragon to dexter passant,” which means a dragon facing left, with one foot
raised.

The flag of Wales with the letters CYMRU and the Red Dragon.
 The Union Jack, Britain’s national flag.

The Red (Y Ddraig Goch) Dragon, the oldest recorded use of the dragon to symbolize Wales.

The Red Dragon (Y Ddraig Goch, in Welsh) has been the symbol for
Wales since the mid-ninth century CE. The dragon image is thought to have
derived from an Anglo-Roman symbol of state. Popular belief has it that it
was a battle standard for Celtic leaders such as King Arthur, who allegedly
reigned in the mid-sixth and seventh centuries, which lends support to the
Anglo-Roman theory.
It was the Tudors who first utilized the Red Dragon symbol as part of
the Royal Coat of Arms. The Red Dragon now appears on all sorts of sports
gear, memorabilia, and business insignia. Curiously, no symbol of Wales is
exhibited on the British national flag; the Union Jack (as the flag is called)
comprises the flags of the Kingdom of England, the Kingdom of Scotland,
and the Kingdom of Ireland. (Note: the Kingdom of Ireland flag historically
was a red St. Patrick’s cross on a white field, not the green-white-orange
tricolor that is the Republic of Ireland national flag.) Technically, Wales is a
part of the Kingdom of England, but the Welsh don’t see it that way.
Welsh symbols show their Celtic influences in subject matter as well as
execution. Common themes are the mountains for which the country is
famous, gods and goddesses of mythology, and Welsh pastimes, as well as
contemporary concerns.
An art form particular to Wales is the carving of so-called “love spoons.”
In the mid-eighteenth century, idle young men would carve intricate designs
into wooden spoons and present them to young ladies they hoped to wed.
The spoons’ designs were a “code” that revealed the suitors’ intentions. The
photos below show examples of antique and modern spoon carvings.
Common symbols include hearts (love), bells (marriage), ships’ wheels (a
stable relationship), keys (to the lover’s heart), and crosses (faith). A series
of carved balls in a chute represented the number of children the carver
hoped for. Today, love spoons are given as gifts of friendship or by parents
to children to commemorate special occasions; tourists commonly buy them
as souvenirs.
Another important symbol of Wales is the leek. The most common story
for this is that Saint David in the sixth century ordered his soldiers to wear
leeks on their helmets in battle to identify them against the Saxons they
were fighting. The symbol of the leek still adorns the caps of the Welsh
Guards, part of Queen Elizabeth II’s household guard.
Welsh love spoons.
 A badge from a Welsh Guard’s cap of a leek.

Additional Welsh symbols include the daffodil, a flower whose Welsh

name means “Peter’s leek,” is the state floral emblem of Wales. The harp is
associated with bards, the traveling musicians of medieval times. Wales is
sometimes referred to as “The Land of Song.” The Prince of Wales’
feathers are historically associated with Edward, the Black Prince of Wales,
heir to the English throne in the late 1300s. The shield with three white
ostrich feathers was an alternate arms for Prince Edward, his so-called
“Shield of Peace,” which may have referred to a shield under which he
jousted. When Prince Edward became King Edward VI, he retained the
emblem. The German motto Ich Dien (meaning “I serve”) may have been
taken from King John of Bohemia, whom Prince Edward defeated at the
Battle of Crécy in 1346. The motto was not an original part of Edward’s
Shield of Peace.
The daffodil is the state floral emblem of Wales.
A harp with Celtic knot decoration.
Prince Edward’s Shield of Peace.
Celtic Rune Symbols
An important part of Celtic symbology, the word “rune” means “secret” in
a number of languages, including Old Irish, Old English, and Welsh.
Though runes are most closely associated with the Norse Vikings, Celtic
Druids had a set of runes that were vastly different than the Viking style.

Ogham (or Druidic) runes.

Futhark (or Viking) runes.
Ogham (or Druidic) Runes
The Druidic runes (pictured on the opposite page) are referred to as the
Ogham. Originally, the Ogham represented the Irish writing of the early
period (first to sixth centuries CE), then later came to represent the Old
Irish language (ca. 500 to 900 CE). By the High Medieval period, the
Ogham had become associated with the religion of the Druids and Tree
Magic. We’ll look at Druidism and Wicca (another pagan religion) in
chapter 16, Religion, and the Ogham in more depth in chapter 14,
Mythology.
Futhark (or Viking) Runes
So-named from the first six letters of this alphabet, Futhark runes show a
lack of horizontal strokes, as these runes were commonly incised on round
objects such as a staff or branch; horizontal strokes would have cut against
the grain of the wood. Other runic alphabets do make use of horizontal
strokes.
The chart above offers an example of Celtic Futhark runes (commonly
called Viking runes). Runes represent an alphabet—a language. They are
not random marks.
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 CHAPTER

5
Chemistry

W e talked about alchemy in chapter 1, the medieval precursor to

modern chemistry, but chemistry has roots much farther back in history. As
early as 1000 BCE, civilizations were using arts and techniques that would
become the backbone of the science of chemistry. For example, metal
extraction, food fermentation, herbology, and tanning all relied on chemical
processes to achieve their ends.
 Perhaps the earliest chemist was Robert Boyle, who in 1661 wrote a
book entitled The Sceptical Chymist, delineating the difference between
alchemy and chemistry. Chemistry would come to be seen as a “hard”
science, while alchemy remained an “art.” The scientist responsible in large
part for this is Antoine Lavoisier. He set down the first so-called law of
chemistry—that of conservation of mass, which states that matter can be
neither created nor destroyed, though it may be altered in form or
rearranged in space. This principle required that careful measurements and
observations of experimental processes had to be observed and recorded,
thereby establishing chemistry as a science that could be recreated rather
than an art that varied among individuals. Classical mechanics is
established by such laws, including the laws of gravity, motion, and inertia.
(Note: Einstein’s relativity equation E = mc² is a theory; it has never been
proven).
The Periodic Table of Elements
 The most powerful tool in chemistry is the Periodic Table of Elements,
which gives the following information about all the known elements in a
hierarchical table format:

• Abbreviation: A letter or letters which represent the name (usually in

Latin) of an element.

• Atomic Number: Based on the number of protons in the nucleus of an

atom of that element.

• Reactive Similarities: The chemical properties of the element, formerly

called the chemical family.
 First developed by Lavoisier in 1789, the elements in the Periodic Table
were grouped by their “form”—that is, how each one occurred in nature.
Forms included gas, metal, nonmetal, and “earths.” Earths were later
divided into Rare Earth Metals and Alkaline Earth Metals. The Periodic
Table as we know it today was first published by Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleev in 1869. Here are some terms for parts of the Periodic Table of
Elements.
Groups
In vertical columns down the Periodic Table, these are clusters of elements
that react similarly to each other in chemical processes. These reactions are
determined by the number of electrons in the outer shell of an atom. These
electrons are called valence electrons. Groups are also called families. For
example, helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, radon, ununoctium (recently
changed to oganesson and abbreviated Og) are all referred to as noble
gases.
Periods
Found in horizontal rows across a Periodic Table, the elements in each row
have the same number of electron shells in them. For example, lithium,
beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, and neon all have two
electron shells around them. They’re called Period 2 elements. Rows
(periods) have an increase in the number of electrons in the outer shell of
their atoms. In other words, as you move horizontally across the row, each
element gains one electron, increasing to a maximum of seven. When the
maximum is reached, the row begins again on the next line.
Electron Shells
These are the number of layers of electrons orbiting an atom and are labeled
“1 shell,” “2 shell,” etc. in chemistry, while in X-ray applications they are
labeled alphabetically beginning with the letter K, such as “K shell,” “L
shell,” etc. Each shell can only hold a certain number of electrons.
The table shown here–here of the Periodic Table uses color to help
differentiate groups; the key shows what the group name is for each color.
A benefit of groups is that they can be used to predict behavior of certain
elements—particularly synthesized and “predicted” (or undiscovered)
elements.
For example, the chemical element helium seen below (chemical symbol
He, atomic number 2) is in the group “noble gases.” These are so-named
because they tend to be non-reactive with other chemical elements. Thus
they are thought to behave “nobly” and not mingle with the chemical hoi
polloi. All of the elements in this same group/column can be expected to
react in a similar fashion, so groups tend to stay aligned, while periods/rows
have members which differ in how they react chemically.
There are currently 118 elements on the Periodic Table that have been
either discovered in nature or successfully synthesized in a laboratory. The
“stair step” configuration of the table leaves room for elements that have
been theorized, but never actually found to exist.

The helium (He) tile with basic information.

The gold (Au) tile with advanced information.
Tiles
Each of the abbreviations on the Periodic Table, together with the other
information in each square (called a “tile”), can be considered a “symbol”
of that element. On the opposite page is the tile for helium (He). Most tiles
will have this basic information when displayed in the Periodic Table;
sometimes more information will be on them, but this is usually when the
tile is displayed alone, since there is only so much room when displaying
the Periodic Table. To the left is an example of a tile with more information.
This is a tile for gold (Au). In addition to the normal abbreviation, name,
atomic number, and atomic mass, this tile also has:

• Electron Configuration: This is how a stable molecule of gold would

exist in nature: [Xe] 4f145d106s1 is the abbreviated form for how the
electrons in a molecule of gold are distributed in the shells.

• Oxidation State: This is how many electrons an atom of the element will
gain or lose in compounds with other elements. Gold has both positive
(+III, +I, +II, +V) and negative (-I) states. Numbers are typically
expressed using Roman numerals, but they may use cardinal numbers.
+III (-I, +I, +II, +V) are the oxidation states in order of prevalence, while
+III is the main oxidation state.

• Electronegativity: Abbreviated to “En,” this is the propensity for an

atom of an element to attract electrons (this is not the same as electro
conductivity). En can tell you about which molecules the element is likely
to attach with and which compounds might result. En 2,54 (also 2.54) is
the Pauling expression of electronegativity of gold; there are a number of
others but Pauling was first to describe this.
Fallout Shelter Symbol
Following the bombing of Hiroshima, Japan, in World War II, the world
came to realize that the hazards of nuclear war were devastating and
horrific. One result was the proliferation of so-called “fallout shelters.”
These were typically underground bunkers (but could sometimes be lead-
lined buildings) which were outfitted with many months of supplies of
food, water, and other necessities. On December 1, 1961, the US
Department of Defense introduced the Civil Defense Fallout Shelter
emblem. It was used to indicate nuclear bomb “safety shelters” that were
supposedly approved by the federal government. Their use was not
monitored, and over a million of the signs were produced for civilian and
commercial use. A product of its times, this symbol is rare nowadays, as we
now know that there is no such thing as protection from nuclear fallout;
most such shelters have since been converted to other use. Many chemicals
are hazardous and represent challenges in their manufacture and transport.
A listing of chemical hazard symbols is found in chapter 19, Transportation.

A fallout shelter sign.

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 CHAPTER

6
Digital

C omputers have introduced thousands—perhaps millions—of new

symbols into our lives. It would be very difficult to live in today’s world
without computers; they perform millions of business transactions in
seconds, store entire libraries’ worth of information in a stick the size of
your thumb, and monitor mechanical operations from construction to
medical to automotive, freeing humanity to create more, do more, and
achieve more than ever before.
When we talk about symbolism in computing, we can quickly be
overcome by the sheer quantity of it: fonts, programming shortcuts, word
processing, and other functions each have their own symbol requirements.
Because this chapter isn’t strictly about computers, we’re going to limit our
examination to the most basic form of computer communication: emoticons
and emoji.
Emoticons
These are icons that are created by combining certain keyboard symbols in
a particular order to create an ideograph. These little symbols are usually
“faces” meant to express emotion in written communication. Keyboard
limitations required that the icons be looked at sideways. For example, this
:) or :-) is a “smiley” face, while :( and :-( are “frowny” faces. These
characters are not seen much these days as they were quickly replaced by
emoji.

Examples of keyboard emoticons.

Emoji
These are tiny pictograms that fit into lines of text and better express what
the user is trying to say. The word “emoji” is from the Japanese for “picture
character.” Here are a few of the thousands of emoji in use today. With the
explosion in popularity of emoji, there has come a customization and
sophistication of the little icons to the point where many of them are no
longer immediately recognizable to the general public.

Examples of emoji.

The lobster emoji, for example, has become a symbol (albeit temporary)
of the trans community as they await an emoji of the trans flag. The
kangaroo, in addition to being a common symbol for Australia, is also
being used to show strength, as male ’roos are extremely muscular and
prone to fighting other males for territorial rights.
Emoji have also begun to break out of their 2D limitations, utilizing
shading and movement to bring them to life.
 Emoji find their greatest use in mobile communication, where our desire
to transmit information and meaning quickly and efficiently takes precedent
over concerns such as grammar, spelling, and punctuation.
In essence, emoji are modern hieroglyphics, conveying words and
concepts in a visual arena. In addition to emoji, most computer programs
come with a set of standard icons which vary slightly from one program to
another. These symbols typically include the following:
Keyboard Clipart
Clipart is small, simple symbols designed to be used in documents; many
are scalable.

Examples of clipart.
Keyboard Fonts
Fonts are sets of letters and numbers all designed in a similar specialized
style; there are millions of fonts in use today. Below are some examples of
the most popular.
Keyboard Punctuation Marks
Most of the basic punctuation marks are available on the keyboard.
Extension packs allow for endless variation in expression: you can write in
any language, publish scientific papers with all their special formatting, and
create your own letterhead and brochures. We will look more at punctuation
marks in chapter 20, Writing and Punctuation.

Basic punctuation marks.

Keyboard Command Key
The symbol at the right is called by many names, including the Saint
Hannes cross, the “looped square,” and the Bowen Knot. It even stands for
“point of interest” on signs in Nordic countries. Its most famous
application, however, is likely its use to mark the COMMAND key on a
Mac keyboard.

The COMMAND key symbol.

Business Icons
Icons are similar to clipart, but they tend to be standardized rather than
decorative, for use in business and computing; they represent things rather
than ideas.

Examples of business icons.

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 CHAPTER

7
Currency

T he US dollar is the most highly traded currency in the world. The

foreign exchange market trades over $5 trillion per day, 90 percent of it in
US dollars. The world’s commodities—including agricultural, metals, and
energy—are all traded in US dollars. Following World War II, the US
economy surged; at present the United States accounts for about 15 percent
of the world’s gross domestic product. This power has led to the US dollar
becoming the de facto global currency. “Greenbacks” are accepted
everywhere in the world.
According to Federal Reserve estimates, 60 percent of all US currency
now in circulation is being used outside the US—primarily in former Soviet
Bloc countries and South America. This amounts to nearly $500 billion
dollars, or almost the entire gross domestic product (GDP) of Saudi Arabia.
Currently, sixteen countries—including Ecuador, El Salvador, and a number
of island nations—use the US dollar as their sole currency. Dozens of other
nations (such as Canada, Australia, and Jamaica) call their primary currency
the “dollar,” but the value of that dollar tends to vary widely.
Where does the dollar symbol come from? Well, the US dollar hasn’t
always been the global currency. In the Age of Exploration (about the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries CE), Spain was the great powerhouse of
the world. With their coffers overflowing with gold and silver from the New
World, Spain minted heavy, standardized coins made of nearly-pure
precious metals—unlike the coins of many other nations. In fact, the coins
were so well-regarded that trade in Spanish dollars persisted in the US until
the mid-1800s, even though the US had been minting its own coinage since
1792.
So, the $ sign was likely derived from the reference to Spanish dollars—
that is, the letter S for Spain with a line through it. Such abbreviations for
currency were common; even today, the currency symbols for many nations
consist of a letter with one or more lines drawn through. Strike-throughs
were originally used to help distinguish between the regular letter and the
currency.
The following is a list of symbols of some world currency.
American bills, or "greenbacks."
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 CHAPTER

8
Ideograms

I f you remember from the Introduction, an ideogram is a small picture

that represents a specific idea (literally, “idea picture”). For example, one
icon is a “tree” while multiples of the same icon might represent a forest.
This is distinct from pictograms or graphs (“picture writing”), which
represent specific words or objects and may be combined to tell stories. A
photo of a horse just says “horse.” It is a pictogram. A photo of someone
riding a horse, on the other hand, denotes a concept—in fact, multiple
concepts. It means not just “horseback riding” or “horseman,” but
depending on your frame of reference, perhaps “freedom” or “travel,”
maybe even “joy.” Ancient pictograms of indigenous peoples often tell
hunting or origin stories. Called petrographs, they are are pictograms on
rocks.
So when we talk about ideograms, we need to have a frame of reference
in order to understand what the ideogram represents, but we do not need a
specific language to interpret it. Take a look at these common ideograms
below. When you see a picture like the one below, you can recognize that
things are falling on a person. When that picture is placed next to a vending
machine, for example, we get the idea that the vending machine might tip
over on us. With our modern frame of reference, we understand the concept,
“Don’t tip the vending machine because it might crush you.” Similar ideas
are expressed by the “walk your dog here and use a leash” sign and the
“deer might jump into the road so be alert” sign.

Beware of falling objects sign.

Deer crossing sign.

Use a leash sign.

Examples of early hunting petroglyphs found on rocks.
Common warning, danger, and alert signs using ideograms.
 Ideograms from the Rio Summer Olympic Games.

The ideograms for each of the events of the Olympic Games are
recognizable not because of the picture itself, but because of the association
with that sports event. If we see a picture of a swimmer, we know it has to
do with swimming, but we don’t know what exactly. Similarly, a symbol of
an archer gives us the idea of “someone shooting a bow and arrow,” but it
only means the archery events when used in the connotation of the Olympic
Games. Above are some of the most popular ideograms from the 2016 Rio
Summer Olympic Games.
The word “ideograph” has a meaning in spoken language as well. An
ideograph is a made-up word that is used to represent broad concepts but
has no meaning in the real world. Examples are political and business
“buzzwords,” such terms as “fake news,” “exit strategy,” “face time,” and
“alternative facts” are bandied about as though they actually mean
something, when in fact they are simply rhetoric or jargon spoken to make
the user seem “smart.”
A number of written languages are considered to be ideographic.
Linguists prefer to use the term logographic when discussing languages
such as Chinese and Egyptian, because the symbols often represent whole
words or concepts, as ideographs do, but they are part of an actual written
language. For the purposes of this book, we’ll call them ideographic. We’ll
explore this concept further in chapter 9, Language. Ideograms are
ubiquitous; a global economy would be impossible without barrier-free
ways to communicate.
Imagine the difficulties of day-to-day life if every idea we thought and
every concept we tried to share required that we spell out that idea in over a
hundred different languages. Chaos would ensue. Symbols like these not
only convey generally universal concepts but also save time, space, and
materials in getting the message across.
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 CHAPTER

9
Language

T here are over six thousand spoken languages in the world, and a third of
those have less than one thousand speakers, including languages of
indigenous peoples in the Americas and Australia, as well as a number of
Slavic languages. When we look at written languages, that number declines
considerably.
 As human beings, we are programmed to develop oral communication.
Our tongues are thick and muscular, allowing for the formation of
thousands of different sounds; our brains have large frontal lobes that
process, store, and interpret auditory input. Children learn spoken language
by hearing it being used, and by age five most children have acquired an
extensive vocabulary.
Written language acquisition requires an entirely different skillset, and
people must be taught how to read and write. We can examine the shapes of
letters in different languages as symbols.
English is considered to be the universal language of business. Over 90
percent of business transactions are conducted in English, and speakers of
the English language are numerous on every continent. However, the
language with the most users on the planet is Mandarin Chinese, with over
a billion estimated speakers. English is a close second.
Ideographic Languages
As previously mentioned, Chinese and its sister languages Japanese and
Korean (henceforth abbreviated CJK) are ideographic languages, in that
the letter forms represent words and ideas rather than sounds. So, while
written English requires the separate letters C-A-T to make the word “cat,”
CJK languages will use a symbol like the ones on this page.
Chinese, Japanese, and Korean Languages
Even though the three languages are quite different, they have a common
background. Thus, they were all able to achieve a standardization of the
characters that they shared (called Han unification) to produce the symbol
set known as CJK Unified Ideographs, which can be used by anyone in
those countries (plus Vietnam) to represent the same object or idea. The
CJK symbol for “cat” is , which is the same as the Chinese character.
This symbol is actually pronounced mão or maaul, meaning it represents
the sound the cat makes! Such practices make ideographic languages much
harder to learn, since one must memorize hundreds of different symbols for
words. CJK languages also have a common root, and the Han unification
has made communicating in those languages somewhat easier. To the right
are the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean characters for “tree.”
Looking at these, we can see that the character is very different in all
three languages, but the CJK Unicode symbol is U6733, which represents a
generic tree. There are a good half dozen other CJK symbols for “tree” that
mean specific types of trees. The term “CJK” arises from the transcription
of such symbols into computer Unicode—the universal symbols that all
computers use. There is an entire computer data base called Unihan, with
symbols for the characters that overlap in Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and
Vietnamese languages.

The Chinese character and CJK symbol for “cat.”

 Chinese character for tree.

Japanese character for tree.

Korean character for tree.

The CJK Unicode symbol for "tree."

 In written form, can represent tree, log, wood, or timber; adjectives
such as “wooden” or “emotionless”; or things made from wood. In Hanja
Korean, the symbol can be used as an abbreviation for the weekday
Thursday, while in Han Vietnamese it can represent a number of different
plants, including magnolia, papaya, and kudzu fruit. When combined with
other symbols, as in , the symbol doesn’t mean “wood” at all; instead, it
represents the sound mù. The subtleties become apparent in the spoken
languages, where intonation and pitch make worlds of difference in what
the word means.
One of the factors to consider when we look at symbols in language is
that, over time, symbols tend to change with use. There is an enormous
amount of variation among the various written forms of CJK languages,
which include formal, informal, abbreviated, and script forms of the
symbols. Once literal drawings that resembled the words they represented,
over time the drawings began to become simplified and less pictorial.
Eventually, when the symbols were no longer strict representations of
nouns, their meanings were standardized by tacit agreement among users.
Alphabetical Languages
In alphabetical languages like English, Greek, or Russian, even though the
letters themselves are different, users have a limited number of letters to
remember. English has twenty-six letters, Greek has twenty-four, and
Russian has thirty-three, not including capital and small versions of each
letter. Mandarin currently has over fifty thousand characters—with only
twenty thousand or so in common use!
The Greek alphabet.
The Russian alphabet.
 The Sumerian cuneiform alphabet.

Examining symbolism in language is obviously an enormous task. One

of the first things we can look at is the similar origins of certain languages.
Spanish, Italian, and Portuguese are often referred to as romance
languages, not because of the flowery expressions they contain, but
because of their common roots in the ancient Roman language of Latin.
Frequently, words from these languages may sound very similar to each
other. The Spanish word for “head” is cabeza; in Italian it is capo; in
Portuguese it is cabeça (pronounced the same as the Spanish word). In fact,
speakers of one of these languages can usually make themselves understood
by speakers of the others.
The Epic of Gilgamesh on a cuneiform clay tablet from the Babylonian period 2000–
1595 BCE.
Bronze Age Languages
Babylonian, Assyrian, and other Bronze Age written languages trace their
origins to the shapes from cuneiform, which was produced using a stylus
(the writing implement used in the ancient world) on clay tablets.
The Sumerians created cuneiform around 3500 BCE; it is recognized as
the first written language—as a language composed of letters rather than
ideograms like hieroglyphics. The unique wedge shape comes from the
reeds that were cut to use as styli. Reed plants have triangular stems and
very rigid cell walls made up of strong fibers. This structure made the plant
sturdy enough to maintain its shape after cutting, yet still have enough
flexibility to be comfortable for the writer to hold.
Cattails are a familiar member of the reed family. Some biblical scholars
believe that the name “Red Sea” is actually a mistranslation of “reed sea.”
Cuneiform was largely extinct by the first century CE, and the meaning
of its forms was lost. It wasn’t until the nineteenth-century archeological
boom that researchers were able to translate the mysterious symbols again,
and in so doing, they recovered what is presently the oldest-known literary
work, The Epic of Gilgamesh. An epic is a story-poem that typically
describes the great heroics of some hero of legend. Homer’s Odyssey is
another example of an epic; the stories of Gilgamesh pre-date The Odyssey
by well over 2,500 years.
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 CHAPTER

10
Manufacturing

M anufacturing is the ability to create an object on a large scale with the

help of specialized machines. Ironically, the word comes from
the Latin for “make by hand.” Symbols in manufacturing include not only
process directions for making things, but also handling, shipping, use,
and care symbols for different objects.
 Basic process flow-chart symbols indicate not only the steps that go into
a process, but also the order in which they occur.
These shapes may take on different colors and shadings, but the basic
geometry remains the same, giving manufacturing processes conformity
and making them reproducible. This reproducibility is vital for mechanizing
the manufacture of goods; without it, standardization of manufactured
goods would be impossible. So, for example, when you went to buy a
dinette set you might find that none of the chairs matched each other, but
standardization allows the maker to produce the same chair over and over
again, perfectly.

Manufacturing flow chart with common production icons.

Shipping Symbols
Ensuring reproducible results are not the only concern in manufacturing.
Another major area of potential loss of profits or sales is product damage.
Shipping symbols specify detailed instructions for wrapping and handling
goods to minimize damage. Below are some examples of shipping and
handling symbols. Here are their meanings:

A) Keep dry
B) Fragile
C) Handle with care
D) Do not step on
E) Caution
F) This end up
G) Recyclable
H) Type 1 recyclable
I) Flammable
J) Temperature limits
K) Stackable up to twelve cartons per stack
L) Do not stack more than fifteen cartons per stack

Shipping and handling symbols.

Industrial Engineer Symbols
Industrial engineers use a combination of specialty knowledge and applied
sciences to create and then evaluate results from manufacturing systems and
processes. Depending on the results, industrial engineers may create new
processes to coordinate materials and machines that will improve the
quality and productivity of systems.

Common industrial engineering and manufacturing icons.

 In addition to the ideograms, colors and shapes help draw attention to
handling concerns.
The triangle shape and bright yellow coloring are both standard for a
caution sign. Adding ideographs to the sign defines what the hazard is.
The sign to the right of the caution sign employs not only the color,
shape, and icon for “slipping hazard,” but also indicates what can happen if
we're not careful. Businesses use these to protect themselves against being
sued.
 Caution sign.

Beware of slippery surface sign.

Product Usage Symbols
Product use and care symbols are also utilized in manufacturing.
GINETEX, the International Association for Textile Care Labeling, has
created trademarked symbols for the various methods of laundering
clothing. The geometric symbols (including a triangle for “bleaching,” a
square for “drying,” and a circle for “professional care”) have additional
numbers and symbols inside them that represent methods such as hand-
washing, cold water temperatures, iron temperature settings, and drying
methods like line drying or machine drying. These symbols can be found on
textile goods produced in most countries to ensure uniformity in the care of
such goods.

Common clothing care symbols and their meanings.

OceanofPDF.com
 CHAPTER

11
Medical

M edical symbology encompasses everything from the familiar

biohazard symbol to icons for every single limb and organ. Medicine
benefits from symbology by allowing a simple pictograph to stand in for a
complex idea (such as medical waste), saving critical time and resources for
practicing the science. This chapter will list some medical symbols that are
frequently seen, but perhaps not understood.
Caduceus
Any discussion of medical symbolism has got to start with this iconic
symbol. The caduceus has been a symbol of the medical profession since
the twelfth century CE—or has it? The US Army Medical Corps made the
caduceus their official symbol in 1902. However, historically it was not this
winged staff that stood for healing but a very similar symbol called the Rod
of Asclepius. When the two symbols are viewed side by side, the
differences between them are more apparent. The caduceus consists of an
upright pole, or staff, around which two identical snakes are wrapped,
topped by a pair of wings. The wings refer to the Greek god Hermes, the
winged messenger to the gods, who was the guardian of thieves,
messengers, and merchants (the implications of this grouping of professions
were not accidental in the Greek mind!).

The caduceus symbol for medicine.

Illustration of Hermes, the winged messenger of the gods.
 The Rod of Asclepius symbol.

The Rod of Asclepius, on the other hand, shows a rough wooden staff or
walking stick with a single snake wrapped around it, and no wings. This
talisman belonged to the Greek god of healing, Asklepios (improper
spelling of the god’s name is common). The American Medical Association
adopted the Rod of Asclepius as their official symbol in 1912, and a number
of other world medical groups followed suit.
While the Rod of Asclepius is a pagan symbol, the staff and the snake
also harken to the Old Testament story of Moses, who made Aaron’s staff
turn into a serpent at Pharaoh’s feet. This demonstrated the power of the
God of Moses, and Pharaoh let the Israelites leave Egypt. (Exodus 7:10).
The symbol of the staff and the snake can also refer to the Old Testament
story of Eve in the Garden of Eden (Genesis 3:1–20). The serpent (which
did not crawl upon its belly until after God cursed it for tricking Eve) is
associated with the Tree of Knowledge, and artistic renditions frequently
show a snake coiled or looped in a tree.
Illustration of Asklepios, the Greek god of healing.
The serpent in the Garden of Eden wrapped around the Tree of Knowledge.
Star of Life
The Rod of Asclepius makes another appearance in this symbol. The Star
of Life—a white, six-legged star on a blue field—is the symbol for
emergency medical services, or first responders, including ambulances and
paramedics. The six legs of the star correspond to the six steps that EMTs
must take at the scene.

The Star of Life symbol.

First Aid Symbol
The white cross on a green square is the international symbol for first aid.
The white cross has long been used as a symbol for medical aid, which
might have stemmed from the historical use of the white cloth or flags
waved on the battlefield to indicate non-combatant or surrendering
personnel. The Order of the Knights Hospitaller was founded during the
Crusades to give aid to both pilgrims and crusaders on the road to the Holy
Land. Their symbol—a white cross on a red field—has since become the
widely recognized symbol of medical aid, and it has also persisted as the
flag of the Knights of Malta, which they later became known as. This
symbol is often confused with that of the Red Cross, which is a red cross
on a white field and a trademark of the International Committee of the Red
Cross. This humanitarian organization was founded in 1863 and has global
authority (recognized under international humanitarian law) to provide aid
to victims of armed conflict. The organization has won three Nobel Peace
Prizes.

First Aid symbol.

 Medical Aid symbol.

The Red Cross symbol.

The Knights Hospitaller during the Crusades, later known as the Knights of Malta.
Bowl of Hygieia
Also known as the Snake and Bowl, the Bowl of Hygieia is one of the
symbols of the pharmacy profession. Hygieia was the Greek goddess of
health and hygiene, as well as the wife/daughter of Asclepius (Greek god of
healing). This repeated association of the snake symbol with medicine
evolved from the clandestine use of miniscule amounts of poisonous
substances as curatives. Treatments for syphilis and other sexually
transmitted diseases involved arsenic, a highly poisonous heavy metal.

The Bowl of Hygieia symbol.

Illustration of the Hygieia, the Greek goddess of health and hygiene.
Prescription Take
This symbol is derived from the Latin recipe, meaning “take” (as in ingest).
The word is the same source for the English word recipe, which refers to
cooking instructions. The legged-R with a stroke has long been associated
with the writing and dispensing of prescription medication. It is believed
that the use originated with Venetian apothecaries in medieval times.

Prescription symbol.
The Double Helix
A thousand years before the structure of DNA was determined, its shape
was eerily echoed in the intertwining snakes of the caduceus. The double
helix describes the “twisted-ladder” structure of the strands of molecules
that make up the genetic code in chromosomes. The structure of the double
helix was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953, giving
rise to modern molecular biology.

DNA double helices.

Hospital
A block-style capital letter “H” is commonly used to indicate a hospital or
hospital zone. The colors blue and white are typical, but other colors may
be used.

Common hospital sign.

Biohazard
Biohazards (biological hazards) are biological materials or substances that
pose a danger to living organisms, especially human beings. Examples
include microorganisms, viruses, and toxins, as well as medical waste such
as used syringes and bandages. The biohazard symbol was designed by
Dow Chemical Company engineer Charles Baldwin in 1966 for use on the
company’s chemical containers. The symbol takes style cues from the
symbol for radiation.

Biohazard sign.
Radiation
Also known as the trefoil (an imprecise term), the symbol for ionizing
radiation is meant to represent an atom giving off energy or “rays.” It was
first used at the University of California, Berkeley, Radiation Laboratory in
1946. There, it was magenta and blue, but it was later changed to “caution
yellow” and black. Note that this symbol is very similar to the fallout
shelter symbol discussed shown here. Radiation therapy is a vital part of
today’s medicine, not just in imaging—X‑ray, CAT, and MRI which uses
electromagnetic radiation—but also in the treatment of numerous cancers
and tumors.

Radiation sign.
Other Medical Symbols
A great number of medical symbols are pictograms that show particular
medical practices or specialties. Informal symbols are also found in
medicine. One symbol is now associated with the medical marijuana
business, while this is an artistic rendering of the Holistic (or Reiki) Angel,
a symbol for holistic healing.
The other major branches of medical practice and their symbols are
shown on the left. Optometry features a caduceus with an eye at the top.
Veterinary medicine utilizes a capital letter “V” mounted on the Rod of
Asclepius. The symbol for dentistry starts with the Rod of Asclepius in the
center of the Greek letters delta and omicron. The letter omicron stands for
the word odont, meaning “tooth.” In the background, branches with thirty-
two leaves and twenty berries represent the number of permanent and the
number of primary (“baby”) teeth. The color lilac is the official color of
dentistry, symbolizing compassion. Chiropractics utilizes a winged human
figure (or angel) wrapped in a ribbon bearing the words “health” and
“chiropractic.” Chiropractic is not recognized as a “medical” profession, but
its providers are doctors with professional degrees and years of internship
under their belts.

Optometry symbol.
Veterinary symbol.

Dentistry symbol.
 Chiropractic symbol.

Modern design of the Holistic Angel.

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 CHAPTER

12
Military

T he military (for our purposes defined as any group of armed personnel

sanctioned to fight for a country) is rife with symbols. The stripes and bars
on military uniforms are insignia and are used to indicate rank in the US
military. Non-commissioned personnel (that is, people who have not
completed an officer preparatory program in a service academy such as
West Point or the US Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado)
utilize a system of stripes, and may often be referred to by the number of
stripes (e.g. a “three-stripe” sergeant). Non-commissioned officers (NCOs
or “noncoms”) get their ranks by virtue of experience and excellence in
performance of their duties. They are usually responsible for directly
supervising soldiers under them (termed the “enlisted” ranks).
Commissioned officers gain their ranks by “commission” (e.g. a
contract) with the government. These officers enter the military through the
services academies or through Reserve Officers’ Training Corps (ROTC) or
Officer Candidate School (OCS). They get their initial ranks (usually 2nd
Lieutenant) upon graduation from the program, then they enter the service
branch of their choice.
Commissioned officers in all branches of the US military utilize the
same set of symbols for the various ranks, even though the names of those
ranks may differ. The tables shown here–here show the list of rank insignia
and their terms for each branch of the US military. Note that those for the
Army and Air Force (which was formerly the Army Air Corps during
World War II) are the same; the Navy and the Marines (which is technically
under the jurisdiction of the Navy) differ.
US Marine Corps rank insignia.

US Navy rank insignia.

US Air Force rank insignia.
US Army enlisted rank insignia.
Marines
The Marines use the rank symbols of the Army but not the metal insignia;
they use textile versions of the symbols on active duty uniforms in keeping
with their “ready for action” ethic. Only the dress uniform uses the metal
insignia.
Navy
The Navy retains the stripes and terms originally borrowed from the British
Royal Navy; the Navy rank of Ensign is equivalent to the Army rank of 2nd
Lieutenant (2LT), while the Navy rank of Captain is equivalent to the rank
of Colonel in the other service branches. In the Navy, a Captain is in charge
of his own ship; in the Army/Air Force/Marines a Colonel is in charge of
the fort/base/camp. Additionally, the rank of Colonel has two levels:
Lieutenant Colonel, an intermediary rank a step above Major (indicated
with change of the gold “oak-leaf cluster” of a Major to the silver oak-leaf
cluster of the Lt. Colonel); and Colonel—also termed Full Colonel, or “full
bird,” for the eagle that replaces the oak-leaf cluster on a full Colonel’s
uniform.
Armed Services
The top positions in the Armed Services of the US are the Generals of the
Army and the Air Force, and the Fleet Admiral of the Navy. These people
are the so-called “five-star” generals, and their positions are appointed by
the President, with Senate approval. “Five-star” status is historically only
recognized during wartime in the US; practically speaking, however, the
President can bestow a fifth star any time he wishes. The Joint Chiefs of
Staff of the Armed Forces are currently four-star generals, and they are
permanently assigned to the Pentagon and not the battlefield.
Warrant Officer
The Navy, Marines, and Army also recognize a rank known as Warrant
Officer. Rated grades W1–4, warrant officers are specialists such as pilots
and engineers who rank above NCOs but below commissioned officers. The
grade CW5 is reserved for highly-skilled experts that serve at brigade level
and above. The Army uses helicopters, and their pilots receive WO grades.
While in the Air Force, pilots are strictly commissioned officers. The Navy
and Marines utilize both warrant officer and commissioned officer pilots.

US Army warrant officer rank insignia.

US Navy and US Coast Guard warrant officer rank insignia.

Military Emblems
Aside from rank insignia, military groups of various sizes use emblems
(defined for our purposes as a (heraldic) device or object; “heraldic” refers
to the use by military personnel of symbols in a coat-of-arms fashion on
shields, badges, and patches). Such emblems indicate membership or
participation in various missions, battles, or specialized group operations.
The emblem of the US 1st Cavalry Division, for example, shows the unit’s
history as a horse-mounted cavalry following World War I.

The US 1st Calvary Division emblem.

Adding words and other symbols to the basic design allows each brigade
and sub-unit to have its own emblem. The emblem of the US Navy,
includes the United States eagle device holding an anchor in its talons. The
chain is an anchor chain. The emblem is a registered trademark of the US
Navy.
The official seal of the US Navy (shown here), on the other hand, is
strictly regulated in its use by the Department of Defense. It differs in a
number of significant ways from the emblem, including the execution of the
eagle symbol and the inclusion of a masted ship and historical flags in the
ship’s rigging. The eagle is the official bird of the United States, and its
association with the anchor symbol has represented the Navy since the
1840s. Use of land, sea, and sky in the seal indicates the Navy’s supporting
roles in all elements. The rigging of the sails in the seal echoes the sextant,
a mechanical device used to navigate the seas in historical times—and in
modern times as a back-up to electrical or satellite navigation.

US Army seal.

US Armed Forces seal.

 US Navy seal.

US Marine Corps seal.

 US Coast Guard seal.

Department of Homeland Security emblem.

On these two pages are the emblems and official seals of the other three
departments of the US military, along with the emblem for the US Coast
Guard, which may become active under the Navy in times of war. During
peacetime, the Coast Guard operates under the Department of Homeland
Security, which was created in 2002 following the 9/11 attacks. The
emblem of the Department of Homeland Security includes part of the Great
Seal of the United States, as well as symbols for the elements that make up
the country’s mountains, plains, and waterways. The stars on the shield
represent the twenty-plus agencies that were consolidated under the DHS
upon its formation.
The Army also utilizes this as an emblem of service, and this as a current
logo. There are over 1.4 million soldiers in the US Army, making it the
second-largest army in the world—second only to China, with over 2.2
million soldiers (according to 2014 statistics). The US Department of
Defense is the world’s largest employer, including active duty personnel,
guardsmen, reservists, and civilians numbering nearly 3 million. Across the
globe, tens of thousands of sanctioned and unsanctioned military bodies use
different insignia and emblems on uniforms, flags, and machinery.

US Army emblem.
US Marine Corps emblem.

US Air Force emblem.

US Coast Guard emblem.

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 CHAPTER

13
Music

M usic is the universal language, so they say. There are hundreds of

different musical styles, such as jazz, classical, rock and roll, hip-hop, K-
pop, black metal, grindcore, and witch house. Some of these may be
considered sub-genres, but regardless, music has existed in various forms
since prehistoric times. The oldest scientifically-agreed-upon musical
instruments are flutes, which are associated with the Aurignacian people of
southwest Germany and date back some forty thousand years. An earlier
association with Neanderthals has since been debunked.
It is known that the Egyptians had musical instruments by 4000 BCE
and early Europeans by 2500 BCE, but so far none of their compositions
have been recovered. The oldest written music that has been recovered is a
fragment of a piece written in cuneiform, not in musical notation, that
belongs to the Sumerians. The piece is part of a hymn for the god/king
Lipit-Ishtar.

The oldest-known complete tune, “Hurrian Hymn No. 6” in cuneiform.

 Egyptian instrument players.

An Upper Paleolithic flute from Geissenklösterle, in the Swabian region of southern Germany.

The oldest-known complete tune is called “Hurrian Hymn No. 6,”

which was written ca. 1400 BCE for Nikkal, the Phoenician goddess of fruit
and orchards. The Hurrians were a Bronze Age people who lived in the
area of Anatolia (modern Turkey) and Northern Mesopotamia (modern
Iraq).
To find the world’s oldest-surviving complete composition (musical
notation and lyrics), we must look to the first century CE, to a Greek song
called the “Seikilos Epitaph.” The piece is named for the person mentioned
in the words and for its use as a tombstone inscription.
Music notation as we know it now was not invented until ca. 1000 CE by
an Italian variously named Guido d’Arezzo, Guido Monaco, and others. As
a music theorist, he studied the forms and creation of music; he replaced the
Greek neume (from the word pneuma, meaning “breath”) system—which
denoted relative pitch but not specific notes or rhythm—with a four-line
staff and specific notes. He also invented solfège (or solfeggio) the do-re-
mi scale for voice pitch. Variations of the system are used in India (swara)
and Japan (jianpu). The term solmization covers all systems for assigning a
separate, specific syllable to each note of a music scale.
The Catholic church was responsible for the standardization of music
notation in medieval times. The church wanted monks to be able to
reproduce exactly the same sounds in plainchant (e.g. Gregorian chant) in
every church and venue. Plainchant is a style of singing where there is no
harmony—that is, every singer sings either the same exact notes at the same
time, or the same notes an octave above or below the main melody. The
result is monophonic (“one sound”) music. Plainchant often features a “call-
and-response” format, where a soloist sings a complex melody and a choir
responds with a simpler melody.
Guido d’Arezzo.
A medieval thirteenth-century sheet of music of Gregorian chants.
Music Symbols
Music symbols are very straightforward. The notes are determined by the
placement of the same set of symbols on different lines and spaces of the
staff. In current practice, we use a five-line staff, with each line and space
assigned a particular note labeled A, B, C, D, E, F, G. The notes repeat in
the same order above the staff and in reverse order below the staff. The
mnemonic for the notes EGBDF on the line is the phrase “Every Good Boy
Does Fine,” while the notes F, A, C, E in the spaces are recalled by the
word “FACE.” Notes above or below the staff are carried by ledger lines.

Here are notes and their placement on the treble clef staff. Lines represent the notes EGBDF
while the spaces represent the notes FACE.

Here are notes and their placement on the bass clef staff. Lines represent the notes GBDFA
while the spaces represent the notes ACEG.

The first thing that must be noticed in a piece of music is the clef. There
are two basic clefs: treble and bass. Treble clef denotes the higher notes (on
and above the staff) of musical instruments, while bass clef represents the
lower notes. The symbol for treble clef (also called G clef) is a stylized
“G,” with the tail encircling the line of the G note above middle C. Middle
C is defined as the C note nearest the center of a standard piano keyboard.
This is the exact same note, whether it’s represented on the treble or the
bass clef.

Middle C on the piano.

The bass clef (pronounced BAYss—not like the fish—also called F clef)
symbol is a curve that begins on the F below middle C on the bass staff,
reaches the top, then ends at or just below the B note on the staff. The curve
derives from a stylized letter F; two dots are added in the spaces above and
below the F-note line, framing that line. In bass clef, the line notes G, B, D,
F, A are remembered by the phrase “Great Big Dumb Flying Aviators,” or
other appropriate (or inappropriate!) words. Space notes A, C, E, G are
usually recalled by “All Cows Eat Grass.”
 Treble clef.

Which clef you read on a piece of sheet music depends on which

instrument you are playing. The treble clef is played by familiar instruments
such as the flute, clarinet, trumpet, and guitar. These instruments are
capable of playing notes both above the staff (high notes) and below the
staff (low notes), but they find their most common range in the middle
registers. Register is the music term for how high a note is that the
instrument is capable of playing. For example, a B-flat (tuned) standard
clarinet can reach notes as high as a C six spaces above the staff, if the
player is an expert with years of practice in modulating the pressure of lips
and tongue.
 Bass clef.

The bass clef is usually played by instruments with deep tones capable of
expressing the lowest notes such as bass clarinet, bassoon, tuba, and double
bass (or contrabass). A standard B-flat clarinet can reach a D four spaces
below register. The deeper instruments can play from either the treble clef
(by transposing the notes to bass) or the bass clef. Alto and bass model
clarinets can reach notes considerably lower than the standard instrument,
with bass clarinets commonly playing a full octave below standard
clarinets.

Alto clef.

In addition to the symbol for bass clef, we also have the symbol for alto
or tenor clef. The symbol features stylized Cs—reversed and upside down
—that meet at a point. Where the tip of the point rests indicates whether it
is alto or tenor clef.

Tenor clef.

Returning to our basics, different notes are represented by symbols on

the staff (the series of lines and spaces) and where they fall. This placement
defines the pitch of the note (e.g. its sound). Notes are defined as having
both pitch and duration (the length of the note). Musical notation represents
the pitch by the location and duration by the shape of the note. While we
are not attempting to teach how to read music here (as it can get really
complicated really fast), a discussion of note lengths is in order.

Whole note.

Above is a whole note. It is so-called because the duration of the note is

equal to one whole measure. A measure, in simplest terms, is the number
of beats (downstrokes of a conductor’s wand, or “blaats” from a wind
instrument, for example) that occur in each bar of music. Bars are vertical
lines that break up a long stretch of staff.
To express measure, musicians say a piece of music has “four beats”—or
however many beats—to the bar. What they’re saying is that there are going
to be four “counts” between each bar on the staff. If we were to say the
count out loud, we would say “one, two, three, four” and be at the next bar.
We would have played just one single (whole) note held for four beats.

Time Signature:
4 = Four beats in a measure
4 = Quarter note gets one beat

Common time symbols.

The time signature is a pair of numbers, one above the other, that
indicates how many beats should be in each bar/measure on a piece of sheet
music (abbreviated “sheet” from here on). The top number indicates the
number of beats in each bar, while the bottom number defines what type or
“length” of note gets the beat. In our example at top, there are four beats to
each bar (top number), and the quarter note gets the downbeat (bottom
number). Read the bottom number as ; we know it’s the quarter note
because there are four quarter notes to a bar. The example above right
indicates “common time.” Common time is another name for “four-four”
or time. The “c” is an abbreviation for common time; the “c” with a line
through it means “cut time” or time. Cut time is common for marches
where every other note is a downbeat.
A marking of (four-four) means that there are (four) quarter notes in
each bar—or (two) half notes, or (one) whole note. Remember, the name of
the note refers to how many of them are in each measure; a whole note is
still a whole note, whether it is in , , or any other time signature. Only
the speed at which the note is played changes. “Speed” is also called
tempo, from the Latin tempus, meaning “time.”
Here is a half note; there are two half notes in a measure, so each note
equals one half measure. The count in time would still be “one, two,
three, four,” but each half note is going to get two counts (e.g. “one, two”
for the first half note and “three, four” for the second).

Half note.

Here is a quarter note; there are four quarter notes in a measure, so each
note equals one quarter of a measure. A similar example would be four
quarts of milk is equal to one gallon. The Latin quattour means “four.” The
count in time would be “one (note), two (note), three (note), four (note).”
 Quarter note.

Here is an eighth note; there are (eight) eighth notes in a measure, so

each note equals one-eighth of a measure. In time, the count is usually
given as “one-and (two notes), two-and (two notes), three-and (two notes),
four-and (last two notes).”

Eighth note.

Here is a sixteenth note; (sixteen) sixteenth notes in a measure means

each note is one-sixteenth of a measure. The count in time becomes “one-
ee-and-a (four notes), two-ee-and-a (four notes), three-ee-and-a (four
notes), four-ee-and-a (last four notes).”
 Sixteenth note.

Likewise, this continues with thirty-second notes, sixty-fourth, and even

an incredible one-hundred-twenty-eighth note—a note so ridiculously brief
it is practically never seen in compositions.
Just to make things even more interesting, European (particularly
British) musicians may call the different notes by Latin-derived names:

• Whole note: semibreve (pronounced SEM EE breev); there used to be a

note called the breve, but it is no longer used in modern notation.
• Half note: minim (MIH nim)
• Quarter note: crotchet (CRAW chet) [the ‘ch’ is hard, like in children];
note that there is an extra “T” in the middle of this word—it is not “crow
SHAY”)
• Eighth note: quaver (KWAY ver)
• Sixteenth note: semiquaver (SEM EE kway ver)
• Thirty-second note: demisemiquaver (DEM EE sem ee kway ver); be
aware that a thirty-second note is of a whole note—NOT a note that
lasts for thirty seconds!
• Sixty-fourth note: hemidemisemiquaver (HEM EE dem ee sem ee kway
ver); Brits may call this a semidemisemiquaver.
 Sharp.

Flat.

Natural sign.
 From left to right, natural, flat, and sharp music symbols on an F note on a treble clef staff.

Notes can be changed by the addition of flats and sharps. A sharp

changes the note by raising its tone one half-step higher than normal. The
example below shows an F being raised to F-sharp (the third note in the
illustration). The sharp sign can appear either just before the note itself, or
in the key signature to the right of the clef sign. If it appears before the note,
the note is sharp only that one time; if it appears in the signature, every note
on that same line will be sharp.
Flats, conversely, lower the note by one half-step/tone. A flat may also
appear before the note or in the signature. As with sharps, flats in the
signature indicate that all notes on that line are flats.
The natural sign is not that common; it usually appears before notes that
have been sharped or flatted in the key signature, or directly following a
selected sharp or flat note. The natural sign tells the musician that the note
should be played at its normal (e.g. “natural”) tone, rather than a half-step
higher or lower. The natural sign cancels the sharp or flat that occurs before
it. Naturals rarely appear in the key signature.
Here are some more music signs.

This is a double sharp (also shown as ##); it raises the tone of the note a whole step,
which has the effect of changing the note to the next full tone above it. Most musicians
just write the affected note as the higher natural note, rather than double sharping the
lower note.

Likewise this is a double flat; it lowers the tone of the note one whole step. The same
conventions apply to its use. In the preceding example, B double flat is the same as
natural A.
This means “grab a breath!” It’s most common in long strings of notes.

This is a coda. This tells the musician to repeat the section of music following it. It is
common in symphony music.

These are examples of “repeat” marks.

This is called a fermata (or “bird's eye”). It indicates that the note below it (rarely above)
is to be held longer than the standard; precisely how long is up to the conductor.

This is a segno. Used with dal segno (d.s., “from the sign”) on sheet, it’s another repeat
mark.

An italicized lowercase “p” on sheet means soft from Latin piano. Indicates volume at
which the passage should be played.
Very soft (pianissimo); this may also be called “double piano.”

Extra soft (pianississimo); this may also be called “triple piano.”

Super extra soft (like, you can’t even hear it).

An italicized lowercase “f” on sheet means loud, from the Latin forte.

Very loud (fortissimo); may be called “double forte.”

Extra loud (fortississimo); may be called “triple forte.”

Super extra loud (give it everything you’ve got!).

This is for sforzando (from the Latin for “forced”); it indicates that the note or notes get a
heavy accent or emphasis.

A lowercase, italicized “m” stands for mezzo (from the Latin for “middle” or “half”); used
before the p or the f (mp, mf; mezzopiano, mezzoforte), it means that the note is medium
soft or medium loud. Keep your eyes on the conductor!
This symbol stands for crescendo (from the Latin crescere “to grow”); it means “to get
gradually louder.”
 This symbol stands for decrescendo (from the Latin decrescere “down/off/away from
growing”); it means “to gradually get softer.” It may also be termed diminuendo (Italian
for “decreasing” or “diminishing”).

The line between two notes like this stands for glissando (from the French word glisser
“to glide”); the notes are played by “gliding” from one to the next—which usually
involves some sort of smashing together of the notes between the two. Don’t confuse this
with a slide, or portamento (Italian for “carry”); a portamento moves from one note to
another without playing the notes between (recall the definition “to carry”); there’s a sort
of “jump” (which isn’t heard) between the two notes.
Or a line may be labeled “port” to distinguish it from a glissando.

Glissando.

Portamento, two methods.

There are hundreds more flourishes that are used to dictate how a
particular piece of music is played. Professional musicians know the rules
—then bend them to suit their own styles and interpretations. This means
music is ever evolving and changing, becoming more—greater—than just
the sum of its parts.
A sheet of music with notes and music symbols illustrated.

OceanofPDF.com
 CHAPTER

14
Mythology

W hen we look at symbols in mythology, we don’t generally mean

pictograms or ideograms, what we’re usually referring to are the concepts
that such symbols represent. For example, the phoenix—a bird from
Egyptian mythology—represents the concept of reincarnation or renewal.
The bird is said to burn to ash at day’s end, and then be born anew from the
ash. The story has variations, but the bird is frequently illustrated as being
in flames, or having flaming feathers, and has counterparts in Greek,
Chinese ( or fenghuang), and indigenous American (thunderbird)
mythology. The sighting of fenghuang is said to presage the birth of a new
emperor; the thunderbird is a monstrous bird that creates thunder by
flapping its wings and brings rain to the desert.

The Chinese phoenix, or fenghuang.

The concept of renewal, rebirth, and starting over is common to most

mythologies. Egyptians had elaborate rituals to prepare the bodies of the
dead (particularly those of pharaohs and nobles) for what they believed was
physical rebirth in the next world.

A Native American thunderbird depiction.

Hinduism embraces rebirth in a spiritual sense; for them, reincarnation

means that the soul will be transferred (the correct term is transmigration)
from one physical body to another after death, with the idea of becoming
more “perfect” (termed moksha, or enlightenment) with every incarnation.
We will examine Hinduism more closely in chapter 16, Religion.
Buddhism, on the other hand, teaches the concept of continual birth-
death-rebirth as a cycle that repeats as we try to gain enlightenment, and
ultimately nirvana—transcendence into oneness with everything. There is
no spirit or soul of the individual in Buddhism. Again, we will take a deeper
look at Buddhism in chapter 16. So, what do we mean by mythology?
Mythology is collection of myths that usually belong to a specific cultural
or religious tradition. Some synonyms include myths, folklore, legends,
tradition, and folk tales.
The phoenix.
ANIMALS
In all of mythology, animals figure the most prominently as symbols. This
isn’t surprising given early man’s dependence on nature for food, clothing,
shelter, and everything else that they needed to survive. In modern times,
we find ourselves frequently distanced from the flora and fauna of the wild,
satisfied to settle for domestic versions of creatures we once revered as
gods. We call ourselves “civilized” when we are no longer required to
prowl the land with spear or bow in order to eat every day; when we
needn’t leave our high-rise abodes for weeks at a time if we don’t wish to;
when “food” need only be wrangled from a shelf or commanded to our
doorsteps via phone or computer. Let’s examine some prominent animals in
mythology.
Wolf
This animal (or his cousin, the coyote) was once feared and respected as a
predator and model of community cooperation. Mongol peoples believed
that wolves were their ancestors—in parts of Europe, wolves were so feared
that they were associated with the unholy, including witches and devils, and
gave rise to stories of hideous man-wolf hybrids that tore people apart and
damned their souls.

Wolf.
Fenrir
In Norse mythology, this is the monstrous wolf destined to eat the world
when Ragnarök comes.

A Norse fenrir.
Capitoline Wolf
Wolves were sometimes seen as nurturing, too. In Roman mythology,
Romulus and Remus—the twin brothers who founded the city of Rome—
were nursed by a she-wolf.
In Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book, Mowgli is raised by a wolf pack
after being orphaned by the tiger Shere Khan. Tradition has it that wolves
are the direct ancestors of domestic dogs, but newer research indicates that
dogs broke away from a type of wolf that has since become extinct. This
diversion occurred before the end of the last glacial period (around fifteen
thousand years ago) and is agreed upon based on fossil and DNA evidence.
Modern wolves are descended from a different canine line, and they are not
closely related genetically to the animals that gave rise to dogs.

The Capitoline wolf with the twins Romulus and Remus, the symbol of Rome.
Coyote
In American indigenous lore, the coyote was the trickster god, an anarchical
prankster and wicked liar who led the unwary astray and brought chaos to
order. Tricksters are an archetype of mythology, appearing in various forms
in a number of different mythologies. For example, Kokopelli was the
flute-playing trickster of Hopi/Anasazi tradition, while Loki was the god of
mischief in Norse mythology. Coyotes are much smaller than wolves and
considerably less fearsome, typically preferring to run away from conflict
than fight. Perhaps this is the reason for their less dire symbolism in
mythology.

A mythical coyote rendered in Northwest Coast Native American style.

The Norse god Loki with his pets.
Jackal
Anubis was another canine-based god, the Egyptian god of the dead. This
reference was likely derived from the prevalence of jackals in African
graveyards. Anubis is usually shown as a man with the head of a jackal.

A jackal.
The Egyptian god Anubis, the jackal-headed god of funerals and death.
A prehistoric depiction of Lascaux on a French postage stamp.
Horses
According to the latest genetic studies, horses were first domesticated on
the vast steppes of Central Asia (modern Kazakhstan) some six thousand
years ago. Horses allowed man to travel enormous distances much faster
than had been previously possible, which meant conquest and empire-
building. Horses are the most common animal in Paleolithic cave art,
appearing in the caves at Lascaux, France, over fifteen thousand years ago
and elsewhere as far back as 30,000 BCE. Horses were so revered that a
number of civilizations (including Egyptian and Celtic) buried horses along
with deceased humans. Mythology contains numerous horses.
Pegasus
The winged steed of Greek myth was a child of the sea god Poseidon, born
of Medusa after the hero Perseus beheaded that monster. Later,
Bellerophon captured Pegasus and they shared several adventures.

A pegasus.
Sleipnir
This is the eight-legged mount of Odin, king of the gods and father of Thor
in Norse mythology.

Odin’s horse Sleipnir.

Árvakr and Alsviðr
Also from Norse mythology, these two horses pulled the chariot of the sun
god Sól across the sky. Arvakr (“early riser”) and Alsviðr (“all swift”) were
said to have runes carved into their ears and hooves, protecting them from
the heat of the sun; the two were also cooled by great bellows that were
placed beneath their shoulders.

The Norse sun god Sól being pursued by wolves (illustration by W. G. Collingwood).
Llamrei
This was reportedly King Arthur’s faithful mare, according to the medieval
Welsh stories called The Mabinogion.

Balius and Xanthus

These were immortal horses born of a harpy and fathered by Zephyrus, the
West Wind. The two were brothers who were gifted by Poseidon to Peleus,
father of Achilles; they drew that hero’s war chariot during the extended
Trojan War.
Pseudo-Horses
As with wolves, man–horse hybrids occur in mythology as well. Let’s begin
with the centaur.

Centaurs
Creatures of Greek myth, centaurs have a human torso attached to a horse
body, frequently associated with wildness and drunken debauchery—as
were a number of hybrid creatures, such as fauns and satyrs. Chiron was a
notable centaur exception, known for his wisdom, courage, and medical
skills. Although, alas, mythology has him dying, unable to heal himself.
More recently, Chiron is the name of a comet with an erratic orbit around
the sun.

A vintage engraving of the centaur Chiron and Cupid.

Hayagriva
This is an avatar of the Lord Vishnu, with the head of a horse.

The avatar Hayagriva.

Ma Mien
This is one of the two guardians of the underworld in Chinese mythology.

Unicorn
Not a hybrid, this creature is described as a single-horned horse, or
sometimes as a goat-like beast (especially in medieval art) with magical
abilities. Unicorns were said to be drawn to virgins and could be tamed by
them.

A rampant unicorn standing on hind legs.

Birds
As important as animals are, birds are the most commonly represented
animals in mythology. In addition to the Phoenix and its brethren, hundreds
of birds occur in cultures across the world. Birds are creatures whose ability
to fly, and brilliant but curious feather coats, give them divine status—or at
least association with divinity.
Quetzalcoatl
This Aztec god of creation, also referred to as the Feathered Serpent, is
god of intellect and meditation and identified with wind and air.

Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec god of creation.

Crow
This is a bird of the sun in a number of different Asian mythologies. In
Chinese, he is the sān zú wū, in Korea the samjok-o, and in Japan
yatagarusu. In all of these, he is depicted as a three-legged crow who
inhabits the sun and, at least in the case of yatagarasu, may offer guidance.
In indigenous American cultures, the crow (sometimes differentiated
from the raven, which is larger) is a highly intelligent creature, frequently
credited with escaping the destruction of the world, and bringing fire to the
people. Association of the crow with death is a relatively recent convention,
one that is more common in Europe, and possibly a result of the
catastrophic death toll during the Great Plague (ca. 1346–1353). Losses
from this pandemic are estimated to be as high as two hundred million
across all of Europe, northern Africa, and western Asia. Crows are carrion
eaters (eaters of dead flesh), and there would have been huge increases in
their numbers seeing as the plague left more people dead than alive.
That the crow is credited with escaping the “destruction of the world”
among indigenous American peoples may imply an awareness of some sort
—at least on the part of “New World” inhabitants—as to what was
occurring on the other side of the globe, more than a hundred years before
Columbus arrived.
The three-legged crow of the sun in Asian mythologies.
Raven.
Eagles
Raptors, such as eagles and hawks, as well as hybrids like harpies and
gryphons, figure prominently in mythology as well.

Ancient Rome's famous SPQR symbol with an eagle.

Aethon
In Greek myth, this great eagle was sent to eat the liver of Prometheus to
punish him for stealing fire from the gods.

The Greek god Prometheus and eagle Aethon.

Aquila
The Latin word for “eagle,” this was the giant eagle companion of Zeus.
Eagles were frequently utilized as messengers and “errand boys” by Zeus,
who commanded the creatures to bring back all manner of things from
Earth, including the beautiful boy Ganymede and Zeus’ own lightning
bolts.

The Greek god Zeus and Aquila.

Shahbaz
An eagle of ancient Persia, said to have helped found the Iranian nation.
The eagle was also the symbol of Rome—and likewise the symbol of the
United States. Roman legions carried the eagle standard into battle, and its
capture was considered a major victory for the enemy. Napoleon’s army
carried the French Imperial eagle standard.

The shahbaz depicted on the ancient Persian imperial flag during Cyrus the Great’s reign.
The eagle of Napoleon Bonaparte, sitting in a laurel wreath and holding a marshal’s staff in
paws.
Harpy
This hideous winged demon is typically depicted as having a woman’s head
and torso with the wings and talons of an eagle.

Vintage-engraved illustration of a harpy.

Garuda
This is a means of mobility (e.g. vahana) for the Hindu god Vishnu.

Garuda.
Gryphon
The spelling varies, but this figure had the tail, legs, and body of a lion,
with the head, wings, and sometimes front feet of an eagle. It was
associated with treasure, especially gold, and was said to have nests of
golden twigs—or to even lay golden eggs. With the spread of Christianity,
the gryphon became associated with divine power, and it often appeared as
a device on royal standards. Modern times see the gryphon used to
advertise everything from automobiles to airplanes; gryphons guard St.
Mark’s Basilica in Venice, the Philadelphia Museum of Art, and numerous
colleges and campuses around the world.

Gryphon.
A royal standard (coat of arms) shield with a crown, ribbon, gryphon, and fleur-de-lis.
Owl
Another favorite bird of prey for mythology is the owl. Owls are associated
with Athena, the Greek goddess of wisdom, and with prophecy in India.
The association with prophecy likely came about as a result of the eerie
reflective quality of the birds’ eyes, which gives them the incredible night
vision they enjoy. Owls are considered “lucky” or “unlucky” depending on
the culture. A great number of European cultures view the owl as a creature
of ill omen and witchcraft; indigenous American tribal beliefs are split, with
some seeing the creatures as helpful and benevolent, and others seeing owls
as harbingers of death or conveyers of spirits to the underworld. The latter
association is especially linked to the burrowing owl, which lives in
underground dens that have been abandoned by other species.
An indigenous-inspired owl.
Horus
The Egyptians had a number of bird-headed gods as well. Horus was a
falcon’s head on a man’s body, revered as god of all Egypt.

Egyptian god Horus.

Thoth
Also known as Tehuti, Thoth was the god of literature, writing, and
philosophy, with the head of an ibis on the body of a man. Thoth was also
depicted as the ibis itself, a wading bird of Egypt with a long, recurved bill
that it used to fish.

Thoth, Egyptian god of wisdom.

Nekhbet
This was a vulture-headed goddess who protected mothers and their
children.

Egyptian god Nekhbet as a griffon with a vulture head.

Hummingbird
In Mesoamerica, the hummingbird was associated with godhood; the Aztec
god Huitzilopochtli was depicted in the form of a hummingbird.
Hummingbird feathers were highly prized as decoration on religious and
ceremonial garb, their minute size demanding tens of thousands of them for
a large design. The Aztecs believed that warriors became hummingbirds
after they died in battle. In southern Peru, one of the gigantic ground images
(geoglyphs, “ground picture”) known as the Nazca Lines is of a
hummingbird in flight. The area has been deemed a UN World Heritage
site.

Illustration of the hummingbird geoglyph of the Nazca Lines.

The Aztec mythical god Huitzilopochtli, god of sun and war.
Seagull
The sea god Manannán mac Lir of Celtic mythology often appeared in the
form of a seagull; he was entreated to grant safe passage on the seas and to
ensure an abundant catch.

A statue of the sea god Manannán mac Lir at Limavady, Northern Ireland.
Crane
In a number of Asian cultures, the crane is a sacred bird that is a symbol of
longevity due to its one thousand-year life span in fable. The crane is
probably most familiar to Westerners from the story Sadako and the
Thousand Paper Cranes, by Eleanor Coerr (G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1977). In
it, Sadako was a girl who was just a baby when the atomic bomb was
dropped on Hiroshima, in Japan. She survives the bomb, only to develop
leukemia several years later. Before she dies, she attempts to fold one
thousand origami paper cranes, with the hope that her wish to live will be
granted. The paper crane persists as a symbol of peace in Japan. Curiously,
fossil records support the notion of the crane being the oldest bird on Earth,
with specimens recovered dating back 60 million years—a mere 5 million
years after the dinosaurs perished.

A Chinese traditional illustration of a crane on a pine tree.

Reptiles
The topic of dinosaurs leads us to the topic of reptiles. While the true nature
of those extinct “terribly huge lizards” has been debated, popular depiction
still shows them as gargantuan monsters that resemble alligators and other
reptiles. Though we know that dinosaurs were not mythological, the
discovery of some of their fossilized bones in ancient times may have given
rise to myths concerning giants, dragons, and other enormous creatures.

Tyrannosaurus rex.
Hyrda.
Dragons
These creatures are of particular interest in mythology, with cultures in all
the corners of the world exhibiting some type of dragon deity or monster.
The word “dragon” comes from the Greek drakon, meaning “serpent” or
“great sea fish.” The Greeks had many dragonesque creatures, including the
hydra (a serpent creature with multiple heads), the python (which guarded
the oracle at Delphi), and ladon (which guarded the golden apples in the
Garden of the Hesperides). Numerous dragons (with wings) appear as
guardians of people, places, and things for the Greeks.

Illustration of Apollo killing the dragon Python, who guards the sacred site of Delphi.
 Golden Chinese dragon.

Asian culture is also rich in dragon symbolism. The dragon is one of the
twelve signs in the Chinese zodiac, and it is usually a symbol of strength,
good luck, and honor. The prototypical Chinese dragon is the Lang, or
Lóng, a beast defined as specifically having nine unique anatomical
features: the head of a camel, the horns of a stag, the eyes of a demon, the
ears of a cow, the neck of a snake, the belly of a clam, the scales of a carp,
the claws of an eagle, and the paws of a tiger. This description makes the
Lang very distinctive and easy to identify. The Imperial Lang (reserved for
emperors) features five claws instead of the usual four, which serves to
distinguish it from the typical Lang. The Golden Dragon, a requisite at
Chinese New Year celebrations, is carried by multiple men in sections—
allowing for the sinuous movement associated with it. Japanese dragons
look similar, but they are considered water deities.
A Chinese New Year golden dragon dancing.
European Dragons
There are four main types of European dragons: “traditional” dragons,
wyverns, drakes, and wyrms. Let's first start with “traditional” dragons.
They are usually considered evil; they are reptiles with four legs and a pair
of membranous wings; they can walk or fly; may or may not breathe fire;
and they frequently hoard gold treasure, which they will kill to protect.
Famous dragons in literature include Smaug (The Hobbit), the dragon in
Beowulf, and the dragon slain by St. George.

A typical interpretation of a "traditional" European dragon.

Wyverns
Much smaller than dragons, a wyvern has only two rear legs and a pair of
wings. It is usually membranous but may be feathered. It may have a barbed
tail that it uses as a stinger and has magical capabilities. It frequently
breathes fire, and it is generally considered less intelligent than dragons.
The Golden Wyvern is a symbol of the House of Wessex (England) and is
a common symbol in that county. The “dragons” in the Game of Thrones
TV series are actually wyverns.

The Golden Wyvern of Wessex.

Drakes
Drakes are very large and may be bigger than dragons; have four legs but
typically no wings; and their scales provide heavy, impenetrable armor.
They are reclusive, but will fight aggressively to protect their den. If they
have magic, it is usually limited to elemental abilities (control fire, air,
water) which serve to distinguish one type of drake from another;
intelligence is equal to that of dragons. Drakes are uncommon, the Fire-
drake of Gondolin (The Lord of the Rings) being one example.
Wyrms/Wvyrms
Wyrms may be huge or smaller and have no legs and no wings. They
usually are burrowing creatures and are considered extremely venomous.
They are perhaps the oldest of monsters, and universally feared as the
serpent. The Python, of Greek mythology, is a wyrm that lives at the center
of the Earth (of which Delphi was believed to be the entrance). In the
Rigveda, an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns, Vritra, an
asura (or power-seeking spirit), held the waters of the world captive until
he was slain by Indra Devata, the Rain God. Vritra (whose name means
“enveloper”) is often depicted as a huge serpent.
Vishap
In other cultures, the term “dragon” is used for creatures with very different
features than those already discussed. In Armenian mythology, Vishap is a
dragon who controls the waters of the world; vishapakar are “dragon
stones” or “water stones,” which serve as a focus of prayer to water gods.
Vishap is typically illustrated as a legless serpent with wings; as such, it can
be termed an amphiptere (spelling varies), a creature whose name derives
from British heraldry.

Amphiptere.
Níðhǫggr
Also written Nidhogg, in Norse myth this is a serpent monster trapped
beneath Yggdrasil, the Great Tree that connects the Nine Realms.
Níðhǫggr eats the roots of the tree in an effort to escape; if it does, it is one
of the signs of Ragnarök, the battle at the end of the world. Níðhǫggr is
usually described as a lindworm—a serpent with two legs, usually near the
front of its body, and no wings. The lindworm was another popular device
in British heraldry, likely derived from emblems used by Vikings and other
Norse invaders.

Lindworm.
The Yggdrasil Tree with Níðhǫggr eating its roots.
PLANTS
We’ve already mentioned Yggdrasil, the Norse Tree of Life. Trees figure
prominently in mythology; their frequently large size (compared to human
anatomy) and long lives again lend credence to the concept of divinity.
Additionally, since many trees demonstrate an annual “birth-death-renewal”
cycle, they are associated with that concept as well. Trees are an archetype;
other mythological archetypes include the flood, sky-father/Earth-mother,
the trickster, and the final battle at the world’s end.
Biblical Trees
The tree that bore the forbidden Fruit of Knowledge in the Garden of
Eden is from Hebrew tradition. Christianity added the story about the “fall
of man,” where eating fruit from the forbidden tree causes humanity’s
separation from God. There were two trees specifically mentioned in
Genesis: the Tree with the Fruit of All-Knowledge and the Tree of Life.
The Tree of Life gave immortality to whomever ate from it.

A modern interpretation of the Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil.

Tree of Life emblem.
World Tree
The “World Tree” appears in indigenous American mythology, as well as
Hungarian and Norse/Germanic. The World Tree is an axis mundi, or
“world axis,” which connects the heavens and the Earth; its branches are the
vault of the sky where gods live, and its roots are the depths of the
underworld. The roots often house the serpent—whether it is named
Níðhǫggr, Mucalinda (Buddhism), or something else.
Bodhi Tree
Mucalinda, the multi-headed King of Serpents, lived beneath the sacred
Bodhi tree—the tree underneath which the Buddha first gained
enlightenment. The Bodhi is commonly thought to be a fig tree; Mucalinda
shielded the Buddha from the elements, and was rewarded with the return
of its human form.

Buddha meditating under the Bodhi tree.

Acacia
The tree of Iusaaset (Egyptian), birthplace of the gods, was an acacia.

African acacia trees.

Ash
The Yggdrasil tree was said to be an ash tree, so the ash is sacred in Norse
mythology.
Mulberry
The kalpavriksha, a wish-granting tree of Hindu mythology, is a mulberry.

Mulberry tree branch.

Banyan
This tree is sacred in both Buddhism and Hinduism as the favored
“lounging spot” of gods and spirits of the ancestors.

Chinese banyan tree.

Italian Cypress
This tree is found in both Islamic and European cemeteries as a symbol of
eternal mourning.
Lebanese Cedar
This is a sacred Christian tree and a source of national pride in Lebanon;
it’s said to have been used by Gilgamesh to build his city of Uruk.

Cedar of Lebanon tree.

Baobab
These trees are revered in Africa for housing the spirits of the dead.

Baobab tree.
Willow
The willow is sacred to Osiris, Egyptian god of the underworld; legend says
that Osiris was dismembered and his parts scattered, but he was later
reassembled by Isis. Perhaps the willow’s propensity to easily take root
from cuttings was why it came to be associated with the resurrected god.

Willow tree.
Oak Tree
Perhaps no tree species holds more meaning than the oak. A specimen of
yellow oak that is five hundred years old lives in Oley, Pennsylvania, and
holds sacred status as a healing tree. English oaks were used as “crowning”
trees—that is, kings were physically given their crowns under the trees
branches; later, thrones and ships’ masts were made from their wood.
Leaves from laurel oaks were used by the Romans to make crowns or
wreaths, and such crowns were given to military commanders following
successful campaigns. Roman emperors (often coming to the title via
military might) continued the practice. It sees its modern remnant in the
oak-leaf cluster (gold for majors, silver for lieutenant colonels) still worn in
the US military.
The oak was sacred to Thor, god of thunder in Norse mythology; this
may stem from the oak’s penchant for being struck by lightning. Their great
height (especially in antiquity) makes them easy targets. The oak tree in
Shechem (now in Israel) is where Jacob buried his people’s “foreign gods”
(idols), before leading them to Bethel (Gen. 35:4).
 Oak tree.

A Roman wreath made from laurel oaks.

 No group likely held more regard for oak trees than Celtic druids. The
word druid may derive from the Old Irish Gaelic words dru, “strong,”
(which was the same word used for “oak”), and weid, “knowing.”
Etymology of the word “druid” is murky, as many different languages have
a similar word. Druids performed their rites in oak groves where they found
mistletoe, a poisonous parasitic organism from which they may (or may
not) have distilled a powerful hallucinogenic drink. A large number of oak
groves were cut down following the spread of Christianity, with churches
being built from the wood on the same site.
Oak trees provided many products in early history: acorns were eaten;
the bark provided tannin (which was used to make leather and brown ink);
black ink came from oak galls (deformed growths on the trees that are a
result of bacterial or fungal infection); foul tonics were brewed from its
leaves and bark as medicinal remedies for various wounds and stomach ills.
It was Henry VIII who popularized building from oak wood; the famed
Tudor style involves much wood trim, framing, and half-timbering.
Modern building methods rely more on cheap woods such as pine, or on
metal framing; oak is reserved for ornate trim and high-end flooring.
Mistletoe.
Oak gall.
The Ogham (Druid or Celtic “Tree Alphabet”)
The Ogham consists of a series of diagonal and horizontal lines drawn
across a single vertical axis—like branches of a tree moving sideways out
from the trunk. Early Ogham were carved into trees or stones, and were
used to define the borders of territories—perhaps those of different Druidic
groups or clans. Some were also grave markers. In later incarnations, the
axis was laid horizontally and the strokes across it were vertical, possibly to
allow for easier reading in script; the script is read right to left, or top to
bottom if written vertically.

Druids during the Roman invasion.

Use of the Ogham seems to have arisen somewhere around the turn of
the first millennium, and it was exclusively used in the British Isles.
Scholars disagree as to who created the alphabet; some feel it was created
by pagan Celts, while others believe it to be the work of early Christians in
Ireland. Researchers do seem to have a consensus that it became popular as
a means to confound Roman overlords. The Old Irish alphabet was not
easily translated into Latin, so perhaps the Ogham was a means of “saving”
what was largely an oral language.
Use of the Ogham alphabet had mostly died out by the seventh century
CE, but it experienced a resurgence in popularity in the fourteenth century
due to the decline of Norman–Britain rule and the resultant surge of Irish
nationalism. The Ogham consists of twenty-five letters, grouped into
collections of five letters called aicmes. Originally, there were four groups
of five; the Irish alphabet did not contain the letter “P,” but it was added in
later usage. The Ogham is called the “tree alphabet” because each letter
can be represented by a species of tree (or shrub, in some cases) found in
Ireland.
The tree calendar (the fourth column in the table on the opposite page)
was developed with the rise of Modern Paganism (or Contemporary
Paganism or Neopaganism) in the twentieth century. It does not fit the
Gregorian calendar that the Western zodiac uses because there are 12.36
lunar cycles (which the pagan year is based upon) in a calendar year, versus
the twelve months in a regular calendar year. How the dates are assigned on
the lunar calendar frequently varies, depending on which sect (or
denomination) of Modern Paganism is describing it.
 A modern representation of the Celtic Ogham alphabet.

Modern Letter Ogham Letter Name Tree Tree Calendar Dates

(Irish word)
B Beith Birch
L Luis Rowan January 21 to February
17
F Fern/Fearn Alder March 18 to April 14
S Sail/Saille Willow April 15 to May 12
N Nion/Nuin Ash February 18 to March
17
H Uath/Huathe Hawthorn May 13 to June 9
D Dair/Duir Oak June 10 to July 7
T Tinne Holly July 8 to August 4
C Coll Hazel August 5 to September
1
Q Ciert/Quert Apple
M Muin/Muinn Vine September 2 to
September 29
G Gort Ivy September 30 to
October 27
NG Ngeadal/Ngetal Reed October 28 to
November 24
Z Straif Blackthorn
R Ruis Elder November 25 to
December 22
A Ailm White Fir
O Onn Gorse/Broom
U Ur Heather
E Eadhadh/Edhadh Poplar
I Iodhadh Yew
EA Eabhad/Ebhadh Aspen
OI Or/Oir Spindle
UI Uilleann/Uileand Honeysuckle
IO Ifin Gooseberry
AE Emhanchooll Beech
P Peith Soft Birch; Pine December 23
Lotus
This is likely the most recognized floral symbol in the world. The different
stages of “openness” of lotus petals mean different things. In Hinduism, the
lotus is called the padma, and it is sacred to Vishnu and Brahma, as well
as other deities. Overall, the padma represents perfect beauty and purity; the
unfurling of the petals describes the expansion of the soul and spiritual
awakening. The padma has one thousand petals. It is the Sanskrit word for
“lotus.”
In Buddhism, the lotus flower represents creation, renewal, and purity—
growing as it does from the mud and yet remaining clean and bright. It
demonstrates detachment from the physical needs and wants of the body.
The Lotus Sutra is one of the most well-known and beloved of Buddhist
scriptures; it teaches that all living things are capable of attaining
enlightenment.
The lotus is one of the eight “auspicious symbols” of the ashtamangala
—the sacred symbols that represent the divine features of the Buddha’s
physical body. The ashtamangala is a shared dharma of Buddhism,
Hinduism, and Jainism, though the order of precedence differs among the
different traditions. They are considered symbols of good fortune. Greek
mythology tells of a lotus tree, which bore fruit that made those who ate it
feel drowsy and pleasantly relaxed.
Lotus flower.
Ashtamangala, the eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism.
Vishnu.
Brahma.
The Egyptian god Osiris.
Green Man
This is a motif common to a number of different mythologies, including
Celtic, Greco-Roman, Germanic, and even Egyptian cultures (Osiris is
commonly portrayed as having a green face). The Green Man is variously
described as having a face made of branches, as spewing branches or leaves
from a facial orifice or as sprouting green growth from his head. Green Men
are not exclusively pagan, and they are common carvings on churches
dating from early Christianity all the way to the late Middle Ages. The
motif experienced a popular revival in nineteenth-century England, and it
continues to be popular in modern secular art.
Green Men don’t usually represent specific plants or trees, but instead
broader themes of nature or “wildness,” much as excessive foliage is
associated with Bacchus and uncivilized behavior in Greek mythology.
Greek and Roman nobility valued manicured gardens with highly sculpted
fountains, benches, and icons of the gods.
A Green Man carving in Rosslyn Chapel, near Edinburgh, Scotland.
Grass
In medieval times, nobles could afford the luxury of not turning their lands
into plowed fields to support their families. This has led to the continued
connection of precisely maintained swathes of green turf—with or without
the attending fountains and parterres—to notions of wealth and gentry. In
suburbs in the US, this is still painfully evident, where many communities
have “homeowners’ associations” which dictate strict rules as to how
houses can be painted and how tall the grass must be kept.
While cut green grass is valued in Britain and the US, it is overgrown
grass that has a role in mythology. The raskovnik of Slavic mythology was
a grass with the magical capability to unlock any locked or closed object
that was brushed against it. Of course, the raskovnik (or razkovniche) also
had the unfortunate aspect of being near-invisible—that is, only those who
had been initiated by ritual could find it. It was apparently also visible to
subterranean creatures, which, naturally, had no motive to help human kind.
Other attributes of the plant varied among the different Slavic
communities: Bulgarians believed it would reveal the location of treasure
underground, and turn iron into gold; Serbians held with the grass’s lock-
picking abilities; Macedonian Slavs called the plant hedgehog grass (ež
trava), believing that hedgehogs knew it and could be forced to reveal it to
humans. Serbs also put their faith in hedgehogs, and added the detail that a
mother hedgehog would reveal the raskovnik if you locked her babies in a
strong box (presumably, she would find the raskovnik in order to unlock the
box). A Serb had to be quick, though—the hedgehog might eat the
raskovnik before you could pick it!
The raskovnik hasn’t been described much—no doubt a result of no one
being able to see it. There are a few scattered references to it resembling a
four-leaf clover; this description may have entered Slavic mythology with
the widely traveled Celts, who handed down this same “lucky plant” story
to their Irish descendants. Various species of grass and plants have been
assigned the raskovnik identity, but perhaps none is more deserving than
clover.
Hedgehog.
Clover
A clover is a low-growing groundcover plant of the pea family (genus
Trifolium, “three-leaved”). It is an extremely valuable plant, a legume
whose symbiotic relationship with certain bacteria allows for the “fixing”
(e.g. attaching) of atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. This is accomplished by
the bacteria turning nitrogen into ammonia , thereby making it available for
other plants to use. Clover grows in the poorest of soils and improves them
when it is plowed back into the soil as an amenity. It is also good fodder for
ruminant animals such as sheep, cows, and goats, but not for horses, which
may be poisoned by it. It may be the plant’s ability to improve soil that first
gave it its “lucky” status; agrarian societies would have noticed the
increased yields from lands that had previously been covered by clovers.
Distinction of four-leaf clovers can be likened to the notion of “finding a
needle in a haystack,” since nearly all clovers have three leaves.
There are over three hundred species of clover across the temperate
zones of the world (except Australia and Southeast Asia, due to their
isolation). Their distribution helped the spread of honeybees from Europe
across the world, and their flowers remain the most important source of
nutrition for those creatures. The widespread spraying of “weeds” by
modern agriculture is contributing to the rapid decline of honeybees, which
pollinate an estimated 30 percent of all food crops and up to 90 percent of
wild plants.
Four-leaf clover.
INSECTS
Throughout almost every culture from ancient times, insects appear in many
myths, representing gods and human qualities. In many myths, insects
foretell a trouble that is about to occur. Some of the most popular species
include dragonflies, cicadas, butterflies, and bees.

Bee
No insect has been more revered than the honeybee. A symbol of
community, industry, and society, bee colonies have been actively
managed (the practice is called apiculture) since ancient times. Bees were
kept in clay jars as early as 9000 BCE in North Africa; Egyptian
hieroglyphs from about 5000 BCE show bee domestication and formalized
cultivation of honey, including the use of smoke to confuse and distract the
insects while the honey is collected. This practice is still used in modern
beekeeping.
Minoan traders brought the art of beekeeping to the Mediterranean area,
where it was picked up by the Greeks and other civilizations. Greeks so
revered the honeybee that it became part of their mythology: Zeus was said
to have been raised by bees. Dionysus (Roman Bacchus), god of fertility
and wine-making, was torn apart while in the form of a bull but was reborn
as a bee. Melissa was a nymph who taught the art of beekeeping to mortals,
and Greeks used the term “Melissae” to refer to the frenzied dancing
followers of Dionysus and to priestesses in the cults of Artemis (goddess of
wisdom, hunting, and wildlife) and Demeter (goddess of the harvest and the
circle of life and death). Melissa means “bee” in Greek, and one of Zeus’s
titles was Melissaios (bee-man). The bee genus Melissodes is derived from
this word. Mead was a drink of ancient times, made from the fermentation
of honey in water and was frequently flavored with various fruits and
spices. Mead was drunk by the chief gods and heroes of Norse, Hindu,
Greek, and Celtic mythology. It is the oldest-known alcoholic beverage,
with its production predating wine by several thousand years. The
association of mead with gods parallels the association of bees with royalty.
The biggest bee in a hive is the queen, and all other bees attend to her. The
queen is the only bee in the hive that can lay eggs; thus, survival of the
colony depends on her. Honey was referred to as ambrosia—food of the
gods. Pots of honey found in the tombs of pharaohs remain edible today.
Honey has been found to have antiseptic and preservative qualities, and it
was (and still is) used medicinally to treat external wounds, as well as
stomach conditions and infections. It is also a very good humectant, and
continues to be popular as a facial and personal-care ingredient. In addition
to honey, beeswax, royal jelly, bee propolis (a tree-derived resin that bees
use to seal honeycomb chambers), and nectar are other products from
beehives.

A gold Minoan bee.

A scene depicting honey gathering from the tomb of Rekhmire.

Honeybees.
Dragonfly
Another insect found in mythology is the dragonfly. Chinese and Japanese
beliefs feature the dragonfly as a symbol of goodness, representing purity,
good fortune, and harmony. Japanese samurai used it as a symbol for
victory, strength, and speed. The Hopi, a Native American tribe of the
southwest, revered the dragonfly for its attachment to water in their desert
environment; it was considered a sign of happiness, longevity, and luck.
The katsina (commonly called “kachina dolls”) of the Hopi are carved
representations of the spirits of their mythology, and include dragonflies
among them.
In Europe, dragonflies had much the same association with evil as
dragons themselves had. Names such as “Satan’s needle,” “Adderbolt,” and
“Ear-cutter” were common; it was believed that dragonflies had terrible
stinging bites, so they were also called “horse stingers” or “horse bolts”
(with the notion that their bite would cause a horse to bolt, often throwing
the rider). An odd story evolved that dragonflies would follow snakes
around and repair wounds the serpents received by sewing them up; perhaps
the creatures’ needle-shape and associations with Satan—as were snakes—
led to this belief. Swedish folktales instructed that dragonflies would sew
closed the eyes and ears of eavesdroppers and disobedient children. It was
also believed that the insects could weigh the souls of the deceased and
determine their fate in the afterlife.
Modern mythology sees the dragonfly as an agent of change—
particularly of the spiritual self. The dragonfly’s ability to swiftly change
direction midflight, and their overall adaptability to land, water, and air has
given them a type of divinity similar to angels. They don’t represent gods,
but rather “holiness” and “spirituality.” In a similar fashion, butterflies, too,
are divine.
Dragonfly.
Butterfly
Butterflies are seen as symbols of physical change, rather than spiritual.
Through the process of metamorphosis, caterpillars transform from
crawling, chewing, wormlike creatures into flying, nectar-sipping beauties.
It is the ultimate metaphor for redemption; the lowly “unworthy” slug
becomes a lighter-than-air jewel—just as the “fallen” may be redeemed by
faith.
Japanese mythology viewed butterflies as souls of the living; a butterfly
inside the house meant that someone was coming to visit. Sometimes a
swarm of butterflies might mean that a great number of people were going
to die—perhaps in battle or in a natural disaster. Later in history, butterflies
became the reincarnation of the souls of the deceased, a representation that
is common today. Also in Japan, the change of girls from children to
women is symbolized by the butterfly.

The life cycle of a butterfly.

In China, butterflies represent immortality and the joy of youth. In

Mesoamerica, the butterfly was an aspect of Xochipilli, god of beauty,
dance, flowers, and song. Similarly, the Aztec goddess Itzpapàlotl had the
form of a butterfly—but she was fearsome and usually shown surrounded
by knives. She was the protector of pregnant women, and she was said to
guide the spirits of women who died in childbirth to the magical paradise
called Tamoanchan.

A drawing of Itzpapàlotl.

Irish mythology uses the term dealandhe’ (“light” or “fire” of the gods);
this same term also means “burning stick.” Butterflies have the ability to
travel between the realms of the living and the dead, again linking this
insect with the transfer of souls. Butterflies carry an air of poignancy—they
spend the bulk of their lives in the transformation from lowly worm to light
of God, only to die shortly after the change is complete. Christians found
this a fitting metaphor for the short life, cruel death, and rapid ascent to
heaven of Jesus Christ.
 In addition to its representation of physical transformation, the butterfly
is a symbol of psychology—specifically, psychoanalysis. The ancient Greek
word for butterfly is psyche, meaning “breath of life” or “soul.” From this
root, we get our words “psychiatric” and “psychedelic.” In Greek myth,
Psyche was the goddess of the soul and wife of Eros, the Greek god of love.

The Greek goddess Psyche opening a golden box.

Cicada
Cicadas represent the cycle of birth/death/rebirth. Cicadas are members of a
group known as “periodic insects,” defined as having a life cycle of a set
number of years (anywhere from two to seventeen), wherein all of the
adults emerge simultaneously to mate and then die. The cicada spends most
of its life underground in various larval forms, but emerges from the Earth
every thirteen or seventeen years (depending on the species) to complete its
life cycle as an adult insect. Each emergence of the group of adults is called
a brood.
The genus Magicicada is native to North America, specifically east of
the Great Plains in the US. Cicadas of seventeen years are found in the
north, east and west sections of this area, while thirteen-year cicadas are in
the southern states and along the Mississippi River. Nowhere else in the
world can you find these miraculous insects. Science has determined that a
brood emerges from underground (on the seventeen- or thirteen-year cycle)
when the temperature 8 inches (20 centimeters) beneath the soil surface
reaches 64 degrees Fahrenheit (18 degrees Celsius). The adults spend about
a month breeding and laying eggs, and then they die. When the eggs hatch,
the young fall out of the trees to the ground, burrow in, and spend the next
thirteen to seventeen years there until the next brood arrives.
Cicadas are most famous for their song; the volume of cicada song has
been recorded at 120dB, which is equivalent to the engine of a jet aircraft
and loud enough to permanently damage the hearing of an adult human.
Only male cicadas sing, utilizing a membrane in their abdomens
specifically for that purpose. Males sing to attract females—apparently
demonstrating their virility based on volume alone! There are annual
cicadas as well as periodic species; the annual types, of course, appear
every year, but not in the huge numbers or with the coordinated timing of
the periodic species.
 Cicada.

A common grasshopper.

In Chinese mythology, the cicada represents immortality and

reincarnation. It was an especially popular motif in the art of the Shang
Dynasty (about 1760–1120 BCE). In Japan it is a harbinger of summer.
Classical mythology (Greco-Roman) identifies the cicada with laziness and
indifference; the cicada spends the summer singing while more industrious
creatures (especially the ant) work to gather food for the winter. When the
weather turns cold, the cicada realizes he is too late to find food and shelter.
Cicadas are frequently called “locusts,” but this is incorrect: locusts are a
type of grasshopper, while cicadas belong to the order of “true bugs” (also
known as Heteroptera/Hemiptera). Cicadas don’t actually eat vegetation,
instead drinking the sap from trees. Locusts, conversely, eat all parts of the
plant above ground, and they are capable of stripping a tree down to
nothing but bark in under an hour, as in the Biblical plague of locusts
(Exod. 10:13–15).
In China, parts of Africa, and North and South America, cicadas are
considered a delicacy, especially the females. Traditional Chinese medicine
makes use of the ground-up shells left behind by molting cicadas. In
modern science, researchers have discovered that the physical structure of
the surface of a cicada’s wing keeps bacteria from invading by literally
tearing apart the bacteria’s outer membrane.
Cicada wings.
Scarab
Of all the insects in world mythology, perhaps none is more feared than the
scarab beetle. Familiar to Westerners in movies about Egypt or mummies,
the scarab is portrayed as a flesh-eating monster that swarms in its millions
—much like the locust. However, in Egyptian mythology, the sacred scarab
(Latin name Scarabaeus sacer) was an aspect of the sun god Ra; the aspect
was named Khepera or Khepri and was the appearance of Ra in the form of
the rising sun.
Khepri was believed to roll the sun into the sky at the beginning of each
day, then collect it at the end of the day and roll it underground back to the
east, where it would again start the new day. The Egyptians saw similar
behavior in the scarab beetle, which would roll large balls (relative to its
size) of animal dung across the surface of the ground and into a hole (which
was the beetle’s den). Eventually, masses of young beetles would swarm
from the hole (after hatching from eggs laid in the dung, and consuming the
dung before changing from larvae into beetles). Since the transformation
took place underground, it may have seemed to the observers that the
beetles appeared “magically,” and thus the beetle was divine.
Amulets bearing the sacred scarab have been found dating back to 2000
BCE; however, use of the symbol was rare until approximately 1900–1600
BCE when it exploded in popularity. Around 1500 BCE so called heart
scarabs were placed on the chests of mummies. These talismans were
carved from rock (usually basalt) and represented the heart that had been
removed from the mummy prior to burial. Eventually, multiple carved
scarabs were included with the mummy.
Egyptian gold scarab beetle.
An ancient Egyptian scarab beetle amulet carved in alabaster stone.
 The Egyptian sun god Ra appearing as Khepri.

The most popular use of the scarab in Egypt was as a seal on cylinders
containing papyrus scrolls. Millions of scrolls were said to reside in the
library at Alexandria, containing all the wisdom of the known world.
Sadly, the library was destroyed sometime around the turn of the first
millennium—an act that has been historically attributed to several different
conquerors, including Julius Caesar.
Intriguingly, the loss of the library (one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World) coincides roughly with the introduction of the Ogham in
Ireland. Did the Celts know of the library and its subsequent loss? Were
they attempting to guard against the loss of their own knowledge by writing
it down before the Romans invaded Ireland, too?
A nineteenth-century imagined rendering of the library at Alexandria, Egypt.

OceanofPDF.com
 CHAPTER

15
Popular Gestures

G estures are symbols in that they stand in for words or concepts in

person-to-person communication. Some gestures have been turned into
emoji—particularly facial expressions such as smiling, winking, tongue
sticking out, etc. Even the thumbs up/thumbs down and shoulder shrug are
emoji now (though be warned, in much of the Middle East, the “thumbs up”
is a sign for sodomy, and it carries the meaning “up yours”). Some gestures
are best delivered in person.

Search Me
Hands raised next to shoulders—especially with the palms bent is a gesture
that specifically means “search me”—is a term we have come to regard as
meaning “I don’t know.” However, the upraised arms show its origin as an
invitation to literally conduct a physical search for weapons upon the person
who said it. Sometimes this gesture includes shrugging of the shoulders.
I Surrender
Hands raised above head means “I surrender,” derived from exposing the
hands and showing the palms to prove that no weapon is concealed; raising
the hands above the head effectively renders a person helpless and unable to
cause injury.

I surrender gesture.
Stop
Arms raised in front of body, palms showing usually means “STOP” to the
person who is approaching. In general, the showing of palms in
conversation connotes honesty and is typically a subconscious gesture on
the part of the speaker. Professional speakers (and convincing liars) are able
to deliberately use this gesture to put people at ease and to encourage belief
in what is being said. Extending the arms, however, brings the larger biceps
and pectoral muscles into the gesture, turning it from an inviting posture
into a defensive stance, raising the alarm level in both the person making
the gesture and the person confronted by it.

Stop.
Ready to Fight
Arms raised in front of body, fists closed, is specifically a fighting posture,
representative of a boxer ready to punch. Clenching the fists contracts both
the biceps and the pectorals, making them even more prominent than they
are in the STOP gesture and prepares the body to receive a blow. No one
mistakes this for a friendly gesture.

Ready to fight posture.

Wakandan Salute
Crossing arms across the chest with fists closed has been popularized as the
“Wakandan Salute” in the movie Black Panther; it is accompanied by the
words “Wakanda Forever!” This posture may derive from an Egyptian
prayer posture commonly seen in hieroglyphics and mummies of Egypt.

Wakandan Salute.
Supplication
Extending arms below the waist, with palms showing (especially when held
close together), is usually a sign of supplication and may be accompanied
by moving the hands towards the person facing you in a shoveling manner.
The gesture imitates giving or moving whatever the gesturer has towards, or
more precisely into the possession of, the recipient of the movement; this
gesture means “What’s mine is yours.”

Supplication.
Victory
Raising arms above the head with fists closed is a historic demonstration of
the defeat of an opponent; the motion is derived from the raising of a
weapon above the head prior to bringing it down on one’s opponent in a
killing stroke. Essentially, the gesturer is declaring, “I’ve defeated you, but I
don’t have to kill you to prove it.”

Victory.
Look to Me
Raising a single arm above the head with fist closed means “Look to me.”
This was a battlefield gesture used by a commander to draw his fighters’
attention to himself in order to give further instructions. This gesture is still
used by commando units engaged in silent operations, as well as civilians
acting in pseudo-military fashion (e.g. sports team leaders and referees,
traffic cops, and civil protestors). The gesture was used controversially in
the 1960s as a symbol for the Black Panthers and for black unity in the face
of white oppression.

Look to me.
Choose Me
Raising a single arm above the head with fist open means “choose me” and
is used in mainly non-military situations by civilians (e.g. dog trainers, race
starters, volunteers, etc.). Most common daily use is to ask permission to
speak in moderated or unmoderated groups such as classrooms, meetings,
and large gatherings.

Choose me.

Heavy
The motion of elbows at sides, hands extended with palms up and fingers
clawed and flexing biceps, is usually interpreted as meaning “something
heavy” is being carried by the gesturer.
Confusion
A bent arm above and behind the head scratching the head, neck, or ear is
the universal gesture for confusion; it may derive from various cultures
which put the hand to the head as a means of demonstrating “thought” or
“thinking.” This is frequently an unconscious gesture, which may or may
not be accompanied by facial expressions.

Confusion.
Boredom
Cupping the chin with fingers or resting the chin in or on the hands is
frequently a sign of boredom, and often indicates a person is daydreaming
or is otherwise engaged in an activity that requires only part of their
attention. Children often use this position when reading or drawing (or
when they want to look like they’re paying attention in school); adults will
sometimes unconsciously do this in meetings or at other times during the
work day when their minds are not actively engaged.

Boredom.
Prayer
Pressing the hands together in front of the body with fingertips up is a
symbol for prayer in many faiths; it can also mean “anticipation,” especially
if the hands are forcefully pressed together. Pressing of hands accompanied
by bowing of the head or body is a formal greeting in parts of Asia,
including Nepal and China.

Praying.
Prayer, Listening, or Ready
Clasping hands in front of the body, with fingers interlocked, is another
common posture for prayer, but it also means “I am listening” when the
hands are clasped with the arms on a table or “I am ready” when the hands
are clasped below the waist (this is the “at ease” posture of a soldier before
a ranking officer). Clasping the hands keeps them still, which keeps both
the speaker and the person being spoken to from being distracted; it is also
a non-threatening posture with the hands in a neutral position.

Prayer, listening, or ready.

Defensive
Crossing or interlocking the arms in front of the body with elbows bent is a
common posture with a number of different meanings. It is inherently
defensive and is often seen when one party feels “less than” or “threatened
by” the other; the gesture is used both consciously and unconsciously as a
means of making the gesturer seem more authoritative by causing the body
to appear larger than it actually is. Women often adopt this posture, whether
as teachers speaking to students or as mothers disciplining children—or
even as CEOs addressing vice presidents. The posture can also mean
dismissal, particularly when accompanied by facial expressions of ire or
disgust.

Defensive, threatened, or disciplinary.

Disturbing
Pointing to one’s temple is a sign of mental disturbance, especially when
tapping or encircling the temple with the index finger (commonly used to
describe someone other than the gesturer). Sometimes this indicates the
gesturer is thinking, but it is usually used in a mocking fashion (the gesturer
is “pretending” to think when no thought is needed).

Tapping one's temple can indicate mental disturbance.

Shoot Me
Pointing to the temple with a finger or fingers and the thumb extended is a
universally recognized symbol for a handgun, in this case with the barrel
against the gesturer’s temple. The gesturer means “shoot me” because I’ve
done something stupid or because I’m so incredibly bored I’d rather die
right now. This can also mean that the gesturer would like to shoot
themselves—for the same reasons given. It's also understood to mean “I
can’t believe I just did that.”
Understand Me
In Italy, fingers bunched with the palm up and shaking the hand back and
forth means “Do you understand me?” (emphasis), while the same gesture
with both hands means “What are you talking about?” or “Are you crazy?”
In Mexico (with both hands) it means “a lot of,” as in mucho; in France
(both hands, not moving) it means “I’m stressed” or “I am stressing this.”

Italian gesture for “Do you understand me?”

Many People
In Spain, fingers bunching and unbunching with the palm up means “A lot
of people here.” In Brazil, a similar gesture means “The place is full.”
Pivoting the hand so that the palm faces down with the thumb moving
instead of the fingers means “excessive talking” in English.

Give Me Money
Rubbing the thumb against the fingers of the same hand means “money” or
“payment” in English.
Perfect
Pressing the thumb against the index and middle finger of the same hand
means “perfect” or “primo” in Italy. Keep in mind that even common
gestures may have slightly different meanings in different parts of Italy.

Perfect.
Pay Me
Scratching the palm with the finger of the opposite hand means “pay me” or
“money” in West Africa; this gesture may derive from the superstition that
an itchy palm means “money is coming,” as well as the slang term
“scratch,” meaning money.

Give me money, or pay up.

Peace (US) / Victory (UK)
In the US, the index and middle fingers in a V-shape with palm facing out is
known as a “peace” sign, which was derived from Winston Churchill’s “V”
for “victory” sign in World War II. It was popularized by hippies in the
1960s as an anti-war expression. In Japan, it is commonly flashed as a
substitute for smiling in photos (showing the teeth is considered impolite or
hostile).
Index and middle fingers in a V-shape with the palm facing toward the
body is frequently used in the same manner as the peace sign in the US,
though it has also been considered a “gang” sign (its reversed presentation
meaning “war” or “violence” rather than “peace”). In England, this is the
same thing as “flipping the bird,” and it is highly insulting.
Peace sign in the US.
Victory sign in the United Kingdom.
Vulcan Sign
A raised palm facing out with the index and middle finger spread to one
side of a V with the ring finger and pinkie spread to other side of V with the
thumb sticking out is the “Vulcan” greeting popularized on the TV show
Star Trek. This gesture is accompanied by the words “live long, and
prosper.”

Vulcan greeting (from Star Trek).

Delicious
Poking the index finger into the cheek below the bone and rotating it means
“delicious” or “very tasty” in Italy.
I Don’t Believe You
In France, touching the index finger to the face below the eye means “I
don’t believe you” (as in “I can see through your deception.” It may also
mean “I’m watching/keeping an eye on you.” The “I’m watching you”
gesture is also given as a forked index and middle fingers flipping direction
between the “seer” and the “seen”—a dramatic gesture which is popular in
movies.

I see you.
Be Quiet
Touching the index finger to the lips is the universal gesture for “be quiet,
don’t talk.” This may or may not be accompanied by making a “shh” sound
(often used when quieting children).

Be quiet.
Nepalese “No”
A raised palm facing out and swiveling the wrist side to side is the Nepalese
equivalent of shaking your head “no.” This is sometimes called the “royal
wave,” mocking pageant queens and monarchs.

Royal wave.
Indication
The directional chin thrust or tilting of the head is a means of indicating a
particular direction or person by pushing your chin in that direction or
inclining your head toward them. It is considered extremely rude in many
cultures to point directly at someone. It was (and still is) common in courts
of law that the accuser must point directly at the accused while making
charges against him or her—thus to point at someone was to accuse him or
her of a crime. In the US, pointing at someone typically brings unwanted
attention to that person either by accusation or by making him or her the
object of ridicule.

Thumb Flick
Flicking the thumb with the index or middle finger is a gesture adapted
from practical use (namely, disposing of a cigarette butt or a bug on one’s
shoulder). It now is a gesture of dismissal much like “the brush-off,” which
is meant to belittle and humiliate the recipient.

Brush Off
Sweeping fingers across the tops of the shoulders away from the body as a
means of removing dandruff and other detritus from the shoulders has
developed into a symbolic meaning of “I’m through with you” or “You are
nothing to me.” This is a dismissive and demeaning gesture.

Get Lost
In the US, sweeping flattened fingers toward someone with the palm facing
down is interpreted as “get lost” or “go away” and is almost always
intended to belittle the recipient. In Ghana, however, the same gesture
means “come here.”
Come Here
Crooking the index finger repeatedly in someone’s direction means “come
here” in Western cultures. However, it is only used to summon dogs in
Eastern cultures, and is therefore a rude gesture if used on people.

Come here.
Okay
Making a circle with the index finger and thumb, and splaying the other
fingers is the “okay” sign, taken from the sign language that the deaf
community uses. In Turkey, this gesture is a crude symbol for the female
sex organ and is used as a homosexual slur. In Japan, the okay means
“money,” and in much of Europe it means “zero” or “nothing.” Recently,
this sign has become controversial and is considered offensive in the United
States, with white supremacy and hate groups adopting the symbol for their
cause.

Okay.

You’re Dead
Dragging the thumb across the throat is the literal symbolism of “You’re
dead.” In Russia, this gesture also means “I’m done with this” or “I’ve had
enough.” An interesting variation—drawing the index finger across the
throat—means “I want a drink.” Don’t confuse the two!
Good Luck
Crossing the index and middle finger and holding them upright is a “good
luck” sign, which originated as a variation of the sign of the Holy Cross,
and can be used against the evil eye. The evil eye is perhaps the most
widespread superstition across the world; it describes a witch or other
magical person’s ability to “hex” or bring bad luck upon an unsuspecting
victim. Fear of the evil eye is particularly strong in countries of western
Asia (e.g. Turkey, Lebanon, Greece, Israel, etc.). The evil eye can be
thwarted by any number of amulets, sigils, talismans, or gestures against it.
Curiously, this same symbol is often produced by children who intend to
break the promise they are making while crossing their fingers.

Good luck.
Evil Eye
Pointing out the index finger and pinkie while middle and ring fingers are
held down by thumb: this is the most common gesture against the evil eye,
and works by thrusting the hand in the direction of whomever is casting the
hex. In the twentieth century, this sign has been appropriated by certain
pagan sects as a symbol of the devil, and it has gained popularity via the
trappings of heavy metal and other pop-culture lifestyles.

Evil eye.
Fist Bump
Touching one’s fist to another person’s fist, called a first bump, is a
common casual greeting in the US, particularly among young men. Its
popularity is due to the influence of rap music on pop culture, though its
development is curious given that a closed fist is a near-universal sign of
aggression.

Fist bump.

Good Luck (in Germany)

Lightly pounding fists with thumbs tucked on a flat surface is a common
demonstration of aggression. However, in this usage it means “good luck”
in Germany.
Pledge of Allegiance
Hand over the heart signals a pledge of allegiance. In China, this is a sign of
a sincere promise. It might have been popularized in the US by Thomas
Jefferson or Benjamin Franklin—both of whom were great admirers of
Chinese art and culture. Americans have since adopted this stance when
reciting the “Pledge of Allegiance”—a “sincere promise” of loyalty to our
nation.

Pledge of Allegiance.
Loyalty
Fist over heart usually has the specific meaning of pledging fealty (loyalty
and obedience upon pain of death) to a lord or leader. The closed fist means
“I will fight for you/at your command.”

Brotherhood
Pounding fists on another’s shoulders is a sign of “brotherhood” (e.g.
members of the same sports team or a military squadron may do this to each
other). It derives from the medieval practice of pounding the shoulder straps
of chainmail or plate armor to make sure it is secure and won’t get knocked
off or slip out of place during battle.

Disrespect
In Peru, moving the index finger up and down before the nose is a sign
(directed at others) of a handsome or rich person. In Europe and the US, to
“thumb your nose” (referred to as “cocking a snook” in Britain) means to
put your thumb on the tip of your nose and wag your fingers in someone’s
direction. It is a disrespectful gesture, frequently accompanied by sticking
out the tongue as well, which may have derived from Shakespeare’s Romeo
and Juliet “thumb-bite.” Variations include putting the thumb on the
forehead, or sticking the thumbs in the ears.

Conceited
The image of wealthy people “turning up their noses” at the poor derives
from a number of sources. Fashion trends of the wealthy often included
accessories which required balancing them upon the head in some way
(hats, eye glasses, wigs), which undoubtedly made the wearer appear
ridiculous to others. This was particularly in the case of eye glasses; only
the wealthy could afford them, and the grinding of the lenses was not
necessarily the precise science it is today. This forced users to tip their
heads at various angles in order to look down through the lenses. The terms
“stuck up” and “snooty” derive from the same image.

Use caution when throwing gestures in unfamiliar countries; what means

one thing at home may very well mean something completely different
abroad. Hand gestures often became popular in the first place because they
were a way to insult someone without using words.
OceanofPDF.com
 CHAPTER

16
Religion

A ccording to some sources, there are over four thousand recognized

religions in the world; an examination of the symbols of all of them is
beyond the scope of this chapter. We can, however, look at the most
common symbols for the most common religions, which will be:
Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Paganism.
 When it comes to religious symbolism, we have to keep in mind that
many objects may be given religious themes or references but are not
typically thought of as “religious” objects themselves. For example, the
three-leaf clover is said to represent the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit
in Christianity. There is nothing inherently “holy” about clover, but its parts
are easily labeled. Compare that to the symbol of a cross: this is the most
widely recognized symbol of Christianity in the world. A number of other
religions venerate cross symbols of various types, including the running
cross or swastika of Jainism, Buddhism, and Hinduism (the running cross
was appropriated by the Nazis in World War II). Despite its association with
religion, the cross remains a popular secular symbol as well.
CHRISTIANITY
There is a lot of symbolism in Christianity; this isn’t surprising since the
religion began as a “subversive” movement—at least by Roman standards.
Christians were persecuted and frequently slain in the early days of the
church. To protect themselves and spread the Word more safely, a large
body of symbols was adopted; these symbols could be utilized when
strangers met, enabling them to discover their like-minded fellows without
exposing themselves. The need for the symbols gradually faded, but the
symbols themselves persist to modern times. A number of variations of the
cross symbol exist, each with its own particular meaning.
Papal Cross
The papal cross has three horizontal bars on a single vertical upright. The
cross bars represent not just the Trinity (the three aspects of God: Father,
Son, Holy Spirit), but also make reference to the triregnum (the “triple
crown” traditionally worn by popes from the twelfth to the mid-twentieth
centuries).

Papal cross.
Patriarchal Cross
This cross contains two horizontal cross bars on a single vertical upright;
cross bars are set close to the top of the vertical. This cross was first used as
a symbol for archbishops in heraldry, with the second cross bar added to
distinguish an archbishop’s more prominent place in church hierarchy,
above priests and bishops. It is believed that the adoption of the three-armed
cross for popes was to “one-up” the archbishops.

Patriarchal cross.
Cross of Lorraine (or Cross of Anjou)
This cross is similar in appearance to the patriarchal cross, except the
horizontal bars are usually placed equidistant from the center of the vertical
upright. Sometimes it is used interchangeably with the patriarchal cross and
is derived from French heraldry.

Cross of Lorraine (or Cross of Anjou).

Latin Cross
This is the familiar cross with a single bar about one-third of the way down
on a vertical upright—the so-called “Christian cross.” This cross was
strongly associated with Christians by the fourth century CE, though
scholars argue its exact derivation. The Latin name is crux immissa.

Latin cross.
Tau Cross (also Saint Anthony’s Cross, or T-
Cross)
This cross gets its name from the Greek letter tau, which has the same
shape as the Latin letter “T.” The cross is associated with Saint Anthony of
Egypt and is believed to be the original shape of crosses used by Romans
for crucifixions. The Latin name is crux commissa.

Tau cross (or Saint Anthony's cross).

Greek Cross
This cross is in the shape of a plus sign (e.g. the cross bar is equidistant
between the top and the bottom of the vertical upright). This is the cross
used as a symbol by the Knights Hospitaller and the Knights Templar in the
Crusades, as well as the Red Cross organization. The Latin name is crux
quadrata.

Greek cross.
Cross Potent
This is a variation of the Greek cross; the tip ends of the cross bars are
topped with additional cross bars. The sign has been found in petroglyphs
dating back to 2500 BCE; it stood for a magician (or magi, in Old Persian).
It is also called a “crutch cross” after the crutch-like shape of the cross
arms. The term potent is from an Old French word meaning “crutch.” This
was briefly used as a symbol of the Austrian First Republic, and later the
Austrofascist Federal State; it was meant to stand against the use of the
swastika by the Nazis.

Cross potent.
Jerusalem Cross
It’s easy to see the origins of this cross in the cross potent; in this variant,
the cross potent is surrounded by four Greek crosses. This was a heraldic
symbol of Geoffrey of Bouillon, a leader of the First Crusade, and it
became known as the crusaders’ cross. It later adorned the flag of the
Kingdom of Jerusalem.

Jerusalem cross.
Saint Andrew’s Cross (also X-Cross, or Saltire
Cross, in Heraldry)
This cross is seen on the modern Scottish national flag. It became
associated with Saint Andrew in Catholic tradition when Andrew asked to
be crucified on an X-shaped cross, in deference to the T-shaped cross that
Christ was crucified upon. Andrew was one of Jesus’ original disciples. The
term “saltire” derives from the French word sautoir (“stirrup”). It’s Latin
name is crux decussata.

Saint Andrew's cross.

Russian Cross
This cross resembles the patriarchal cross, except there is a short horizontal
cross bar on the lower part of the vertical upright. This cross bar is called a
suppedaneum, defined as a block or bar for a person who is being crucified
to stand upon. This cross is a symbol of the Russian Orthodox church.

Russian cross.
Maltese Cross
This is a variation of the Greek cross with arms of equal lengths; the tips of
each arm are split into two points, making an eight-pointed cross. This
symbol was adopted by the Knights of Saint John, who lived for centuries
on the island of Malta in the Mediterranean; thus it came to be known as the
Maltese cross.

Maltese cross.
Crucifix
This particular form of the Christian cross is used by Catholics and some
Lutherans; the crucifix displays the figure of the crucified Christ (referred
to as the corpus) upon it, calling parishioners to remember that Jesus
suffered and died for our sins. Protestant denominations typically utilize the
empty Latin cross, putting emphasis on the resurrection rather than the
death of Christ.

Crucifix.
Presbyterian, Episcopal, and Celtic Crosses
These crosses are typically versions of the Latin cross, only with a halo
surrounding the cross bar and top extension. The halo represents the
resurrected Christ. The Episcopal cross and Celtic cross are similar; the
Episcopal cross has blunt ends to the cross tips rather than the fleur tips
featured on the Presbyterian cross, while the Celtic cross (commonly used
in the Scottish Presbyterian church) is heavily decorated with Celtic
knotwork.

Presbyterian cross.
Episcopal cross.
Celtic cross.
Lutheran Cross
This cross features the Luther rose (or Luther seal) at the joint of the cross
bar. Martin Luther (1483–1546 CE) was the first of the reformers of the
Roman Catholic Church, resulting in his excommunication from the church.

Lutheran cross.
Luther Rose
Martin Luther used this symbol as a way to express the tenets of his faith.
The symbol consists of a Latin cross set in the center of a red heart, which
is itself in the center of a five-petaled white rose. Typically, the rose is on a
field of blue, surrounded by a gold circle.

Luther rose.
Rose
The rose has been a symbol of the Virgin Mary since the Middle Ages.
The white rose symbolizes purity and holiness—the Virgin. The red rose
symbolizes Mary as Jesus’ mother as well as the blood of Christ. The
prayer beads known as the rosary originally had beads shaped like rose
blooms. In medieval England, the red rose was the symbol for the ruling
House of Lancaster, the white rose for the challenging House of York. The
Wars of the Roses eventually destroyed both families, clearing the way for
the House of Tudor and the rule of Henry VIII and later Elizabeth I. The
“Tudor rose” emblem combines both the white and red roses.

The Tudor rose.

Fish / Jesus Fish
The stylized symbol of a fish has been a mark of Christianity since its
earliest times. The symbol (called the ichthus) derives from the Greek word
ichthus meaning “fish”; the letters in the word “ichthys” make an acronym
for the phrase “Jesus Christ God’s Son Savior.” The letters inside the
“fish,” , are English alphabet representations of the actual Greek
letters : iota, chi, theta, upsilon, sigma, which stand for the words
“Iesous, Christos, Theou, Yios (or which means “son”), Soter.”
The inscription also appears as .

Ichthys symbol with the name Jesus inscribed in the middle.

The ichthys symbol with Greek letters.

The fish symbol ties in to several Biblical references:

• Matthew 15:32–39 and Mark 8:1–9: Jesus feeds five thousand people
gathered for his Sermon on the Mount with five loaves of bread and two
fishes.
• Jonah 1:17: God directs a great fish (or whale, depending on the
translation) to swallow Jonah, testing Jonah’s faith.

• Matthew 4:19: Jesus says to his potential disciples, “Follow me, and I will
make you fishers of men.” Jesus is commonly depicted as a fisherman.
Dove
The dove, or “dove of peace,” is a Biblical symbol. In Genesis (Gen. 8:8–
12), Noah releases a dove from the ark in hopes of finding dry land. When
the dove returns to him with an olive branch, Noah knows the flood waters
have receded. When he releases the dove again, the bird does not return,
and Noah knows that it has found a place to nest, indicating that the flood
was over. The dove—either by itself or with the olive branch, as well as the
olive branch itself—has come to represent peace (as in “accord”). The dove
is a symbol of God keeping his promise to Noah to save Noah’s family
from the flood that he sent to destroy the world. The dove is sometimes
depicted as cupped in the palms of God. The dove is also a symbol of the
Holy Spirit, as in this passage from Luke:

• [T]he Holy Spirit descended on [Jesus] in bodily form like a dove. And a
voice came from heaven: “You are my Son, whom I love; with you I am
well pleased.” (Luke 3:22)

The dove of peace.

The Holy Spirit symbol as a white dove. A halo of light rays and seven flames of fire symbolize
the sevenfold gifts of the Holy Spirit.
Flame
The flame is a less common Christian symbol, perhaps because it is from
the Old Testament. Psalm 119:105 says: God’s Word is “. . . a lamp unto our
feet and a light to our path.” Additionally, in Exodus 3:1–17, God appears
to Moses in the Burning Bush:

• Now Moses was tending the flock of Jethro his father-in-law, the priest of
Midian, and he led the flock to the far side of the wilderness and came to
Horeb, the mountain of God (2). There the angel of the Lord appeared to
him in flames of fire from within a bush. Moses saw that though the bush
was on fire it did not burn up (3). So Moses thought, “I will go over and
see this strange sight—why the bush does not burn up.”

The Seventh-Day Adventists, the Pentecostals, and the Methodists are

some of the Protestant groups that have incorporated the flame into logos
representing their denomination. For Catholics, the flame can represent the
Pentecost, which is celebrated fifty days after Easter Sunday (pentecoste in
Greek means “fiftieth day”) and which is also a Jewish holiday to celebrate
the end of Passover. When the apostles and their followers were gathered
in a room, a wind blew and a flame appeared as a tongue of fire that split
into individual flames and lay on the heads of the apostles. Each started to
speak in a different language, but they were all able to understand each
other. The common symbols for Pentecost are the flame, a dove, and wind.
Chi-Rho
This is a symbol older than even the fish; it consists of the Greek letters chi
(X) and rho (P) superimposed on top of each other. The effect is “CHIRH,”
which represents Jesus’ title as “Christ.” Abbreviations for the name of
Jesus, or for Christ, are referred to as Christograms. The Chi-Rho was
used by the Emperor Constantine (ca. 300 CE) as a military device on his
standard (vexillum).

Chi-Rho symbol.
IHS
These initials are also a Christogram and are also referred to as “the
monogram of Jesus.” In Greek and Latin alphabets, the letters “I” and “J”
were equivalent; Jesus was spelled “IH∑OY” in Greek, so the letter “I”
stood for his name. IHS (also written “IHC,” since the sigma that appears at
the end of a word resembles a “C” in the Latin alphabet) are the first three
letters of Jesus’ name. Numerous other combinations of letters (JHS, XPO,
XPI, XPS, IH∑, IX, etc.) have also been used as Christograms.

The monogram of Jesus, or IHS.

Chi
This Greek letter resembles an “X” in the Latin alphabet; its name, “chi,”
has come to represent the title “Christ” in Christianity; this is why “Xmas”
is used as an abbreviation for the word “Christmas.” Some people believe
that the abbreviation “crosses out” the title of Jesus from the word, but it is
actually the opposite.

Chi symbol.
Alpha-Omega
These are the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. Their use in
Christianity refers to the verse from the Book of Revelation:

• “I am the Alpha and the Omega—the beginning and the end,” says the
Lord God. “I am the one who is, who always was, and who is still to
come—the Almighty One.”
(Rev. 1:8)

The AΩ monogram is used to indicate the eternity of God. Sometimes

you will see the Alpha-Omega sign used together with the chi-rho, both
with either uppercase or lowercase alpha and omega letters.

Alpha-Omega sign.

The alpha-omega and chi-rho symbols combined with the uppercase (left) and lowercase
(right) alpha and omega Greek letters.
Anchor
This symbol represents “stability” and the “anchoring” of the soul or spirit
in the Word of God and the beliefs of Christianity. To fishermen, the anchor
represented safety in a stormy sea; as such, it became a symbol of hope by
implying that, if one were saved, one could have hope of a future life—on
Earth or in heaven. The word “anchor” comes from the Greek ankura.

Anchor symbol.
Staurogram (also Mongrammatic Cross or Tau-
Rho)
This term is used to describe the symbol also referred to as the
monogrammatic cross, or tau-rho. Like the chi-rho, the staurogram is the
superimposition of two Greek letters on top of each other, in this case “T”
and “P.” Early Christian philosophers and writers believed that the cross
upon which Jesus was crucified was shaped like a “T” and not like the
shape of the Latin cross we see today. The symbol of the staurogram
represents the Greek word for “cross” ( , also abbreviated “TP”). It
began as a generic representation of a cross, but over time it became
interchangeable with the chi-rho symbol.

Staurogram (or monogrammatic) cross.

Lamb
In Christianity, the lamb represents Jesus Christ. Lambs are associated
with springtime and new birth (as are chicks and bunnies). The phrase
“lamb of God” appears in the New Testament and is used by John the
Baptist to refer to Jesus: “Behold, the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin
of the world!” (John 1:29). John prophesied the eventual crucifixion and
death of Jesus; his use of the term “lamb” for Jesus refers to the historical
practice of sacrificing the first-born lambs of a herd to God or the gods, as it
was also a pagan practice. Additionally, in Isaiah 53:7:

• [Jesus] was oppressed, and he was afflicted, yet he opened not his mouth;
like a lamb that is led to the slaughter, and like a sheep that before its
shearers is silent, so he opened not his mouth.

Jesus is also frequently referred to as a shepherd, or the Good

Shepherd, as in John 10:11:

• “I am the good shepherd. The good shepherd lays down his life for the
sheep.”

A lamb is frequently used to represent Jesus Christ.

Agnus Dei
This Latin term refers to Jesus’ symbolism as “the Lamb of God” (John
1:29). The agnus dei is usually depicted as a sheep or lamb with its leg
wrapped around a vexillum that bears a cross, or a staff that is topped by a
cross. This symbol is used by the United Moravian Church (a Protestant
denomination). The symbol is used as a focus of contemplation or
meditation.

The agnus dei symbol to represents Jesus as the Lamb of God.

The Sacred Heart
The Sacred Heart is a powerful symbol of the Roman Catholic Church. It
represents not only the actual physical heart of Jesus, but also his love and
sacrifice for humanity. Saint Bernard promulgated worship of the image of
the Sacred Heart in the eleventh century, and it was confirmed by Pope
Innocent VI in the fourteenth century. The Sacred Heart now has its own
holy day, which is the Friday following the second Sunday after Pentecost.

The Most Sacred Heart of Jesus image.

JUDAISM
While icons of God are forbidden (because that would be attempting to
define the indefinable), there are still a number of symbols in the Jewish
faith. When referencing God, parallels are typically drawn between him and
his works as natural phenomena: rainbows, mountains, rivers, the sun, etc.
There are also metaphors that describe parts of daily Jewish life as
representative of one’s relationship with God: marriage, music, literature,
plants, colors—even cooking. Allegory is also part of Jewish symbolism;
prophets and rabbis frequently make use of allegory. Because Biblical (and
subsequently rabbinic) language is considered concrete, symbolism is used
to convey abstract ideas.
Star of David
Most non-Jews think of this as the quintessential symbol of Judaism. In
fact, this symbol did not become widely associated with Judaism and the
Jewish people until the seventeenth century, though it appears several
centuries before that in Christian and Arabic motifs. In Hebrew, the symbol
is referred to as the Shield of David (Mogen/Magen David) and as the Seal
of Solomon in Muslim tradition. It was believed to have magical powers
and was used as an amulet or talisman. As the Ring of Solomon, it was said
to grant the ever-wise king the ability to speak to and command various
magical creatures and animals. It was a popular symbol in alchemy. Two
versions are often depicted: one with the lines of the triangles interwoven
and overlapping; the second with no visible overlap and the joins fused
where the triangles cross each other.

The Star of David with no lines overlapping.

The Star of David with lines overlapping.
Menorah
The symbol of the menorah represents the Holy Temple in Jerusalem; it is
part of the emblem of the State of Israel. The menorah is a ritual candle
holder (a “lampstand” in the Old Testament) with arms for six candles, plus
a center holder for a seventh. The original menorah that Moses made
according to God’s directions was created of pure gold and stood about 5
feet (1.5 meters) tall, weighing about 75 pounds (34 kilograms). (Exodus
25:31–40). This menorah was stolen from the Temple (along with numerous
other artifacts) by Roman legions under the direction of Titus in 70 CE. The
Temple was subsequently destroyed, though it is known that the menorah
was displayed afterwards in Rome as part of Titus’ victory parade (called a
triumph). The menorah has since disappeared into history—perhaps melted
down and made into gold coins featuring the image of Emperor Titus.

A menorah.
Tetragrammaton
This is the Greek word meaning “containing four letters.” This four-letter
abbreviation ( or yud-hey-vav-hey, in Hebrew) represents the
unspeakable/unknowable name of God, his actual name. The Hebrew word
for the abbreviation itself is Shem Hameforash, “The Special Name,” or
HaShem, “The Name.” This abbreviation is written as YHWH in Latin and
is also voiced as “Yahweh” or by Christians as Jehovah. In the Hebrew
bible, God is referred to variously as Elohim (God), Adonai (Lord), or
HaShem (The Name).

The tetragrammaton symbol representing the name of God.

Shin
This is the Aramaic letter representing the “SH” sound in the Aramaic
language. A version of Aramaic was the language spoken in Judea in
Biblical times. As a symbol, the letter stands for El Shaddai, one of the
Hebrew names of God (shin being the first letter of Shaddai). The symbol is
taken from a hand gesture used during the Priestly Blessing (
, or birkat kohanim, in Hebrew). The Priestly Blessing may only be
performed by Hebrew priests (known as kohanim) who are direct lineal
descendants of Aaron, brother of Moses.

Shin.
Kohen hands symbol.
Hamsa
From the Arabic , khamsah, meaning “five” or “five-fingered”
and also known as the Hand of Fatima (or the Hand of Mary, to
Christians), this is a very old Jewish symbol—though its use in current
times is mostly limited to Sephardic Jews, as well as Middle Eastern
Christians and Muslims. Fatima (also Fatimah) was the daughter of the
Prophet Muhammad. A popular tourist item, the hand was long used as an
amulet of protection against the evil eye, and its origins can be traced as far
back as Mesopotamia, the “Cradle of Civilization.” Egyptians, Phoenicians,
and Greeks all knew of and utilized the hand symbol as protection. The
“helping hand” and the “strong hand” are associated with God in Hebrew
texts, and the hand with fingers and the palm showing is representative of
him. Middle Eastern women (particularly in Egypt) may make amulets
containing five charms, the number five being considered lucky and
protective.
Hamsa hand symbol.
Chai
Letters are a prominent part of Jewish mysticism; the Talmud (the book of
Jewish law) states that the world was created by God from the letters of
verses in the Torah (the sacred books of Jewish teaching). Specifically, chai
represents the lowest, most base emanation of God (an emanation is a
“particle” or “creation” that flows from the Creator which may be a
Supreme Being or may be a state-of-perfection or first reality). Chai is the
emanation that is closest to the real or physical plane. Chai is made up of
two Hebrew letters: chet (n) and yod and means “alive” or “life” in
Hebrew. Typically, chai refers to “living” in accordance with Jewish law
and faith.

Chai letters.
Dreidel
Not just a symbol, the dreidel is a toy top used to play a game (also called
“dreidel”) during Hanukkah. The dreidel has four sides, each with a
different Hebrew letter on it. The letters include shin, hay, nun, and gimel.
Each letter describes an action the player must take when the letter comes
up during a turn. Players wager chocolate coins (traditionally called gelt,
but that word doesn’t see a lot of use nowadays). Playing dreidel reenacts
Jewish stories of children studying the Torah surreptitiously during the
historical period of the Maccabees (ca. 164 BCE). Confronted by Greek
authorities the children would claim they were only playing dreidel.

A dreidel showing the four Hebrew letters on each side.

Shofar
This is the symbol of the curly ram’s horn that is traditionally blown on
Yom Kippur and Rosh Hashanah (the Jewish New Year). Yom Kippur is
the Jewish Day of Atonement, the holiest day of the Jewish calendar. The
day is spent fasting, reflecting on sins, repenting, and praying. The
resounding bugle-like wail of the shofar marks the start of Rosh Hashanah
and the end of the fast on Yom Kippur. The Hebrew word for shofar is
.

Shofar.
Sefer Torah
This symbol represents a handwritten copy of the Torah used for ceremonial
purposes; it is in scroll form and is read from during prayers in synagogue
and on holidays. The book-bound Torah is called the Chumash and is for
everyday use. The Hebrew word for a Sefer Torah is .

The Sefer Torah symbol.

Four Species (or Four Kinds)
Symbolized in various ways, the Four Species or Four Kinds (Hebrew:
, arba’at ha-minim) refer to four different food plants
named in the Torah that must be involved in the blessings of Sukkot.
Sukkot is the Jewish harvest festival that celebrates the protection God
gave the Jews during the Exodus. The plants listed are: etrog (a citrus
fruit), lulav (palm leaf), hadas (myrtle leaf), and aravah (willow leaf).
These plants are (for the most part) highly fragrant, and represent four
different types of people found in the Jewish faith. Each species is also said
to represent a particular part of the body: etrog = heart; lulav = spine;
hadas = eyes; aravah = arteries. The binding together of the three tree
species (minus the etrog) represents “harmony”; the bound branches are
also referred to as the lulav.
The Four Species (or Four Kinds) of food to celebrate Sukkot.
ISLAM
The Islamic religion has a strict policy of aniconism—that is, the depiction
or creation in artwork of sentient beings (including animals) is forbidden.
So Islamic art is dominated by geometrics, calligraphy, arabesques (foliar
representations), and stylized “magical” body parts like hands or wings. It is
common in Islamic art to see repeated geometrical shapes, particularly in
the form of tiles or blocks. The beauty is in the perfect symmetry of the
repeating patterns.
Because of the prohibition against iconography, symbolism in Islam is
difficult to catalog. There are no “official” symbols, but common use by the
non-Islamic community has resulted in some symbols that are associated
with the religion and the peoples.
“Allah”
Script is permitted in Islamic art; this script is the ultimate “symbol” and it
is the name of God in Arabic. It is not uncommon to see this script in
Islamic graffiti. As a symbol, the Allah script is typically decorated with
flourishes.

The name Allah with adorned script.

The name Allah with unadorned script.
Star and Crescent
This is the symbol on the flags of numerous Islamic nations, including
Algeria, Turkey, Pakistan, and Libya. The star and crescent symbol were the
mark of the Ottoman Empire, and not the Islamic religion specifically.
However, due to the vastness and power of that empire, the nations of
Europe came to associate the Ottoman flag with the spread of the Islamic
religion for hundreds of years. Use of the symbol is not without controversy
in modern Islam. There is a bas-relief depiction of Suleiman (or
Süleyman) the Great, Sultan and longest ruler of the Ottoman Empire, in
the US House of Representatives in Washington, DC. He is one of the
twenty-three greatest law makers in history depicted there.

Flag of Algeria.
 Flag of Turkey.

Flag of Pakistan.
 Flag of Libya.

Flag of Saudi Arabia.

 Islamic star and crescent symbol.

The Shahada in written in Arabic text.

“Shahada”
The Muslim profession of faith (creed) is as follows: “There is no god but
Allah (God), and Muhammad is his messenger” (the generally accepted
translation). The shahada appears on a number of Islamic flags, including
those believed to symbolize ISIS and Al-Qaeda; the Qur’an states that
horsemen carrying black banners will ride forth and slay the enemies of
Islam on the eve of the Apocalypse. It is NOT true, however, that all black
flags with Arabic writing on them refer to ISIS and/or Al-Qaeda. Terrorist
organizations often deliberately make their flags resemble noncombatant
Islamic flags in order to cause confusion and chaos.
While it appears indecipherable to English speakers, familiarity with the
shape of the script can help prevent misunderstandings and hurtful actions
by those who don’t understand it. The official state flag of Saudi Arabia
bears this script emblazoned above a white saber. The saber represents
victory in battle and the severe enforcement of law. Because the Saudi flag
displays the shahada (a holy declaration), the flag is never used as
“decoration” or as a simple graphic design the way the US flag is.
Rub el Hizb
This symbol ( in Arabic text) is a chapter marker from the
Qur’an; it marks the text into sixty individual chapters or portions (hizb,
meaning “group” in Arabic), which are further subdivided into quarters
(rub). This symbol appears on the flags of Turkmenistan and several other
countries. It is a frequent motif in (and architectural layout of) mosques.

The Rub el Hizb symbol in different artistic styles.

Green Color
Green is the color of Islam because the Qur’an states: “Those who inhabit
paradise will wear fine silk garments of green” (Surah 76:31). This
interpretation has resulted in Qur’an texts being bound in green leather or
cloth, mosques using green tiles for decoration, and Islamic countries using
the color in their flags (as in the example of the Turkmenistan flag on the
right). When Muslims go to paradise, it is described as a beautiful garden.

Flag of Turkmenistan.
BUDDHISM
There are those—including the famous Buddhist writer and priest Thich
Nhat Hanh—who say that Buddhism is not a religion but rather a practice,
in the way that yoga and meditation are practices. The argument rests on
Buddhism’s lack of a superhuman “god” or controlling power. However,
one of the definitions of religion in the Merriam-Webster dictionary is: a
personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes, beliefs, and
practices. There are many voices in the argument over what defines
religion, so examples of Buddhist symbols are included in this chapter.
Dharma Wheel (or Dharmachakra)
The dharmachakra is one of the oldest symbols of Buddhism, dating back to
the beginning of the practice. The spokes of the wheel represent the
eightfold path to enlightenment. Some representations look more like
vehicle wheels.

The dharma wheel.

Buddha Footprint (or Buddhapada)
This is another very old symbol of Buddhism and represents the actual or
stylized image of the footprint of Gautama Buddha, the Enlightened One.
The image may be of one or both feet and may be described as “natural” or
“artificial.” Some “natural” prints are actually manmade; the term is meant
to describe whether the shape of the print looks like an actual foot made it,
or whether it is obviously a ceremonial image meant to call to mind a
footprint. The hallmark of the buddhapada is that all five toes are the same
length; this is meant to indicate the perfection of Buddha and the state of
enlightenment. The image of the footprint is to remind practitioners that the
Buddha was physically present on the Earth, and that he walked a path to
enlightenment. The prints are revered as the only evidence of his physical
presence.
 Buddha footprint, or Buddhapada.

Cetiya
This is the word used to refer to relics of the Buddha (both objects and
places). Examples include the rock formations described as “footprints of
the Buddha” in Sri Lanka, Japan, Cambodia, and others.
Trishula
This is a trident used to model three different symbols of Buddhism and
Hinduism: the lotus, the vajra, and a stylized triratna (these symbols are
described on the next page).

Trishula.
Lotus
The lotus has been described in our earlier examination of symbolic plants.
In Buddhism, the Buddha is commonly shown sitting in the middle of a
lotus blossom; being at the center represents having gone through all the
steps involved in peeling back the one thousand layers of the lotus blossom
(called the padma in Sanskrit) to reach the center, which symbolizes
attaining enlightenment. The lotus also represents purity of thought and
cleanliness of the body.

Buddha meditating in lotus position.

Vajra
This is an actual weapon with the mystical properties of being diamond-
hard and containing the power of the thunderbolt; it is particularly
associated with the Hindu god Indra. It is seen on the image of the trishula
in artwork.

Vajra.
Triratna
The triratna symbol represents the “Three Jewels of Buddhism”: the
Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha.

Triratna symbol.

Buddha
Siddhārtha Gautama ( in Sanskrit) was a monk born about 400
BCE who preached in Northeastern India and taught the concepts that
became the foundations of Buddhism. The word Buddha means “awakened
one” or “enlightened one.”

Dharma
The name for the “rightness of the world,” social behavior, and class
structure, dharma is eternal and essentially defines reality. There is no
English equivalent to this word. It may be represented by a wheel or circle.
Sangha
This is a Sanskrit word connoting “community” or “association.” It is used
to refer to the assembly of monks and nuns at a temple, or to the followers
of Buddhism in general.
Gankyil
This symbol, composed of three or more swirling, sometimes interlocking,
arms or blades represents the Triple Jewel or Three Gems of Buddhism.
The three blades can also represent a number of different “triunes” such as:

• Three dharma seals: impermanence, anatta, nirvana

• Three cycles of Nyingmapa Dzogchen: semde, longde, mengagde

• Three spheres (in Sanskrit, trimandala): subject, object, action

• Three aspects of energy in Dzogchen doctrine: dang, rolpa, tsal

• Three vajras: body, speech, mind

• Three aspects of the Trikaya: dharmakaya, sambhogakaya, nirmanakaya

• Three roots: guru, yidam, dakini

• Three higher trainings: discipline, meditation, wisdom

Gankyil.
Deer
The deer is a sacred animal representing the followers of the Buddha. It is
derived from the story of the Buddha giving his first sermon at a deer park
in the city of Varanasi, thus founding the beginnings of Buddhism.

A dharma wheel depicted with deer.

Lion
This early Buddhist symbol is used to indicate the strength of the Buddha’s
teachings. In the sutras (ancient Hindu, Jainist, and Buddhist texts), the
Buddha’s teachings are referred to as “the lion’s roar” for their inherent
nobility and power.

A lion statue in a Buddhist temple.

Riderless Horse
This symbol represents renunciation, e.g. the rejection of worldly beliefs
and attachments in order to take up the teachings of the Buddha.

A riderless horse.
Stupa
This is the “rounded cone” shape common to Buddhist architecture; from

the Sanskrit “heap” ( ); buildings with this shape typically house

Buddhist relics.

The Sanchi Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, India.

Swastika (also Fylfot, Gammadion, and
Tetraskelion)
No matter what it’s called, this has become the most recognized and most
reviled symbol in the world. It is an ancient symbol that was in use long
before the Nazis adopted it. The word swastika is from Sanskrit
(devanagari: ), meaning “good health” or “auspicious.” The symbol
has two different representations in Hindu: the symbol with arms pointing
clockwise (that is, the top bar of the first arm of the symbol is pointing right
( ) is called swastika or right-hand cross, and symbolizes the sun,
prosperity, and good luck. The counterclockwise symbol ( ), with the top
bar of the first arm pointing left, is called sauvastika or left-hand cross and
symbolizes night, “many,” and eternity. The left-hand sauvastika cross is
also a symbol of the goddess Kali the Destroyer—the terrifying, multi-
armed aspect of Devi Durga, the Warrior goddess.

The sauvastika symbol within a traditional Buddhist pattern.

Bodhi Tree
Also on our list of mythological plants, the bodhi tree is sacred to Buddhists
as a symbol of enlightenment. The Buddha is said to have attained
enlightenment while meditating beneath a bodhi (generally believed to be a
species of fig, Ficus religiosa). The word bodhi means “awakened” or
“awakening” in Sanskrit and has become a popular name for babies in the
Western hemisphere. The bodhi is easily recognized by its masses of heart-
shaped leaves.

Buddha sitting under a bodhi tree.

Ashtamangala
The Ashtamangala contains the eight auspicious signs (or symbols) of
Buddhism:

• Lotus flower (padma): purity, cleanliness, and enlightenment

• Endless knot (mandala): eternal harmony, infinity, oneness

• Goldfish (suvarna matsya): conjugal happiness, companionship, freedom

• Victory banner (dhvaja): victory in battle

• Wheel of the Dharma (dhammachakka): knowledge, the teachings of the

Buddha

• Treasure vase (bumpa): unlimited treasure, riches, wealth

• Parasol (chatra): the crown, protection from the elements, imperviousness

• Conch shell (shankha): the thoughts of the Buddha

These symbols have become more widely known with the spread of
Buddhism and are common in the art of India, China, and Nepal. They may
be used separately, but they are referred to as Ashtamangala when used
together.
The “om mani padme hum” is the English transliteration of the
Sanskrit mantra (meditative phrase) consisting of six symbols, which
declare that if one sticks to the path and practice of Buddhism, one can
transform [the impurity of one’s human form] into [the holy form, thoughts,
and speech of] a Buddha.
Ashtamangala, the eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism.

The “om mani padme hum” in Sanskrit.

 THE FIVE SACRED COLORS AND THEIR MEANINGS
Color Symbol Direction
White Purity, traditionally symbolizes East (or North)
air
Green Peace, traditionally symbolizes North
water
Yellow Wealth, traditionally symbolizes South (or West)
Earth
Dark/Light Blue Knowledge, (dark blue also Center
symbolizes
awakening/enlightenment),
traditionally symbolizes
sky/space
Red Love, traditionally symbolizes West (or South)
fire
Black Death, decay (death of ignorance, East
awakening/enlightenment)
 THE FIVE SACRED COLORS AND THEIR MEANINGS
Element From X state to Y state Syllable
Water From ignorance to reality Om
None From jealousy to awareness Ma
Earth From pride to sameness Ni
Air From anger to acceptance Pad
Fire From attachment to separation Me
Air Hum
Tomoe
This is known as the fire wheel, and represents cosmic forces in action. The
Japanese word tomoe means “circular-shaped” or “turning.” The tomoe may
have two, three, or more blades, with three being the most common. The
three-bladed version is referred to as mitsu tomoe.

The tomoe symbol.

Prayer Flags
Color is an important element in Buddhism. Prayer flags are made of
colored paper (if meant to be transient) or cloth (if meant to be more
permanent); their disintegration in the wind signifies the message of the
prayer being spread across the world and the cosmos—not transferred to
God (or heaven) as many people incorrectly believe. As the words of the
prayers fade, they gain permanence in the universe. The flags are
continually renewed, keeping hope and goodwill alive to the benefit of all
peoples. The order of the colors is traditionally blue, white, red, green, and
yellow, and the flags should be hung out in that order of color.
The chart above describes the Five Sacred Colors (plus black),
including the symbolism, cardinal direction, element, what effect each color
has in reaching enlightenment, and the syllable of the holy meditation “om
mani padme hum” associated with that color.
Buddhist prayer flags.
Ensō
In Zen Buddhism, this symbol (drawn by hand using a single, sometimes
two, strokes and no forethought) represents unconstrained creativity. It is
creation without input from (or restrictions placed upon it by) the conscious
mind.

An ensō Zen circle.

HINDUISM
If Buddhism is not a religion, then Hinduism most assuredly is. With a
pantheon of thirty-three million gods, goddesses, demigods, devis, etc.,
Hinduism is the world’s oldest active religion, established as early as the
fifteenth century BCE (the Vedas—the holy scriptures of Hinduism—were
compiled between the fifteenth and fifth centuries BCE). Over a billion
people identify as Hindus, though there are many factions with their own
practices, their own gods, and their own adherents.
Clearly, it is not possible to depict all of the gods and goddesses and
their various incarnations, aspects, and avatars. Selection of some and
exclusion of others does not mean that any of the chosen are of greater
importance—or that any of the excluded are of lesser importance. No
offense is meant, nor should be inferred, from such representation in this
chapter.
OM / Aum
This is the symbol of Hinduism, representing the universe and reality,
surrounding and permeating all of creation. In Sanskrit, the OM is
represented as pranava ( ) meaning “to sound loudly,” and as omkara
( ), the actual syllable “om.” The sound is the basic, primeval sound,
the essence of reality, which echoed in the cosmos following the Creation.
It is the sacred sound frequently heard at the beginning of prayers or
meditation; it is the seed of all other mantras. As “AUM” it is said to
represent God (the Trimurti) in the three aspects of Brahma (A), Vishnu
(U), and Shiva (M).

The OM symbol.

An important tenet of Hinduism is the idea that every god and goddess
has different aspects, and each aspect is itself a god to be worshipped. Each
aspect has its own name; there are over one thousand names for Vishnu
alone. Each aspect also has its own physical appearance, its own powers,
and its own area of responsibility. Refer to the chart below.
The concept of chakras and their healing methods comes from the
traditions of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The word chakra is a
Sanskrit word meaning “vortex” or “whirling circle.” Chakras are energy
centers in the body. Buddhists emphasize four primary chakras, while in
Hinduism it’s seven. Each chakra corresponds to a particular region of the
body, sense organ, natural element, and deity. Each chakra has four parts: a
mantra symbol, a particular color, a floral shape, and a sacred geometry.
Each chakra also has its own affirmation.

DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE GOD VISHNU

Aspect Appearance Power/Responsibilities Vaahan
(transport)
Narayana Blue skin, four arms holding holy objects Mover of the waters of Garuda, the
(vyu¯ha) life eagle
Mahavishnu (unknown) Supreme Lord of All Garuda, the
Souls in All Universe eagle
Vishnu Blue skin, four arms The preserver Garuda, the
eagle
Krishna Blue/Black skin, two arms, playing flute Compassion, love, Horse-
(avatar) tenderness drawn
chariot
Rama (avatar) Two arms, fair skin/green, bow and arrow Represents the best of none
humanity’s virtues
Parashurama Wiseman or sage with an axe Justice for the people none
against the nobles
Chakras
The seven major chakras described in Hinduism are as follows:

Sahasrara
This means “one thousand.” This is the crown chakra found at the top of the
head. Its color is violet; its affirmation is “I am” or “I understand”; its shape
is the thousand-petaled lotus; its organs include the brain and pineal
gland; its natural element is thought; its god is Lord Shiva; its mantra is all
sounds (which may be interpreted as silence or the OM). The crown has no
sacred geometry other than the lotus; its realm is spirituality.

Sahasrara chakra.
Ajna
This means “command.” The third eye is found in the center of the forehead
just above the eyes. Its color is indigo; its affirmation is “I know” or “I
think”; its shape is the two-petaled lotus; its organs include the pituitary
gland and eyes; its natural element is light; its god is Ardhanarishvara; its
mantra is OM (the AUM); its sacred geometry is the circle enclosing a
down-pointing triangle; its realm is intuition.

Ajna chakra.
Vishuddha
This means “pure place.” The throat chakra is located in the center of the
neck; its color is blue; its affirmation is “I speak” or “I express”; its shape is
the sixteen-petaled lotus; its organs include the larynx and thyroid; its
natural element is ether; its god is Sadashiva; its mantra is HAM
(Devanagari letter “Ha”); its sacred geometry is a white circle (representing
the gaseous ether) surrounding a down-pointing triangle that has another
circle at its center; its realm is communication.

Vishudda chakra.
Anahata
This means “unhurt.” The heart chakra is located in the center of the chest.
Its color is green; its affirmation is “I love”; its shape is the twelve-petaled
lotus; its organs include the heart and thymus; its natural element is air; its
god is Ishvara; its mantra is YAM (Devanagari letter “Ya”); its sacred
geometry is a circle enclosing an up-pointing and a down-pointing triangle
laid over each other creating a six-pointed star; its realm is love.

Anahata chakra.
Manipura
This means “jewel city.” The solar plexus chakra is located in the center of
the body just below the sternum. Its color is yellow; its affirmation is “I
can” or “I do”; its shape is the ten-petaled lotus; its organs include the
stomach and pancreas; its natural element is fire; its god is Maharudra
Shiva; its mantra is RAM (Devanagari letter “Ra”); its sacred geometry is
a circle enclosing a down-pointing triangle; its realm is empowerment.

Manipura chakra.
Svadhishthana
This means “residence place of the self”—seat of the soul. The sacral
chakra is located in the lower abdomen between the hips. Its color is
orange; its affirmation is “I feel” or “I want”; its shape is the six-petaled
lotus; its organs include the kidneys, large intestine, and bladder; its natural
element is water; its god is Vishnu; its mantra is VAM (Devanagari letter
“Va”); its sacred geometry is a circle containing a crescent moon in its
bottom arc; its realm is emotion and balance.

Svadhishthana chakra.
Muladhara
This means “base” or “root.” The root chakra is located at the base of the
spine. Its color is red; its affirmation is “I am” or “I will”; its shape is the
four-petaled lotus; its organs are the adrenals and sex organs; its natural
element is Earth; its god is Ganesh (and/or Braham, the Life Force); its
mantra is LAM (Devanagari letter “La”); its sacred geometry is a circle
enclosing a square that has a small down-pointing triangle in it; its realm is
grounding.
Notice in the line drawings of each chakra that there is a Hindu letter at
the center. Each letter represents the specific mantra (sacred sound) for that
chakra. Sometimes the “sound” for the crown chakra is silence; other
interpretations say it is “all sounds,” and still others use the all-
encompassing OM or AUM (which is also used for the third eye chakra). It
is worth noting that the OM symbol is often written differently when it
appears on the crown chakra versus when it appears on the third eye
chakra (the Bangla version of the OM). Some writers give the third eye
chakra the Devanagari “U” sound.
Muladhara chakra.
Chakras and their locations on the body.
Apsaras
These are fertility nymphs who emerged from the waters in the time of
creation; they are curvaceous creatures that represent the rains and mists,
and are utilized as symbols of abundance in art and architecture.

Dancing apsaras.
Vata
The banyan tree is the sacred tree of Hinduism. It is commonly planted
outside Hindu temples and represents Lord Brahma the Creator. Banyan
trees root widely, and new trees can sprout anywhere along the length of the
root. This characteristic symbolizes the spread of Hinduism and the
benevolent care of leaders who provide for their people and families.
Banyan trees are very long-lived, extremely hardy, and aggressively
reproductive; their sacred status means they are never cut down or trimmed.

Banyan tree.
Sri Yantra
Also known as sri chakra, this mystical symbol consists of nine triangles
that emerge from the same center point. The nine major triangles consist of
four up-pointing shapes to represent the divine masculine, and five down-
pointing shapes for the divine feminine. The nine triangles overlap and
intersect, forming forty-three small triangles; each of these houses a
separate deity with a particular function (or aspect) of existence. This
symbol below is an example of sacred geometry and is used as a focus for
meditation and devotion.

Sri yantra symbol.

Shiva Nataraja
This is the Dancing God, an avatar of Lord Shiva depicting him as the King
of Dance, and depicting both the creation and destruction of the universe at
the same time. In his right hand the god holds a dumroo (a two-sided hand
drum) symbolizing the first sound of creation; in his left he holds agni, the
fire that destroys the cosmos. Nataraja demonstrates the cyclical nature of
time and the power of music and dance to destroy ignorance.

Lord Shiva Nataraja, the King of Dance, and Apasmara, the demon-dwarf.

Apasmara
This demon-dwarf is a symbol of ignorance, darkness, and fear. It is upon
his prone body that Nataraja performs the dance of bliss.
Naga
These are Hindu snake deities, often of very large stature. The snake is a
powerful symbol that represents the cycle of birth-death-rebirth that is
common to many Asian religions. The snake is also a symbol of healing
and medicine (see chapter 11, Medicine). There are sects of snake worship
in Hinduism, and snakes are frequently household guardians (figuratively
and literally).

A naga symbol.
Peacock
The peacock is the national bird of India, representing beauty, pride, and
grace. Peacocks are a symbol of psychic health and energy. Female
peacocks are called “peahens.” Hindu mythology says that the peacock was
created from a feather of Garuda, the sacred eagle of Vishnu. The feathers
of a peacock are thought to bring good luck as well as freedom from flies.
Lord Krishna is frequently depicted with a peacock feather in his crown,
and the god Indra was said to have turned himself into this bird.

Peacock.

Lord Krishna.
Linga (or Shiva Linga)
Linga, or Lingam, are egg- or phallus-shaped stones (frequently with lines
painted or carved on them) which represent the creative spark—the power
of nature in the male and female. The Shiva Linga is a physical object used
to infer the god Shiva as atman (the “dweller within”) or Brahma. Since
Lord Shiva abides, the lingam does not represent the god’s shape, but only
his existence.

A linga.
Brahman
In the Taittariya Upanishad (a holy text), Brahman is described as “the
nature of truth, knowledge, and infinity” (11.1). Brahman is not a “who” but
more like a “what”; it is a concept of reality that is beyond time, self-
sustaining, continuous, and all-pervasive. Brahman is the abiding essence of
the Supreme Being.
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 CHAPTER

17
Sex and Gender

T here was a time when the word “sex” stood for not just the act of
procreation but also the sexual anatomy of the human body. A person was
born with a certain anatomy, one that determined not just their own personal
destiny but also their role in society and in the future of the human race. A
person was either/or, he/she, Mars/Venus. There were, of course, unique and
rare individuals who were exceptions; perhaps they might be both—or
neither. Perhaps they felt that a mistake had been made when they were
assigned a body. Perhaps they were content with their anatomy but simply
preferred to attire themselves in a manner other than standard. Perhaps they
simply didn’t want to be defined by an enzyme that was or wasn’t present at
the moment of conception.
Such individuals might have been revered by their clan or culture as
being “touched by the gods”; sometimes they might have held positions of
honor and distinction, been looked upon in wonder and awe, and sought out
for their seraphic wisdom and abilities. However, sometimes their
“otherness” was reviled, and they might be driven out of their social group,
imprisoned, or even murdered. Societal beliefs about such persons have
fluctuated throughout history, but their existence is a fact, regardless.
So when we undertake an examination of symbolism in sex as it pertains
to gender, we discover that a portion of humanity is left out. Rightly or
wrongly, one’s personal belief system colors any study that one undertakes
—whether that is of art, music, literature, law, economics, or politics. There
is no such thing as an unbiased perspective; many of us like to think that
our way of thinking about things is the “right” way, the “popular” view
point, or perhaps “God’s word.” However, we personally define our beliefs;
they are still simply our beliefs, determined by our upbringing, our
experiences, and our individual demons. We may feel better about them
because others agree with us—or we may feel that there is no choice
involved and that a thing is either right or wrong. Period. This chapter does
not seek to argue rightness or wrongness, or to dictate what the different
terms in the LGTBQ+ community mean; it is simply an examination of
gender symbolism, both current and historical.
Classic Male and Female Symbols
The most frequent symbols of gender serve to separate the male from the
female. The Mars–Venus symbols date from Greek antiquity; the symbol
for Ares/Mars (Greek and Roman, respectively), god of war, was a circle
with an arrow tip extending from it. This is supposed to represent the god’s
war shield and lance-or-arrow weapon.
Hellenistic Greek astronomers associated the planets that were visible to
the unaided eye with individual gods and goddesses, and they used
attributes of the deities when devising astrological charts (see chapter 3,
Astrology). The symbols were shorthand on the charts, and when Latin
eventually replaced Greek as the language of science, Ares became Mars
and Aphrodite became Venus. The symbol for Venus is a circle with a cross
extending from it, which is supposed to represent the goddess’s hand mirror.
The use of the Mars and Venus symbols to represent the male and female
genders was introduced by the Swedish botanist Linnaeus in the eighteenth
century.

The ancient Mars symbol to represent male.

The ancient Venus symbol to represent female.
Modern Male and Female Symbols
There is much male/female symbolism in world culture. Standard
pictographs have been used since the 1960s to distinguish male from female
restroom facilities, although such standard conventions are changing. The
All Gender Restroom sign is an interesting attempt at satisfying everyone at
once. So what’s wrong with this? It essentially says that disabled people are
of a different gender than everyone else. Not the intent perhaps, but we’ll
have to do better. Maybe the sign should just say “EVERYONE.”

Modern male and female pictographs.

Yin Yang and Gender
The yin yang (taijitu in Chinese) is a symbol of Taoism. The ultimate
definition of this symbol is balance: neither light nor dark, but both equally.
The two “halves” are not a straight line but rather bend into each other, each
making the other whole. Also, each half contains a circle of its “opposite”
within itself. Yin contains an element of yang, and yang an element of yin.
These elements are necessary to make each part complete. Despite this
definition, in much of the world (and even in Asian cultures, to an extent)
the different halves of the taijitu represent opposites: yin is female, yang is
male; yin is dark, yang is light; yin is night, yang is day. In this manner,
hundreds of pairs of opposites have been sorted and separated. It is
interesting to note that the female is associated with darkness/evil, while the
male is lightness/good. Even so, at least in Eastern philosophy nothing is
completely black or white, there are always elements of one in the other.

Yin-yang symbol.
Gender Symbols Throughout History
The circle is a symbol that has represented the female since prehistoric
times. The circle is Earth/Gaia/the Mother in her fullness. Other shapes
have represented “man” in addition to the squares and triangles already
mentioned, such as rectangles, stick figures, lines, and Xs. While such
figures generally meant “humanity,” frequently humanity only concerned
itself with men. The X saw her revenge when female chromosomes were
designated “X” while male chromosomes received a “Y” designation. Of
course, these letters represent the actual shape of these chromosomes, but
still.

X (female) and Y (male) chromosomes.

The moon (particularly the crescent moon) is another symbol associated

with the feminine. The moon was known to have magical qualities in
ancient times. Babylonian astronomers knew that the tides changed as the
moon moved through its phases; they developed symbols for the various
phases and noted that tides were highest at the full and dark (or “new”)
moon and lowest at the half-moons (referred to as “quarter moons” in
modern times because the moon is positioned one-quarter of the way
through its orbit when its face is half visible).
Shamans and pagan priests and priestesses developed rituals to ensure
that the sun would rise again when it was forced from the sky by the moon.
The sun was the giver of life; it provided warmth, melted the snow, and
made crops grow. Festivals on the longest and shortest days of the year
celebrated the return of the sun and the renewal of life. In many cultures,
the sun was (and still remains) masculine to the moon’s feminine.
In ancient Egypt, the sun god was Ra, the most powerful male deity. The
moon was a goddess, Sefkhet, wife of Thoth; Sefkhet was also goddess of
time, the stars, and architecture. The Egyptians, however, also had a male
moon god, Khonsu, who was part of the “Theban Triad” with Amun-Ra
(King of gods, father of pharaohs) and Mut (the mother goddess). Egyptian
deities were numerous and overlapped each other throughout the long
dynastic history.
The symbol of the crescent dates back to 2300 BCE and the Sumerian
god Nanna and Babylonian Sin. The Phoenicians spread the crescent
symbol throughout the Middle East. In general, the crescent symbol stands
for the moon in any of its phases, not just its crescent phases.
Egyptian sun god Ra.
 Egyptian mother goddess Mut.

As the sun and moon had gender, so too Greek astronomers associated
the visible planets with different gods (but only male gods, with the
exception of Venus). We looked at the symbols for the planets in chapter 3,
Astrology. The resurgence in the popularity of astronomy in the nineteenth
century resulted in several asteroids being given the names of female
deities. Each was assigned her own symbol: Astraea, Vesta, Juno, and
Hygiea.
The Lilith Moon (or Black Moon Lilith) was a theoretical second moon
of Earth, whose existence was postulated by a late nineteenth-century
astrologer who called himself “Sepharial” (real name was Walter Gorn
Old). While the existence of any so-called second moon has long been
discredited, the term “Black Moon Lilith” (or just “Lilith”) is still used in
modern astrology to refer to the point on the horoscope that represents the
direction of the real moon’s apogee (e.g. the furthest-away point of the
moon’s orbit around the Earth). There is also a variation called the “True (or
Osculating) Black Moon Lilith.” The apogee is determined differently in
the two versions.
In response to the Black Moon Lilith, modern astrologers have invented
other symbols to represent what are considered to be the “natural opposites”
of the Black Moon. One is the “True Light Moon Artha” or “True White
Moon,” represented by the symbol below.
It is not just astrological bodies that are “male” and “female,” of course;
there are entire dictionaries full of separate words for the same object, but
with male and female distinctions.

Astraea asteroid symbol.

Juno asteroid symbol.
 Lilith moon symbol.

Vesta asteroid symbol.

Hygiea asteroid symbol.
Black Lilith moon symbol.
True Light Moon Artha symbol.
Gender Symbols and Species
Gender representations exist in science, too. In animal pedigrees (papers
that represent the lineage of the animal), male contributors are represented
by squares or triangles, while females are represented by circles. This
convention is also used in human family trees where I, II, III represent each
subsequent generation.
The chart on the opposite page shows the various terms for different
animal species, depending on sex and age.

An animal pedigree chart representing male (triangles) and female (circles) for each
generation.
Modern Gender Symbols
The term androgyne is derived from combining the Greek word for “man,”
andr, with that for “woman,” gyné; it is the noun version of the adjective
androgynous, meaning exhibiting both male and female characteristics. The
terms “genderqueer” and “gender neutral” are sometimes preferred in
current usage. The symbols below combine both the Mars and Venus
symbols we saw earlier.

Overlapping cross/arrow

Combined, but separate (also agender, a-gender, bigender)

In botany, the “combined, but separate” version of the symbol is used to

indicate plants that are self-pollinating (e.g. they have both male and female
flowers on the same plant). Both versions of the Mars/Venus symbol have
been utilized by people who identify as transgender or genderqueer. Debate
is ongoing in gender-fluid communities as to whether the directionality of
the cross/arrow (or “stroke male,” as it’s also called) should have different
meanings. These symbols have been used to represent hermaphrodites:

With no particular outward gender appearance,

Those who may have a female outward appearance,

Those who may have a male outward appearance, and

Those who may express both equally at the same time.

The LGBTQ+ community has introduced a number of unique symbols to

represent their variations. These symbols that start shown here are generally
meant to unify rather than separate community members.
MALE AND FEMALE NAMES FOR ANIMALS
Species Adult Male Adult Female Breeding Male
Armadillo Boar Sow Boar
Badger Badger Badger Boar
Bat Male Female Male
Bear Bear Bear Boar
Bee/Wasp Drone Worker Drone
Cat Tom (Cat) Cat Tom
Chicken Rooster Hen Cock
Cow Bull Cow Bull
Deer Buck/Stag Doe Buck/Stag
Dog Dog Dog Stud/Sire
Donkey Jack Jenny Jack
Duck Drake Duck Drake
Elephant Bull Cow Bull
Ferret Hob Jill Hob
Fox Tod/Dog/Reynard Vixen Tod/Dog
Goat Billy Nanny Billy
Goose Gander Goose Gander
Horse Stallion Mare Sire
Kangaroo Jack/Buck/Boomer Jill/Doe/Flyer Jack/Buck/Boomer
Lion Lion Lioness Lion
Pig Boar Sow Boar
Rabbit Buck Doe Buck
Rhino Bull Cow Bull
Sheep Ram Ewe Ram
Squirrel Squirrel Squirrel Buck
Swan Cob Pen Cob
Tiger Tiger Tigress Tiger
Wombat Jack Jill Jack
Woodchuck He-chuck She-chuck He-chuck

MALE AND FEMALE NAMES FOR ANIMALS

Breeding Female Young Male Young Female
Sow Pup Pup
Sow Kit/Cob Kit/Cob
Female Bitten Bitten
Sow Cub Cub
Queen Larva Larva
Queen Kitten Kitten
Chicken Chick Chick
Cow Steer Heifer
Doe Fawn Fawn
Bitch Puppy Puppy
Jenny Foal Foal
Duck/Hen Duckling Duckling
Cow Calf Calf
Jill Kit Kit
Vixen Cub/Pup Cub/Pup
Nanny Kid Kid
Goose Gosling Gosling
Dam Colt (Foal) Filly (Foal)
Jill/Doe/Flyer Joey Joey
Lioness Cub Cub
Sow Piglet/Shoat Piglet/Shoat
Doe Kit/Kitten Kit/Kitten
Cow Calf Calf
Ewe Lamb Lamb
Doe Pup/Kit Pup/Kit
Pen Cygnet Cygnet
Tigress Cub Cub
Jill Joey Joey
She-chuck Kit/Cob Kit/Cob
This is a common symbol for transgender. It has also been used by transexual
and genderqueer people.

This is a symbol for transgender equality, utilizing an “equals” sign in the

center of the circle.

This symbol has been used to indicate nonbinary persons; the X leaves gender
expression unspecified.

This is a similar version of the nonbinary symbol, but there is a stem extending
beyond the branch of the X.

This symbol has been used to represent some persons who identify as asexual,
neuter, or neutral gender. This symbol is used in botany to indicate “neuter”
gender; botanically, this means that the plant has no pistils or stamens and
reproduces vegetatively or asexually. Biologically, certain insect classes have
no sex organs (or the organs are undeveloped, as in worker bees). The symbol is
also referred to as neutrois.

Other persons who identify as asexual have suggested this symbol instead to
represent them.

This symbol represents “other gender” and may apply to trans or nonbinary
as well as gender-fluid individuals. The small “o” replaces both the arrow point
and the cross in the standard gender symbols, leaving the distinction “open.”

This is a symbol that represents pangender (or “all” genders) persons, as well
as genderqueer persons; it encompasses all of the gender symbols in harmony.

This symbol (a comet) has been suggested for use in the nonbinary
community, since Mars and Venus represent the binary genders.

This is another suggestion for nonbinary persons—the circle with neither

arrow nor cross. Historically, the circle represented the female/feminine.

This is the planetary symbol for Mercury; it has also been suggested as a
symbol for nonbinary and gender-fluid persons. The symbol is used in
alchemy to represent liquid mercury, or “quicksilver,” whose fluid nature some
feel is a good representation of gender fluidity.
Others have adapted the Mercury to their specific gender expressions, such as
hermaphrodite male,
 hermaphrodite female,

or someone who rotates gender or gender expression. Again, these symbols

haven’t been officially adopted by every single member of every group that the
symbol has been used to represent.

This symbol has been used to indicate intergender persons. It combines the
symbol of

demiboy with the symbol of

demigirl.

In addition to symbols for group or individual identification, a number of

different conjoined symbols have come to represent the many different
arrangements of marriage, civil ceremony, and conjugal union:

Gay/male homosexual

Lesbian/female homosexual

Heterosexual

Bisexual and any and every possible combination

Some gender-fluid people have objected to signage that includes images

of unicorns, aliens, and other “nonhumans,” declaring (rightly so) that such
imagery pokes fun at their expense and sends a not-so-subtle message that
differently gendered people aren’t “real” people. Perhaps this last symbol
above is the simplest and the best.
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 CHAPTER

18
Sigils and Paganism

T o remind us again of the definition of a sigil, it is an inscribed or

painted symbol considered to have magical powers. Most sigils are line
drawings to make them easier to draw or inscribe for magical purposes such
as protection or summoning. Sigils tend to be abstract in that they are a
series of lines and shapes, but at the same time they are symmetrical or in
some manner “pleasing” to the eye. The brain looks for patterns because
designs that make some sort of recognizable pattern are “settling” to the
brain; this sense of settling, calmness, centeredness, makes us feel safe, and
that means the magic is working.
Many sigils make use of sacred geometry, which we introduced in
chapter 1, Alchemy. By its nature, sacred geometry is calming since it uses
shapes with strictly proportional lines and angles that have been found to be
universally appealing and effective. The religious community associates the
symmetry of geometric shapes with the perfect symmetry of God. It is
certainly arguable that the brain’s “preference” for patterns makes the
confines of symmetry seem “better” or more “God-like” than the seeming
randomness of nature. Any naturalist or biologist, however, will tell you
that nature is anything but random. We may not always be able to discern
the patterns and purposes of the natural world, but they exist.
Why is paganism in the same chapter as sigils? It turns out that the two
have a lot in common. Technically, a pagan is a person who does not
subscribe to the predominant religion of the area or the time period. A
simple definition of paganism would be the observance of religious
ceremonies and practices considered to be outside of standard accepted
religious (particularly Christian) dogma. There are many modern pagan
religions, some with a great number of adherents and some with few. One
of the most recognized is Wicca.
Generally thought of as “witchcraft,” Wicca is an Earth-based practice
that celebrates The Goddess (the Divine Feminine) often as a Trinity—the
Maiden, the Mother, and the Crone. There is no specific set of dogma for
Wicca, and its practices vary widely in many aspects. The Horned
God/Cernunnos is a part of some Wicca factions, representing the male
aspect of God.
A major aspect of many, if not most, pagan religions is the use of magic.
While Wicca uses an Earth-based magic (the accessories of which are
typically derived from the natural world), other pagan traditions may draw
their powers from demons, idols, or even flying saucers. It is through the
use of sigils that much of the magic in the world can be captured and
directed. Since sigils are hand-drawn, they typically consist of any number
of lines that form the shapes of sacred geometry or sometimes curve into
abstracts that allow for the movement (rather than containment) of magical
energies. Let’s look at some magical shapes.
Circle
The most basic geometric shape (a straight line isn’t really a shape), the
circle is a primal symbol of the Earth, fecundity, and wholeness—the
Divine Feminine. The circle represents the cycle of birth-death-rebirth that
is a tenet of so many religions; it has no beginning and no end and it is
continuous. The Earth, the sun, the full moon, the wedding ring, the wheel,
the vortex, the Ouroboros (or Oruborus) are all circles.

A circle shape represents birth-death-rebirth cycle.

Square
This shape shares many attributes of the circle (wholeness, surrounding,
protection) but demonstrates stability rather than movement. The square
represents resistance rather than accommodation, resoluteness rather than
ambivalence. The corners of the square define it, while a circle is less rigid.
Buildings are constructed of blocks, not spheres.

The square represents stability and resistance.

Triangle
This is a dynamic shape that combines the implied motion of a circle with
the stability of a square. Triangles have direction; even equilateral triangles
point specifically to somewhere. Unlike the infinite circle, triangles
demonstrate a beginning, a middle, and an end. The Great Pyramids have
endured for millennia in no small part because of the stability and strength
of their shape.
Directionality is critical in the use of triangles as symbols: the up-
pointing triangle has symbolized “male” since ancient times,
demonstrating fertility in the phallic shape. The upwards triangle also
symbolizes “fire” not only in its echo of the “flame” shape but also in its
aggressive thrust and perception of uncontrollable fury. The down-pointing
triangle represents the female by its emulation of the movement of a fetus
down the birth canal as well as its pubic shape. The downward triangle also
symbolizes “water,” fire’s opposite in nearly every way other than fluidity.
In nature, fire burns uphill while water flows downhill; the downward point
actually looks like water pouring forth from a vessel.

Upward-pointing triangles represent male and fire.

Downward-pointing triangles represent female and water.
Solar Cross (or the Cross of Wotan)
This ancient symbol has historically represented the seasons; the circle
divided into four equal parts reflects movement through the cycle of the
year. In alchemy, the solar cross is the symbol for salt. In Native American
symbolism, it represents the medicine wheel.

The solar cross symbol.

Medicine Wheel (or the Sacred Hoop)
In many Native American tribes the medicine wheel represents the concept
of health and healing. The specific associations of the parts of the wheel
may vary among the different tribes, but in general the meanings ascribed to
the four sections are represented as follows:

• The North Wind is cleansing, cold, and fierce; it represents the trials of
the people. The North Wind brings the snow and winter; it signifies the
time for rest, reflection, mending, storytelling, darkness, hunger, and
death.

• The East Wind is refreshing, cool, and gentle; it represents the

continuation of the people. The East Wind brings the sun and spring; it
signifies the time for renewal, birth, questioning, planting, and learning.

• The South Wind is nurturing, hot, and constant; it represents the life of
the people. The South Wind brings the heat and summer; it signifies the
time for light, growth, fulfillment, hunting, coupling, and work.

• The West Wind is changing, warm, and strong; it represents the wisdom
of the people. The West Wind brings the rains and autumn; it signifies the
time for harvest, preparation, withdrawing, and maturing.
Medicine wheel associations, directions, qualities, and meanings.
Totems
These are protective and inspiring symbols, typically derived from nature,
which are adopted by individuals or groups as emblems. Animals are
common totems in Native American traditions; tree species are Druidic.
The mysticism of totems usually derives from a totem choosing the
individual—not the other way around. People may go on “vision quests” to
discover their purpose in life, and be rewarded with a visitation by a
creature that subsequently becomes their totem. The totem system has also
been adapted in modern times to fit the notion of a zodiac, with each animal
representing a month (or range of weeks) in a calendar year. The meanings
of the totem animals (animals typically encountered in land-oriented tribal
life) are:
 Traditional totem pole representations.

• Goose: Discipline, reliability, prudence, rigidity, vigilance, nurturing,

cooperation, drive

• Otter: Playful, friendly, dynamic, happy, helpful, sharing, family-oriented,

smart
• Wolf: Loyal, persevering, successful, spiritual, independent, intuitive,
athletic

• Falcon: Beginnings, adventure, passion, leadership, superiority, rising

above

• Beaver: Determination, willpower, building, overseeing, protecting,

home, security

• Deer: Compassion, peace, gentleness, kindness, femininity, innocence,

subtlety, youth

• Woodpecker: Sensitive, devoted, protective, prophecy, balance,

communication

• Salmon: Pride, intensity, confidence, inspiration, determination, rebirth,

vitality

• Bear: Power, instinct, courage, will, strength, individuality

• Crow: Magic, shape-shifting, change, spirit world, energy, creativity

• Snake: Primal energy, life, transformation, shrewdness, wisdom, renewal

• Owl: knowledge, wisdom, death, the afterlife, solitude, strength,

introspection

Native American buffalo.

Native American thunderbird.

Native American owl.

 Native American bear.

Native American eagle.

It is common to find that a particular animal acts as a spirit guide for an

entire quadrant of the medicine wheel. A spirit guide acts as a symbol for
the energy associated with the cardinal directions. The Lakota designates
them like this:

WEST: Thunderbird = rain

NORTH: Buffalo/Bison = sacred, sacrifice
EAST: Deer = spiritual energy
SOUTH: Owl = spirit messenger

Using the medicine wheel diagram shown here, some more common
examples of animals and their associations are:

• Eagle: North, the AIR quadrant; represents spiritual protection, closeness

to the gods, courage, wisdom, sight

• Buffalo/Bison: West, the EARTH quadrant; represents grounding, solidity,

abundance, raw power, stability

• Bear: South, the WATER quadrant; represents strength, ferocity,

leadership, aloofness, aggression, solitary reflection

• Mouse: East, the FIRE quadrant; represents persistence, attention to

detail, awareness, virtue, humility, sacrifice, subsistence
Sun Disk (also Black Sun or Sonnenrad)
The sun disc is a recurring pagan motif that represents continuity and
progression through the cycle of time. In addition to the life-giving rays of
the sun, the circle also demonstrates immortality, with no beginning and no
end. It is also referred to as the “black sun,” or the sonnenrad.
It was famously a mosaic on the floor of a Moravian castle—which had
the misfortune to fall into Nazi hands during World War II. Despite its
pagan uses, some also refer to the black sun as a Nazi symbol.

The “black sun” (or sun wheel) symbol.

Wiccan Sun Wheel
The Sun Wheel represents the division of the solar year into the eight
Wiccan Sabbaths or Sabbats (the dates given are a range, since the date
may vary from year to year and calendar to calendar):

• Imbolc: (pronounced ih MOLK, or ih MOLG), January 31–February 2

(varies), celebrates the coming of spring; sacred to the Celtic fire goddess
Brigit

• Ostara: (also Eostre, pronounced OH ster uh, or EH ster), March 19–22,

celebrates the Spring (Vernal) Equinox; this is the holiest day of the
Christian calendar (celebrated as Easter)

• Beltane/Beltaine: (pronounced BELL tawn); or May Day; May 1 (also

Walpurgis Night, April 30); celebration of the beginning of summer

• Litha/Lithe: (pronounced LEE tha); June 20–22, celebration of the

summer solstice, the longest day of the year

• Lamas: (or Lughnasadh or Lughnasa, pronounced LOO nuh suh); August

1, major celebration of the harvest and the bounty of summer; historically
Gaelic celebration

• Mabon: (pronounced MAY bon or MAH bawn), September 21–24,

celebration of the fall/autumnal equinox; the traditional harvest festival of
numerous cultures

• Samhain: (pronounced “SOW en,” rhymes with COW), October 31–

November 1, celebration of ancestors and honoring the dead since the
barrier between the living world and the world of the dead is at its
thinnest; biggest festival of the witch’s year

• Yule: December 20–23, celebration of midwinter solstice, a time of

renewal, refreshment, return of the sun; major celebration time for every
religion and tradition—the sun will start returning!
Wiccan Wheel of the Year calendar.
 The following are the sigils of the Wiccan holidays:

• The sigil for Samhain represents the movement between the spirit and the
living worlds.

Samhain sigil.
• The sigil for Yule is the sigil for “winter,” and it combines falling snow
and the altar symbol.

Yule sigil.
• The sigil for Imbolc shows the midpoint between a 90° and a 180° angle.
Imbolc marks the halfway point between winter solstice and spring
equinox.

Imbolc sigil.
• The sigil for Eostre/Ostara is the sigil for “spring,” and it represents a
blooming flower.

Eostre/Ostara sigil.
• The sigil for Beltane/Beltain is a stylized tree, and it represents the
Maypole. Beltane is the halfway point between the spring equinox and the
summer solstice.

Beltane/Beltain sigil.
• The sigil for Lithe/Litha derives from an alchemy symbol for death. Litha
is the summer solstice.

Lithe/Litha sigil.
• The sigil for Lammas/Lughnasadh shows the symbols of the rising and
setting suns; Lammas is the halfway point between the summer solstice
and the winter equinox.

Lammas/Lughnasadh sigil.
• The sigil for Mabon is the symbol for autumn; Mabon marks the fall
equinox.

Mabon sigil.
Stars
As very ancient symbols, stars began as asterisk shapes then gained more
solidity. Stars may represent royalty, achievement, power, spirituality, or
excellence. The number of points a star has is very important to the
meaning of its symbolism. For example:

• Four-points: This is most commonly associated with the Star of

Bethlehem, the star that lit the way for the Wise Men of the East to find
the Christ child.

Four-pointed star.

• Five-points: This shape is what most of us think of when we imagine a

“star.” The five-pointed star is called the pentagram; it is symbolic of the
five wounds of Christ in Christianity, the four natural elements combined
with the human spirit in Wicca, and the five points of the human
extremities (in combination with sacred geometry, it is called the pentad).
 Five-pointed star.

Additionally, the five-pointed star is the only star with directionality due
to its odd number of arms. When the fifth point is up, the pentagram is a
symbol for “good,” indicating the direction of power up to the heavens.
When the fifth point is down (e.g. the star stands on only one foot), the
pentagram is a “bad” symbol, indicating man’s wickedness and sinfulness
as well as power moving down into the demon realm. Because of this
symbolism, the down-pointing pentagram has been adopted by followers of
Satan and practitioners of “black” magic.
A pentacle is a five-pointed star inside a circle; this is the sign for
witchcraft. The sigil is made without lifting the finger (or other inscribing
tool) from the surface of the drawing. In other words, the sigil is made in a
single stroke, including the circle. The purpose of the unbroken line in
drawing the sigil is to ensure there are no gaps in the design through which
the magic (or sometimes a demon) can escape. The pentacle is meant to
contain or confine the energy being summoned. Each point of the star
expresses an element. The meaning of the pentacle itself changes with the
direction (up, down, left, right) in which it’s drawn.
 The pentacle sigil.

A downward-pointing pentagram represents man's wickedness.

• Six points: This is called the Star of Life when created by crisscrossing
three lines of the same length . This is commonly used as a symbol for
first responders (e.g. paramedics, ambulances, rescue services, etc.); it is
usually blue or orange with a badge over the center, or it is sometimes the
Rod of Asclepius. When the six-pointed star is created by overlapping
two equilateral triangles, it is called a hexagram. When the hexagram
shows the lines rather than the outline of the triangles, the figure is called
the Star of David (or Seal of Solomon), a symbol of Judaism.

Six-pointed star.

A six-pointed star is commonly used as a symbol for first responders.

 When depicted with lines instead of an outline of triangles, a six-pointed star is the Star of
David.

• Seven points: This is a symbol specifically designed to represent the

number seven (unlike, for example, the hexagram, whose shape derives
organically from sacred geometry). The seven-point star can represent the
days of the week or the original visible planets of the solar system. It has
in recent times become associated with the seven chakras and yoga
practice. It is also a symbol for magic in pagan and neopagan religions.
 Seven-pointed star.

• Eight points: Another star from sacred geometry, this derives from the
overlapping of two squares of equal size. This is known as the Star of
Lakshmi, and it represents the manifestations of the goddess Lakshmi.
The eight forms are known collectively as the Ashtalakshmi, and they are
said to fulfill all of man’s innate desires:
Aadi-Lakshmi = happiness
Dhana-Lakshmi = money, prosperity
Dhanya-Lakshmi = food, nourishment
Gaja-Lakshmi = protection of wealth, grace, abundance
Santana-Lakshmi = healthy progeny
Veera-Lakshmi = courage, power, overcoming difficulties
Vidya-Lakshmi = knowledge of arts and sciences, plus life lessons
Vijaya-Lakshmi = victory, success inendeavors
An eight-pointed star made with two overlapping squares is also know as the Star of Lakshmi.

• Nine points: Christians link this star to the nine fruits of the Holy Spirit
(Gal. 5:22–23). The symbol may be shown simply as a star, with or
without the Latin initials of all the fruits (Benignitas, Bonitas, Fides,
Modestia, Continentia, Caritas, Gaudium, Pax, and Longanimitas) placed
inside the star’s points. The nine fruits (or attributes of living in the Holy
Spirit) are:
Love = Caritas
Joy = Gaudium
Peace = Pax
Patience = Longanimitas
Kindness = Benignitas
Goodness = Bonitas
Faithfulness = Fides
Gentleness = Modestia
Self-control = Continentia
 The nine-pointed star is also the symbol of the Bahá’i faith, whose tenets
are the unity of God, the unity of faith, and the unity of humanity. Nine is a
sacred number in Bahá’i.

A nine-pointed star represents the symbol of the Baha’i faith.

Alchemal Symbols
We looked at the symbols of alchemy in chapter 1, Alchemy; a great
number of those symbols were either derived from or inspired by pagan
symbols of various types. The alchemal symbol for salt is the astronomical
(and astrological) symbol for Earth, which is itself derived from a pagan
symbol, the crossed wheel or sacred hoop. It may have come into use in
alchemy from the Biblical phrase “salt of the Earth” (Matt. 5:13).
This page shows a listing of “herbalists” symbols. An herbalist is a
person who grows and gathers herbs for the purpose of making remedies for
common ailments and afflictions. Not all herbalists are “witches,” but many
witches have called themselves “herbalists” to deflect the suspicions of
those who wondered about the seemingly “magical” cures they created.
Herbs are also used by people who call themselves kitchen witches, green
witches, hedge witches, or chefs. Nevertheless, symbolism has become
associated with herbalism, at least in the more recent centuries.
These symbols sometimes show the source they were derived from, and
sometimes not. The sigil for sugar, for example, is an elongated sigma (the
Greek letter “S” ∑) for “sugar.” The sigil for alcohol can demonstrate the
tapping of a cask of wine or beer; the sigil for boil actually seems to
demonstrate the process of distilling where a liquid is boiled and the water
drawn off until nothing remains but a sticky solid or dried powder. The sigil
for powder is actually a “P” with the leg symbolically cut off, which could
imply reducing the element from a solid to a powder.

Pound
Equal amounts

Ounce

Dram
Scruple

Pinch

Pint
 Still

Receiver

Honey
Vinegar

Sugar

Alcohol
Retort

Mix

Boil
Take

Distill

Filter
Essence

Powder
Compose
Triple Goddess
This is a key magical symbol for Wicca. The triple goddess is composed of
the three phases of a woman’s life: the maiden, the mother, and the crone.
The maiden represents youth and vitality; the mother, fertility and
nurturing; the crone, old age and wisdom. In the symbol, the maiden is
represented by the waxing moon: growing in size, filling out, striving. The
mother is the full moon: big with pregnancy, fulfilling her biological
“destiny,” living. The crone is the waning moon: shrinking in stature,
containing all that was learned in life, aging.

Triple goddess symbol.

Horned God/Cernunnos
As the triple goddess is the Divine Feminine, so the horned god is the
Divine Masculine. Not all Wicca groups recognize (or worship) the male
aspect. The horned god is not Satan, nor is he evil. He does represent the
coarser tendencies of humanity, though, as well as representing the sun to
the goddess’s moon. The horns were originally stag-like branching but have
become more bull-like recently, the curving shape echoing the shape of the
crescent moon of the goddess. Cernunnos is the Celtic god of the wild
forest, in some respects like Dionysus in Greek myth. He is almost
exclusively shown with branching antlers.
Though we’ve discussed sacred geometry and its importance at length,
not all sigils are geometric—or even strictly balanced. Such sigils are
particularly common when associated with the “spirits” of nature, and the
weaknesses of humanity. Remember, sigils are meant to invoke magic and
to contain the power once it is drawn. So, even though a sigil might not
appear strictly even, there is purpose behind every line and curve. Many
modern artists and witches have taken to the internet to sell their skills at
designing sigils for personal use. Some of these efforts are quite spectacular
and beautiful, while others are forbidding and frightening.
Horned god symbol.
The horned god Cernunnos.
Vegvísir
This is considered a “way-finding” symbol and wearing it is said to keep
the traveler from getting lost. In addition to the compass rose, the design
includes numerous crosses and a center circle representing home. Notice
that each arm (stave) is topped with a trident, but that every trident is
different. The purpose is to prevent getting lost by insuring that the traveler
can tell one direction from another—thus the use of different identifiers for
each stave direction.

Vegvísir symbol.
Ægishjálmur
At first glance, the Ægishjálmur—the Helm of Awe that belonged to the
dragon Fafnir in the Völsungasaga (Icelandic Norse mythology)—looks
very similar to the Vegvísir: symbol. The dragon is slain by Sigurd, and the
helm is stolen as part of a great treasure. This tale clearly inspired J.R.R.
Tolkien in writing The Hobbit. Notice the symmetry of this sigil versus the
vegvísir: all of the staves have the identical number and length of crossbars
on them, and all are topped with identical runes. The algiz (or letter “Z”)
from the set of Elder Futhark runes is a rune for protection from danger or
attack. Repeating it eight times made the helm very powerful, offering
protection from your enemies in any direction.

The Ægishjálmur sigil appears similar to the Vegvisir.

Algiz rune.
Spiral
Spirals are a very ancient symbols, found as petroglyphs that date back
thousands of years to Neolithic times. The most spectacular spiral designs
may be those at Newgrange. Built in Ireland about the same time as the
Sumerians were inventing cuneiform, Newgrange is a pass-through tomb
(meaning it is constructed like a tunnel that can literally be walked
through). The sides of the mound-style structure are heavily decorated with
elaborate spirals.
Spirals are strongly associated with the “circle of life” and also
resurrection. The cycle of renewal also makes the spiral the woman’s sigil,
and it is frequently found carved on the bellies of fertility goddess figures.
The spiral represents the beginning of the birth of humanity (or of a family
line), swirling out through successive generations and getting bigger (e.g.
more numerous) like a stone dropped in a pond. The people spread
throughout the world.

Celctic double spiral.

Triquetra
Along with the triple spiral, these two symbols look similar, but they are
actually used differently. The triquetra is a symbol for the godhead—the
Divine Feminine as maiden, mother, and crone. The football-shaped lobes
of the sigil are called yonis (singular yoni) and echo the shape of the female
sex organ, thus symbolizing birth. The triquetra is also used to symbolize
the Holy Trinity; the Sky Father/Earth Mother/Seas; and the
mind/body/soul connection.

Triquetra.
Triple Spiral (or Triskele)
This symbol represents the godhead, but mostly the Celtic/pagan goddess in
her three aspects—particularly when the triple shape is the feminine spiral.
Triskeles (or triskelions) can also have angular arms/legs or other
variations.
The triskele with the interlocking horns is called the Horns of Odin, or
Odin’s Knot. Norse and Celtic mythologies share many similarities, as we
saw in chapter 4, Celtic Symbols.

Triple spiral, or triskele.

Labyrinth
The labyrinth is often mistaken for the spiral, but they are not the same. The
spiral is a figure that has the ability to grow larger, and its growth is regular
and even. The labyrinth is a figure that is fixed in size (though that size can
be enormous), and it has numerous turns and twists—but only one entry and
one exit. In this way it more closely resembles an individual person’s life,
rather than the “circle of life.”

A labyrinth example.
Valknut
This is a curious symbol; it is a triskele in that it has three interlocking arms
of the same symbol, but it has off-kilter symmetry. It is common on Norsk
gravestones, along with the figure of Odin, but there doesn’t seem to be
much consensus as to what it means.

Valknut.
Odin's knot.
Celtic symbols with pagan symbols.

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 CHAPTER

19
Transportation

P lanes, trains, and automobiles leave out the most important methods of
transport for manufactured goods around the world: trucks and ships. Every
day, millions of diesel and electric-powered tractors haul single, double, and
triple trailers full of goods over the highways and byways of the globe.
Those roads may be paved or unpaved, a single track or six lanes each
direction, with or without “smart” sensors that can direct and drive the
engines that cross over them. While we are slowly making progress toward
autonomous or “self-driving” cars, the future of such marvels is really being
pushed forth by the manufacturing industry.
Most raw materials are transported by rail and ship to major ports of the
world, including Seattle and Pittsburg in the US, and Shanghai, Shenzhen,
and Guangzhou in China. Raw materials are distributed to manufacturers to
produce metals, plastics, and glass, as well as specialty products such as
carbon fiber and alloys used in the production of everything from vehicles
and sports equipment to computers and satellites. The cost of transporting
raw materials is fairly low because these materials typically don’t require
packaging or handling prior to shipment. Raw materials usually move from
the origin site (mines, forests, open pits) to port by rail in open “hopper”-
style cars, or directly to manufacturers of mid-level products such as steel,
flour, and lumber.
Mid-level products are moved from mills to manufacturers by rail, or in
the US by OTR (over the road) trucks. Transport is an area manufacturers
are trying to make more efficient in order to improve profit margins. OTR
shipping is not only more expensive than rail, it is also considerably more
time-consuming (due to traffic, speed limits, human frailties, etc.) and
dangerous. While train routes frequently pass through vast unpopulated
areas, trucks must travel through and into the hearts of cities that
concentrate millions of lives into a few square miles. Railway accidents are
rare, but traffic accidents occur by the thousands every day.
This makes OTR transport inherently more hazardous. Special care must
be taken not just in packaging materials for transport by truck, but also in
labeling the dangers of such materials. To this end, a great number of
symbols and pictograms have been developed in order to make hazards
clear to everyone involved with them. We discussed some of the symbols
manufacturing uses in chapter 10, now let’s look at the transportation
industry.
Hazardous material rating sign.
Hazardous Waste Transportation Signs
The sign on the opposite page is used to mark truck cargo as it is traveling
across the country. Each section has a different color, which stands for a
particular concern: BLUE is health hazard, RED is flammability, YELLOW
is reactivity (e.g. is this substance chemically stable?), WHITE is another
hazard (frequently corrosive status). Numbers are then assigned to indicate
the degree or level of hazard the material represents. A number “0” in the
section indicates that the material is stable and non-hazardous, while “4”
indicates an extreme risk.
A class 3 sign indicates that the substance is highly flammable (No. 3
hazard level); the number 1993 indicates which substance is in this
container (in this case flammable liquid. The four-digit number is a UN
designation that is assigned by the United Nations Committee of Experts
on the Transport of Dangerous Goods to any material with hazardous
characteristics. A sign such as this could be placed as a sticker on the four-
color transportation hazard sign, or it could be used by itself on the
transport vehicle. Different states of a chemical (e.g. solid, liquid, gas) may
receive different UN numbers if the material’s state affects its reactivity.

Class 3 flammable liquid materials sign.

 The class 9 sign is for hazardous loads that do not meet the standards of
the described UN hazardous materials; class 9 is for miscellaneous
materials that represent a hazard during transport rather than being
inherently dangerous themselves. Such materials could include anesthetics
(which would interfere with a truck driver or flight crew member’s ability
to perform their job should the substance leak), used motor oil, or
refrigerator units (which contain refrigerant chemicals inside them, but
aren’t dangerous unless they leak).

Class 9 miscellaneous dangerous materials sign.

A class 1 sign indicates that the material can potentially explode, but
that it is not likely to do so (hazard level 1); 1.4 class substances have minor
explosion risks (such as low-flight model-rocket engines, consumer-grade
fireworks, and small arms ammunition).
 Class 1 explosive materials sign.

Much confusion surrounds the terms “flammable,” “nonflammable,”

“inflammable,” “noninflammable,” and “combustible” materials. To begin
with, the terms combustible and flammable both refer to materials that can
burn. Hazardous materials companies generally use the term flammable to
refer to materials that catch fire easily and burn at normal room/working
temperatures (e.g. fuels, untreated textiles such as cotton, and wood
products). The term combustible, on the other hand, is reserved for
materials that require higher than normal temperatures to ignite, based on
flash points (defined as the specific temperature at which a given material
will produce enough vapor to spontaneously catch fire). Inflammable
means that a material easily catches fire—which makes no sense because
the prefix in- usually means “not,” so the word should mean not flammable,
as in not-capable-of-burning. We can blame Latin for this confusion
because the Latin prefix in- also means “on,” so in front of the word
“flame” in means “on fire” or “capable-of-flaming.” In a similar fashion,
nonflammable means that the material does not catch fire easily or is “not-
capable-of-flaming”; these terms are descriptive adjectives and not
technical terms. Noninflammable is taken to mean that the substance does
not catch fire easily (it is therefore nonflammable), but grammatically the
word “noninflammable” contains a double negative—“non” meaning “not,”
and “in” meaning “not”—so the two prefixes cancel each other and the
word should left as “flammable.” But it’s not. Most grammarians have
mercifully decided that “noninflammable” is not a legitimate word!

Class 3 combustible materials sign.

Generic corrosive material sign.

The above symbol is for “corrosive” or “acid”; it would be pasted in the

white diamond on a transport plate. It tells nothing about what kind of
corrosive is being transported.
 The class 8 sign, on the other hand, utilizes the black-and-white coloring
for “other hazard,” plus the designation class “8” for corrosive substance.

Class 8 corrosive materials sign.

Even without the word “radioactive,” the symbol for radiation is

recognizable. The class 7 designation is for radioactive substances. This
sign leaves a space in which to write which specific radioactive substance is
in the container, and what its activity (or potential for damage) level is. The
pink vertical bar following the word “radioactive” indicates which category
of radioactivity the substance is in; there are between one and three bars on
a sign like this, with one bar indicating lower-level hazards and three
indicating high-level hazards. The diamond-shaped sign will turn from
white to yellow as the hazard level increases.
 Class 7 radioactive materials sign.

The red-and-white class 4 sign is worrisome enough that the danger is

clearly spelled out; it has the highest risk and could burst into flame at any
moment.

Class 4 highly combustible materials sign.

The blue class 4 sign is somewhat misleading; since it carries a class 4

rating, but the blue color is to indicate that the substance is only dangerous
when combined with water. The flame symbol is supposed to mean that the
substance will turn into a flammable gas in water.

Class 4 combustible when wet materials sign.

The green color on the class 2 sign is meant to be reassuring; the class 2
designation indicates that the substance has a low level of reactivity, and the
words “non-flammable gas” specify what’s in the canisters. The green
diamond generally stands for “compressed gas.”

Class 2 non-flammable gas materials sign.

 The class 5 sign looks similar to the “flammable” sign, but actually the
“flaming circle” indicates the presence of an oxidizer (an agent or element
that is highly chemically reactive, frequently flammable, or explosive).
Examples include oxygen, hydrogen (and hydrogen compounds like
hydrogen peroxide, or hydrochloric acid), and halogen gases like fluorine
and chlorine. Oxidizers are hazard class 5.

Class 5 oxidizing and organic pesticides materials sign.

The white signs below all belong to hazard class 6, toxic substances, but
they are very different. The first shows a substance that is poisonous if
inhaled—likely a toxic powder, since toxic gases are in hazard class 2.3
(Figure 1). The second sign (Figure 2) displays the universal symbol for
POISON, the skull and crossbones. Poisons include substances such as
arsenic and strychnine as well as herbicides meant only to kill plants, and
insecticides meant only to kill bugs. Frequently these chemicals are highly
toxic to fish (as in fertilizer run-off into waterways) and birds (who eat bugs
and absorb the toxins through digestion). The last sign displays the
biohazard symbol and what to do if the substance leaks out of the container.
An “infectious substance” typically contains pathogens (bacteria, viruses,
fungi, parasites) which cause disease in animals or humans (Figure 3).
 Class 6 toxic and infectious materials subcategory signs.

Class A substances are capable of being transmitted (or infecting) in

their present form. In other words, these are live viruses, bacterial cultures,
and live parasites that create disease on contact. Class B substances, on the
other hand, generally do not transmit disease or infect hosts in the form in
which they are being transported. Examples of this are vaccines, biological
samples (urine, tissue, body parts, etc.), genetically modified organisms
(including vegetables, grains, and animals), and medical waste (e.g. used
animal bedding from labs, specimen swabs, and dry bandages). Anything
contaminated with blood that could disperse (surgical gowns, hypodermic
needles, blood bags) is generally considered Class A and is labeled
appropriately.
Category numbers indicate if it’s an inhaled, ingested, or contact
poison; if it’s cancerous, mutagenic, or a reproductive hazard; if it targets
particular organs such as the lungs or kidneys; and whether it takes a single
dose or multiple doses to kill you. Run if you see this!
The symbol below indicates an environmental hazard; it shows
unspecified toxicity to fish, water, air, land, and plant life. Although humans
aren’t specified on this sign, if it’s hazardous to all these other elements
then humans are definitely at risk as well.
Environmental hazard material sign.
Traffic Signs
In addition to the many different hazard signs, drivers must be aware of
hundreds of other signs and symbols on the road. For safety’s sake, traffic
signs are standardized in most countries, though not every country uses the
same type of sign as every other. In the US, green rectangles are used to
display distance, direction, and other specific road information. Other sign
shapes and colors have specific meaning as well including:
Almost always means stop. Either you must STOP the vehicle, or it may mean that you
can’t enter. Red is a color of alarm—take notice!
Caution. A yellow traffic sign usually has a specific warning (slow down, yield, rough
road, etc.).
Indicate posted regulations (usually speed limits, sometimes just arrows).
Construction zone. Construction or road maintenance ahead; will also indicate if workers
are present.
Local recreation areas, historic or other points of interest, scenic views.
Offer information to drivers such as toll amounts, hospital zones, and such.

Sign shapes in the US have the following meanings:

STOP

YIELD

ROAD HAZARD

NO PASSING zones

RAILROAD (usually a railroad crossing)

SCHOOL zone

DRIVING INFORMATION
REGULATIONS (commonly speed limits, but also curves and bumps)
Traffic Signs in Other Countries
In some countries, these same shapes and colors mean the same thing that
they do in the US. Above is a stop sign in Thailand; the familiar shape and
color are enough for us to recognize it. Other countries have signs that are
so confusing we may have no idea what they mean.

A STOP sign in Thai.

No Motor Vehicles Allowed sign in Great Britain.

No Honking Car Horn sign in Great Britain.

Beaver crossing sign in Germany.

An Australian kangaroo crossing sign.
Automobile Signs
It’s not just weird traffic signs a driver must recognize, but also symbols
that happen inside the car. This table above illustrates a number of
automobile “warning lights” that let us know when the car needs service.

Car dashboard "warning light" signs.

Transit Symbols
The rocket represents space flight, of course, but did you know that
nowadays it’s used as a symbol for a “start-up” business? Sometimes the
rocket will be surrounded by hands, or it will be taking off from the palm of
a hand.
The symbol on the right is for a “smart car,” i.e. a car that has “driver-
less” technology. Currently, driver-less tech does not have the capacity to
account for heavy traffic and is not approved for use in standard passenger
cars. Such technology has been offered as an (expensive) option in certain
low-availability cars, but it has proved troublesome and is responsible for a
number of verifiable deaths.

Driver-less car symbol.

The rocket symbol is used to represent start-up businesses.
 Electric car symbols.

Above are examples of “electric car” symbols; these refer to cars that
have batteries capable of being recharged by plugging the vehicle into an
electric socket. Such sockets are usually high-energy, rapid-transfer plugs
capable of allowing a much faster (measured in amps) and stronger
(measured in volts) electric current to flow through them without shorting
out.
 Drone symbols.

Also above are symbols we shall no doubt be seeing much more

frequently: aerial drones. Major retail distributors are discovering that drone
delivery has great efficiency in crowded cities, though it has yet to be
employed nationwide.
What will the future of transportation look like? Will we at last have
flying cars? Will we scoot around in bubble-jets like the Jetsons? Perhaps
trains, planes, and automobiles will become obsolete and everyone will
move from place to place via electronic beam dispersion (Beam me up,
Scotty!). Whether Zeppelin or high-speed bullet train, man has never settled
for just one place and we’re sure not to start now.
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 CHAPTER

20
Writing and Punctuation

S ymbols in writing consist largely of punctuation, sentence diagrams,

editing marks, and text inserts such as Unicode, clip art, and emojis. This
chapter will deal mostly with the marks of punctuation and editing, the
majority of which can be found on a computer keyboard. Editing marks
have traditionally been done by hand in red ink on a manuscript after it has
been submitted by the writer. While a number of editors still do hand edits,
an increasing majority use word processing software, which allows editors
to make comments alongside the document text without necessarily
changing the text itself. The result is a cleaner manuscript to which the
writer can make suggested changes, without having to retype the entire
thing.
Primary punctuation includes commas (,), periods (.), quotation marks
(“ ”), question marks (?), and exclamation points (!). These marks are on a
standard keyboard—typewriter or computer—so word processing software
isn’t needed to reproduce them. The introduction of laptop computers and
streaming services, however, allows for the reproduction of specialty fonts
that may include proprietary or decorative versions of common punctuation
. Shown here (in order) are , ,
, and . Additionally, social media’s
preference for speed over grammatical accuracy or elegant prose creates the
need for insertable objects that can communicate whole ideas, phrases, and
cultural references without the use of text.
Most of the insertables in social media are emoji, which we covered in
chapter 6, Digital. Social media may also include video clips, photos, music
snippets, and GIFs (which are small files that contain moments of
animation or video that are used to add extra expression to written
communication).
Written communication, other than social media and website blogs, still
follows most of the rules of punctuation and grammar that have been
standardized for the language in which the author is writing. Style guides
such as the Associated Press Stylebook, The Chicago Manual of Style, and
Strunk and White (formally titled The Elements of Style) provide strict rules
for formatting written material. Which style guide is preferred depends on
what the writing is for: typically, publishing and journalism use the
Associated Press (AP); the arts, humanities, and natural sciences The
Chicago Manual of Style; and academic literary and humanities writing
depends mainly upon the The MLA Handbook (Modern Language
Association). A notable journalism exception is the New York Times
newspaper, which uses a style manual created by its own editors in the
1950s; it has undergone revision most recently in 2002.
It’s worthwhile to look at various punctuation marks even though their
use is declining. One of the reasons for this decline in their usage is that
many people don’t understand what they mean and how to properly use
them. Bear in mind that for every “rule” about punctuation and diacritical
marks there is an exception—maybe more than one.

These “less-than” and “greater-than” signs are commonly seen in

mathematical statements but find use in text writing as alternatives to other text
offsets such as parentheses. When used in text, the less-than and greater-than
signs often set off a word for an emotion or action, rather than a phrase or
dependent descriptive information. For example, <grin> can substitute for a
smiley emoticon or emoji when a writer is using a typewriter or is not
connected to an online source of emoji.

Standard parentheses are used to set off text selections when adding
descriptive information, making lists in text, or in outlines. These signs can also
be used as substitutions for emoji, as in ((HUGS)), which simulates the sender
giving the receiver comfort. {NOTE: it has recently become controversial to
use triple parentheses (((known as an echo))), particularly surrounding names
that might be considered of Jewish origin. Some consider this a sign of anti-
Semitism.}

Square brackets typically appear in mathematical formulae, outlines, and non-

manuscript text information to provide direction for art notes or graphics
elements. Brackets are also used when parentheses are already in use, but more
text needs offsetting, such as quotations inside of parentheses.

Curly brackets (or braces) may be used in outlines where multiple steps occur
as well as in chemistry and mathematics. They are also used when multiple text
offsets are needed.

This mark is referred to as a backslash. It was once common when popular

computing was in its early days because file and folder names were separated
by these marks. It is commonly mistaken for the forward slash, which is used in
website IDs.

This is the forward or front slash, so-called because it leans forward or toward
the direction we read in English (e.g. left to right). It is often incorrectly called a
backslash, which leans in the opposite direction. Specific pages on websites will
frequently have long addresses that have a number of forward slashes.
 Many languages use symbols called diacritics or diacritical marks.
These symbols may appear above, below, next to, or inside of letters, and
they serve to change the sound of the letter or to change the meaning of the
word—often by changing which syllable is accented. A complete list of
such marks is too long to cover here, but let’s examine some of them.

Referred to as a circumflex accent, this mark is also known as a caret. Often

seen above letters such as â or ê, this accent mark changes the pronunciation of
the letter below it. An “e” with a caret will have a sound like “eh” in the
English word “set” (e.g. French chalêt). In the French word hôtel, the caret
marks the place where a letter used to be (in this case an “s,” which remains in
the English equivalent “hostel”). The mark has applications in mathematics
(where it is called a “hat”) and computer programming as well.

Often mistaken for an apostrophe, the grave accent is a mark that indicates
which syllable should be accented in a word. This mark is frequently seen in
French words such as très (very) and lèvre (lip) as well as Italian words such as
città (city). Failure to put the grave accent in the proper place can change the
meaning of the word. French differentiates between the grave accent and the
acute accent (see next page); the grave accent is for meaning when used above
“a” or “u” (ou=or, vs où=where), and for pronunciation when used above the
“e.” In French the acute accent (right leaning) is only used above the letter “e,”
and changes the pronunciation of the vowel to a sound similar to the English
“ay” as in “bay” (attaché, café). Note that “borrowed” words such as these two
are not italicized when using them in English; they have become part of the
lexicon to the extent that they are no longer considered “foreign” words.
The acute accent is especially common in Spanish and Portuguese, and it is
used in many other languages. For example, si means “if” in Spanish, whereas
sí means “yes.” Spanish is a language with approximately half as many words
as English, so emphasis is important in Spanish. In addition, this mark is used
only above vowels in Spanish, and it indicates which vowel should get the
emphasis when speaking. For example, corazón (heart), would normally stress
the ‘a’ when following the general rules of Spanish pronunciation, but the acute
accent changes the pronunciation emphasis to the ‘o’.
In French this mark is referred to as a tréma, in English it’s a diaeresis, and in
German it’s an umlaut. In each of these languages, the “two dots” serve
different purposes. The French tréma appears over the vowels ë and ï and
indicates that the vowel is pronounced separately from the preceding vowel
(e.g. noël, maïs). The German umlaut appears above vowels ä, ö, and ü,
changing their pronunciation, and sometimes their meaning. The German word
schon means “already” or “very” (as well as a dozen other meanings), while
schön means “handsome” or “beautiful.” Diaeresis marks are not common in
English—unless you’re the The New Yorker, which favors the use of the marks
over doubled vowels (as in “reëlect” or “coöperate”) to keep pronunciation
clear.
Many modern computer fonts differentiate the apostrophe shown here from the
grave or acute accent mark by making the apostrophe a straight up and down
mark, as opposed to the backward/left lean of the grave and the forward/right
lean of the acute accent mark. Apostrophes are used to indicate possession (e.g.
Tom’s car) or in contractions such as “don’t” or “can’t.” In contractions,
apostrophes act as indicators that a letter is missing in the word.
Quotation marks, or “quotes,” indicate that something is special about the text
inside the marks. The text may be a direct quote of someone else’s words; it
may indicate that the text is dialogue—more common in fiction than non-fiction
—or that the word or words inside the quotes is being used in a manner
different from the word’s strict definition. The beginning of this paragraph uses
quote marks which show that the word quotes is a foreshortened version of the
more descriptive term quotation marks. Quote marks are frequently indicated
when a word or term is being used in an ironic or sarcastic manner or when we
want the enclosed text to receive special emphasis or notoriety in a sentence. In
the end of the paragraph on apostrophes, quote marks enclose the contractions
“don’t” and “can’t” to set them off from the rest of the text; in this manner, the
quotes clarify which words are the examples and which are strictly text.

This symbol has undergone a drastic change in meaning over the years.
Originally it was called a number sign and was set before numerals to indicate
that the string of digits following should be considered as a whole, rather than
as individuals. So #150 should be the number 150, not the numbers 1, 5, and 0
individually. This was formerly common in telephone numbers. The symbol
was also referred to as a pound sign, and it was put in front of a set of numerals
to indicate the weight of an object in pounds; #150 meant that the object
weighed 150 pounds. When telephones first went to digital rather than analog
signals, the pound key (along with the star or asterisk key) was used to make
selections in digital menus. You might have been instructed to “Enter your
phone number followed by the pound sign.” Such instructions are uncommon
nowadays since digital menus are more sensitive to “dead air” or non-
responsiveness, and will typically recognize such as the end of a requested
operation. The mark is now referred to as a hashtag; it is for directing posts to
digital forums on social media sites like Twitter and Instagram.

The colon is commonly misused. Its purpose is to mark the beginning of a list,
quotation, or descriptive passage that directly follows it. A quote can be
separated from body text by the attention that the colon demands, the extra
indent that sets the words off from the standard format of the text, and by the
attribution to the speaker that follows the quote itself. Sometimes—particularly
if the quotation is several sentences or paragraphs long—the quote may appear
in a different typeface than the body text, such as italics, or a smaller font with
single spacing. The first word following a colon should be capitalized only if
what follows the colon is a complete sentence. A list following a colon could
look like this: apples, oranges, milk, dog food, pickles.
The semicolon may be the most misunderstood punctuation symbol of all.
Semicolons join independent clauses. That’s it. The only time they should
otherwise be used is when sentences that already contain commas are joined
together. Then, the semicolon provides the pause that is needed to help longer
sentences make sense, while not adding to the confusion of a sentence that
 , g
already contains a lot of punctuation. Such a sentence might look like this:

The United States has federal mints which print bills and stamp coins in New
York, NY; Philadelphia, PA; and Denver, CO.
There are two different types of dashes in use: The “en” dash and the “em”
dash. These terms come from typesetting, and refer to the relative length of the
dash. An en dash is short, only a single character in length. In practical terms, it
is one keystroke which occupies about the same amount of space as the letter
“n.” It is used to join numbers to indicate an unbroken expanse of time (e.g.
Dec 1–21st) or a consecutive set of pages (e.g. shown here–here). An em dash,
by contrast, is a two-stroke symbol (usually two hits of the dash symbol), which
occupies about the same amount of space as a doubled letter, such as the letter
“m.” This is really the easiest way to differentiate between the two dashes: “n”
= one hump, so an en dash is one keystroke, and “m” = two humps, so an em
dash is two keystrokes. The em dash will usually be solidified by word
processing software into a single, longer line; if not (or if one is using a
typewriter), the em dash may show up as two en dashes in a row, thus --. An em
dash is used to set off a word or clause, and it adds emphasis. It can also
indicate a commentary or change of subject of the sentence preceding it.
This is a hyphen. If you’re not involved in the publishing world or in teaching
English, you may not realize that the hyphen is something different from a dash.
The hyphen is a mark that is noticeably shorter than an en dash. Proper use of
the hyphen is to connect words together to make compound adjectives (like
eleven-year-old boy or weather-beaten barn) or to separate numbers into groups
(such as phone numbers 555-1212 or social security numbers). Hyphens do not
have spaces before or after them—unless it is what’s called a “hanging
hyphen.” This hyphen is used when descriptive terms appear in a list, such as
late nineteenth- and early twentieth-century art. In this case, the space appears
only after the hyphen following nineteenth, and not the hyphen following
twentieth. Hyphens are also used when words break at the end of a line, which
frequently happens when text is “justified” (e.g. its edges are squared on the
page), as in book publishing. The hyphen tells us that the letters at the
beginning of the next line are part of the previous word. Lastly, hyphens are
sometimes used between a prefix and its subject, as in post-apocalyptic or pre-
destined. Note that the hyphen should only be used in cases where the word
might be mispronounced or misunderstood without the hyphen (e.g. re-press {to
iron again} versus repress {to hold back or subdue}). There are a number of
rules and exceptions for hyphen use in English, so consult your style guide if
you are unsure.
The asterisk or “star” symbol is a common keyboard symbol with many uses.
Traditionally found on the top half of the “8” key, the asterisk is another
holdover from the days of the push-button phone. The “star key” was an
operator that usually told the voicemail system that the caller had finished
making menu selections, and that the caller wanted to be returned to the start
menu. Asterisks (from the Greek, “little star”) were also used in text to show
that time had passed (typically between paragraphs of a page) or that a letter
had been omitted. Asterisks still see use as footnote markers—particularly in
contracts where fine print appears at the bottom or end (known as “disclaimers”
in b siness parlance) Asterisks as s mbols are tho sands of ears old
in business parlance). Asterisks as symbols are thousands of years old.
This mark is called a tilde (pronounced TIL duh). It is seen often in Spanish
words like “piñata” (pee NYA tah) or “baño” (BAH nyo). The mark tells the
speaker that the “n” sound and the “y” sound should be pronounced together,
resulting in a blended sound that English speakers don’t use but is common in
Spanish and other languages. In English, the word “tilde” refers only to the
wavy line above the letter “n”; in Spanish, the word “tilde” may refer to any
accent mark.

This is known as an ampersand. Historically, this mark means “and” and was
commonly used when joining proper names or descriptive terms on signage for
businesses (e.g. Bloomberg & Jones Winery or The Cow & Dog Saloon). In
modern usage, unless the ampersand is part of a company logo, such as Smith
& Wesson™, use of the word “and” is preferred over use of the ampersand.
This mark is also used in computer code, mathematical formulae, and reference
materials.

The Latin capital letter “A” with a ring above it (also a letter in the Swedish
alphabet) is used as the abbreviation for angstroms. An angstrom is a unit of
measure of wavelength (the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the
next one following) or of molecular distance. The unit is approximately equal to
one ten-billionth of a meter. The angstrom was named for nineteenth-century
Swedish physicist Anders Jonas Ångström.

The percent sign actually refers to a “ratio.” The term percent represents a
portion of 100, where “100” equals the entire amount. When we say we are
100% on board, we are indicating that there is no part of us (no portion or
“ratio”) that has doubts about the project. Mathematically, the symbol is
showing us the portion/ratio of a fraction to its whole. Just as ¼ means “1 out of
4”, 50% means “50 out of 100.” The percent sign devolved from a contraction
of the Italian phrase per cento, meaning “for/of a hundred.”

The “at” sign is sometimes called the “commercial at” or ampersat. It is a

symbol in accounting that means “at the rate of.” For example: 10,000 rubber
duckies @ $1 each. The primary use of the @ symbol is in email addresses and
on social media (e.g. johnsmith@server.com) Most good word processing
programs will pick up the structure of an email address and turn it into a
“hotlink,” e.g. a working link to the internet, or to other documents that can be
activated by clicking on it. Hotlinks only work in online applications.

This squiggle—and many other squiggles like it—are referred to as section

breaks. In word processing such marks are used to interrupt the connections in
consecutive document pages in order to allow formatting changes to select
pages without altering the format of the entire document. So you could write a
letter, for example, and make a formatted résumé part of the document rather
than a separate page. It is also used to indicate sections of contract language or
law, such as 27 USC § 2325.
The copyright symbol is familiar in the production and use of written material.
Thi i l d b k bl l i i dl S M i l
This includes books, blogs, song lyrics, scripts, and letters to Santa. Material
that is published in any format—whether online or on paper—is automatically
copyrighted. So one needn’t worry about one’s work being “stolen” off the
internet, as copyright is automatically extended when one hits “send.”

The registered symbol is used by businesses to indicate that the slogan, logo,
design, or symbol of their product or company is on file (and thus legally
protected) with the US Patent and Trademark Office. Coca-Cola products, for
instance, frequently display words similar to “Coca-Cola, Coke, and the
Dynamic Ribbon device are registered trademarks of the Coca-Cola Company,
Atlanta, GA.” The is the only symbol that extends legal infringement
protection to products.
This trademark symbol is frequently used by businesses to inform the public
that the logo (which may include particular fonts, colors, and placement in the
design) is going to be registered with the Patent Office. The does not extend
legal (e.g. suable) protection of the logo or verbiage to the business that uses it,
but it does provide “common law” protection of intellectual property. So a
business that uses the symbol is telling other businesses that they are in the
process of registering the trademark, or that they are going to register it. If the
trademark is not registered afterwards, another business can come along and
“steal” that trademark from the company that’s been using it and subsequently
file the registration and own the trademark.

This is the sound recording copyright symbol. While the © indicates legal
copyright for written or designed media, the provides that same protection to
recorded material. The “P” in the symbol stands for phonogram, which is
defined as a symbol that represents a sound (e.g. shh is a phonogram that has
become a word we use to represent the sound we make in English when we
push air through closed teeth, with lips pursed).

The degree symbol is used to indicate latitude, longitude, temperature, and the
size of angles in a circle. A circle has been mathematically defined as having
360°, so a 45° angle represents forty-sive equal “slices” of the circular “pie.”
Latitude and longitude are directions to exactly where on a 3D sphere an object
is located. The 3D sphere is divided up as a 2D circle is, but it requires the use
of two data points to account for the curved surface. Latitude lines run north-
south on the globe and are numbered 0 to 90 both north and south of the
equator. Longitude lines run east-west around the globe, and are measured in
degrees and minutes from the Prime Meridian (the 0° line on a globe defined on
Earth at Greenwich, England). Longitude represents horizontal location on the
globe, while latitude represents vertical location. The crossing point of the two
gives an accurate position on a rounded surface.

This is the Greek letter mu, which is used as a symbol for a micron (or
micrometer). A micron is a measure of distance equal to 1/1000000 (one-
millionth) of a meter. This unit is used in science and technology to measure
things like diameters of fine hairs or filaments, IR wavelengths, and bacterial
cell sizes. The concentration of substances in solution may be measured in
micrograms per milliliter (µg/ml).
Pilcrow sign (also called paragraph sign or marker or alinea from the Latin a
 g ( p g p g
linea, meaning “of/to a line”) is used to mark the beginning of a new paragraph
in both written and typed material. The symbol is most commonly used by
copyeditors to indicate the need for a paragraph break in a block of text. The
symbol is derived from the Greek word paragraphos, meaning “alongside” (or
“beside”) writing. The word “pilcrow” is a slurring of the Middle English word
pylecraft. Many people write this mark backwards, making it look like a regular
“P,” but this is incorrect. Reversed, this mark has no meaning.

This is a diacritical called a cedilla (pronounced suh DIL lah). The mark
(attached to the underside of the letter “c” (ç), is used mainly in French written
language to tell the speaker that the “c” in the word is going to have a soft
sound like the English letter “s,” and not a hard sound like the English letter
“k.” Examples of this usage include façade (fuh SAHD) and garçon (gar
SAHN). Façade is another “borrowed” word that does not need italics in
English. The term cedilla derives from the Greek letter zeta (z), which was used
after cs to indicate the soft sound.

These marks are called daggers. They come in various arrangements—

sometimes doubled up or upside down—and are used to mark footnotes after
the standard asterisk has already been used in the document. Modern word
processing has mostly substituted numbered footnotes for those indicated by
symbols, but law and contract language are strictly traditional; it is common to
see footnote symbols in use there.
The ellipsis (plural ellipses) is another frequently misused punctuation mark.
The purpose of the ellipsis is to mark where a word or words were eliminated
from speech or text. The ellipsis implies that the meaning of the deleted text can
be inferred from context. For example, “Four score and seven years ago …” is
enough of Lincoln’s famous Gettysburg Address to bring that speech to mind.
The ellipsis can also be used to indicate a pause in thought or dialog, thus: “I
wish I had a … a pony.” The ellipsis (not ellipse, which is a “failing” or
“deficit” in Latin) shows that the speaker needed to stop and think for a moment
before expressing their wish. An ellipsis is always three dots, not more, not less.

This is a reference mark seen in Japanese and Korean text to indicate the start
of a note. It is similar to a bullet point or asterisk. In Japanese it’s called

komejirushi (“rice mark”) because it resembles the symbol for rice ; in

Korean it is called danggujang-pyo (“billiard mark”).

This is called an interrobang, or simply a “bang.” Its purpose is to combine

the question mark and exclamation point into a single symbol that expresses the
emotion of both at the same time. Few font packages contain this symbol as its
use is obscure. Most texts and documents in English use the question and
exclamation marks in a serial fashion (?!) instead of combining them.

These symbols are called character ties or joining marks. They are used by
copyeditors to indicate that the space between letters or words should be
eliminated.
This symbol indicates an insertion point It is used by copyeditors and
 This symbol indicates an insertion point. It is used by copyeditors and
proofreaders to indicate that something needs to be added to the text at this spot.
It is sometimes used interchangeably with a caret.

This is called an asterism. It is another rarely used reference mark, this time
indicating a chapter subheading or to draw attention to a text break. Modern
writers usually indicate such breaks with double spacing between paragraphs or
sometimes by using serial asterisks (* * *).

This character is called the dotted cross. It is another reference mark, but it also
has meaning as a religious symbol. It is a popular tattoo.

A lower-case script letter “h” represents Planck’s constant in physics, which

has a value of 6.62 × 10-34m2kg/s. It is a measure of the energy of a photon
(light particle), and it is used to measure the wavelength of electromagnetic
radiation—a critical part of quantum mechanics. It finds practical applications
in the manufacturing of lasers as well as in medical technology such as MRIs
and radiation therapy.

A Kelvin is a unit of temperature equivalent to one degree Celsius. Celsius is a

measure of temperature using the metric system, where 0° is the freezing point
of water and 100° is its boiling point. Degrees Kelvin find their use in
chemistry, where absolute zero is defined as -273.15°C (-459.67°F); this is the
theoretical lowest temperature possible wherein the motion of heat particles
would essentially cease. This temperature is considered 0°K on the Kelvin
scale.

Property line and centre line are used on real estate maps and
architectural drawings to indicate the legal boundaries of a particular property
and the center of such.
Cada una means “each (or every) one” in Spanish. It is used in pricing goods,
where the symbol takes the place of “ea.” or “per” in English. For instance, 4 pr.
socks/$1 or 4@$1 is shown as calcetines $4 c⁄u in Spanish.

The per sign is from the eighteenth century and was used in accounting to
indicate allotments, as in “company requires 350 meals day £10.”

The editorial coronis symbol was used in Greek texts to indicate the end of an
epic poem or other major text. It has the same functions as the Latin finis
(literally “end”) or the “swirly” symbol, which was often seen at the end of
letters—particularly royal ones.

These are just some of the common and uncommon punctuation marks
found in normal text. There are tens of thousands of specialized punctuation
marks for different languages (diacritical marks, phonetics, alphabet letter
modifiers), sciences (mathematics, computer science, physics), business
(trademarks, etc.), and other usages.
OceanofPDF.com
 PHOTO CREDITS

INTRODUCTION

Shutterstock: page 8: (thumbs-up sign) by Birdiegirl; page 8: (Egyptian

scarab amulet) by kivandam; page 8: (motorcycle emblems) by Lightkite;
page 9: (metaphysical glyphs) by Genestro; page 9: (telephone icons) by
IhorZigor; page 9: (lion heraldic shield emblem) by d3verro; page 10: (No
Swimwear ideogram) by Lubo Ivanko; page 10: (US Army insignia) by
T.Whitney; page 10: (Purple Heart insignia) by RoJo Images; page 11:
(Egyptian hieroglyphics pictogram) by Sunward Ar; page 11: (I Ching
hexagrams) by Viktorija Reuta; page 11: (Horns of Asmodeus sigil) by
MysticaLink; page 11: (Archangel Michael sigil) by vonzur; page 12: (stop
sign) by Dream_master; page 12: (Open sign) by Castleski; page 12:
(magnesium symbol) by grebeshkovmaxim; page 12: (stop smoking sign)
by PaKApU; page 13: (Turkish talisman) by DaryaSuperman; page 13:
(Seal of Solomon sign) by Tata Donets

CHAPTER 1, ALCHEMY

Shutterstock: page 16: (complex sacred geometry circle) by skyhawk;

page 16: (alchemical symbols) by uladzimir zgurski; page 17: (silver) by
MysticaLink; page 17: (gold) by MysticaLink; page 17: (lead) by
MysticaLink; page 17: (tin) by MysticaLink; page 17: (iron) by
MysticaLink; page 17: (Mercury) by MysticaLink; page 17: (copper) by
MysticaLink; page 18: (zodiac circle chart) by MicroOne; page 18:
(squared circle) by Peter Hermes Furian; page 19: (four alchemical element
symbols) by ararat.art; page 19: (planet and metal alchemical symbols) by
chelovector; page 23: (cross of Leviathan, inverted pentagram, 666,
Lucifer's sigil) by Croisy; page 24: (Saint Peter's cross) by rik gallery; page
24: (baphomet sigil) by afazuddin; page 24: (leviathan cross) by afazuddin;
page 24: (OREO cookie) by imdproduction; page 25: (eye of Horus) by
Suiraton; page 25: (eye of ra) by Katika; page 25: (all-seeing eye) by
Nosyrevy; page 25: (Turkish amulet) by photo stella
CHAPTER 2, ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVILIZATIONS

Shutterstock: page 28: (early Futhark Viking symbols) by Kirasolly; page

29: (Egyptian Hieroglyphics) by artform; page 30: (Aztec alphabet
symbols) by Alejo Miranda; page 31: (Polynesian tattoo symbol) by
dark_okami; page 31: (Hawaiian tattoo symbol) by SING; page 31:
(Polynesian symbols) by kurbanov; page 32–33: (Chinese Kanji symbols)
by awseiwei; page 35: (Divine “Essence” Zibu symbol) by vonzur

CHAPTER 3, ASTROLOGY

Shutterstock: page 38–41: (zodiac signs) by sebos; page 42: (5 elements of

Chinese astrology) by Natalia Mikhaylina; page 42: (yin-yang symbol) by
Maximumvector; page 43–45: (Chinese astrological signs) by sunlight77

CHAPTER 4, CELTIC SYMBOLS

Alamy: page 51: (Scottish tartans) by Lordprice Collection / Alamy Stock

Photo; page 51: (Scottish shield emblems) by R.R. McIan / Alamy Stock
Photo

Wikimedia Commons: page 48: (Celtic expansion map) by r:Castagna;

page 54: (welsh guard leek) by Mandlbrowne; page 55: (Prince Edward's
shield) by Sodacan

Shutterstock: page 48: (Celtic knot) by Zoart Studio; page 48: (Celtic
cross) by Hoika Mikhail; page 49: (Celtic knotwork) by RedKoala; page 49:
(Raven of Odin) by Bourbon-88; page 49: (Thor's hammer) by kurbanov;
page 50: (Irish flag) by LN.Vector pattern; page 50: (shamrock knotwork)
by Tata Donets; page 50: (Celtic tree of life) by Mariya Volochek; page 50:
(Celtic cross) by Miceking; page 51: (Scottish thistle) by ourbon-88; page
52: (Saltire flag) by Gil C; page 52: (Scottish Lion Rampant flag) by
Atlaspix; page 53: (British Unioin Jack flag) by charnsitr; page 53: (Welsh
CYMRU flag) by image4stock; page 53: (Welsh Y Draig Goch dragon) by
Steve Allen; page 54: (welsh love spoons) by lovemydesigns; page 55:
(daffodil) by fractalgr; page 55: (Celtic harp) by Anastasia Boiko; page 56:
(Ogham runes) by uladzimir zgurski; page 57: (Futhark runes) by uladzimir
zgurski
CHAPTER 5, CHEMISTRY

Shutterstock: page 60: (periodic table of elements) by okili77; page 63:

(fallout shelter sign) by Zoart Studio

CHAPTER 6, DIGITAL

Shutterstock: page 66: (keyboard emoticons) by AIexVector; page 66:

(emojis) by pingebat; page 67: (lobster emoji) by grmarc; page 67:
(kangaroo emoji) by Arizzona Design; page 67: (keyboard clipart) by
Andrii_M; page 68: (punctuation marks) by denvitruk; page 68:
(COMMAND key symbol) by Stock Vector; page 69: (business clipart) by
Synesthesia

CHAPTER 7, CURRENCY

Shutterstock: page 72: (US dollar bills) by mart; page 72–75: (world
currencies) by Krishnadas

CHAPTER 8, IDEOGRAMS

Shutterstock: page 78: (falling objects sign) by Kaspri; page 78: (dog-
walking sign) by FixiPixi_Design_Studio; page 78: (deer crossing sign) by
Kriangx1234; page 79: (petroglyphs) by Abra Cadabraaa; page 80:
(warning signs) by Jovanovic Dejan; page 81: (Rio Summer Olympic
Games ideograms) by Flat art

CHAPTER 9, LANGUAGE

Alamy: page 87: (Epic of Gilgamesh clay tablet) by BibleLandPictures.com

/ Alamy Stock Photo

Shutterstock: page 85: (Greek alphabet) by dars; page 86: (Russian

alphabet) by Sidhe; page 86: (Sumerian cuneiform alphabet) by Sidh

CHAPTER 10, MANUFACTURING

Shutterstock: page 90: (manufacturing flow chart) by tulpahn; page 90:
(shipping symbols) by Vector FX; page 91: (industrial engineering symbols)
by mamanamsai; page 92: (caution sign) by NEGOVURA; page 92: (wet
floor sign) by Sudowoodo; page 93: (laundry care symbols) by
simplyvectors

CHAPTER 11, MEDICAL

Alamy: page 97: (illustration of Asklepios) by imageBROKER / Alamy

Stock Photo; page 98: (Knights Hospitaller illustration) by North Wind
Picture Archives / Alamy Stock Photo

Wikimedia Commons: page 101: (optometry symbol) by LoneOptom

Shutterstock: page 96: (Hermes illustration) by Morphart Creation; page

96: (caduceus symbol) by larryrains; page 96: (Rod of Asclepius symbol)
by larryrains; page 97: (Tree of Knowledge) by vividvic; page 97: (star of
life symbol) by veronchick84; page 98: (first aid symbol) by Julia Sanders;
page 98: (red cross symbol) by Marco's studio; page 98: (Bowl of Hygeia
symbol) by Bro Studio; page 99: (Rx symbol) by Puntip Agitjarnrt; page
99: (double helix) by sarokato; page 99: (hospital symbol) by Standard
Studio; page 99: (DNA double helix) by Anita Ponne; page 100: (biohazard
sign) by Pe3k; page 100: (radiation sign) by TotemArt; page 101: (Holistic
Angel) by brandmix; page 101: (veterinary symbol) by Tribalium; page
101: (dentistry symbol) by AWesleyFloyd; page 101: (chiropractic symbol)
by AWesleyFloyd

CHAPTER 12, MILITARY

Alamy: page 104: (US Marine Corps rank insignia) by Joaquin Croxatto /
Alamy Stock Photo; page 108: (US Marine Corps seal) by Grzegorz Knec /
Alamy Stock Photo

Wikimedia Commons: page 107: (US 1st Cavalry Division emblem) by

Army Institute of Heraldry

Shutterstock: page 104: (US Navy rank insignia) by T.Whitney; page 105:
(US Air Force rank insignia) by T.Whitney; page 105: (US Army rank
insignia) by T.Whitney; page 107: (US Army Warrant Officer rank insignia)
by T.Whitney; page 107: (US Navy and Coast Guard Warrant Officer rank
insignia) by T.Whitney; page 108: (US Navy seal) by yui; page 108: (US
Air Force seal) by chrisdorney; page 108: (US Army seal) by chrisdorney;
page 108: (US Coast Guard seal) by Jer123; page 109: (US Army emblem)
by chutima kuanamon; page 109: (Department of Homeland Security
emblem) by Mark Van Scyoc; page 109: (US Coast Guard emblem) by Karl
R. Martin; page 109: (US Marine Corps emblem) by dustin77a; page 109:
(US Air Force emblem) by Bobnevv

CHAPTER 13, MUSIC

Alamy: page 112: (“Hurrian Hymn No. 6” on tablet) by The Picture Art
Collection / Alamy Stock Photo; page 113: (Gregorian chant music sheet)
by INTERFOTO / Alamy Stock Photo; page 113: (Guido d’Arezzo
illustration) by FALKENSTEINFOTO / Alamy Stock Photo

Wikimedia Commons: page 112: (Aurignacian flute) by é-Manuel Benito;

page 114: (music staff) by own

Shutterstock: page 112: (Egyptian musical instruments) by Morphart

Creation; page 115: (bass, trebel, alto, and tenor clefs) by Ashas0612; page
116–117: (types of music notes and symbols) by grebeshkovmaxim; page
117: (music symbols on a staff) by Br; page 117: (natural sign) by
Toponium; page 118: (glissando sign) by Br; page 119: (Sheet music) by
Tatiana Popova

CHAPTER 14, MYTHOLOGY

Alamy: page 131: (Manannan mac Lir) by Eoin McConnell / Alamy Stock
Photo; page 132: (Illustration of Apollo killing Python) by Chronicle /
Alamy Stock Photo; page 151: (engraving of the library at Alexandria) by
Pictorial Press Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo

Wikimedia Commons: page 125: (Árvakr and Alsviðr) by r:Holt; page

126: (Hayagriva) by Jean-Pierre Dalbéra; page 127: (yatagarasu crow) by
ugi; page 128: (shabbaz) by acan; page 134: (Golden Wyvern of Wessex) by
tchy Berd; page 134: (amphiptere) by ard Topsell; page 135: (Níðh ggr and
Yggdrasil) by unn; page 135: (lindworm) by kin; page 145: (Egyptian
beekeeping scene) by
ps://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/544626; page 145: (Minoan
bee) by ree Stephan; page 147: (Itzpapàlotl) by nown; page 147: (Psyche)
by sh Pearl

Shutterstock: page 122: (phoenix) by Nipatsara Bureepia; page 122:

(fenghuang) by insima; page 122: (Thunderbird) by bosotochka; page 123:
(wolf) by Hennadii H; page 123: (fenrir) by Bourbon-88; page 123:
(Capitoline Wolf) by Everild; page 124: (loki) by Morphart Creation; page
124: (Northwest Coast Native American coyote) by Jef Thompson; page
124: (Anubis) by Thjothvald; page 124: (jackal) by Manekina Serafima;
page 125: (Pegasus) by Vector SpMan; page 125: (Sleipnir) by Santagora;
page 126: (chirion) by Morphart Creation; page 126: (Hayagriva) by n-
Pierre Dalbéra - Flickr: ; page 126: (unicorn) by Christos Georghiou; page
127: (Quetzalcoatl) by Kazakova Maryia; page 127: (raven) by AVA Bitter;
page 128: (aethon) by Hoika Mikhail; page 128: (Zeus) by Eroshka; page
128: (roman eagle) by LANTERIA; page 128: (French eagle) by dimm3d;
page 129: (harpy) by Morphart Creation; page 129: (garuda) by Bimbim;
page 129: (gryphon) by FILINdesign; page 129: (gryphon on coat of arms)
by Marta Jonina; page 130: (Indigenous-inspired owl) by sunlight77; page
130: (Horus) by tan_tan; page 130: (Thoth) by AndreyO; page 130:
(Nekhbet) by Marta Jonina; page 131: (Huitzilopochtli) by NNNMMM;
page 131: (Nazca hummingbird) by Dimec; page 131: (Chinese illustration
of crane) by fotohunter; page 132: (Tyrannosaurus rex) by Bodor Tivadar;
page 132: (hydra) by Kazakova Maryia; page 133: (Chinese New Year
dragon) by Ton Bangkeaw; page 133: (medieval dragon) by Dream_master;
page 133: (golden Chinese dragon) by Sanit Fuangnakhon; page 136: (Tree
of Knowledge of Good and Evil) by d.buneeva; page 136: (Tree of Life) by
Rovenko Photo; page 136: (Buddha under a bodhi tree) by ananaline; page
137: (acacia tree) by Susan Schmitz; page 137: (mulberry tree) by mart;
page 137: (Chinese banyan tree) by Runa0410; page 137: (Lebanese cedar
tree) by a0410; page 138: (baobab tree) by design36; page 138: (oak tree)
by 3dmentor; page 138: (willow tree) by Zerbor; page 138: (Roman laurel
oak wreath) by Betacam-SP; page 139: (Druids during Roman invasion) by
Morphart Creation; page 139: (mistletoe) by nna Sinano; page 139: (oak
gall) by Morphart Creation; page 140: (modern Ogham runes) by uladzimir
zgurski; page 142: (lotus flower) by Adelveys; page 142: (Vishnu) by
d_odin; page 142: (Brahma) by Morphart Creation; page 142:
(ashtamangala) by Uliabond; page 143: (Osiris) by LynxVector; page 143:
(Green Man) by Misty River; page 143: (European hedgehog) by Bodor
Tivadar; page 144: (four-leaf clover) by jara3000; page 145: (honeybee) by
vectortatu; page 146: (dragonfly) by Bodor Tivadar; page 147: (butterfly
lifecycle) by BlueRingMedia; page 148: (cicada) by Komleva; page 149:
(cicada illustration) by Morphart Creation; page 149: (cicada wings) by
Tropper2000; page 150: (Egyptian sacred scarab) by intueri; page 150: (Ra
as Khepri) by Vladimir Zadvinskii; page 150: (Egyptian scarab amulet) by
Joey_Danupho

CHAPTER 15, POPULAR GESTURES

Shutterstock: page 154: (surrender gesture) by Kompaniichenko Yurii;

page 154: (stop gesture) by Mikhail Petrishche; page 154: (fight stance
gesture) by Ficus777; page 154: (Wakandan Salute) by Vector Factory; page
155: (giving hands gesture) by AVA Bitter; page 155: (victory gesture) by
Tribalium; page 155: (protest gesture) by Kair; page 155: (choose me
gesture) by Rvector; page 156: (confusion gesture) by one line man; page
156: (bored gesture) by miniwide; page 156: (praying gesture) by Christos
Georghiou; page 156: (clasped hands gesture) by draco77vector; page 157:
(arms crossed gesture) by Jemastock; page 157: (pointing at temple gesture)
by Serhii Borodin; page 157: (Italian “Do you understand me?” gesture) by
TaVitka; page 157,160: (perfect gesture) by Julia's Art; page 158: (give me
money gesture) by Sylverarts Vectors; page 158: (US peace gesture) by
Kluva; page 158: (UK victory gesture) by TaVitka; page 158: (Vulcan
greeting gesture) by Miceking; page 158: (watching you gesture) by Ta-nya;
page 159: (quiet, please gesture) by Julss; page 159: (wave gesture) by
Martial Red; page 159: (come here gesture) by Sylverarts Vectors; page
160: (Fist bump gesture) by Martial Red; page 160: (okay gesture) by
Julia's Art; page 160: (evil eye gesture) by Martial Red; page 160: (fingers
crossed gesture) by tinkivinki; page 161: (Pledge of Allegiance gesture) by
TOP VECTOR STOCK

CHAPTER 16, RELIGION

Wikimedia Commons: page 180: (triratna) by d the Oyster

Shutterstock: page 164, 167: (patriarchal cross, Maltese cross, ) by Fouad

A. Saad; page 164-166: (papal cross, cross of Lorraine, Tau cross, Latin
cross, Greek cross, Jerusalem cross, Saint Andrew's cross) by frees; page
166: (Cross Potent) by Farik gallery; page 166: (Russian cross) by OnD;
page 167: (Crucifix) by Martial Red; page 167: (Presbyterian Cross and
Episcopal crosses) by Jostro; page 167: (Celtic Cross) by Zoart Studio; page
168: (Ichthys symbol with Greeks letter) by An333; page 168: (Lutheran
cross) by Alvaro Cabrera Jimenez; page 168: (Luther Rose) by Peter
Hermes Furian; page 168: (Tudor Rose) by Jane Rix; page 168: (Ichthys
symbol) by Lubo Ivanko; page 169: (dove of peace) by Val_Iva; page 169:
(Holy Spirit symbol) by Thoom; page 170: (Chi Rho) by matahiasek; page
170: (IHS symbol) by MysticaLink; page 170: (Greek letter chi) by
Jambronk; page 170: (alpha & omega sign) by Miceking; page 170: (Alpha
& Omega and Chi Rho sign) by Alvaro Cabrera Jimenez; page 171:
(Anchor) by OnD; page 171: (Staurogram) by Peter Hermes Furian; page
171: (lamb) by ArinaShe; page 172: (Agnus dei lamb) by Katja
Gerasimova; page 172: (Sacred Heart of Jesus) by chutima kuanamon; page
173: (Stars of David) by Tribalium; page 173: (Menorah) by valdis torms;
page 173: (tetragrammaton) by MysticaLink; page 174: (Kohan hands
symbol) by dityazemli; page 174: (Shin) by Lickomicko; page 174:
(Hamsa) by Anne Mathiasz; page 175: (Chai) by BigAlBaloo; page 175:
(Dreidel) by Dasha Soma; page 175: (Shofar) by nahariyani; page 175:
(Sefer Torah) by TOP VECTOR STOCK; page 176: (Four Species) by
mcherevan; page 176: (“Allah” adorned) by Lukasz Stefanski; page 176:
(“Allah” unadorned) by Javid Kheyrabadi; page 177: (Algerian flag) by Gil
C; page 177: (Turkish flag) by Mint Fox; page 177: (Pakistani flag) by
Machalski; page 177: (Libyan flag) by Maximumvector; page 177: (Islamic
star and crescent symbol) by Martial Red; page 177: (“Shahada” creed) by
kamomeen; page 177: (Saudi Arabian flag) by IconBunny; page 178: (Rub
el Hizb (with crescent and star in middle)) by Stock Vector; page 178: (Rub
el Hizb (with circle in middle)) by CoolVectorStock; page 178: (Rub el
Hizb (with star in middle)) by iconvectorstock; page 178: (Turkmenistan
flag) by noch; page 179: (dharma wheel) by Martial Red; page 179:
(Buddha footprint) by homydesign; page 179: (trishula) by Natalia
Sedyakina; page 180: (vajra) by ALICE_NOIR; page 181: (dharma wheel
with deer) by Maria Nikerman; page 181: (lion statue at Buddhist temple)
by Vershinin89; page 182: (riderless horse) by yienkeat; page 182:
(sauvastika symbol) by lightmood; page 182: (Buddha sitting under a bodhi
Tree) by Anastasiya Zaplatina; page 182: (Sanchi Stupa illustration) by
Carina Miranda; page 183: (ashtamangala) by Uliabond; page 183: (“OM
mani padme hum”) by Maximilian Laschon; page 184: (tomoe symbol) by
Tata Donets; page 184: (Buddhist prayer flags) by EMJAY SMITH; page
184: (ensō symbol) by Olga_C; page 185: (OM symbol) by Piter
Kidanchuk; page 186: (sahasrara chakra) by Benjamin Albiach Galan; page
186: (ajna chakra) by Benjamin Albiach Galan; page 186: (vishuddha
chakra) by Benjamin Albiach Galan; page 186: (anahata chakra) by
Benjamin Albiach Galan; page 187: (manipura chakra) by Benjamin
Albiach Galan; page 187: (svadhishthana chakra) by Benjamin Albiach
Galan; page 187: (muladhara chakra) by Benjamin Albiach Galan; page
188: (chakra chart) by 3xy; page 188: (dancing apsaras) by Naumova
Marina; page 188: (banyan tree) by rodho; page 189: (sri yantra symbol) by
Amado Designs; page 189: (Lord Shiva Nataraja and Apasmara illustration)
by PremiumStock; page 190: (naga) by Black creator; page 190: (peacock)
by Christina Li; page 191: (shiva linga stone) by karakotsya

CHAPTER 17, SEX AND GENDER

Shutterstock: page 194: (Mars and Venus symbols) by noeldelmar; page

195: (male / female symbol) by yayha; page 195: (all gender restroom sign)
by Powerful Design; page 195: (yin/yang symbol) by researcher97; page
195: (x / chromosomes) by Designua; page 196: (sun god Ra) by AndreyO;
page 196: (mother goddess Mut) by AndreyO; page 197: (astrea) by
MysticaLink; page 197: (vesta) by MysticaLink; page 197: (juno) by
MysticaLink; page 197: (Lilith moon) by MysticaLink; page 197: (Hygiea)
by MysticaLink; page 197: (true black Lilith moon) by MysticaLink; page
197: (white moon) by MysticaLink

CHAPTER 18, SIGILS AND PAGANISM

Alamy: page 216: (Ægishjálmur sigil) by hii Borodin / Alamy Stock Vector
Shutterstock: page 204–205: (geometrical shapes) by
tterstock_646932574.eps; page 205: (solar cross) by ararat.art; page 207:
(totem pole) by Roi and Roi; page 208: (Native American thunderbird) by
Vector pack; page 208: (Native American bison) by intueri; page 208:
(Native American owl) by Ksyu Deniska; page 208: (Native American
bear) by intueri; page 208: (Native American eagle) by Vector pack; page
209: (sun wheel) by ararat.art; page 210: (Wiccan wheel) by moibalkon;
page 211–213: (four-, five-, six-, seven-pointed stars) by Lubo Ivanko; page
212: (downward pentagram) by unakobuna; page 212: (pentacle) by Aha-
Soft; page 212: (six-pointed star for first responders) by KirillKazachek;
page 213: (nine point star) by casejustin; page 215: (Horned god) by
Rhododendron; page 215: (Cernunnos) by Zvereva Yana; page 216:
(vegvisir symbol) by Anne Mathiasz; page 216: (algiz symbol) by Teresa
Liss; page 217: (Celtic spirals) by Peter Hermes Furian; page 217: (triskele)
by sunnychicka; page 217: (triquetra) by Zoart Studio; page 218: (Odin's
knot) by Rhododendron; page 218: (labyrinth) by Vladvm; page 218:
(valknut) by vonzur; page 219: (Celtic symbols) by yulianas

CHAPTER 19, TRANSPORTATION

Shutterstock: page 222: (hazard chart) by Idea.s; page 223: (class 3 hazard
sign) by Standard Studio; page 223: (class 9 hazard) by medicalstocks; page
223: (class 1 hazard sign) by Nicola Renna; page 223: (class 3 combustible
hazard sign) by Idea.s; page 224: (generic corrosive sign) by Standard
Studio; page 224: (class 8 hazard sign) by Ody_Stocker; page 224: (class 7
hazard sign) by Nicola Renna; page 224: (class 4 spontaneously
combustible) by Technicsorn Stocker; page 224: (class 4 flammable with
water) by Migren art; page 224: (class 2 non flammable gas) by
Technicsorn Stocker; page 225: (class 5 hazard sign) by Standard Studio;
page 225: (hazard class 6 signs) by Charles Brutlag; page 225:
(environmental hazard) by BALRedaan; page 226: (road signs) by
memphisslim; page 227: (thai stop sign) by Kadortork69; page 227:
(Australian kangaroo crossing sign) by Kriangx1234; page 227: (British no
motor vehicles sign) by Zoart Studio; page 227: (British no horn honking)
by good pixel; page 227: (German beaver crossing) by Heide Pinkall; page
228: (car dashboard signs) by Mihalex; page 228: (rocket illustation) by
NeMaria; page 228: (smart car illustation) by Martial Red; page 229:
(electric car 1 illustation) by VectorV; page 229: (electric car 2 illustation)
by Telman Bagirov; page 229: (drone 1 illustation) by Alexander Lysenko;
page 229: (drone 2 illustation) by FARBAI
OceanofPDF.com
 Index

Ægishjálmur, 216

A
acacia tree, 137
accute accent, 234
Aethon, 128
Air symbol, 19
Ajna chakra, 186
alchemy
666 symbol, 23
Air, 19
Alembic, 20
Alkali, 20
Alkali II, 20
All-Seeing Eye, 25
Alum, 20
Amalgam, 20
Ammoniac, 20
Antimony, 20
Aqua Fortis, 20
Aqua Reglia, 20
Aqua Reglia II, 20
Aqua Vitae, 20
Aqua Vitae II, 20
Arsenic, 20
Ashes, 20
Auripigment, 20
Bath of Mary, 20
Bath of Vapors, 20
Bismuth, 20
Black Sulfur, 20
Borax, 20
Borax II, 20
Borax III, 20
Brick, 20
Caduceus, 20
Calx, 20
Caput, 20
Cerusse, 20
Cinnabar, 20
Copper Antimoniate, 20
Copper, 17, 20
Crocus of Copper, 20
Crocus of Copper II, 20
Crocus of Iron, 20
Cross of Leviathan, 23
Crucible, 20
Crucible II, 20
Crucible III, 20
Crucible IV, 20
Day-Night, 21
Dissolve, 21
Dissolve II, 21
Distill, 21
Earth, 19
Evil Eye, 25
Eye of Horus, 25
Eye of Ra, 25
Fire, 19
Gold, 17
Gold II, 21
Gum, 21
Half Dram, 21
Half Ounce, 21
herbalist symbols, 214
Horse Dung, 21
Hour, 21
inverted pentagram, 23
Iron-copper, 21
Iron, 17, 21
Iron II, 21
Lead, 17, 21
Leviathan cross, 24
Lucifer’s Sigil, 23
Magnet, 21
Magnum Opus, 18
Marcasite, 21
Mercury, 17
Month, 21
Night, 21
Oil, 21
Philosopher’s Stone, 18
Philosopher’s Sulfur, 21
planetary metals, 17
planetary symbols, 19
Potassium, 21
Powdered Brick, 21
Powder, 21
Precipitate, 21
Purify, 21
Putrefaction, 21
Quicklime, 21
quincunx, 23
Quintessence, 21
Realgar, 21
Realgar II, 21
Regulus, 21
Regulus II, 21
Regulus III, 21
Regulus IV, 21
Regulus of Antimony, 21
Regulus of Antimony II, 21
Regulus of Iron, 21
Retort, 21
Rock Salt, 21
Rock Salt II, 21
sacred geometry, 16
Salt of Antimony, 22
Salt of Copper Antimoniate, 22
Saltpeter, 21
Salt, 21
Scepter of Jove, 22
Sigil of Baphomet, 24
Silver, 17
Silver II, 22
Soap, 22
Spirit, 22
Starred Trident, 22
St. Peter’s Cross, 24
Stratum Super Stratum, 22
Stratum Super Stratum II, 22
Sublimated Mercury, 22
Sublimated Mercury II, 22
Sublimated Mercury III, 22
Sublimated Salt of Antimony, 22
Sublimated Salt of Copper, 22
Sublimate of Antimony, 22
Sublimate of Copper, 22
Sublimation, 22
Sulfur, 22
Tartar, 22
Tincture, 22
Tin, 17, 22
 Trident, 22
Tutty, 22
Urine, 22
Verdigris, 22
Vinegar, 22
Vinegar II, 22
Vinegar III, 22
Vinegar of Antimony, 22
Vitriol, 22
Vitriol II, 22
water, 19
Water, 19
Wax, 22
Alembic symbol, 20
Alkali symbol, 20
Alkali II symbol, 20
Allah symbol, 176
All-Seeing Eye, 25
alphabetical languages, 85
Alpha-Omega, 170
Alsviðr, 125
alto clef, 115
Alum symbol, 20
Amalgam symbol, 20
Ammoniac symbol, 20
ampersand, 237
amulets, 8
Anahata chakra, 186
anchor symbol, 171
ancient civilizations
Aztec alphabet glyphs, 30
Chinese Kanji symbols, 32
Egyptian hieroglyphics, 29
Hawaiian symbols, 31
Polynesian symbols, 31
“and” sign, 237
angstrom, 237
angus dei, 172
animal mythology
Aethon, 128
Alsviðr, 125
Aquila, 128
Árvakr, 125
Balius, 125
birds, 127
Capitoline wolf, 123
 centaurs, 126
Chinese phoenix, 122
coyote, 124, 124
crane, 131
crow, 127
dragons, 132
drakes, 134
eagles, 128
Fenrir, 123
Garuda, 129
gryphon, 129
harpy, 129
Hayagriva, 126
Horus, 130
Huitzilopochtli, 131
hummingbird, 131
jackal, 124
Llamrei, 125
Ma Mien, 126
Nekhbet, 130
Níðhǫggr, 135
owls, 130
Pegasus, 125
phoenix, 122
pseudo-horses, 126
Quetzalcoatl, 127
reptiles, 132
seagull, 131
shabaz, 128
Sleipnir, 125
Thoth, 130
thunderbird, 122
unicorn, 126
Vishap, 134
wolves, 123
wyrms/wuyrms, 134
wyverns, 134
Xanthus, 125
animal names, 199
Antimony symbol, 20
Apasmara, 189
apostrophe, 234
Aqua Fortis symbol, 20
Aqua Reglia symbol, 20
Aqua Reglia II symbol, 20
Aquarius the Water-Bearer, 41
Aqua Vitae symbol, 20
Aqua Vitae II symbol, 20
Aquila, 128
Aries the Ram, 38
Arsenic symbol, 20
Árvakr, 125
asexual symbol, 200
Ashes symbol, 20
Ashtamangala, 183
ash tree, 137
Asparas, 188
asterisk, 236
asterism, 240
astrology. See also Chinese astrology.
Aquarius the Water-Bearer, 41
Aries the Ram, 38
astrological charts, 18
Cancer the Crab, 39
Capricorn the (Sea) Goat, 41
Chinese astrology, 42
Gemini the Twins, 39
Leo the Lion, 39
Libra the Scales, 40
Pisces the Fishes, 41
Sagittarius the Archer, 40
Scorpio the Scorpion, 40
Taurus the Bull, 38
Virgo the Virgin, 39
“at” sign, 237
Auripigment symbol, 20
automobile signs, 228
Aztec alphabet glyphs, 30

B
backslash, 233
Balius, 125
“bang” mark, 240
banyan tree, 137
baobab tree, 138
Baphomet, Sigil of, 24
bass clef, 114
Bath of Mary symbol, 20
Bath of Vapors symbol, 20
bears, 208, 209
Beast, Number of, 23
beavers, 208
bee mythology, 145
Beltane/Beltain, 210, 211
“be quiet” gesture, 159
Biblical trees, 136
biohazard symbol, 100
bisexual symbol, 201
Bismuth symbol, 20
bison, 209
Black Sulfur symbol, 20
black sun, 209
Boar, Year of the, 45
Bodhi tree, 136, 182
Borax symbol, 20
Borax II symbol, 20
Borax III symbol, 20
“boredom” gesture, 156
Bowl of Hygieia, 98
Brahman, 191
breath mark, 118
Brick symbol, 20
Bronze Age languages, 87
“brotherhood” gesture, 161
“brush off” gesture, 159
Buddhism
Ashtamangala, 183
bodhi tree, 182
Buddha footprint, 179
Buddhapada, 179
cetiya, 179
deer, 181
dharmachakra, 179
Dharmal Wheel, 179
ensō, 184
gankyil, 181
lion, 181
lotus, 180
prayer flags, 184
riderless horse, 182
sacred colors, 184
stupa shape, 182
swastika, 182
tomoe, 184
triratna, 180
trishula, 179
vajara, 180
buffalo, 209
business icons, 69
butterfly mythology, 147

C
cada una symbol, 241
caduceus symbol, 20, 96
calligraphy, 11
Calx symbol, 20
Cancer the Crab, 39
Capitoline wolf, 123
Capricorn the (Sea) Goat, 41
Caput symbol, 20
caret, 233
cedilla mark, 239
Celtic symbols
cross, 48, 50, 167
knotwork, 48, 49, 50, 55
paganism and, 219
Raven of Odin, 49
run symbols, 56
Scottish symbols, 51
Shield of Peace, 55
Thor’s hammer, 49
Tree of Life, 50
Welsh symbols, 52
Celtic “Tree Alphabet,” 139
centaurs, 126
centre line, 241
Cernunnos, 215
Cerusse symbol, 20
cetiya, 179
chai letters, 175
character ties, 240
chemistry, 60
Chinese astrology. See also astrology.
Year of the Dog, 45
Year of the Dragon, 43, 45
Year of the Goat (Sheep), 44, 45
Year of the Horse, 44, 45
Year of the Monkey, 44, 45
Year of the Ox, 43, 45
Year of the Pig (Boar), 45
Year of the Rabbit, 43, 45
Year of the Rat, 43, 45
Year of the Rooster, 44, 45
Year of the Snake, 44, 45
 Year of the Tiger, 43, 45
Chinese Kanji symbols, 32
Chinese language, 84
Chinese phoenix, 122
Chi-Rho symbol, 170
chiropractic symbol, 101
chi symbol, 170
“choose me” gesture, 155
Christianity
Alpha-Omega, 170
anchor, 171
angus dei, 172
Celtic cross, 167
Chi-Rho, 170
chi, 170
Cross of Anjou, 165
Cross of Lorraine, 165
cross potent, 166
crucifix, 167
dove, 169
Episcopal cross, 167
fish, 168
flame, 169
Greek cross, 165
IHS monogram, 170
Jerusalem cross, 166
Jesus fish, 168
lamb, 171
Latin cross, 165
Lutheran cross, 168
Luther rose, 168
Maltese cross, 167
monogrammatic cross, 171
papal cross, 164
Patriarchal cross, 164
Presbyterian cross, 167
rose, 168
Russian cross, 166
Sacred Heart, 172
Saint Andrew’s cross, 166
Saint Anthony’s cross, 165
saltire cross, 166
staurogram, 171
Tau cross, 165
Tau-Rho, 171
T-cross, 165
 X-cross, 166
cicada mythology, 148
Cinnabar symbol, 20
circle, 204
circumflex accent, 233
CJK Unified Ideographs, 84
clipart, 67
clover mythology, 144
coda symbol, 118
colon, 235
“come here” gesture, 159
Command Key symbol, 68
commissioned officers (COs), 106
computer
business icons, 69
emoji, 66
emoticons, 66
keyboard clipart, 67
keyboard fonts, 68
punctuation marks, 68
“conceited” gesture, 161
“confusion” gesture, 156
copper antimoniate symbol, 20
copper symbol, 17, 20
copyright symbol, 238
coyote mythology, 124
crane mythology, 131
crescendo symbol, 118
crescent symbol, 196
Crocus of Copper symbol, 20
Crocus of Copper II symbol, 20
Crocus of Iron symbol, 20
Cross of Anjou, 165
Cross of Leviathan, 23
Cross of Lorraine, 165
Cross of Wotan, 205
cross potent, 166
crotchet, 117
crow, 127, 208
Crucible symbol, 20
Crucible II symbol, 20
Crucible III symbol, 20
Crucible IV symbol, 20
crucifix, 167
cuneiform alphabet, 86
curly brackets, 233
currency, 72

D
daffodil symbol, 55
dagger marks, 239
dashes, 236
Day-Night symbol, 21
decrescendo symbol, 118
deer, 181, 208
“defensive” gesture, 157
degree symbol, 239
“delicious” gesture, 158
demiboy symbol, 201
demigirl symbol, 201
demisemiquaver, 117
dentistry symbol, 101
Department of Homeland Security emblem, 109
dharmachakra, 179
Dharmal Wheel, 179
“disrespect” gesture, 161
Dissolve symbol, 21
Dissolve II symbol, 21
Distill symbol, 21
“disturbing” gesture, 157
Dog, Year of the, 45
dotted cross, 240
double-flat symbol, 118
double helix, 99
double-sharp symbol, 118
dove symbol, 169
dragonfly, 146
dragons, 132
Dragon, Year of the, 43, 45
drakes, 134
dreidel, 175
Druidic runes, 57
Druid “Tree Alphabet,” 139

E
eagle mythology, 128
eagles, 209
Earth symbol, 19
editorial coronis, 241
Egyptian hieroglyphics, 11, 29, 145
eighth notes, 116
eight-point star, 213
ellipses, 240
emblems, 8
em-dash, 236
emojis, 66
emoticons, 66
en-dash, 236
ensō, 184
Episcopal cross, 167
Evil Eye, 13, 25, 160
“extra loud” symbol, 118
“extra soft” symbol, 118
Eye of Horus, 25
Eye of Ra, 25

F
falcons, 208
“fallout shelter” symbol, 63
female symbol, 194
Fenrir, 123
Fire symbol, 19
First Aid symbol, 98
fish symbol, 168
“fist bump” gesture, 160
five-point star, 211
flame symbol, 169
flat symbol, 117
forte symbol, 118
forward slash, 233
four-point star, 211
Four Species (Four Kinds), 176
Futhark runes, 57

G
gankyil, 181
Garuda, 129
gay/male homosexual symbol, 201
Gemini the Twins, 39
gender-fluid persons symbol, 201
gestures
be quiet, 159
boredom, 156
brotherhood, 161
brush off, 159
choose me, 155
come here, 159
conceited, 161
confusion, 156
defensive, 157
 delicious, 158
disrespect, 161
disturbing, 157
evil eye, 160
fist bump, 160
get lost, 159
give me money, 157
good luck, 160, 161
heavy, 156
I don’t believe you, 158
indication, 159
I surrender, 154
listening, 156
look to me, 155
loyalty, 161
many people, 157
okay, 160
pay me, 158
peace, 158
perfect, 157
Pledge of Allegiance, 161
prayer, 156
ready, 156
ready to fight, 154
search me, 154
shoot me, 157
stop, 154, 159
supplication, 155
thumb flick, 159
understand me, 157
victory, 155
Vulcan sign, 158
Wakandan salute, 154
you’re dead, 160
“get lost” gesture, 159
GINETEX (International Association for Textile Care Labeling), 92
“give me money” gesture, 157
glissando symbol, 118
glyphs, 9, 30
Goat, Year of the, 44, 45
Gold symbol, 17
Gold II symbol, 21
“good luck” gesture, 160, 161
goose, 208
grass mythology, 143
grave accent, 233
greater than/less than, 232
Greek cross, 165
Greek language, 85
Green Men, 143
Gregorian chants, 113
gryphon mythology, 129
Gum symbol, 21

H
Half Dram symbol, 21
half notes, 116
Half Ounce symbol, 21
hamsa symbol, 174
hanging hyphen, 236
harp symbol, 55
harpy mythology, 129
hashtag, 235
Hawaiian symbols, 31
Hayagriva, 126
hazardous waste signs, 223
“heavy” gesture, 156
hemidemisemiquaver, 117
heraldic shields, 8
herbalist symbols, 214
hermaphrodite female symbol, 201
hermaphrodite male symbol, 201
heterosexual symbol, 201
hexagrams, 11
hieroglyphics, 11, 29, 145
Hinduism
Ajna chakra, 186
Anahata chakra, 186
Apasmara, 189
Asparas, 188
Brahman, 191
linga stone, 191
Manipura chakra, 187
Muladhara chakra, 187
naga, 190
OM, 185
peacock, 190
Sahasrara chakra, 186
Shiva Linga, 191
Shiva Nataraja, 189
sri chakra, 189
Svadhishthana chakra, 187
 vata, 188
Vishuddha chakra, 186
Holistic Angel, 101
horned god, 215
Horns of Asmodeus, 11
Horse Dung symbol, 21
horses, 124
Horse, Year of the, 44, 45
Horus, 130
hospital symbol, 99
Hour symbol, 21
Huitzilopochtli, 131
hummingbird mythology, 131
Hurrian culture, 112
hyphen, 236

I
I Ching, 11
icons, 9
ideograms, 10, 78
ideographs, 81
ideographic languages, 84
“I don’t believe you” gesture, 158
IHS monogram, 170
Imbolc, 210, 211
“indication” gesture, 159
industrial engineer symbols, 91
insect mythology
bee, 145
butterfly, 147
cicada, 148
dragonfly, 146
scarab, 150
insertion point symbol, 240
insignias, 10
intergender persons symbol, 201
International Association for Textile Care Labeling, 92
interrobang, 240
Inverted Pentagram, 23
Irish symbols, 50
Iron-copper symbol, 21
Iron symbol, 17, 21
Iron II symbol, 21
Islam
Allah symbol, 176
green color, 178
 Rub el Hizb, 178
shahada, 177
star and crescent, 177
“I surrender” gesture, 154
Italian cypress tree, 137

J
jackal mythology, 124
Japanese calligraphy, 11
Japanese language, 84
Jerusalem cross, 166
Jesus fish, 168
joining marks, 240
Judaism
chai letters, 175
dreidel, 175
Four Species (Four Kinds), 176
hamsa, 174
menorah, 173
Sefer Torah, 175
shin, 174
shofar, 175
Star of David, 13, 173, 212
tetragrammaton, 173

K
Kelvin symbol, 241
keyboard clipart, 67
keyboard fonts, 68
Knights of Malta, 98
komejirushi mark, 240
Korean language, 84

L
labyrinth, 218
Lamas, 210
lamb symbol, 171
Lammas/Lughnasadh, 211
language
alphabetical languages, 85
Bronze Age languages, 87
Chinese language, 84
CJK Unified Ideographs, 84
Greek language, 85
ideographic languages, 84
Japanese language, 84
Korean language, 84
 logographic, 81
Mandarin language, 85
romance languages, 87
Russian language, 85, 86
Sumerian cuneiform, 86
Latin cross, 165
laundry symbols, 92
lead symbol, 17, 21
Lebanese cedar tree, 137
leek symbol, 54
Leo the Lion, 39
lesbian/female homosexual symbol, 201
less than/greater than, 232
Leviathan cross, 24
Libra the Scales, 40
Lilith Moon, 197
linga stone, 191
lion, 181
Lion Rampant flag, 52
“listening” gesture, 156
Litha/Lithe, 210
Lithe/Litha, 211
Llamrei, 125
logographic languages, 81
“look to me” gesture, 155
lotus, 142, 180
“loud” symbol, 118
love spoons, 54
“loyalty” gesture, 161
Lucifer’s Sigil, 23
Lutheran cross, 168
Luther rose, 168

M
Mabon, 210, 211
Magnet symbol, 21
Magnum Opus, 18
male symbol, 194
Maltese cross, 167
Ma Mien, 126
Mandarin language, 85
Manipura chakra, 187
manufacturing
industrial engineer symbols, 91
product usage symbols, 92
shipping symbols, 90
“many people” gesture, 157
Marcasite symbol, 21
Mars symbol, 194
medical
biohazard, 100
Bowl of Hygieia, 98
caduceus, 96
chiropractic symbol, 101
dentistry symbol, 101
double helix, 99
First Aid symbol, 98
Holistic Angel, 101
hospital symbol, 99
optometry symbol, 101
prescription take, 99
radiation, 100
Reiki Angel, 101
Rod of Asclepius, 96
Star of Life, 97
veterinary symbol, 101
medicine wheel, 206
menorah, 173
Mercury symbol, 17
mezzo symbol, 118
mice, 209
Michael (archangel), 11
micron symbol, 239
military
Armed Services, 106
commissioned officers (COs), 104, 106
Department of Homeland Security emblem, 109
emblems, 107
non-commissioned officers (NCOs), 104
US 1st Cavalry Division, 107
US Air Force emblem, 109
US Air Force rank insignia, 105
US Armed Forces seal, 108
US Army emblem, 109
US Army seal, 108
US Coast Guard emblem, 109
US Coast Guard seal, 108
US Marine Corps emblem, 109
US Marine Corps rank insignia, 104, 106
US Marine Corps seal, 108
US Navy emblem, 107
US Navy rank insignia, 104, 106
 US Navy seal, 108
Warrant Officers, 107
Monkey, Year of the, 44, 45
monogrammatic cross, 171
Month symbol, 21
moon, 196
Muladhara chakra, 187
mulberry tree, 137
music
alto clef, 115
Ancient Egypt, 112
bass clef, 114
breath mark, 118
coda, 118
crescendo, 118
crotchet, 117
decrescendo, 118
demisemiquaver, 117
double flat, 118
double sharp, 118
eighth notes, 116
“extra loud,” 118
“extra soft,” 118
flat, 117
glissando, 118
Gregorian chants, 113
half notes, 116
hemidemisemiquaver, 117
Hurrian culture, 112
“loud”, 118
mezzo, 118
natural sign, 117
plainchant, 113
portamento, 118
quarter notes, 116
quaver, 117
“repeat,” 118
segno, 118
Seikilos Epitaph, 113
semibreve, 117
semiquaver, 117
sforzando, 118
sharp, 117
sixteenth notes, 116
“soft,” 118
“super extra loud,” 118
 “super extra soft,” 118
tenor clef, 115
time signature, 116
treble clef, 114, 115
“very loud,” 118
“very soft,” 118
whole notes, 115
mythology
animal mythology, 123
insect mythology, 144
plant mythology, 136

N
naga, 190
natural sign, 117
Nekhbet, 130
“Nepalese ‘no’” gesture, 159
neutral gender symbol, 200
Níðhǫggr, 135
Night symbol, 21
nine-point star, 213
nonbinary persons symbol, 200, 201
non-commissioned officers (NCOs), 104
number sign, 235

O
Oak tree, 138
Odin’s Raven, 49
Ogham alphabet, 139
Ogham runes, 57
Oil symbol, 21
“okay” gesture, 160
Olympic Games idiograms, 81
OM symbol, 185
optometry symbol, 101
Order of the Knights Hospitaller, 98
Ostara, 210, 211
“other gender” symbol, 200
otter, 208
owl, 130, 208
Ox, Year of the, 43, 45

P
Paganism, 23
pangender symbol, 200
papal cross, 164
paragraph sign, 239
parentheses, 233
Patriarchal cross, 164
“pay me” gesture, 158
“peace” gesture, 158
peacock, 190
Pegasus, 125
percent sign, 237
“perfect” gesture, 157
Period 2 elements, 62
Periodic Table of Elements, 60
per sign, 241
petroglyphs, 79
petrographs, 78
Philosopher’s Stone, 18
Philosopher’s Sulfur symbol, 21
phoenix, 122
pictograms, 11
Pig, Year of the, 45
pilcrow sign, 239
Pisces the Fishes, 41
plainchant, 113
Planck’s constant, 240
planetary symbols, 19
plant mythology
acacia tree, 137
ash tree, 137
banyan tree, 137
baobab tree, 138
Biblical trees, 136
Bodhi tree, 136
clover, 144
grass, 143
Green Men, 143
Italian cypress, 137
Lebanese cedar, 137
lotus mythology, 142
mulberry tree, 137
oak tree, 138
Ogham alphabet, 139
willow tree, 138
World Tree, 136
“Pledge of Allegiance” gesture, 161
Polynesian symbols, 31
portamento symbol, 118
Potassium symbol, 21
pound sign, 235
Powdered Brick symbol, 21
Powder symbol, 21
prayer flags, 184
“prayer” gesture, 156
Precipitate symbol, 21
Presbyterian cross, 167
prescription take, 99
product usage symbols, 92
property line, 241
pseudo-horses, 126
punctuation marks, 68
Purify symbol, 21
Purple Heart, 10
Putrefaction symbol, 21

Q
quarter notes, 116
quaver, 117
Quetzalcoatl, 127
Quicklime symbol, 21
quincunx, 23
Quintessence symbol, 21
quotation marks, 234

R
Rabbit, Year of the, 43, 45
radiation symbol, 100
Rat, Year of the, 43, 45
“ready” gesture, 156
“ready to fight” gesture, 154
Realgar symbol, 21
Realgar II symbol, 21
Red Cross, 98
Red Dragon, 53
“registered” symbol, 238
Regulus symbol, 21
Regulus II symbol, 21
Regulus III symbol, 21
Regulus IV symbol, 21
Regulus of Antimony symbol, 21
Regulus of Antimony II symbol, 21
Regulus of Iron symbol, 21
Reiki Angel, 101
religion
Buddhism, 178
Christianity, 164
Hinduism, 185
 Islam, 176
Judaism, 172
“repeat” mark, 118
reptile mythology, 132
Retort symbol, 21
riderless horse, 182
Rock Salt symbol, 21
Rock Salt II symbol, 21
Rod of Asclepius, 96
romance languages, 87
Rooster, Year of the, 44, 45
rose symbol, 168
rotating gender symbol, 201
Rub el Hizb, 178
runes, 56
Russian cross, 166
Russian language, 85, 86

S
sacred geometry, 16
Sacred Heart symbol, 172
Sagittarius the Archer, 40
Sahasrara chakra, 186
Saint Andrew’s cross, 166
Saint Anthony’s cross, 165
salmon, 208
saltire cross, 166
Saltire flag, 52
Salt of Antimony symbol, 22
Salt of Copper Antimoniate symbol, 22
Saltpeter symbol, 21
Salt symbol, 21
Samhain, 210, 211
Satanism, 23
scarab mythology, 150
scarabs, 8
Scepter of Jove symbol, 22
Scorpio the Scorpion, 40
Scottish symbols, 51
seagull mythology, 131
Seal of Solomon, 13
“search me” gesture, 154
section breaks, 238
Sefer Torah, 175
segno symbol, 118
Seikilos Epitaph, 113
semibreve, 117
semicolon, 235
semiquaver, 117
seven-point star, 213
sex and gender
animal names, 199
animal pedigrees, 198
asexual, 200
bisexual, 201
classic female symbol, 194
classic male symbol, 194
demiboy, 201
demigirl, 201
gay/male homosexual, 201
gender-fluid persons, 201
hermaphrodite female, 201
hermaphrodite male, 201
heterosexual, 201
historic female symbols, 195
historic male symbols, 195
intergender persons, 201
lesbian/female homosexual, 201
Lilith Moon, 197
modern female symbol, 195
modern female symbols, 198
modern male symbol, 195
modern male symbols, 198
moon symbol, 196
neutral gender, 200
nonbinary persons, 200, 201
other gender, 200
pangender, 200
planets and, 197
rotating gender, 201
sun, 196
transgender equality, 200
transgender symbol, 200
yin yang, 195
sforzando symbol, 118
shabaz, 128
shahada, 177
sharp symbol, 117
Sheep, Year of the, 44, 45
Shield of Peace, 55
shin symbol, 174
shipping symbols, 90
Shiva Linga, 191
Shiva Nataraja, 189
shofar, 175
“shoot me” gesture, 157
Sigil of Baphomet, 24
sigils and Paganism
Ægishjálmur, 216
alchemal symbols, 214
Beltane/Beltain, 210, 211
black sun, 209
Celtic symbols, 219
Cernunnos, 215
circle, 204
Cross of Wotan, 205
eight-point star, 213
five-point star, 211
four-point star, 211
horned god, 215
Imbolc, 211
introduction, 11
labyrinth, 218
Lammas/Lughnasadh, 211
Lithe/Litha, 211
Mabon, 211
medicine wheel, 206
nine-point star, 213
Ostara, 211
Samhain, 211
seven-point star, 213
six-point star, 212
solar cross, 205
sonnenrand, 209
spirals, 217
square, 205
stars, 211
sun disc, 209
Sun Wheel, 210
totems, 207
triangle, 205
triple goddess, 215
triple spiral, 217
triquetra, 217
triskele, 217
Valknut, 218
Vegvísir, 216
Yule, 211
signs, definition of, 12
Silver symbol, 17
Silver II symbol, 22
six-point star, 212
sixteenth notes, 116
Sleipnir, 125
snake, 208
Snake, Year of the, 44, 45
Soap symbol, 22
“soft” symbol, 118
solar cross, 205
sonnenrand, 209
sound recording copyright symbol, 238
spirals, 217
Spirit symbol, 22
square, 205
square brackets, 233
sri chakra, 189
star and crescent, 177
Star of David, 13, 173, 212
Star of Life, 97
Starred Trident symbol, 22
stars, 211, 236
staurogram, 171
“stop” gesture, 154
St. Peter’s Cross, 24
Stratum Super Stratum symbol, 22
Stratum Super Stratum II symbol, 22
stupa shape, 182
Sublimated Mercury symbol, 22
Sublimated Mercury II symbol, 22
Sublimated Mercury III symbol, 22
Sublimated Salt of Antimony symbol, 22
Sublimated Salt of Copper symbol, 22
Sublimate of Antimony symbol, 22
Sublimate of Copper symbol, 22
Sublimation symbol, 22
Sulfur symbol, 22
Sumerian cuneiform, 86
sun, 196
sun disc, 209
Sun Wheel, 210
“super extra loud” symbol, 118
“supplication” gesture, 155
Svadhishthana chakra, 187
swastika, 182
symbols, definition of, 12

T
talisman, 13
tarot deck symbols, 34
tartan patterns, 51
Tartar symbol, 22
Tartar II symbol, 22
Tau Cross, 165
Tau-Rho symbol, 171
Taurus the Bull, 38
T-cross, 165
tenor clef, 115
tetragrammaton, 173
thistle flower, 51
Thor’s hammer, 49
Thoth, 130
“thumb flick” gesture, 159
thunderbird, 122
Tiger, Year of the, 43, 45
tilde, 237
time signature, 116
tin, 17
Tincture symbol, 22
Tin symbol, 17, 22
tomoe, 184
totems, 207
trademark symbol, 238
traffic signs, 226, 227
transgender equality symbol, 200
transgender symbol, 200
transit symbols, 228
transportation
automobile signs, 228
hazardous waste signs, 223
traffic signs, 226, 227
transit symbols, 228
treble clef, 114, 115
“Tree Alphabet”, 139
Tree of Knowledge, 97
Tree of Life, 50
triangle, 205
Trident symbol, 22
trigrams, 11
triple goddess, 215
triple spiral, 217
triquetra, 217
triratna, 180
trishula, 179
triskele, 217
Tutty symbol, 22

U
umlaut, 234
“understand me” gesture, 157
unicorn, 126
Union Jack flag, 53
Urine symbol, 22
US 1st Cavalry Division, 107
US Air Force emblem, 109
US Air Force rank insignia, 105
US Armed Forces, 108
US Armed Services, 106
US Army emblem, 109
US Army rank insignia, 105
US Army seal, 108
US Coast Guard emblem, 109
US Coast Guard seal, 108
US Marine Corps emblem, 109
US Marine Corps rank insignia, 104, 106
US Marine Corps seal, 108
US Navy emblem, 107
US Navy rank insignia, 104, 106
US Navy seal, 108

V
vajara, 180
valence electrons, 62
Valknut, 218
vata, 188
Vegvísir, 216
Venus symbol, 194
Verdigris symbol, 22
“very loud” symbol, 118
“very soft” symbol, 118
veterinary symbol, 101
“victory” gesture, 155
Viking runes, 57
Vinegar symbol, 22
Vinegar II symbol, 22
Vinegar III symbol, 22
Vinegar of Antimony symbol, 22
Virgo the Virgin, 39
Vishap, 134
Vishuddha chakra, 186
Vitriol symbol, 22
Vitriol II symbol, 22
“Vulcan” gesture, 158

W
Wakandan Salute, 154
warning signs, 80
Warrant Officers, 107
Water symbol, 19
Wax symbol, 22
Welsh dragon, 52
Welsh flag, 53
Welsh Guards, 54
Welsh symbols, 52
whole notes, 115
willow tree, 138
wolves, 123, 208
woodpeckers, 208
World Tree, 136
writing and punctuation
acute accent, 234
ampersand, 237
“and” sign, 237
angstrom, 237
apostrophe, 234
asterisk, 236
asterism, 240
“at” sign, 237
backslash, 233
“bang” mark, 240
cada una symbol, 241
caret, 233
cedilla mark, 239
centre line, 241
character ties, 240
circumflex accent, 233
colon, 235
copyright symbol, 238
curly brackets, 233
dagger marks, 239
dashes, 236
degree symbol, 239
dotted cross, 240
editorial coronis, 241
 ellipses, 240
em-dash, 236
en-dash, 236
forward slash, 233
hanging hyphen, 236
hashtag, 235
hyphen, 236
insertion point symbol, 240
interrobang, 240
joining marks, 240
Kelvin symbol, 241
komejirushi mark, 240
less than/greater than, 232
micron symbol, 239
number sign, 235
paragraph sign, 239
percent sign, 237
per sign, 241
pilcrow sign, 239
Planck’s constant, 240
property line, 241
quotation marks, 234
registered symbol, 238
section breaks, 238
semicolon, 235
sound recording copyright symbol, 238
square brackets, 233
standard parentheses, 233
star symbol, 236
tilde, 237
trademark symbol, 238
umlaut, 234
writing pound sign, 235
wyrms/wuyrms, 134
wyverns, 134

X
Xanthus, 125
X chromosome, 195
X-cross, 166

Y
Y chromosome, 195
yin yang, 195
“you’re dead” gesture, 160
Yule, 210, 211
Z
Zibu symbols, 35
Zodiac, 18

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: McElroy, D. R. (Debra R.), author.

Title: Signs & symbols of the world : over 1,001 visual signs explained / D.R. McElroy.
Other titles: Signs and symbols of the world
Description: New York, NY : Wellfleet Press, 2019.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019029954 (print) | LCCN 2019029955 (ebook) | ISBN 9780760365786 | ISBN
9780760365786 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Signs and symbols--Dictionaries.
Classification: LCC GR931 .M44 2019 (print) | LCC GR931 (ebook) | DDC 302.2/223003--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019029954
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019029955

Publisher: Rage Kindelsperger

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