Tricia Baltazar_STEM 11 H-Galatians

Lesson 1: MODES OF NUTRITION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS HOLOZOIC NUTRITION: DIGESTION

Nutrition – the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, the —Holozoic nutrition in humans is called digestion (breaking down food into
relationship btwn diet, health, disease. parts that can be utilized by the body). Mechanical/chemical digestion
—(bio) the biochemical/physiological process by which an organisms uses food —Basic stages of digestive process:
to support its life. ● Ingestion, process of eating/taking in foods.
Autotrophs (autos(self); trophe(nutrition)) – organisms that can produce ● Digestion
their own food, using materials from inorganic sources. ○ Mechanical digestion – breaking down of food into
● convert H2O & CO2, w/ the sun’s energy → organic sugars, they can small pieces as when food is chewed/ground by teeth; It
use for growth & development. doesn’t alter the chem composition of food; Happens sa
Heterotrophs (heteros(other); trophe(nutrition)) – organisms that cannot mouth
make their own; obtain food from other organisms (plant/animal). ○ Chemical digestion – involves enzymes breaking down
Organic compounds – large class of chem compounds; 1/more atoms of carbon of food into simpler molecules (glucose, amino acids) that
are covalently linked to atoms of other. can be absorbed/stored by the cells; It alters the chem
Inorganic compounds – chem compounds that lack carbon–hydrogen bonds. composition of food; Happens sa stomach
AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION ■ Amylase (in saliva), other enzymes in the
—Autotrophs are also called the producers in the ecosystem. gastric (stomach) juice are some important
1. Photoautotrophic nutrition – light energy is used to convert simple enzymes in digestion.
substances to complex organic compounds; they consumed light energy ● Absorption, absorption of food/nutrients
—undergoes photosynthesis ● Elimination, paglabas ng undigested food
—Photosynthesis: land plants produce organic molecules in terrestrial habitats; —Digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream through the capillaries that
plants/algae produce organic molecules in aquatic habitats. straddle the walls of the small intestine
– Green plants (chlorophyll) synthesize the simple sugar (glucose) —Small intestine has finger-like projections (villi) have microscopic
from the simple raw materials water & carbon dioxide using the sun’s energy, projections called microvilli.
then releasing oxygen. –Excess water is absorbed in the walls of the large intestine; Undigested
6𝐶𝑂2 + 12𝐻2𝑂 → 𝐶6𝐻12𝑂6 + 𝑂6 materials undergo elimination as feces.

glucose CELLULAR RESPIRATION

– Sugar produced is stored as starch in plants; animal food is stored as glycogen —Obtain energy from sugar; Organisms process sugar through cell respiration
—3 metabolic pathways of cellular respiration: Glycolysis, Citric acid cycle
Light-dependent reaction: (Krebs cycle), Oxidative phosphorylation.
● Chlorophyll produces ATP & NADPH.
● Transform radiant energy → chemical energy (in thylakoid) INTERRELATIONSHIP AMONG AUTOTROPHS AND
● Uses water as electron & proton (H+) source giving off HETEROTROPHS IN THE ECOSYSTEM
by-product. —Carbon dioxide: basic building block that most autotrophs use to build glucose
Light-independent reaction/Calvin Cycle: —Photoautotrophic organisms harness energy from the sun, use it to form
● ATP & NADPH (end product), CO2 → sugar (happens in the bonds that link carbon atoms together while also producing oxygen as a
stroma) by-product.
● Sugar produced are stored as starch (polymer of glucose) —Plant-eating Heterotrophs obtain the high-energy sugars from breaking them
down by respiration to obtain cellular energy.
—There is a constant exchange of O & 𝐶𝑂2 btwn autotrophs (need carbon) and
heterotrophs (need oxygen)
—Both autotrophs and heterotrophs needs e/o, bcs they’re both beneficial from
o/a

Lesson 2: REPRODUCTIVE STRATEGIES

Mitosis – process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells
Meiosis – process where a single cell divides twice to produce four cells
containing half the original amount of genetic information
Reproduction is essentially a process by which individuals produce new
individuals of the same kind.

2. Chemoautotrophic nutrition – oxidation of inorganic compounds is used as 2 MODES OF REPRODUCTION

an energy source for the conversion of simple inorganic compounds to complex Asexual Reproductions – results in new organisms formed by mitotic cell
organic compounds; they can produce when there is chem reaction division producing offspring that are genetically similar to their parents
—undergoes chemosynthesis —uses cell of only one parent
Sexual Reproductions – involves the fusion of gametes/sex cells from two
HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION parent organisms which are produced through meiosis; results in genetically
—Heterotrophs are also called the consumer in the ecosystem. unique offspring.
—Animals, non-autotrophic bacteria, fungi
Parasitic/parasites – live on/inside other living organisms (hosts) and obtain ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND MITOSIS
their food from them. Ex. hookworm, tapeworm, leeches. Mitosis, doesn’t require fusion of gametes in order to produce offspring, instead
Saprophytic/saprophytes (decomposer) – obtain food from dead organisms; a single parent cell will form a group of clones
they secrete enzymes that break down complex food into simple forms. Ex. fungi —In this type of reproduction multicellular organisms are also capable of
(mushroom/molds/yeasts), bacteria reproducing
Holozoic – organic substances are ingested; such food is digested by enzymes TYPES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
produced w/in the organisms. Ex. Amoeba, human beings. 1. Fission/Binary fission – parents divide into 2/more individuals of equal size.
–common among single celled organisms (bacteria, archaea, unicellular
eukaryotes (protists, fungi))
2. Fragmentation – breaks of body fragments will develop into new complete
organisms
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3. Budding – organisms reproduce by having new individuals split off from Transport in Simple Animals
existing ones, which results in genetically identical parent/daughter organisms. —nature of the circulatory system varies depending on the size, complexity, and
—Bud may stay attached/break free. Ex. single cell yeast, multicellular hydra habitat of an organism.
4. Vegetative Reproduction – occurs when new individs are formed w/o the
Types of Circulation
production of seeds/spores
Open circulation – circulating fluid (hemolymph) is pumped by the heart to a
—Other plant use this to reproduce through bulbs/tubers/shoots, suckers that
network of channels and cavities (hemocoels) throughout the body, and also
form a long lateral roots.
where gas exchange takes place. Present in invertebrates
—Ex. Formation of new plants out of rhizomes/stolons, strawberry
—Blood is pumped out from the heart directly to the body cells.
Fertilization – fusion of gametes. The mechanism of sexual reproduction Closed circulation – blood/circulating fluid passes within blood vessels that
which forms the zygote. transport blood away from and back to heart. Present sometimes in invertebrates
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION AND MEIOSIS and always in vertebrates.
Meiosis consists of 2 round of cell division; daughter cells (germ cells) develop —Blood is circulated throughout the body w/ a help of blood vessels.
into gametes —Exchange of blood and body cells through diffusion in capillaries.
—Egg cell (large and nonmotile); Sperm (smaller and motile) *The heart pumps blood into the small cavities (hemocoels), where gas exchange
—2 diff gametes fuse during fertilization to produce a zygotes that restores the between tissues and the hemolymph also takes place. Then blood diffuses back to
complete number of chromosomes, could develop into a new organisms the central cavity.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE Human Transport System
SYSTEM
Animal fertilization:
● External fertilization – occurs in aquatic animals. Gametes are
released from male & female animals. Fusion takes place outside the
body.
● Internal fertilization – observed among terrestrial animals. Used
to prevent dehydration of the gametes on land. Enhances the
fertilization of eggs by a specific male. Survival rat of individs is
higher than E.F
Male Reproductive System:
—Testes where sperm are produced is covered in Scrotum. Epididymis carries
out the sperm into the Vas deferens (long coil) then it goes into the Ejaculatory
Heart – pumps blood through the network of arteries and veins; pump 2.5 B
ducts where it gets mixed with nourishing fluids. Seminal Vesicle secretes a fluid
—organs that develop in an embryo about 4 weeks following fertilization.
that helps in nourishing the sperms. Prostate gland helps in secreting the
—Pericardial cavity covered by pericardium. Septum divides heart into 2 sides:
prostate fluid then the sperms floating in the fluid reaches the urethra from
Right side: receives deoxygenated blood. Left side: receives oxygenated
where they can be released outside the body. Bulbourethral gland, produces a
blood from the lungs.
pre-ejaculate that cleanses/lubricates the urethra prior to the arrival of the
Systole — contracts to pump blood; heart contraction
semen.
Diastole — heart relaxes after contraction; heart relaxation
—Sperm cells are produced in the seminiferous tubules (in testes). Everyday
Blood – transport materials all throughout the body.
hundred million sperm cells are produced in the testes, then pass into the
Blood vessels – channels/conduits through which blood is distributed to body
epididymis where they are stored as they complete maturation.
tissues
—Testes must be several degrees lower than the normal body temperature to
Pulmonary valve – located between pulmonary artery and the right ventricle
produce functional sperm.
Tricuspid valve – located from the right ventricle and right atrium
—Ejaculation muscular contraction causes the sperm to pass through the vas
Aortic valve – located between the left ventricle and the aorta
deferens w/ various glandular secretions to produce seminal fluid.
Mitral valve – located between left atrium and left ventricle
Female:
—Site of production of the egg cell: Ovum (non-motile) Chambers of heart
—The ovary is connected with Fimbriae which receives the ovum. The fallopian
tube (site of fertilization) connect ovaries and uterus. The uterus (site of
development of a baby). Vagina, serves as the passage of sperm during
copulation and as birth canal during childbirth.
—F.R.S. comprised of two ovaries which either of the two releases an egg each
month.
—The mature/ovulated egg meets and is fertilized by the sperm in the fallopian
tube to form a zygote which then passes to the uterus for nourishment and
embryonic development.

Lesson 3: TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS Chambers work together in a continuous and coordinated effort to keep oxygen-
Transport – one of the most important psychological processes that takes place rich blood circulating throughout the body.
in animals and plants. Enables every cell to be nourished w/ nutrients, supplied ● Upper Chamber (Atria): Right Atrium & Left Atrium
w/ oxygen, thus makes all other body systems to function smoothly. ● Atrio-nevicular valves located btwn u.c and l.c
Materials that need transporting: O2, Nutrients, CO2, Wastes; Blood are the one ● Lower Chamber (Ventricles): Right Ventricle & Left Ventricle
who transports this materials through blood vessels. Right atrium – receives blood from the veins and pumps it to the right
Capillaries – tiny blood-containing structures that connect arterioles to venules ventricle
(smallest and most abundant form of a blood vessel) Right ventricle – receives blood from the right atrium and pumps it to the
Lungs – pair of spongy, air-filled organs located on either side of the lungs, where it is loaded with oxygen
chest(thorax) Left atrium – receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the left
Circulatory/Cardiovascular System — contains the heart, blood vessels, ventricle.
moves blood throughout the body. Helps tissues get enough O2, Nutrients, helps Left ventricle – strongest chamber: pumps oxygen-rich blood to the rest of the
them get rid of waste products. body. The left ventricle’s vigorous contractions create our blood pressure.
 Tricia Baltazar_STEM 11 H-Galatians

Valves of heart relaxed during the Diastole: fill w/ blood coming from the upper chambers (left
The valves prevent the backward flow of blood. They act as one-way inlets of right atrea). Blood vessels called coronary artery extend over the surface of heart
blood on one side of a ventricle and one-way of blood on the other side of a and branch in to smaller capillaries. Electrical pulses begin high in the right
ventricle. atrium and travel through specialized path way to the ventricles delivering the
signals to pump.
—The conduction system keeps the heart beating in a coordinated and normal
rhythm, which keeps the blood circulating.

Lesson 4: TRANSPORT IN PLANTS

Turgor pressure - force within the cell that pushes the plasma membrane
against the cell wall
Blood
2 Types of tissues
—internal circulating medium of the human body
Xylem - transport water from roots to stems and leaves, but it also transports
—the main function of blood is to carry nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the
nutrients. Transport water/minerals to all parts of the body; moves upward
body and carry away carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste from the body cells
Phloem - transports the soluble organic compounds made during
photosynthesis. Transports the products of photosynthesis to all parts of the
plants; carries food all throughout the body; moves up and down
Pathways for Water and Minerals in Plants
Nonvascular plants– w/o vascular tissues (xylem/phloem). Can’t grow high
above the ground; doesn't have transport tube; Bryophytes
Vascular plants– w/ xylem & phloem (transport tubes) Tracheophytes
Radial rays – found along the trunks of trees. Tissues that function in the radial
distribution of food.
RBC/erythrocytes – transport O2, Nutrients, CO2, Waste all throughout the
—Xylem occupies central part; Phloem occupies marginal side
body
—Phloem & Xylem sap substances help sustain the plants.
Platelets/thrombocytes – responsible for the blood clotting
Annual ring – malalaman yung age ng puno gamit yung mga bilog
WBC/leucocytes – responsible for defense and immunity of the body
● Apoplast pathway – movement through cell walls and spaces w/in
Lymphocyte, Basophil, Eosinophil, Monocyte, Neutrophil
cells
Blood Vessels ● Symplast pathway – water/minerals pass through a continuum of
—serve as ‘highways’ through which blood is circulated in the body cytoplasm between cells called plasmodesma (plural, plasmodesmata).
● W/in the cytoplasm
○ Water/minerals move from cell to cell through
plasmodesma to plasmodesma.
● Transmembrane transport – transport btwn cells across the
mmbrns of vacuoles w/in cells; Water in the endodermis of the root,
will be blocked by the waterproof casparian strip. Water will then
detour through the plasma membrane & protoplasts of the
endodermis to reach xylem tissues
—Veins and veinlet found in the leaves of plants are composed mainly of xylem
and phloem tissues,
Xylem Transport
Transpiration/the release of water vapor through openings in the leaves causes
a pressure that pulls the water up.
Arteries – thicked walled vessels which allow the passage of oxygenated blood,
Nalabas sa stomata (surface of leaves)
except the pulmonary artery; passageway away from the heart
•Water absorbed by roots •Water travels up through plants •Water vapor lost
Vein – thin walled vessels, carry non-oxygenated blood toward the heart, except
from leaf pores in transpiration
the pulmonary vein
Osmosis, diffusion – passive forces that help molecules to move from one cell
Capillaries – thinnest blood vessel; abundant microscopic blood vessels that
to another.
carry blood throughout the tissues and organs, connecting the small veins and
Water potential
arteries. Serves as sites through which materials btwn the blood and cells are
—the main factor that regulates the transport process in plants.
exchanged
—It represents free energy/potential to do work
Relationship of heart & lungs —Used to predict where water will move
—Lung’s main role: bring in air from the atmosphere and pass oxygen into the —Note that water will move from a cell/solution w/ higher potential water to a
bloodstream. From there it circulates to the rest of the body solution with lower water potential.
—Heart & Lungs work together to make sure the body has the oxygen-rich —During night time (low transpiration), ions accumulate in the roots causing
blood needs to function properly. root pressure.
—Blood transport the oxygen all throughout the body —Osmosis: Root pressure causes more water to enter the cell.
—5 quarts of blood/min; 100,000 beast/day; 35 M beast/yr —Guttation: happens at night; root pressure could be so strong that it can force
—Oxygen poor-blood returns to the heart after circulating through the body. water to move up to the leaves and released in liquid form along the leaf margin,
The right side of the heart (right atrium, right ventricle) collects and pumps the through specialized pores called hydathodes (specialized pore sa leaf margin);
blood to the lung through the pulmonary arteries. The lungs refresh the blood water is nasa leaf margin
with a new supply of oxygen making it turn red. Oxygen rich-blood enters the
left side of the heart (l.a, l.v) and its pump through the aorta to the body to Phloem Transport
supply tissues with oxygen. 4 valves (Pulmonary v. Arotic v. Tricuspid v. Mitral Translocation – Food produced by plants during photosynthesis is distributed
v.) w/in the heart keeps the blood moving the right way. They open only by the phloem tissues throughout the different parts of the plant; food yung
one-way and only when push on. Each valve opens and closes once /heart beat. tinatransporr
—Systole: ventricles contract, forcing blood into the vessels going to the lungs Turgor pressure – results from the influx of water into the cell causing the
and body. The right v. contracts a little bit before the left v. The ventricles then plasma membrane to push against the cell wall, is what drives phloem transport.
Pressure tinutulak cell membrane
 Tricia Baltazar_STEM 11 H-Galatians

Pressure-flow theory – dissolved carbohydrates, which flow from a source Spinal Cord – tubular structure; extends from
(where it is produced.), are brought to a sink (a storage organ) where these are medulla oblongata to vertebral area; Send signals
either stored or utilized. from brain to the rest of body
—Sucrose travels from mesophyll cells of the leaves to the companion and sieve CNS connected to diff organs through PNS w/c
cells through the symplast (cytoplasm to cytoplasm). sends signals from CNS to diff organs thru
—Majority of the sucrose molecules are moved to the sieve cells through the nerves and ganglia.
apoplast (cell wall to cell wall) pathway. Peripheral Nervous System
Bulk Flow – takes place in the sieve tubes without any need for additional PNS consists of nerves arising from the brain
energy. Due to the difference in the water potential between the sieve tubes and and spinal cord.
the nearby xylem cells. Makes water flow from the xylem to the sieve tubes. Nerves are enclosed, cable-like bundle of nerve
—increased turgor pressure in the sieve tubes drives the fluid throughout the fibers that provide common pathway for
plant systems. electrochem nerve impulses.
—sucrose from the ‘sink’ is actively removed from the sieve tubes, followed by Afferent sensory pathways – receive
the movement of water by osmosis; thus, turgor pressure in the ‘sink’ drops signal/stimuli
causing a mass flow of substances from the source where pressure is strong to Efferent motor pathway – act on stimuli
the sink where the pressure is weak. Motor pathways may cause either voluntary movement or involuntary
—water moves back to the xylem where it may be lost through transpiration or movement.
recycled to assist again in the bulk flow.
Liverwort, Hornwort, Moss (they directly absorb water) Lesson 6: REGULATION OF LIFE PROCESSES: CHEMICAL CONTROL
Hormones - are chemical messengers that regulate processes at a slower rate.
Lesson 5: NERVOUS CONTROL Homeostasis - is the tendency of a system to resist change and maintain a stable
Nervous system controls all the activities of the body. Made up of Billions of Regulation of Processes in Plants
neurons. –Plants do no possess an endocrine system, able to regulate diff processes.
Neurons transmit nerve impulses to diff parts of the body allowing Phytohormones - are chemicals that regulate metabolic processes in plants.
the N.S to control body functions. 5 major plant hormones:
• Central nervous system (CNS) – brain and spinal cord 1. Auxin – stimulates cell elongation in stems. Plays a role in a process
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS) – nerves and receptors apical dominance, the control of the shoot tip over axillary bud
Neurons outgrowth. Indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) is a naturally occurring auxin,
Neurons basic cell of the nervous system; transmits signals by electrochemical but synthetic auxin are also available in the market.
processes. 2. Gibberellin – signals stem elongation, enhances other processes
such as seed germination and fruit set. Gibberellic acid (GA) is one of
more than 60 naturally occurring gibberellins.
3. Cytokinin – stimulates cell division, causes cell enlargement and
regulation of senescence. Zeatin was the first naturally occurring
cytokinin in plants.
Cell body – contains most organelles (nucleus) 4. Abscisic acid “ABA”– inhibits many physiological functions.
Dendrite – receiver of signals Effects: closure of stomata, dormancy of auxiliary bud, abscission of
Axon – carrier of the signals to other neurons/cells. Nerves are bundle of axons. certain fruits, inhibition of seed germination
—Information processing in the nervous system typically occurs in three stages: 5. Ethylene – stimulates fruit ripening, accelerates senescence, and
Sensory input,Integration, and Motor output. alters other processes, such as bud growth in pea seedlings. Ethylene
moves readily through the plant by diffusion.
Endocrine System in Humans
Endocrine & Nervous system controls the
regulation of the body’s activities
—Group of glands in an organ is called Endocrine
systems
Endocrine glands produce chemical messengers
Unipolar neurons – sensory neurons receives stimuli that influence a wide range of activities (groth,
Multipolar neurons – motor neurons connected to muscles to make it move & development, metabolic activities).
contract Hormones (chem messenger) regulate processes at
Bipolar neurons – sensory neurons; interneurons bridge/processes messages a slower rate. Hormonal effects last longer and are
from sensory neurons to motor neurons more widespread w/in the body.

Human Brain and the Central Nervous System Pineal gland–Melatonin–Regulates biological rhythms.
Nervous system controls all the processes of an animal through chemical and Pituitary gland: Anterior pituitary:
electrical impulses. FSH & LH–Stimulates ovaries and testes; TSH–Stimulates thyroid gland
Cerebrum – largest part; wrinkled surface. Center of sensory perception, ACTH–Stimulates the adrenal cortex; PRL–Stimulates mammary gland
memory, thought, and personality. GH–Stimulates growth and metabolic functions
Right cerebral hemisphere – controls left side of body Pituitary gland: Posterior pituitary:
Left cerebral hemisphere – controls right side of body Oxytocin–Stimulates contraction of smooth muscle cells in uterus and mammary
Cerebellum – hindbrain (cuz of loc); came from Latin means “Little brain”; glands; Vasopressin (antidiuretic hormone)–Promotes retention of water in
Controls motor functions such as balance and body coordination. kidneys; influences social behavior and bonding.
Brain stem – joins the brain and spinal cord Thyroid gland:
Midbrain – vision, hearing, alertness, sleep wake patterns, and Thyroid hormones (T3,T4)–Thyroid hormones (T3,T4); Calcitonin–Lowers
temperature regulations. blood calcium level.
Pons – “bridge”; relays signals to the thalamus; sleeping, dreaming Parathyroid glands–Parathyroid hormones (PTH)–Raises blood Ca level.
Medulla oblongata – cone shapes mass; involuntary movements,
Controls basic anatomical processes breathing, circulation, digestion
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Adrenal medulla of the adrenal glands:

Glucocorticoids–Raises blood glucose level; Mineralocorticoids–Promote 5. Bronchi – Each bronchus is attached to
reabsorption of Na ions and excretion of K ions in kidneys. the lungs; the bronchi branch into smaller
Pancreas: tubes; inner lining of the bronchi is lined
Insulin–Lowers blood glucose level; Glucagon–Raises blood glucose level. with the cilia and mucus that help filter air.
Ovaries (female): 6. Lungs – large, spongy, and elastic
Estrogens–Stimulates uterine lining growth; promote development and sac-like structures suspended from each
maintenance of female secondary sex characteristics Progesterone/Progestin side of the heart, inside the chest cavity.
(synthetic)–Promotes uterine lining growth —Bronchus is divided into smaller
Testes–Androgens–Support sperm formation; promotes development and branches inside the lungs, bronchial tubes
maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics. —Bronchioles (microscopic tubes) open into air sacs/alveoli cells (thin-walled
bulb-shaped structures)
Homeostasis
—Regulates the internal body environment of an organism and to maintain Internal Respiration
equilibrium amidst changing environment. —involves gas exchange btwn the blood and the cells of the body.
—Homeostasis is the tendency of a system to resist change and maintain a —Inhaled air is a mixture of N, O (most important), CO2
stable environment —Oxygen diffuses from the air sacs into the bloodstream through capillaries,
Negative feedback loop – keeps target values to a specific ideal level; most then combines w/ hemoglobin and is carried to body cells; cells absorb oxygen
types of homeostatic systems use a NFL when they are low in oxygen
Positive feedback loop – amplifies the starting signals; important for processes —CO2 and H2O are waste products released by cells w/c will enter the blood.
that need continuous stimulation. —In the lungs, CO2 and H2O are exhaled. Air in the alveoli is rich in O and poor
All feedback system involve a stimulus, receptor, control center, and a in CO2; blood in capillaries surrounding the air sacs has low O and rich in CO2
response. —Gases move by diffusion from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower
concentration.
Lesson 5: GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS & PLANTS Transport and Exchange of Gases
Gas exchange – a function of the respiratory system. —The amount of oxygen in the plasma of blood is insufficient to nourish cells.
Respiratory system – network of organs and tissues that help you breathe. —Hemoglobin found in RBC combines w/ up to 4 molecules of O to supply
tissues w/ O. Hemoglobin transports around 95% of the oxygen in the blood.
Ways of Gas Exchange in Animals —Oxygen is released by hemoglobin when oxygenated blood reaches the tissues;
—The degrees of complexity of gas exchange in organisms depends in a way on
Carbon dioxide moves out of the cells into the blood; 8% of total CO2 dissolved
the relative complexity of an organism’s body org.
in the blood plasma & 25% pf CO2 binds to hemoglobin.
—Most aquatic organisms such as protists and some microscopic animals
—The remaining carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate ions w/c then
exchange gases directly with the water in their surroundings through the cell
dissolve in the plasma & when it reach the lings, a reverse reaction occurs, and
membrane; Majority of the macroscopic aquatic animals use gills for gas
CO2 leaves the capillaries and is exhaled into the atmosphere.
exchange
The Human Respiratory System The Nature and Function of the Stomata
—Breathing is an involuntary process that occurs simultaneously with the —The plant body has openings called stomata and oval-shaped structures called
circulation of the blood. lenticels along the stems, both of which function in gas exchange.
—CO2 are being excreted through the process of exhalation. —Stomata are located on the leaves and are flanked by a pair of guard cells,
Breathing – process of inhaling and exhaling air; involves the interactions of which control their size; Stomata serve as entry and exit points for gases in
the diaphragm, ribs and abdomen. plants, including CO2 and O.
Inhaling: chest cavity expands, diaphragm flattens (muscle contracts), intercostal —Stomata also allow for the transpiration of water through the leaves during
muscles contract moving the ribs upward and outward increasing the volume of hot and windy days.
the thoracic cavity. Decrease air pressure inside the lungs —There are around a thousand to more than a million stomata per square
Exhaling: diaphragm and rib muscles relax, elastic tissues of the lungs recoil centimeter of leaf surface.
causing it to deflate, size of the thoracic cavity decreases and the air pressure —Guard cells vary in shape and are a good taxonomic character that
inside becomes greater than that of the outside, differentiates dicots from monocots; they have a nucleus and chloroplasts, and
are the only epidermal cells with chloroplasts.
Air Passage and Gas Exchange
External respiration – exchange of gases btw the atmosphere and the lung. —The opening and closing of stomata is controlled by turgor pressure (pressure
Internal respiration – gas exchange btw the blood and the cells of the body. exerted by water on the cell membrane, which pushes it towards the cell wall) in
guard cells.
External Respiration —The active uptake of potassium, malate, and chlorine ions by guard cells
1. Nose – nostrils serve as the entrance for the passage of air into the body. increases the concentration of solute inside the cell, reducing its water potential.
—Nasal passage: cavities that extend form the nostril to the throat. —The reduction in water potential causes water to move osmotically into the
—Air passing through the nose is filtered in the presence of coarse hairs cell, making it turgid and opening the stomata; Guard cells are usually open
projecting from the inner walls of the nostril. during the day when photosynthesis occurs and lose turgor in the evening.
—Mucous membrane (layers of cell) lines the wall of the nasal p., this cell secrete —Sucrose produced during the day is unloaded from the guard cells at night,
mucus (moist, thick, gummy). causing them to lose turgor and the stomata to close.
—Cilia (microscopic hair) move back/forth to move material in it to the outside —Factors affecting stomata opening,closing: Abscisic acid (ABA), a plant
of the nose. hormone, plays a crucial role in allowing potassium ions to move out of the
2. Pharynx – “throat”, found at the back of the mouth; passageway for food, air guard cells during drought, leading to a decrease in turgor pressure, which
—Swallowing food: epiglottis presses down and covers the opening of the air causes stomata to close; carbon dioxide concentration; temperature; light.
passage. Inhalation: epiglottis is in an upright position and air moves into the —Plants need to adapt to alternative pathways for photosynthesis to survive in
trachea or windpipe, a cartilaginous tube. extremely hot environments; Pneumatophores (common in mangrove trees) aid
3. Larynx – “voice box/adams apple”, located at the upper end of trachea, in gas exchange by growing upward out of the mud or water to exchange gases
primarily involved in sound production. with the atmosphere.
—The pitch and the volume of the sound depends on the amount of tension
received by the vocal cords and the amount of air forced unto them.
4. Trachea – “windpipe”, located in front of the esophagus. 10 cm long; 2.5 wide,
lined w/ mucous membranes and cilia.