Pashto

PASHTO
Pashtun man carrying firewood with young boy walking behind, Musa Qala, central Helmand Province
Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
DLIFLC
DEFENSE LANGUAGE INSTITUTE
F O R E I G N L A N G UAG E C E N T E R
About Rapport
Predeployment language familiarization is target language training in
a cultural context, with the goal of improving mission effectiveness. It
introduces service members to the basic phrases and vocabulary needed
for everyday military tasks such as meet & greet (establishing rapport),
commands, and questioning. Content is tailored to support deploying
units of military police, civil affairs, and engineers.
In 6–8 hours of self-paced training, Rapport familiarizes learners with

conversational phrases and cultural traditions, as well as the geography
and ethnic groups of the region. Learners hear the target language as
it is spoken by a native speaker through 75–85 commonly encountered
exchanges. Learners test their knowledge using assessment questions;
Army personnel record their progress using ALMS and ATTRS.
• Rapport is available online at the DLIFLC Rapport website

http://rapport.dliflc.edu
• Rapport is also available at AKO, DKO, NKO, and Joint Language

University
• Standalone hard copies of Rapport training, in CD format,

are available for order through the DLIFLC Language Materials
Distribution System (LMDS)
http://www.dliflc.edu/resources/lmds/
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CULTUR AL ORIENTATION | PASHTO
About Rapport............................................................................................................... 2
Chapter 1 | Profile
Introduction.................................................................................................................... 7
Geography..................................................................................................................... 8
Area.........................................................................................................................8
Climate................................................................................................................... 8
Geographic Divisions...........................................................................................9
Mountains............................................................................................................ 10
Rivers and Lakes................................................................................................ 10
Major Cities...................................................................................................................11
Kabul..................................................................................................................... 11
Kandahar (Qandahar) ....................................................................................... 11
Mazar-e Sharif..................................................................................................... 12
Herat..................................................................................................................... 13
Jalalabad.............................................................................................................. 13
Khost..................................................................................................................... 13
History............................................................................................................................14
Early History........................................................................................................ 14
The Afghan State and the Colonial Era.......................................................... 15
20th Century........................................................................................................ 16
The Taliban Regime and U.S. Intervention.................................................... 16
Constitutional Reform........................................................................................ 17
Government..................................................................................................................18
Media.............................................................................................................................19
Economy...................................................................................................................... 20
Afghan Economic Trends..................................................................................20
Industries and Manufacturing...........................................................................20
Agriculture ........................................................................................................... 21
Opium Drug Trade.............................................................................................. 21
Electricity..............................................................................................................22
Ethnic Groups.............................................................................................................. 22
Pashtuns..............................................................................................................23
Tajiks.....................................................................................................................23
Other Ethnic Groups.......................................................................................... 24
Languages................................................................................................................... 25
Pashto...................................................................................................................26
Other Languages................................................................................................26
Chapter 1 Assessment.............................................................................................. 34
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Chapter 2 | Religion
Introduction.................................................................................................................. 35
Islam.............................................................................................................................. 36
Care and Treatment of the Quran.................................................................... 37
Sunni and Shi’a Divide....................................................................................... 37
Sufism...................................................................................................................38
The Role of Religion in Government....................................................................... 38
Influence of Religion on Daily Life........................................................................... 39
Prayer...................................................................................................................39
Cleansing.............................................................................................................40
Religious Schools...............................................................................................40
Religion and Gender...................................................................................................41
Religious Events and Holidays..................................................................................41
Ramadan.............................................................................................................. 41
Eid.........................................................................................................................42
Ashura..................................................................................................................43
Hajj........................................................................................................................43
Buildings of Worship and Sacred Sites................................................................... 44
Mosques...............................................................................................................44
Shrines and Cemeteries....................................................................................44
Behavior in Places of Worship................................................................................. 45
Mosques...............................................................................................................45
Chapter 3 | Traditions
Introduction.................................................................................................................. 50
Greetings and Codes of Conduct.............................................................................51
Eye Contact.........................................................................................................53
Right Hand vs. Left Hand..................................................................................53
Male-Female Interactions......................................................................................... 54
Gender Roles and Relationships ............................................................................ 54
Segregation and Seclusion...............................................................................55
Reclaiming Family Honor..................................................................................55
Social Codes: Pashtunwali ...................................................................................... 56
Honor (Nang).......................................................................................................56
Hospitality (Melmastia)......................................................................................57
Protection of Women, Land, Honor, and Wealth (Namus)...........................57
Revenge (Badal).................................................................................................58
Tribal Council (Jirga)..........................................................................................58
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Escort (Badragga)..............................................................................................59
Hospitality and Gift-Giving........................................................................................ 59
Traditional Jobs and Economy................................................................................. 60
Traditional Pastimes .................................................................................................. 60
Traditional Dress..........................................................................................................61
Food.............................................................................................................................. 62
Eating at an Afghan Home........................................................................................ 63
Customary Eating Habits...................................................................................64
Non-Religious Holidays............................................................................................. 65
Weddings..................................................................................................................... 65
Funerals........................................................................................................................ 67
Celebrating with Guns............................................................................................... 68
Dos and Don’ts............................................................................................................ 68
Chapter 3 Assessment...............................................................................................71
Chapter 4 | Urban Life

Urban Issues............................................................................................................... 73
IDPs and Economic Refugees......................................................................... 73
Income Gap......................................................................................................... 74
Healthcare and Health Issues...................................................................................74
Education .................................................................................................................... 76
Telecommunications.................................................................................................. 77
Transportation and Traffic......................................................................................... 78
Urban Roads.......................................................................................................79
Taxis......................................................................................................................80
Buses ...................................................................................................................80
Restaurants and the Marketplace.............................................................................81
Restaurants......................................................................................................... 81
Marketplace.........................................................................................................84
Money and ATMs........................................................................................................ 86
Vendors and Beggars................................................................................................ 86
Urban Crime........................................................................................................87
Chapter 5 | Rural Life

Introduction.................................................................................................................. 92
Tribal Divisions............................................................................................................ 93
Rural Economy............................................................................................................ 94
Markets in Rural Areas ............................................................................................. 95
Land Ownership.......................................................................................................... 95
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Self-Protection and Gun Ownership....................................................................... 96

Nomadic Tribes........................................................................................................... 97
Rural Healthcare......................................................................................................... 98
Prenatal and Neonatal Care.............................................................................99
Rural Education......................................................................................................... 100
Gender Roles in Rural Areas...................................................................................101
Transportation .......................................................................................................... 102
Rural Roads....................................................................................................... 102
Security Issues.................................................................................................. 103
Rural Leadership....................................................................................................... 104
Shura and Jirga.................................................................................................104
Dos and Don’ts.................................................................................................105
Checkpoints .............................................................................................................. 106
Landmines and IEDs.................................................................................................107
Chapter 5 Assessment.............................................................................................113
Chapter 6 | Family Life

Introduction.................................................................................................................114
Familial and Tribal Relations ...................................................................................115
Qawms............................................................................................................... 115
Feuds.................................................................................................................. 116
Afghan Homes...........................................................................................................117
Hujra (Guesthouse).......................................................................................... 117
The Typical Household.............................................................................................118
Extended Family............................................................................................... 118
Polygamy............................................................................................................ 118
Widows .............................................................................................................. 119
Gender Roles ............................................................................................................120
Married Life, Divorce, and Birth..............................................................................120
Marriage............................................................................................................. 120
Divorce............................................................................................................... 121
Birth ................................................................................................................... 122
Superstition........................................................................................................ 122
Life Stages..................................................................................................................123
Status of the Elderly......................................................................................... 123
Status of Children............................................................................................. 123
Date of Birth...................................................................................................... 124
Naming Conventions ................................................................................................124
Chapter 6 Assessment.............................................................................................128
6
Further Readings and Resources

Articles and Websites...................................................................................... 129
Final Assessment
Pashto | Final Assessment...................................................................................... 133
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Pashtun man, Kabul Flickr/Jeremy Weate
Chapter 1 | Pashto Cultural Orientation
Profile
Introduction
Landlocked and mountainous, the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is a tribal nation in
South Central Asia. The region’s turbulent history and rich culture dates back 5,000
years, though its many tribes were united just 270 years ago, under Ahmed Shah,
into what is currently known as Afghanistan. The country’s strategic location has long
made it prone to invasion. Early on, the region was a focal point of Silk Road trade
routes. Over the last century it has served as a link between Pakistan, China, Iran, and
three former Soviet Republics (Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan). Its rugged
physical environment has served to isolate communities within the country, resulting
in a great variety of customs and traditions between and within tribal groups.1 The
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vast majority of Afghans practice Islam, one of the few unifying forces in this
multiethnic nation. Pashtuns, who speak Pashto and form the largest ethnic group
in the country, have played a significant role in the growth of the nation. They are
predominant in the south and southeast. For the most part, Pashtuns controlled
power after Afghanistan assumed a form of statehood. Their culture, therefore,
became synonymous with Afghan culture. Until the 20th century, the term “Afghan”
applied only to Pashto-speaking peoples.2
Geography
Area
Afghanistan occupies a landlocked position
in south-central Asia, lying between
Pakistan (to the south and east) and Iran
(to the west). Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan and, to a much smaller extent,
China also share borders with Afghanistan
to the north. Visually, Afghanistan drops
down in a southeasterly direction like a
leaf, stretching approximately 1,240 km
(771 mi) from the narrow Wakhan Corridor
in the northeast—the “stem”—to the
Map of Afghanistan Graphic/DLIFLC
Dasht-e Margo desert in the southwest.
Afghanistan’s total area is 652,230 sq km (251,827 sq mi), making it slightly smaller
than the state of Texas.3 With no direct access to the ocean, Afghanistan’s nearest
seaport is in Karachi, Pakistan—1,170 km (727 mi) away.4, 5
Climate
Afghanistan’s typically harsh climate is a product of its geography and extreme
landscape. Its weather is marked by dramatic differences in day and night, and
summer and winter temperatures. The country is mostly arid or semiarid, with
sudden seasonal transitions, but conditions vary according to region.6 Highs above
35°C (95°F) are common in the southern deserts. The northeastern mountain regions,
including the Wakhan Corridor, have a subarctic climate characterized by bitter, dry,
cold winters. Extremes of 49°C (120°F) and -31°C (-24°F) have been recorded in
Jalalabad and Kabul, respectively.7, 8
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Chapter 1 | Profile 9
The deep, narrow valleys and high mountains of the Central Highlands receive
the bulk of the precipitation in the winter, and blizzards are common. 9 Lower
elevations may receive rainfall, while the high elevation peaks are covered in
glaciers. Between July and September, the mountainous region near the Pakistani
border may receive moist tropical rain brought by Indian monsoons, which can
move into the central and southern areas of the country. 10 At this time, violent
winds are a near daily occurrence in the west and southwest. These hot, dry
winds, known as the “wind of 120 days,” often create dangerous sandstorms that
sweep across the arid southern deserts.
Geographic Divisions
Afghanistan can be divided into
three distinct geographic regions:
the Central Highlands, the Southern
Plateau, and the Northern Plains.
The Central Highlands include the
formidable Hindu Kush Range,
the country’s dominant mountain
system. It extends in a southwesterly
direction from the Wakhan Corridor
of the far northeast into the center
of the country. High mountain passes
are of significant strategic value in
the Central Highlands; these include Snow-covered Hindu Kush mountains, Ghazni Province
Shebar Pass and the legendary Khyber Wikimedia/US Embassy Kabul Afghanistan
Pass. Earthquakes, which frequently trigger destructive landslides, occur in the

Badakhshan area, where an average of 50 occur each year.11, 12
To the north of the Central Highlands lie the Northern Plains. Extending into Central
Asia, this expanse of foothills and fertile plains is densely populated and the site of
heavy agricultural activity. Mineral resources and natural gas deposits are abundant
in this region. At 258 m (846 ft), Amu Darya Basin is the lowest elevation point in the
region.13 South of the Central Highlands, the Southern Plateau consists of 129,499 sq
km (50,000 sq mi) of high plateaus and diverse desert terrain, including salt flats and
dry, stony expanses. Its southeastern section, known as Rigestan, is a red-sand desert
covering 32,375 sq km (12,500 sq mi), and its scattered dunes and ridges may reach
30 m (100 feet) high.14
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Mountains
Mountains dominate the landscape of Afghanistan, sweeping through the center of
the country in a northeast, southwest direction. The 38 summits of the Hindu Kush
mountain system, considered an extension of the Himalayas, rise more than 7,000 m
(22,965 ft).15 The highest is Noshaq Peak, at 7,485 m (24,577 ft).16 Over 49% of the
country’s land area lies 2,000 m (6,561 ft) above sea level.
Several mountain ranges shoot off from

the Hindu Kush, spreading out from the
central area of the country, south and
west. Extending southwest, the Baba
mountain range (Kuh-e Baba) in Bamyan
Province reaches 5,142 m (16,870 ft).
This range gradually descends to the
Kermu Pass.17 Southeast of Kabul, the
Safed Koh (White Mountain) range rises
along the border area with Pakistan. The
Khyber Pass, one of the most important
trade routes between the two countries,
The Safed Koh (White Mountain) range, running along the
crosses a spur of this range. Also found border with Pakistan, Nangarhar Province
here, the Tora Bora (Spin Ghar) cave Wikimedia/The U.S. Army
complex was a Taliban stronghold. Other prominent ranges include the Torkestan
Mountains and the Siah Kuh and Ḥeṣar ranges.18
Rivers and Lakes

Although Afghanistan is in an arid region, the country has relatively abundant water
resources. Over 80% of the country’s river water originates in the Central Highlands
(including the Hindu Kush), which collect significant snowfall.19 Yet, much of these
water resources remain unharnessed because infrastructure is lacking. Only 30–35% of
the annual water supply is used domestically, with the rest flowing out into surrounding
countries. In the absence of sufficient storage, management, and distribution systems,
water shortages are common.20, 21, 22
Afghanistan’s most important rivers are the Amu Darya, the Kabul, the Helmand,
the Farah, and the Harirud. Nearly all flow into neighboring Iran or Pakistan, and
international water-sharing disputes are common.23, 24, 25, 26 The Amu Darya, which
forms a large section of the northern border, is Afghanistan’s only navigable river.
The Kabul, the major waterway in eastern Afghanistan, flows from its source in the
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Central Highlands into the Indus River in Pakistan. The Helmand and Farah rivers join
in southwestern Afghanistan, entering the salty wetlands of the Sistan Depression,
on the Afghan-Iranian border. The Helmand, the longest river in the country, and the
Farah are important resources for irrigation water in the south. Flowing westward
from the central mountains, the Harirud passes near the large western city of Herat
and ultimately forms a portion of the Afghan-Iranian border. Afghanistan’s lakes are
small in size and number; those in the south and west are typically saline. Streams
and lakes are only active after periods of rainfall or during the spring snowmelt.27
Major Cities
Kabul
Kabul is the capital of Afghanistan and by
far its largest city.28, 29, 30 Situated near the
eastern border with Pakistan, its nearly
5 million residents represent roughly
41% of the total urban population.31, 32, 33
Kabul is situated between the Hindu
Kush mountains at an elevation of about
1,800 m (5,900 ft) along the Kabul
River. At the crossroads of north–south
and east–west trade routes, Kabul is
the center of culture and commerce in
Afghanistan. There are 9 universities in Abdul Rahman Mosque, also known as the Grand Mosque
of Kabul US Government Public Domain
the city, 24 television stations, and cell
phones frequently arise.34, 35 From Kabul city, there are major routes that lead to
Kandahar, Herat, Jalalabad, and Mazar-e Sharif, and others that link to Pakistan, via
the Khyber Pass, or through the Hindu Kush to Uzbekistan.
Kabul has existed for more than 3,500 years, and the cityscape is a blend of old and
new architecture. In the southwest of the city, the new parliament buildings are
located close to the Dar-ul-Aman Palace, destroyed during Afghanistan’s civil war.36
Kabul’s population speaks mainly Dari, although Pashto is spoken as well.37
Kandahar (Qandahar)
Located in southeastern Afghanistan, Kandahar is situated alongside the Tarnak River on
a high desert plain between the foothills of the Central Highlands and the deserts of the
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Southern Plateau. The city is surrounded by fertile, irrigated farmland, with major regional
fruit crops, such as grapes and pomegranates. Kandahar Province is also Afghanistan’s
third largest producer of opium.38 With a population of approximately 400,000 people,
it is the second largest city in Afghanistan.39 Historically, the city’s strategic location on
major trade routes made it prone to frequent invasion. The city served as Afghanistan’s
first capital after Ahmad Shah Durrani unified the tribal nation in the 18th century. His
mausoleum is found in the city, as is the Khirqah Shrine, which is believed to house the
cloak of the Prophet Muhammad.40 As a major center for Pashtun peoples, the city is home
to the Kandahari dialect of Pashto, the soft-voice form of the language.41
Mazar-e Sharif
The capital of Balkh Province in northern
Afghanistan, Mazar-e Sharif lies in one
of Afghanistan’s most fertile regions.
The Balkh River provides water for
cotton, grain, and fruit crops. Industries
include flour milling, silk and cotton
textiles manufacturing, and some oil and
natural gas production.42, 43 The Salang
Pass connects Mazar-e Sharif with Kabul,
320 km (200 mi) southeast, and other
Afghan cities. Russian engineers built the
2.6 km (1.6 mi) Salang Tunnel in 1964,
and it remains one of the world’s highest Shrine of Hazrat Ali ibn Abi Talib in Mazar-e Sharif, Balkh
road tunnels. Mazar-e Sharif lies close to Province Flickr/Resolute Media
Uzbekistan and Tajikistan and is the country’s main regional hub for trade in Central
Asia. Mazar-e Sharif’s estimated population of 303,300–400,000 people consists mainly
of Uzbeks, Tajiks, and Turkmens.44, 45, 46
Mazar-e Sharif, which means “tomb of the saint,” is revered by Shi’a Muslims as the
burial site of the Prophet Mohammad’s cousin, Ali ibn Abi Talib, who established the Shi’a
branch of Islam. Whether his remains are housed in the shrine is a matter of dispute,
but the site remains a significant draw for Shi’a Muslims.47 The shrine, also known as the
Blue Mosque, draws hundreds of pilgrims annually to commemorate Ashura.48, 49 Shi’a
Muslims are often the target of violent sectarian extremists during this time.50
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Herat
Herat is Afghanistan’s third or fourth
largest city (population estimates
range from 272,800 to 477,452).51, 52
Located on the Harirud River, Herat
sits in a fertile agricultural region that
is the economic center of western
Afghanistan. Summer months bring
extremely strong northwesterly
winds to the region, and these can
evolve into destructive dust storms.53
The Iranian border is less than 80 km
(50 mi) away, and Persian culture
Overlooking the city of Herat Flickr/Todd Huffman influences daily life.54
Herat was once the capital of the Timurid Empire, situated along the Silk Road
between Europe and Asia. Traces of more than 2,000 years of rich history can be
seen throughout Herat today. The citadel, Qala Ikhtyaruddin, built by Alexander the
Great, and the famous Friday mosque, Jama Masjid, with its cobalt blue minarets,
are striking examples. Most Herat residents are Tajik and speak Dari as well as Pashto.
Jalalabad
Jalalabad, the capital of Nangarhar Province, is located in a strategically important
region of eastern Afghanistan. Situated on the Kabul River, the city lies on the major
trade and transportation route that runs through the Khyber Pass from Kabul to Pakistan
and the Indian subcontinent. Because of its location, the Jalalabad region has been
occupied for millennia and has often served as a military outpost and command center.
In the modern era, Britain, the Soviet Union, and most recently the United States have
stationed troops in Jalalabad, which was also a Taliban stronghold until 2001.55, 56, 57
The city’s population is dominated by Pashtuns, and it is close to Peshawar, a major

Pashtun city in northwestern Pakistan. Fertile agricultural fields surround Jalalabad;
nuts, fruits, and grains are the major crops.58, 59
Khost
The city of Khost is located on a plateau in eastern Afghanistan, roughly 150 km (93 mi)
south of Kabul and 16 km (10 mi) from the Pakistani border. Khost’s roughly 160,000
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residents are predominantly Pashtun, as
is Khost Province as a whole. Khost is a
major transit hub for trade with Pakistan,
as well as a waystation for smuggled goods
into and out of Afghanistan. Militarily, the
city and the surrounding area have been of
critical strategic importance over the last
40 years. During the Soviet-Afghan war,
Khost was the object of a siege that lasted
over eight years; in recent years, it has
been a site of key military engagements
US Army captain above Khost, Khost Province
Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia between U.S. forces and Taliban militants.
Khost is isolated from the rest of Afghanistan to the west by a mountain chain
with peaks that reach 3,000 m (9,800 ft); there is only one westward road through
to Gardez. To the east, Khost borders the Pakistani province of North Waziristan,
where the Taliban subgroup the Haqqani Network is based.60 Remote districts of
Khost Province are used as infiltration points for militants crossing between the two
countries. The rocky, wooded border terrain makes security patrols and surveillance
extremely difficult.61, 62
History
Early History
Human settlement in the Afghan region dates back several
thousand years. Historically, it was a crossroads for
traffic between the Middle East, Central Asia, South Asia,
and East Asia. Accordingly, various waves of migrating
peoples and invading armies passed through the area,
bringing trade and war. Many of these peoples followed
an important trade route that cut through the Hindu Kush
Mountains of modern-day Afghanistan. This route formed
a section of what would later be known as the Silk Road.
The Persians were one of the first major powers to control

the region. Later, in the 4th century B.C.E., Alexander the
Portrait miniature of Ahmad Shah
Durrani in 1757 Wikicommons/ Great and his forces conquered the area for the Greeks.
Public Domain After several centuries of various powers fighting for
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control of the area, the Arab Muslims swept into the region in the 7th century C.E.
(During this period, today’s northern and western Afghanistan belonged to a region
known as Greater Khorasan; this name would be appropriated centuries later by a
branch of the Islamic State—ISIL-Khorasan.)63, 64, 65 Arabs spread the practice of Islam,
which remains prevalent today. Several centuries of power struggles and turmoil
followed, including a Mongol invasion led by Genghis Khan. Overall, throughout the
ancient era, the Afghan region was subject to frequent incursions and conflict, as
well as influxes of diverse cultures.
The Afghan State and the Colonial Era

In the early modern era, the Afghan state was founded by Ahmad Shah Durrani, a
Pashtun chief who was elected shah, or king, in 1747 by an assembly of Pashtun
tribal leaders (Loya Jirga). Ahmad Shah consolidated the Pashtun tribes and expanded
the Afghan territory to Delhi (in modern-day India) and the Arabian Sea. Thereafter,
Pashtuns dominated the Afghan government for much of the modern era.
In the 19th and early 20th centuries,

incursions by the British, who were
then based in colonial India, led to
three Anglo-Afghan wars. These wars
occurred as part of the “the Great
Game,” a prolonged battle for Central
Asia waged between Russia and
Britain. Due to the strong resistance
of Afghan armies, the British failed to
fully colonize the country, although
they exerted various levels of control
on Afghan leaders. In the late 19th Shah Shuja, Emir of Afghanistan, Bala Hissar, Kabul, 1839 The
British Library Online Gallery
century, the British established the
Durand Line, the boundary that marks the modern Afghan-Pakistani border. This
demarcation created serious and longstanding tensions, as it divided a cohesive
Pashtun area into two different countries. Opposition to the Durand Line later
prompted unsuccessful attempts to unify the Pashtun region and create an
independent state of “Pashtunistan.” Such efforts strained relations between
Afghanistan and Pakistan in the 20th century. To date, no Afghan government has
officially recognized the Durand Line. 66, 67
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20th Century
In 1919, after the end of the Third Anglo-Afghan War,
Afghanistan gained its formal independence. In the following
decades, the nation experimented with political and social
reforms, including adopting a constitutional monarchy. Many
of these reforms were met with resistance by conservative
factions. This period was marked by the prolonged reign of
the nation’s last king, Zahir Shah, who ruled from 1933 to
1973. Zahir Shah was overthrown by a former prime minister,
Sardar Mohammad Daoud. Upon taking power, Daoud abolished
the monarchy and declared himself president of the new
Zahir Shah (1914–2007) in
Republic of Afghanistan. His subsequent efforts to address
military uniform Wikimedia/
economic problems failed to quell political instability. Haji Amin Qodrat, Kabul
In 1978, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan, a communist group, seized

power in a violent coup. The group had strong ties to the Soviet Union, which provided
financial assistance and military support. Various tribal insurgencies mounted a
fierce resistance against the communist government. In 1979, the Soviets invaded
in an effort to solidify communist rule. Aided by the U.S. and other countries, the
mujahideen, or resistance fighters, fought for more than a decade to end communist
rule in Afghanistan. In 1989, the Soviets officially withdrew from the war-torn country,
leaving hundreds of thousands dead and millions more displaced. However, the
Afghan communist government remained in power, and the civil war continued. The
communist government fell in 1992, but power struggles between various competing
factions prolonged the internal conflict.
The Taliban Regime and U.S. Intervention

In 1996, the Taliban, an extremist Islamic
group dominated by Pashtuns, seized power
over much of the country, including the
nation’s capital, Kabul.During its time in
power, the Taliban regime implemented
policies that had a detrimental effect
o n t he co u n try an d i ts i mpoverished,
war-weary population. The fundamentalist
group’s strict code of law deprived Afghans Taliban handing over weapons in a disarmament
of basic human rights, with women, in program, Ghor Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
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particular, subject to severe restrictions an d p u n i s h m e n t s . 6 8 T h e Ta l i b a n
a l s o destroyed non-Islamic cultural artifacts, such as two massive Buddha statues
located outside the city of Bamiyan.69 Moreover, as the country’s infrastructure and
economy remained in a state of collapse, the resource-poor Taliban government
offered few services to the populace.
After taking power, the Taliban allowed various terrorist organizations, including
Osama Bin Laden’s Al Qaeda network, to base their operations in Afghanistan. After
the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, the U.S. and a coalition of international
forces entered Afghanistan to remove the Taliban from power and combat the Al
Qaeda forces based in the country. The U.S.-led operation quickly toppled the Taliban
regime, allowing other Afghan political groups to assume power. They formed a
transitional government and drafted a democratic constitution.
Constitutional Reform
In January 2004, Afghanistan ratified
a new constitution that established a
modern, democratic, Islamic state.70 On
9 October that same year, Afghanistan
held its first democratic presidential
election. Hamid Karzai, an ethnic
Pashtun, won the election. Meanwhile,
Taliban insurgents regrouped, taking
refuge in areas outside the limited
control of the Afghan government, as well
as in safe havens in nearby Pakistan.71 By
Afghan presidential candidates Abdullah Abdullah and Asraf
December 2008, a resurgent Taliban had Ghani during the formation of the Unity Government 2014
once again extended its influence over Flickr/US Department of State
a large share of the country.72 In a policy shift, Karzai began to bring warlords, former
mujahideen leaders, into government structures. In turn, their militias supported
the Afghan military in its fight against the Taliban.73 In 2009, Karzai was appointed
by the Independent Election Commission (IEC) to a second five-year term, after a
controversial race against Abdullah Abdullah.
Since 2014, the National Unity Government (NUG) of President Ashraf Ghani and his chief
executive officer Abdullah Abdullah have governed Afghanistan. The United States brokered
the power-sharing arrangement to ensure stability after the contested presidential
elections. With the withdrawal of international troops, a still unprepared Afghan army
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struggled to combat the Taliban.74 The
NUG worked to bolster its national
forces with local militias and continued
the trend of appointing warlords to
positions within the government. Among
those is Ghani’s first vice president,
General Abdul Rashid Dostum. In late
2016, the international community
endorsed the continuation of the
NUG, which was set to expire, through
President Ghani’s five-year term.75, 76
As of late 2016, the Taliban controlled
more areas of Afghanistan than at any Village elders, with boys observing, at a shura, Deh Chopan,
time since 2001.77 Zabul Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Government
The political reforms of 2004 produced
a constitutional framework for the
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, with
a centralized government seated in
Kabul. The constitution provides for a
separation of powers, a democratically
elected president, a judiciary, and a
national assembly—the House of Elders
(Meshrano Jirga) and the House of the
People (Wolesi Jirga).
Centralized Afghan governments, Village elder participating in a planning shura to build a

however, have historically lacked a strong bazaar and repair a school damaged by Taliban Flickr/
ResoluteSupportMedia
influence outside the capital due to the
long-standing tradition of local tribal rule. This pattern largely persists today, as the
government’s powers remain limited, and local tribal leaders and warlords continue
to control many regions of the country. Additionally, the Loya Jirga, a constitutional
assembly of thousands of representatives from ethnic, religious, and tribal groups
around Afghanistan, wields tremendous influence. It is convened for important matters
relating to heads of state, the constitution, and national or regional conflicts, and it
may ultimately ratify, or end, the current power-sharing presidential structure.78, 79
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The government in Kabul continues to face growing security threats from Taliban
militants and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the lasting effects of
decades of war, and the region’s long-standing tribal divisions. 80 With the departure
of most U.S. and coalition troops in 2014, Afghanistan began to experience setbacks
against the Taliban and other armed opposition groups as well as the war on opium.
Reconstruction efforts were also negatively impacted. Despite $115 billion in aid
provided by the U.S. toward reconstruction, counternarcotics, and training since
2002, Afghanistan has lost territory to the insurgency, unemployment remains
high, and poverty persists. 81 Many blame endemic corruption and Afghanistan’s
inability to sustain its progress without continued international support for these
continuing problems.82
Ethnicity continues to play a dominant role in Afghan politics, with Pashtuns and
Tajiks leading the current government.83 On a regional level, the country is divided
into provinces, districts, and subdistricts. Officially, the provinces are overseen by
governors, but local warlords in control of militias hold considerable power.
Traditionally, tribal councils, or jirgas, address issues at the local level. Their decisions
are based on customary law, which mainly originates from the Pashtun community’s
code of Pashtunwali. The Afghan legal system, which governs the country as a whole,
is a blend of customary tribal law, Islamic law, and Western legal traditions. Still,
tribal or customary law alone prevails in much of the country.84
Media
Conditions for press freedom in
Afghanistan have improved since 2014
but journalists still face challenges. The
government has enacted five media laws
since 2002, including the 2014 Access
to Information Law aimed at improving
transparency and accountability. 85
The government continues to restrict
content considered “contrary to the
principles of Islam or offensive to other
religions and sects.”86 Furthermore,
Afghan news media Flickr/USAID Afghanistan interference by government agencies
is an ongoing problem, and violence and threats of violence against journalists
continues, undermining objective reporting.87, 88 With the reduction of foreign troops
since 2014, the physical safety of journalists in the field remains a serious problem.
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In 2016, there were 83 local and national television channels, 161 radio stations, and
12 news agencies in Afghanistan.89 However, Afghans’ low literacy rate (36%), coupled
with the high cost of electronics, limits public access to news and basic information.
Newspaper readership is low and internet access is scarce; radio is still the main
source of news for most Afghans. Radio broadcasts of foreign stations in Pashto and
Dari are aired from Kabul, including Deutsche Welle, BBC World Service, Voice of
America, and Radio France Internationale.90, 91
Economy
Afghan Economic Trends
Afghanistan is among the poorest countries
in the world.92 Over the last two decades,
armed conflict and political upheaval
have set the Afghan economy on a roller
coaster of downward and upward swings.93
Widespread poverty, unemployment, and
political corruption are ongoing economic
challenges. Until recently, the country
experienced a period of steep economic
decline following the cutbacks in coalition
forces that began in 2011.94 Between 2011 Carpet weaver, Kaldar District, Balkh Province
Flickr/Hand in Hand International
and 2014 the number of registered new
firms dropped by over 50%.95 As of late 2016, increasing regional instability hindered
recovery and reconstruction efforts.96 Considering this, the U.S. and the international
community pledged military and financial support through 2020, with the U.S. retaining
8,400 troops to assist Afghan forces.97, 98, 99 Afghanistan also became a member of the
World Trade Organization that same year, and the hope is that greater access to world
markets will help reboot the economy.100
Industries and Manufacturing

Industrial production of any significant size in Afghanistan is limited, as much of its
infrastructure remains crippled by war.101 But services and small-scale industry, such
as brick and textile production, account for the bulk of Afghan GDP.102 Major industrial
exports include scrap iron and coal. Afghanistan is also extremely rich in natural
resources, including fossil fuels and an estimated $1 trillion in mineral resources, but
the region’s deposits remain largely unexploited.103 Additionally, illegal mining and
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nonpayment of royalties limit the mining profits that make it to the treasury.104, 105
In terms of textiles, Afghanistan is famous for its exquisite handmade rugs and carpets,
which are major exports, as well as for the production of karakul, a silky wool made
from the pelts of Karakul lambs.
Agriculture
As they have been for centuries, farming and
animal husbandry are the main sources of
income for most Afghans.106 In recent decades,
droughts, prolonged conflict, and the poor state
of its infrastructure have severely limited the
country’s conventional agricultural sector. Once
self-sufficient in its production of wheat, a staple
food for Afghans, the country now counts wheat
flour among its main imports, along with cooking
oil, tea, sugar, and moisture-retaining peat for USAID-funded grape-trellising project, Parwan
Province Flickr/USAID Afghanistan
farming. 107, 108, 109
Banks and aid organizations
have worked to bolster the agriculture sector through education, microfinance,
mine-clearing, and irrigation projects.110, 111 As a result, Afghanistan’s world-class crops—
almonds, pomegranates, pistachios, grapes/raisins, and apricots—are making a slow
comeback. Today, its main agricultural exports are grapes/raisins, nuts and seeds, raw
cotton, dates, figs, and other tropical fruit.
Opium Drug Trade

In recent years, there has been a resurgence
of opium poppy cultivation.112 Afghanistan
provides the vast majority of the world’s
opium. As a drought-resistant plant,
opium poppies are the ideal cash crop for
impoverished Afghan farmers. It has also
been a primary source of capital and
financing for the Taliban insurgency.
Afghanistan’s massive opium-smuggling
network is organized by the Taliban, who
also levy fees on other smuggling
operations, such as cigarettes. 113, 114 The US Marine patrolling an opium poppy field, Garmsir
opium trade, which generates revenues District, Helmand Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
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that far exceed the Afghan government’s entire annual operating budget, jumped
43% in 2016.115, 116 Decreased international and domestic security and eradication
efforts are major factors in the resurgence of opium production. While many Afghan
farmers have devoted more of their fields to planting wheat in recent years, prices
have dropped, and overall it is a less lucrative crop. Poppies are highly profitable
in many areas of southern Afghanistan, and farmers claim the profit from poppies
is 324 times the profit from wheat. 117 In the absence of an alternative livelihood for
Afghan farmers, poppy cultivation remains difficult to eradicate.
Electricity
Afghanistan has one of the lowest
rates of electricity usage in the world.
As of 2015, only about 38% of Afghans,
mostly living in urban areas, had access
to electricity. Backup generators,
found in many households, are used
to supplement the frequent periods
of interruption (to ease the load on
generating plants) and outages. Afghan
rivers, fed by snow and glacial melt
from the Hindu Kush, offer tremendous
domestic hydropower potential. Sayedabad substation switchyard, Wardak Province Flickr/
However, many of the larger plants, USAID Afghanistan
built in the 1950s and 1960s, have fallen into disrepair.118, 119 Existing dams currently
generate only a quarter of the power used domestically.120 The Afghan government,
with assistance from the international community, is working to build additional
dams, for both hydropower and irrigation. 121 In the meantime, Afghanistan
continues to import 75% of its electricity from neighboring countries. As of 2016,
at least two major powerline projects were underway, one from Turkmenistan
through the Salang Pass to Kabul, and another larger project from Tajikistan
and Kyrgyzstan. But such power lines have become a favorite target for the Taliban,
who persistently sabotage the power supplies to cities and outlying regions.122, 123, 124, 125
Ethnic Groups
As a historic crossroads for diverse populations, Afghanistan is home to 40 major
ethnicities who speak over 50 separate languages or dialects. 126 Many of these groups
are ethnically or linguistically related to communities in surrounding countries. An
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Afghan’s identity is not just defined by a common cultural or genetic group, but also
by tribe, family, and geographic region, or even occupation. Ethnicity dominates
the political landscape in Afghanistan. It has become so politicized that it may be
considered rude to inquire about someone’s ethnic identity. Generally speaking, the
Pashtun-dominated south and the Tajik- and Uzbek-dominated north represent the
ethnic division of power in the country.127, 128
Pashtuns
Nearly half the Afghan population is made up of Pashtuns. They are the largest, most
influential, and historically most significant ethnic group in the country.129, 130 Although
they live pockets throughout the country, Pashtuns dominate a large crescent-shaped
region that stretches from the western frontier, across much of the south, to the eastern
highlands. Many Pashtuns also populate the nearby northwestern region of Pakistan.
Afghan Pashtuns are Sunni Muslims

whose social structure is based on the
Pashtunwali code—a mix of a tribal code of
honor and local interpretations of Islamic
Law. While there are at least seven tribal
subgroups, the largest confederations are
the Ghilzai and the Durrani.131 Apart from
current President Ashraf Ghani, who is
Ghilzai Pashtun, Afghanistan’s rulers have
nearly all been from the Durrani tribe.132
Afghan President Ashraf Ghani, speaking at the London
In general, Pashtuns earn their livelihood
Conference on Afghanistan, December 2014 Flickr/DFID - through farming and animal husbandry.
UK Department for International Development
Many Pashtun tribes are nomadic, engaging
in a continuous migration throughout the Afghan-Pakistani borderlands. Pashtuns
are also known as fierce warriors. The Taliban is comprised almost completely of
Pashtuns—and its leaders are mostly Ghilzai Pashtuns.133
Tajiks
In contrast to the Pashtun, tribal identities have largely broken down among Tajiks,
due to a variety of social processes.134 The Tajiks live mainly in the mountains of the
northeast and in bigger cities such as Herat, Kabul, and Mazar-e Sharif. They organize
themselves by lineage, ancestral region, and occupational group for those who have
migrated to a city.135 In general, urban and plains-dwelling Tajiks are well-educated
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and work in commerce or as artisans;
those living in the mountains are
herdsmen and farmers.
Within Afghanistan, other Afghan

groups may use the term “Tajik” to
refer “de-tribalized” Afghans living in
the north, or to urban Afghans.136, 137
There is also a tendency to assume
that all Dari speakers are Tajiks.138
Often referred to as Farsiwans,
(Persian Farsi speakers), Tajiks are
Tajik girls in the northern village of Khwahan, Badakhshan well-represented in the upper-middle
Province Wikimedia/The U.S. Army class, and have key positions in the
NUG.139 Roughly a quarter of all Afghans are Tajik and most are Sunni Muslims.140, 141, 142, 143
Other Ethnic Groups

The mountainous region of central Afghanistan is home to the Hazaras. About 9% of Afghans
are Hazara, and most are Shi’a Muslims.144 Their close cultural and religious links to Iran have
at times put them at odds with Sunni Afghans. Hazaras are seasonal migrants who typically fill
the lowest-level jobs in cities.145 They claim to be descendants of Genghis Kahn’s soldiers.146
Turkmen and Uzbeks occupy the

greatest share of Afghanistan’s arable
land in the north, and are mostly
farmers and herders. The Uzbeks, the
largest of Afghanistan’s Turkic ethnic
groups, account for approximately
9% of the population. Uzbek men
are considered to be the champions
of buzkashi, a horse-mounted sport,
while Uzbek women are known for
making high-quality rugs. 147, 148
Buzkashi players (chapandaz) in Paryan District, north-
eastern Panjshir Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Though Turkmens number only about
200,000, they are economically important; their carpets and pelts made from karakul
sheep wool are among Afghanistan’s most important exports. Formerly nomadic and
warlike, most Turkmen today are seminomadic. The Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Turkmen share
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the great plains of the north with the seminomadic Aimaq and Kyrgyz. Aimaq are herders
and farmers concentrated from Herat into the mountains of Ghowr and Badghis Provinces.
In mountainous northeastern Afghanistan,

communities live in relative isolation.
Here live the Kyrgyz and Nuristani. About
200,000 Kyrgyz live in the Wakhan Corridor
of Badakhshan province. The Kyrgyz are
“vertical nomads,” moving their herds
of sheep and goats from low-lying areas
in the winter to higher elevations in the
summer. They will often use yaks or camels
to transport loads during these seasonal
migrations.149, 150 The Nuristani also live in A river valley in the Wakhan corridor, Badakhshan Province,
relative isolation in communities perched northeastern Afghanistan Flickr /Hans Birger Nilsen
at high elevations along the river valleys south of the Wakhan Corridor, along the
Pakistani border. Nuristan Province was formerly known as Kafiristan, or “Land of the
Infidels,” as the tribes there long resisted the spread of Islam. They continued to
practice their polytheistic religion, a form of animism, until the 1890s, when they
became among the last converts to Islam. During the Anglo-Afghan Wars, the Nuristani
were known for their fierceness and guerilla-type fighting tactics. There are about
300,000 Nuristanis in Afghanistan.151, 152, 153
The Baloch, a seminomadic people, occupy the barren, lower expanse of the Southern
Plateau. They practice a moderate form of Islam, which has, during times of Islamic
extremism, led to their repression. Numbering about 100,000 in Afghanistan, Baloch
are seminomadic and famed for camel breeding.154, 155, 156
Languages
More than 30 languages are spoken in Afghanistan.
Pashto, also known as Pashtu or Pakhtu, is one
of Afghanistan’s two official languages. The
other is Dari, or Afghan Persian, which is more
widely spoken; it is the primary language of
communication between speakers of different
languages. Dari is especially dominant in the
north and west. Both Pashto and Dari belong US Army MP, his interpreter, and a villager,
to the Iranian branch of the Indo-European Logar Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
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linguistic group, but they are not mutually understood.157 Tajiks speak Dari, and many
minority ethnic groups in the north are fluent in Dari or various related dialects.158
Pashto
Pashto, an Indo-European language, is spoken
primarily by Pashtuns, but not all Pashtuns
speak it as their first language. Many
non-Pashtun groups (particularly those in
the south and southeast) are capable Pashto
speakers. The language is dominant in the
eastern and southern regions of Afghanistan,
as well as in the northwestern region of
Pakistan. In Pashtun majority areas, it may
be difficult to find Dari speakers outside of
educated circles. Pashto is written with a Pashtun boys Flickr/Gustavo Montes de Oca
modified Arabic alphabet, and its literature is largely represented by tribal histories,
folk tales, and love poems.159, 160 Pashto gained prominence in the 20th century as the
Pashtun-dominated government promoted it as the official national language.
Other Languages
A variety of other languages are spoken
among the country’s many ethnic groups,
including Balochi, Pashai, and the Turkic
languages of Turkmen, Uzbek, and
Kyrgyz. Though Nuristani form a single
Indo-Iranian linguistic group, they speak
five different languages, and many of the
Nuristani tribes cannot communicate
with one another. 1 6 1 T he Pash a i ’s
2,000-year-old language was rendered in
Potato farmer, Bamyan Province, central highlands, written form for the first time in 2003.
Afghanistan Flickr/USAID Afghanistan Many Pashai speak Pashto as well. 162 The
Hazara people speak Hazaragi, a dialect of Persian, mutually intelligible with Dari.
The Baloch speak Balochi, which is closely related to Dari. 163, 164, 165
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Cultural Orientation | Pashto
Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

1 GlobalSecurity.org, “Afghanistan: Society—Ethnicity 17 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Hindu Kush Mountains,”
and Tribe,” n.d., http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Hindu-Kush
world/afghanistan/society.htm
18 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: Land: The
2 Ludwig W. Adamic, “Afghan,” in Historical Dictionary Hindu Kush,” 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/
of Afghanistan (Lanham, Maryland: The Scarecrow Press, Afghanistan#ref306578
2003), 12.
19 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
3 Central Intelligence Agency, “South Asia: Afghanistan,” Nations, “Afghanistan: Water Resources,” AQUASTAT
in The World Factbook, 3 November 2016, https://www. website, 2016, website accessed on 2017/03/17, http://
cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/Profile_
af.html segments/AFG-WR_eng.stm
4 GlobalSecurity.org, “Afghanistan: Environment,” 17 20 Sayed Salahuddin, “With War and Neglect, Afghans
August 2012, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/ Face Water Shortage,” Reuters, 24 March 2010, http://
afghanistan/enviro.htm www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE62N19Q20100324
5 Austin Shipping Agency, “Afghan Transit,” 2003–2009, 21 Jon Campbell, “A Dry and Ravaged Land: Investigating
http://austingroup-me.com/afghan-transit.html Water Resources in Afghanistan,” Earth, 4 January 2015,
http://www.earthmagazine.org/article/dry-and-ravaged-land-
6 Encyclopædia Iranica, “Afghanistan: Geography,” 1982, investigating-water-resources-afghanistan
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afghanistan-i-geography
22 Storay Karimi and Marketa Hulpachov, “The Rising
7 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: Land: Climate,” Costs of Water: Dire Consequences for Afghans in Battle
13 June 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan with Iranians,” Guardian, 15 October 2015, https://www.
theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2015/oct/15/afghanistan-iran-
8 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, herat-water-battle
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Geography:
Climate,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. 23 Zabihullah Mudabber, “Afghanistan’s Water-Sharing
Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/35.htm Puzzle,” Diplomat, 11 November 2016, http://thediplomat.
com/2016/11/afghanistans-water-sharing-puzzle/
9 Encyclopædia Iranica, “Afghanistan: Geography,” 1982,
http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/afghanistan-i-geography 24 Michael Kugelman, Ahmad Rafay Alam, and Gitanjali
Bakshim, “Peace through Water,” Foreign Policy, 2
10 University of West Florida, “Afghanistan: Geography: December 2011, http://foreignpolicy.com/2011/12/02/peace-
The Land,” 2009–2010, http://uwf.edu/atcdev/ through-water/
afghanistan/geography/Lesson3TheLand.html
25 Scott Peterson, “Why a Dam in Afghanistan Might
11 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: Land: Set Back Peace,” Christian Science Monitor, 30 July
Climate,” 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/ 2013, http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-South-
Afghanistan#ref306578 Central/2013/0730/Why-a-dam-in-Afghanistan-might-set-
back-peace
12 United States Geological Survey, “Afghanistan:
Earthquake Hazards,” n.d., https://afghanistan.cr.usgs.gov/ 26 Fatemeh Aman “Iran-Afghan Differences over Helmand
earthquake-hazards River Threaten Both Countries,” Atlantic Council, Iran
InSight, 17 March 2016, http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/
13 Central Intelligence Agency, “South Asia: iraninsight/iran-afghan-differences-over-helmand-river-threaten-
Afghanistan,” in The World Factbook, 15 December 2016, both-countries
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
geos/af.html 27 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: Land:
Drainage,” 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/
14 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Rigestan Desert: Afghanistan/Drainage
Afghanistan,” 20 July 1998, https://www.britannica.com/
place/Rigestan 28 World Population Review, “Afghanistan Population
2016,” 1 July 2016, http://worldpopulationreview.com/
15 International Centre for Integrated Mountain countries/afghanistan-population
Development, “Hindu Kush Himalayan Region,” 2003,
http://www.icimod.org/?q=1137 29 Central Statistics Organization, Afghanistan,
“Afghanistan: Administrative Units, Extended: Estimate
16 Central Intelligence Agency, “South Asia: for 2015–2016,” Geohive, n.d., http://www.geohive.com/
Afghanistan,” in The World Factbook, 15 December 2016, cntry/afghanistan_ext.aspx
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
geos/af.html
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Chapter 1 | Endnotes 28

30 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government of 44 World Population Review, “Afghanistan Population
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul Municipality, 2016,” 1 July 2016, http://worldpopulationreview.com/
“State of Afghan Cities Report 2015,” vol. 1, 2015, 11, countries/afghanistan-population/
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20
of%20Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1.pdf 45 Central Statistics Organization, Afghanistan,
“Afghanistan: Administrative Units, Extended: Estimate
31 Central Intelligence Agency, “South Asia: for 2015–2016,” Geohive, n.d., http://www.geohive.com/
Afghanistan,” in The World Factbook, 3 November 2016, cntry/afghanistan_ext.aspx
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/resources/the-world-
factbook/geos/af.html 46 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Mazār-e Sharīf,
Afghanistan,” 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Mazar-
32 Heinrich Böll Stiftung, “Youth Political Activism in e-Sharif
Afghanistan,” Heinrich Böll Foundation, 19 May 2015,
https://af.boell.org/2015/05/19/youth-political-activism- 47 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Ali: Muslim Caliph,” 2016,
afghanistan https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ali-Muslim-caliph
33 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government of 48 J. Gordon Melton and Martin Baumann, eds., Religions
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul Municipality, of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs
“State of Afghan Cities Report 2015,” vol. 1, 2015, http:// and Practices, 2nd ed. (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO), 77.
reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20of%20
Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1.pdf 49 BBC News, “Ashura,” 2014, http://www.bbc.co.uk/
religion/religions/islam/holydays/ashura.shtml
34 4International Colleges & Universities, “University
Web Rankings & Reviews: Top Universities in Kabul,” 50 Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, “Deadly Attacks
2016, http://www.4icu.org/af/kabul/index.htm Target Shi’a in Afghanistan,” 12 October 2016, http://
www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-ashura-shiite-balkh-deadly-
35 Muhammad Idrees, “Kabul: A City With 2 Faces,” bombing/28048205.html
Diplomat, 5 January 2017, http://thediplomat.com/2017/01/
kabul-a-city-with-2-faces/ 51 World Population Review, “Afghanistan Population
2016,” 1 July 2016, http://worldpopulationreview.com/
36 Slobodan Lekic, “Restoration Starts on Kabul’s War- countries/afghanistan-population/
Ravaged Darul Aman Palace,” Stars and Stripes, 1 March
2016, http://www.stripes.com/news/middle-east/restoration- 52 Central Statistics Organization, Afghanistan,
starts-on-kabul-s-war-ravaged-darul-aman-palace-1.396984 “Afghanistan: Administrative Units, Extended: Estimate
for 2015–2016,” Geohive, n.d., http://www.geohive.com/
37 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Kabul: National Capitol: cntry/afghanistan_ext.aspx
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53 Irin News, “Dust Storms Cause Health Problems
38 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, “World in West,” 20 August 2008, http://www.irinnews.org/
Drug Report,” 2015, https://www.unodc.org/documents/ report/79900/afghanistan-dust-storms-cause-health-problems-
wdr2015/World_Drug_Report_2015.pdf west
39 World Population Review, “Afghanistan Population 54 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Herat: Afghanistan,” 2016,
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countries/afghanistan-population/
55 Orla Guerin, “Afghanistan Taliban Attack US Base in
40 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Kandahar,” 2010, https:// Jalalabad,” BBC News, 12 December 2012, http://www.bbc.
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41 Language Materials Project, University of California, 56 Khalid Alokozay and Mujib Mashal, “ISIS Claims Assault
Los Angeles, “Pashto,” n.d., http://www.lmp.ucla.edu/ that Killed 7 Near Pakistani Consulate in Afghanistan,”
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42 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Mazār-e Sharīf,
Afghanistan,” 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Mazar- 57 Brendan McGarry, “US Army Says 500 Soldiers Will
e-Sharif Deploy to Afghanistan This Summer,” Military.com, http://
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43 World Bank, “Project Information Document more-soldiers-deploy-afghanistan-spring.html
/ Integrated Safeguards Data Sheet,” 15 April
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PUBLIC-Disclosed-5-9-2016.pdf
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59 World Population Review, “Afghanistan Population 72 Zachary Laub, “The Taliban in Afghanistan,” Council
2016,” 1 July 2016, http://worldpopulationreview.com/ on Foreign Relations, 4 July 2014, http://www.cfr.org/
countries/afghanistan-population/ publication/10551/
60 Stanford University, “Mapping Militant Organizations: 73 Dipali Mukhopadhyay, “Warlords as Bureaucrats: The
Haqqani Network,” 15 May 2015, http://web.stanford.edu/ Afghan Experience,” Carnegie Endowment for International
group/mappingmilitants/cgi-bin/groups/view/363 Peace, Middle East Program, August 2009, http://
carnegieendowment.org/files/warlords_as_bureaucrats.pdf
61 Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson, “Afghan Border Police
Make Progress, Slowly,” National Public Radio, 5 74 Joel Brinkley, “Afghanistan’s Army Still Unprepared,”
March 2009, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story. World Affairs Journal, http://www.worldaffairsjournal.org/
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62 Jeffrey A. Dressler, “Afghanistan Report 6: The 75 European Council of the European Union: Brussels
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Institute for the Study of War, October 2010, 2 http:// and Peace,” 5 October 2016, http://www.consilium.europa.
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Network_0.pdf
76 Kenneth Katzman, “Afghanistan: Politics, Elections,
63 U.S. Department of State, “Foreign Terrorist and Government Performance,” Congressional Research
Organization Designation of ISIL - Khorasan (ISIL-K),” Service, 12 January 2015, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/
14 January 2016, https://www.state.gov/j/ct/rls/other/ RS21922.pdf
des/123085.htm
77 Lynne O’Donell, “The Taliban Now Hold More Ground
64 Middle East Institute Policy Focus 2016-11, “The in Afghanistan Than at Any Point Since 2001,” Military
Islamic State in Afghanistan: Examining its Threat to Times, 16 June 2016, http://www.militarytimes.com/
Stability,” May 2016, http://www.mei.edu/sites/default/files/ story/military/pentagon/2016/06/16/afghanistan-nicholson-
publications/PF12_McNallyAmiral_ISISAfghan_web.pdf commander-pentagon-report-war/85972056/
65 Wikimedia/Public Domain, “Map: Ancient Khorasan 78 Vanda Felbab-Brown, “Blood and Faith in
Highlighted,” 31 December 1925, https://upload.wikimedia. Afghanistan,” Brookings Institute, May 2016, https://www.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Ancient_Khorasan_ brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Felbab-Brown-
highlighted.jpg/300px-Ancient_Khorasan_highlighted.jpg Paper-BLOOD-AND-FAITH-IN-AFGHANISTAN-May-2016.pdf
66 Ludwig W. Adamic, Historical Dictionary of 79 Special Inspector General for Afghanistan

Afghanistan, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: The Scarecrow Reconstruction, “High-Risk List,” January 2017, 2–3,
Press, 2003). https://www.sigar.mil/pdf/spotlight/2017_High-Risk_List.pdf
67 Joseph V. Micallef, “Afghanistan and Pakistan: The 80 Harleen Gambhir, “Afghanistan Partial Threat
Poisoned Legacy of the Durand Line,” World Post, 21 Assessment,” Institute for the Study of War, 23 February
November 2015, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/joseph-v- 2016, http://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/
micallef/afghanistan-and-pakistan_b_8590918.html afghanistan-partial-threat-assessment-february-23-2016
68 Zachary Laub, “The Taliban in Afghanistan,” Council 81 Trading Economics, “Afghanistan Unemployment
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afghanistan/taliban-afghanistan/p10551 afghanistan/unemployment-rate
69 Public Broadcasting Service, “A Woman Among 82 Rahim Faiez, “Afghan Anti-Corruption Body Assails
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rights-in-the-taliban-and-post-taliban-eras/?p=66 government/28420263/
70 J. Alexander Thier, “The Making of a Constitution 83 GlobalSecurity.org, “Afghanistan: Politics,” 2015,

in Afghanistan,” New York Law School, July 2006, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/afghanistan/
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84 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,
71 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, “Country Profile: Afghanistan,” August 2008, https://www.
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loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf
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85 Freedom Info, “Afghan President Signs Access 98 Bureau of Public Affairs, U.S. Department of State,
to Information Law,” 9 December 2014, http://www. “U.S. Relations with Afghanistan,” 3 January 2017, https://
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99 GlobalSecurity.org, “Carter, Ghani, Reaffirm
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87 Freedom House, “Freedom of the Press: Afghanistan,” 100 World Trade Organization, “DG Azevêdo Welcomes
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110 Juan Estrada-Valle, “Sowing Seeds of Empowerment:
97 Tamim Asey, “The Other Drawdown—Why Donor Small Loans to Afghan Women Growers,” Frontlines,
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threatening-to-derail-afghanistan/
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111 World Bank, “Islamic Republic of Afghanistan 123 World Bank, “Overview: Afghanistan,” 2
Agriculture Sector Review,” 2014, xxii, 4, 42, http:// November 2016, http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/
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“Afghanistan: Opium Survey 2016,” 2016, http:// idUSKCN0Y70BW
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Opium Harvest Yields Profits for the Taliban,” New York power-project-inaugurated/27729921.html
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114 Joseph V. Micallef, “How the Taliban Gets Its society.htm
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its_b_8551536.html Understudy of Afghanistan’s Ethnic Groups,” 10
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116 Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, “Afghanistan’s
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up-10-percent/28069981.html Structure: Pashtun,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study,
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117 San Diego Union Tribune, “Afghanistan Renews Push afghanistan/38.htm
for Wheat Crops Amid Ongoing Anti-Poppy Drive,” 22 July
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118 DA Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat, “Energy
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event-file/522/Afghan_Power_Sector_Briefing_June_2011.pdf world/afghanistan/society-distribution.htm
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120 Central Intelligence Agency, “Afghanistan: Energy,” 133 Kenneth Katzman, “Afghanistan: Politics, Elections,
in The World Factbook, 2014, https://www.cia.gov/library/ and Government Performance,” Congressional Research
publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Service, 12 January 2015, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/
RS21922.pdf
121 Michael Kugelman, Ahmad Rafay Alam, and Gitanjali
Bakshi, “Peace Through Water,” Foreign Policy, 2 134 Seth G. Jones and Arturo Muñoz, “Afghanistan’s
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asia/taliban-electricity-afghanistan-uzbekistan-kabul.html Women: Identity and Invasion (London: Zed Books), 5.
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136 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 149 S Reza Kazemi, “On the Roof of the World: The Last
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social Kyrgyz in Afghanistan,” 3 November 2012, https://www.
Structure: Ethnic Groups: Tajik,” in Afghanistan: afghanistan-analysts.org/on-the-roof-of-the-world-the-last-
A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http:// kyrgyz-in-afghanistan/
countrystudies.us/afghanistan/39.htm
150 Michael Finkel, “Stranded on the Roof of the
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Tajik.pdf 151 BBC News “Afghanistan’s Nuristan Province ‘At Mercy
of the Taliban’,” 20 March 2013, http://www.bbc.com/news/
138 U.S. Marine Corps Intelligence Activity, “Tajiks in world-asia-21035695
Afghanistan,” in Afghanistan Cultural Intelligence Reports,
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Tajik.pdf Afghanistan,” in Afghanistan Cultural Intelligence Reports,
2002, https://info.publicintelligence.net/MCIA-AfghanCultures/
139 Naval Postgraduate School, Program for Culture Nuristanis.pdf
and Conflict Studies, “Afghanistan: Ethnic Identity and
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n.d., https://my.nps.edu/web/ccs/ethnic-genealogies Conflict Studies, “Nuristan Provincial Overview,” n.d.,
https://my.nps.edu/web/ccs/nuristan
140 National Public Radio, “Afghans Confront Sensitive
Issue of Ethnicity,” 8 May 2013, http://www.npr. 154 Encyclodpædia Iranica, “Baluchistan: Baluchi
org/2013/05/08/179079930/afghans-confront-senstive-issue-of- Language and Literature,” 15 December 1988, http://www.
ethnicity iranicaonline.org/articles/baluchistan-iii
141 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 155 University of California, Los Angeles, “Dari,”
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social Language Materials Project, Center for World Languages,
Structure: Tajik,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study, n.d., http://lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=191&menu=004
ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/
afghanistan/39.htm 156 Karlos Zurutuza, “Afghanistan’s Re-Emerging
Baloch,” Diplomat, 26 September 2014, http://thediplomat.
142 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Tajik People,” 2016, com/2014/09/afghanistans-reemerging-baloch/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tajik-people
157 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: Languages,”
143 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Tajik People,” 2016, 13 June 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tajik-people Languages
144 Minority Rights Group International, “Afghanistan: 158 Kenneth Katzman, “Afghanistan: Politics, Elections,
Hazaras: Profile,” n.d., http://minorityrights.org/minorities/ and Government Performance,” Congressional Research
hazaras/ Service, 12 January 2015, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/
RS21922.pdf
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social 159 Borhan Osman, “Poetry in Motion: Love, War and
Structure: Ethnic Groups: Hazara,” in Afghanistan: Politics on Trucks,” Congressional Research Service 17
A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http:// August 2013, https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/poetry-in-
countrystudies.us/afghanistan/40.htm motion-love-war-and-politics-on-trucks/
146 Jonathan S. Addleton, Mongolia and the United 160 Afghanistan Online: Languages, “A Look at Languages
States: A Diplomatic History (Hong Kong: Hong Kong Spoken in Afghanistan,” n.d., http://www.afghan-web.com/
University Press, 2013), 105. language/
147 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 161 U.S. Marine Corps Intelligence Activity, “Nuristani in
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social Afghanistan,” in Afghanistan Cultural Intelligence Reports,
Structure: Uzbek,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study, 2002, https://info.publicintelligence.net/MCIA-AfghanCultures/
ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/ Nuristanis.pdf
afghanistan/41.htm
162 Ju-Hong Yun, “Pashai Language Development
148 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Project: Promoting Pashai Language, Literacy, and
“Chapter 2: Uzbek,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study, Community Development,” SIL International, 2003, http://
ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/ www.sil.org/asia/ldc/parallel_papers/ju-hong_yun.pdf
afghanistan/41.htm
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163 Encyclodpædia Iranica, “Baluchistan: iii. Baluchi
Language and Literature,” 15 December 1988, http://www.
iranicaonline.org/articles/baluchistan-iii
164 University of California, Los Angeles, “Dari,”

Language Materials Project, Center for World Languages,
n.d., http://lmp.ucla.edu/Profile.aspx?LangID=191&menu=004
165 Karlos Zurutuza, “Afghanistan’s Re-Emerging

Baloch,” Diplomat, 26 September 2014, http://thediplomat.
com/2014/09/afghanistans-reemerging-baloch/
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Pashto Cultural Orientation
Chapter 1 | Profile
Assessment
1. Prior to the 20th century, the term “Afghan” applied only to

Pashto-speaking peoples.
2. Islam arrived in Afghanistan in the 5th century C.E.
3. The Durand Line now marks the modern Afghan-Pakistani border.
4. The Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, including Kabul, in 1990.
5. Ethnicity continues to play a dominant role in Afghan politics.
Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. True; 4. False; 5. True
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Chapter 1 | Assessment 35
An imam, or spiritual leader, reading from the Quran, Helmand Province DVIDS/US Department of
Defense
Religion
Introduction
Islam is the predominant religion in Afghanistan, where approximately 99% of the
population identify themselves as Muslim. It is one of the few common bonds that
unite the diverse ethnic and tribal groups in the country. Most Afghan Muslims follow
the Sunni branch of Islam. There is also a sizeable minority population of Shi’a Muslims.
They live primarily in the central provinces, but they can also be found in the nation’s
major cities. Ismaili Muslims, who form a sect within the Shi’a branch of Islam, mainly
live in central and northeastern Afghanistan.
The area that is today western Afghanistan is regarded as a birthplace of Sufism, and
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36
it is home to a large number of Sufis who practice this mystical form of Islam. The city
of Herat and its surrounding area is a major center for Sufi practice. But Sufi groups
live throughout Afghanistan, including in the Pashtun-dominated south and east.166
The Sufis’ legacy remains in Pashtun regions, as evident in song and dance.167 Both the
Sunni and Shi’a schools in Afghanistan have Sufi practitioners.
Non-Muslims comprise less than 1% of the country’s population. There are small
minority populations of Hindus and Sikhs, whose sites of worship are located mainly in
the urban centers of Kabul, Jalalabad, and Kandahar. Through the middle of the last
century, there was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan. Nearly all its members
have since migrated to Israel or the United States. There are also very small Christian
and Buddhist populations.168
Islam
Islam is a monotheistic religion, meaning its
followers profess faith in a single God. In the Muslim
community, or ummah, God is known as Allah.
The Arabic term Islam means “to submit” or “to
surrender.” A Muslim, therefore, is one who submits
to the will of Allah. Muslims believe that Allah
revealed his message to the Prophet Muhammad,
a merchant who lived in Arabia from 570 to 632 C.E.
They consider Muhammad the last of a long line
of prophets that included Abraham (Ibrahim), Moses
(Musa), and Jesus (Esa). In this way, Muslim beliefs
share some of the basic elements of the Judaic
and Christian traditions. However, Muslims believe
that the message relayed by Muhammad is the final
and definitive revelation of the faith. This message
is recited in the Quran, the sacred scriptures of Abdur Rahman Khan, Emir of Afghanistan
Islam. Muslims regard the printed Arabic text of from 1880 to 1901 Wikimedia/British India
the Quran as holy, and desecrating a copy is a serious offense.169 After the Quran,
there are other texts sacred to Muslims. These include the Hadith, a collection of
the sayings of Muhammad, and the Sunnah, which describes the practices of Islam by
way of Muhammad’s example.
The Five Pillars of Islam are a set of essential beliefs and rites of the Islamic faith.
The first and foundational pillar requires sincerely reciting the shahada, or Islamic
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Chapter 2 | Religion 37
creed: “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah.” The
remaining pillars include: 2) performing a ritual prayer five times per day; 3) giving
alms (money or other assets) to the poor and needy, traditionally through a tax on
income; 4) fasting during the holy month of Ramadan; and 5) making a pilgrimage to
the Islamic holy city of Mecca.170 Muslims believe in a Day of Judgement, when Allah
will determine whether each individual will spend their afterlife in heaven or hell.171
Care and Treatment of the Quran

Muslims regard the Quran as sacred. Treat
Islam’s holy book with respect. Do not
touch the Quran with dirty hands. Keep the
Quran off the floor—if you are sitting on
the floor, hold the Quran above your lap or
waist. When not in use, protect the Quran
with a dustcover and do not place anything
on top of it. (Muslims will keep Quranic
texts on the highest shelf of a bookcase.)
Finally, keep Qurans out of latrines. If
conducted with respect, old or damaged
Afghan National Police training center graduates kissing
copies of the Quran, Qalat, Zabul Province
copies may be burned. Texts should not be
US Government/US Air Force burned with trash or other items. Another
method of disposal is burial. Before burying the text, it should be wrapped in cloth,
such as linen, and then buried where people do not walk.172, 173, 174
Sunni and Shi’a Divide

Islam has two major branches: Sunni and Shi’a. The two sects formed shortly after
the initial spread of Islam in the 7th century C.E. They divided over disagreements
about the selection process for a successor, or caliph, to the Prophet Muhammad,
who died in 632 C.E. The Sunni believed that Muhammad had not clearly chosen a
successor. This group decided to elect the first caliph from among the leaders of
the Muslim community. They chose Abu Bakr, Muhammad’s father-in-law, as the first
caliph. The opposing group, later known as the Shi’a, believed that Muhammad had
designated his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor. Accordingly, they believed
only Muhammad’s descendants held rightful claims to the caliphate.
The unresolved issue of rightful succession created a deep divide between the two
groups, leading to infighting and the eventual assassination of Ali.175 While the two
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sects share a belief in the fundamental tenets of Islam, their split resulted in diverging
practices and beliefs. Over time, several additional sects emerged. Today, Sunnis
make up roughly 85% of the global Muslim community.In Afghanistan, Sunni Muslims
make up 85–90% of the population, while Shi’a account for 10–15%. 176
Overall conflicts between the Sunni and Shi’a schools of Islam have not destabilized
Afghanistan. But there is a history of persecuting Shi’a Muslims, especially the Hazaras.
Tensions between Sunnis and Shi’a occasionally lead to violence in central provinces,
where substantial numbers of Hazaras live. Pashtuns are predominantly Sunni, and
they have historically been involved in such conflicts. 177
Sufism
Sufism is a mystical form of Islam. The
basic practice is to obtain a direct, personal
connection with Allah. Sufi practices include
ritual prayer, meditation, and various
ascetic or ecstatic activities. The central
figure is the pir, or spiritual leader. Pirs
are thought to possess a special charismatic
power, known as karamat, as well as the
ability to bestow blessings, or barakat. Pirs
act as mentors and spiritual guides to groups
of students who form brotherhoods around
Sufi leader Sayyid Ahmed Gailani and US Ambassador
their teachings. The Qadiriya order is a James Cunningham at the signing of the 2014
popular brotherhood among Pashtun tribes. Bilateral Security Agreement U.S. State Department
Its leadership is heredity rather than appointed, and pirs are chosen from those who
can trace their lineage to the order’s founder, Abdul-Qadir Gilani. The Qadiriya believe
Gilani was a direct descendant of the Prophet Muhammad. 178 , 179
The Role of Religion in Government

Islam is the state religion of Afghanistan, and it has a strong influence on the country’s
government and legal system. The Afghan constitution states that “no law can be contrary
to the beliefs and provisions of the sacred religion of Islam.” It also requires the president
and vice president of Afghanistan to be Muslim. The constitution does, however, provide
freedom of religion, so long as non-Muslim religious minorities practice their faith “within
the limits of the provisions of the law.”180 It also provides for an independent judiciary, but
Islamic and tribal traditions remain strong, even within the formal court system.181
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For example, legal cases concerning familial
issues—such as marriage, inheritance, and
property—are typically judged according to
Islamic legal code, or shari’a. The constitution
states that any issue not addressed in the
constitutional legal code is subject to Islamic
law. Blasphemy and conversion from Islam are
two such issues that fall outside the scope of
the constitution and are thus judged according
to Islamic law. In Afghanistan, both of these acts
are illegal, and according to some interpretations
of shari’a, they are punishable by death for men, Emblem of the Islamic Republic of
and life imprisonment for women.182 Afghanistan Wikimedia/Sodacan
The Taliban’s years in power led to a strict interpretation and application of Islamic
law.183 Overall, because the country lacks a strong independent judiciary, it has been
difficult to enforce certain provisions of the Afghan constitution, including its stated
commitment to human rights.184 Islamic and tribal traditions remain prevalent.
Influence of Religion on Daily Life

Prayer
The daily routine of Afghans
is heavily influenced by Islam.
Foremost among daily rituals,
Muslims are required to perform
a series of prayers, known in
Afghanistan as namaz (the second
pillar of Islam). Traditionally,
these prayers are performed at
five approximate times of the
day: before dawn, midmorning,
midafternoon, at sundown, and
after sundown. Muslims are called
to prayer by the muezzin, who
typically announces the call for
prayer from the minaret of the Noontime prayer during a shura in Lacey village, Kunar Province
local mosque. Wikicommons/Public Domain
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When do you pray?
Soldier: tsa waKht lmoonz kawee? When do you pray?
Local: da maaspishin po waKht key We pray at noon.
Exchange 1
Daily prayers may be performed alone or with other Muslims at mosques. Friday
is the Islamic holy day, when the Muslim community meets at the local mosque to
participate in group prayer. Held at noon, this communal prayer is traditionally
limited to males. On this day, special sermons are given by the mullahs (a male
religious leader or teacher). All prayers must be offered in the direction of Mecca,
the holy city of Islam, which is located in Saudi Arabia. Most stores, businesses, and
government offices close on Fridays.185
Cleansing
Before prayer, Muslims are required to
perform a ritual cleansing, known as
wudu. This purification process typically
involves washing one’s hands, face,
arms, neck, and feet, as well as rinsing
out the mouth and nose.186 Cleansing
is not solely intended for purposes of
physical cleanliness—although this, too,
is important. Rather, the rite is meant
to spiritually and mentally prepare the
participant to perform a holy action in
A U.S. Navy lieutenant helps an Afghan man wash his hands
a pure and concentrated state. A Muslim before an iftar dinner, Farah Province Flickr/
can break this state of ritual purity ResoluteSupportMedia
through several acts: defecating or urinating, breaking wind, or, for many Muslims,
simply touching a person of the opposite sex. The necessity of performing multiple
daily prayers encourages Muslims to maintain ritual purity throughout the day. Mosques
often have facilities where Muslims can cleanse prior to prayer.
Religious Schools
In Afghanistan, mosques and madrassas, or Muslim schools, provide primary-
and secondary-level religious studies, respectively. In 2015, there were 3,224
government-registered madrassas and “Quran learning centers,” including some
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for girls.187, 188 Located mostly in Kabul, Balkh, Nangarhar, and Herat provinces,
these madrassas served roughly 340,000 students. Madrassas run by the Ministry of
Education are required to have 60% religious instruction and 40% general instruction.
Certificates issued by registered madrassas allow students to pursue higher education
at government universities. There are, however, many unregistered madrassas in
Afghanistan. In these schools, there is
little curriculum oversight.189, 190, 191
In addition to Muslim schools, there is

one government-sponsored school for Sikh
children, located in Kabul. There is also a
privately funded Sikh school in Jalalabad.
A few Sikh children also attend private
international schools. Hindus, who do not
have separate schools, sometimes send
their children to Sikh schools. There are
First-graders and teachers at Abu Herera School,
no Christian schools in Afghanistan.192 Paktika Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Religion and Gender

In 2008, Afghan women gained the right to enter mosques in Kabul and other large
cities. However, they are only allowed to attend certain mosques where they can
pray in segregated spaces.193 In general, mosques in rural communities have not yet
allowed women to worship in their facilities. Traditionally, Afghan women have instead
exercised their religious faith through activities related to shrines, known as ziarats.
Women visit such shrines to pray for blessings of a protective or curative nature.194 It
is also common for women to pray at home.
Religious Events and Holidays

Islamic events and festivals are observed according to the Islamic lunar calendar, which
is shorter than the standard Gregorian calendar used in the U.S. and internationally.
The dates of these events on the standard calendar thus change from year to year.
Ramadan
Ramadan (or Ramazan) is the ninth and holiest month of the Islamic calendar. During this
time observant Muslims fulfill the third pillar of Islam—fasting (known in Afghanistan
as ruzah). During Ramadan, Muslims demonstrate their piety and devotion to the
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Islamic faith. Tradition requires that adults abstain from eating, drinking, and smoking
during daylight hours for 30 days. Restrictions also apply to sexual intercourse. Only
the young, sick, elderly, and pregnant or nursing women are exempt from fasting.
Non-Muslims should avoid eating and drinking in public during fasting hours of the day,
as such activities are seen as disrespectful and rude.
In addition to fasting, many people

perform extra prayers during
Ramadan. Muslims take care to avoid
any wrongdoing during this time of
devotion. Ramadan is also a time
for giving charitable contributions
to the homeless or to an established
organization like a mosque or the
Red Crescent Society, which is similar
to the Red Cross. Most restaurants
are closed during the day, and the
work schedule is altered to release Prayer before iftar, here attended by Afghan dignitaries,
workers early. Helmand Province Flickr/Helmand PRT Lashkar Gah
A large meal, iftar, is typically served after sunset to offset the strict demands of the
daytime fast, which can cause fatigue and irritability. In general, the pace of everyday
life slows considerably during this holy month. Non-Muslims, including foreigners, are
not required to fast, but they are expected to refrain from eating, drinking, smoking,
or chewing gum in public. Keep in mind that fasting can be difficult and people may
become easily agitated or react more slowly.
Eid
Eid means “festival” in Arabic, and Eid al-Fitr or Eid Ramazan (The Festival of the
Breaking of the Fast) marks the end of Ramadan. In Pashto, this festival is known as
Kurbaneyy Akhtar. Muslims celebrate the end of the fast with a large, multiday feast
with family and friends. One of the holiest days in Islam, Eid al-Adha or Eid-e-Qurban
(The Festival of Sacrifice) marks the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. Pashtuns
refer to this festival as Loy Akhtar, and it traditionally marks the end of the Muslim
pilgrimage to Mecca, or hajj. The festival commemorates Abraham’s willingness to
sacrifice his son in obedience to Allah. Muslim families typically slaughter a goat or
sheep and divide it into three shares, giving one share to relatives and another to
the poor.
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People throughout Afghanistan spend the three-day Eid holidays calling on their close
friends and relatives. It is customary for people to wear new clothes and to prepare
large feasts. The exchange of gifts is also customary, although a family’s wealth
determines the extent of their celebrations.
Ashura
Ashura commemorates the martyrdom
of Hussein ibn Ali, the son of Ali and
grandson of Muhammad, who was killed
in the Battle of Karbala in 680 C.E. amid
power struggles for the caliphate. This
day is recognized by all Muslims, but
it is especially important to the Shi’a
community. Ashura occurs on the 10th
day of the Islamic month of Muharram,
a period of mourning for Shi’a Muslims.
During this time, Shi’a Muslim men
may scourge themselves with various Kabuli men and women at prayer on Ashura Flickr/Naseer Najwa
instruments until their backs bleed. Such acts of self-flagellation demonstrate the
Shi’a belief that only physical pain can truly reflect the grief felt by the Muslim world
when Hussein died. In Afghanistan, the celebration of Ashura is generally limited to
areas with large Shi’a populations. In recent years, Ashura festivals in Afghanistan
have been marred by conflicts between Sunni and Shi’a factions.195
Hajj
Performing the hajj is one of five core duties for Muslims
who are able and can afford to go. The pilgrimage ritual
begins on the 7th day of Dhu al-Ḥijjah (the last month of the
Islamic year) and ends five days later. If a person is unable
to make the journey, he or she can appoint a relative or
friend to go on the pilgrimage as a “stand-in.” In 2015, about
24,250 Afghan pilgrims flew the roughly 7,400 km (4,600 mi)
from various Afghan cities to Mecca in Saudi Arabia with
subsidies from the Afghan and U.S. governments.196, 197 Those
who have made the pilgrimage may add the title haji to
their names.198 Elder with the title Haji, Nawa Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
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Buildings of Worship and Sacred Sites
Mosques
A mosque, or masjid, is the traditional
site of Muslim worship. Every village in
Afghanistan has at least one mosque.
In addition to holding prayer services,
mosques are often used as a school room
for traditional Islamic education. The
local mosque may also house general
community meetings. Travelers may be
allowed to stay overnight in mosques, in
which case villagers provide them with
food and drink. Foreigners may be invited The Jama Masjid, also known as the Great Mosque of
into a mosque to meet with local leaders. Herat Flickr/Jim Kelly
Shrines and Cemeteries

Shrines, or ziarats, are a common sight throughout the country. These commemorative
markers may consist of tombs or buildings containing relics, or modest mounds of dirt
or stones. They typically honor saints, venerated holy men (such as pirs), or martyrs
(shahids). Afghans believe that the ziarat of a saint or martyr provides a channel of
communication with Allah, and they usually go to these places to pray for assistance.
Cemeteries are, of course, sacred

places and they should be treated
with respect. Afghans avoid walking
over tombs, and visitors should follow
this practice. The shahid has special
importance in both Islamic and Afghan
society. When crossing cemeteries
anywhere in Afghanistan, visitors
will encounter many tombs that are
distinguished with red or green flags.
These are the final resting places of
Afghan shahids who died defending Cemetary with green flags marking the graves of Afghan
their country and their beliefs. shahids, or those killed in civil war Flickr/Ryan Whitney
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Behavior in Places of Worship
Mosques
Muslims regard mosques as
sacred spaces, and they should
be respected as such. When
foreigners visit a mosque, they
should ask permission to enter. The
dress code requires modesty and
dignity. Clothing should always be
loose fitting. As a rule, the more
rural the region, the more one
should be covered. Once inside the
mosque, non-Muslims should not
touch books or walls (especially
the western corner where people
Ziarat-e Shah Maqsud Shrine, northern Kandahar Province
Flickr / ResoluteSupportMedia direct their prayers).
May I enter the mosque?

Visitor: kawalaay sham che jomaat ta May I enter the mosque?
oor nanowzom?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 2
Under normal, noncombat circumstances, visitors should remove their shoes at the
doorway and place them in the designated area before entering.
Must I take off my shoes before I enter the mosque?

Visitor: majboor yam che leh jomaat ta de bandee Must I take off my shoes before I
iKhbul bochon raa wokaagem? enter the mosque?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 3
In Afghanistan, women traditionally do not visit mosques, but some mosques may
allow women to pray in a segregated area. If a woman does enter a mosque, only her
face, hands, and feet can be visible; her hair must be completely covered.
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Do I need to cover my head?
Visitor: majboor yam che iKhbul sar pit krim? Do I need to cover my head?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 4
Visitors should take care not to disrupt or walk in front of Muslims in prayer; this is
thought to invalidate their prayers and it will upset the worshipper. The presence of
dogs in a mosque is considered a desecration.
Kabuli men and women at prayer on Ashura, which marks the

death of Hussein ibn Ali, grandson of Muhammad Flickr/Naseer
Najwa
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Endnotes for Chapter 2: Religion

166 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 179 Barnett R. Rubin, “Chapter 2: Social Structure
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Religion: under the Old Regime: Religion,” in The Fragmentation
Sufism,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. of Afghanistan, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/62.htm Press, 2002), 39–40.
167 Dawood Azami, “Sufism Returns to Afghanistan after 180 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S.
Years of Repression,” BBC News, 23 February 2011, http:// Department of State, “International Religious Freedom
www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12539409 Report 2008: Afghanistan,” September 2008, http://www.
state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108497.htm
168 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S.
Department of State, “International Religious Freedom 181 Stephen Graham, “A New Constitution for
Report 2015: Afghanistan,” 2015, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/ Afghanistan,” CBS News, 26 January 2004, http://www.
irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=256299#wrapper cbsnews.com/stories/2004/01/02/world/main591116.shtml
169 Alissa J. Rubin, “Flawed Justice After a Mob Killed 182 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S.
an Afghan Woman,” New York Times, 26 December 2015, Department of State, “International Religious Freedom Report
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/27/world/asia/flawed-justice- 2016: Afghanistan,” 2016, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/
after-a-mob-killed-an-afghan-woman.html?_r=0 religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=256299#wrapper
170 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Islam: Fundamental 183 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: Government
Practices and Institutions of Islam: The Five Pillars,” and Society: Political Processes: Informal Institutions
2009, http://search.eb.com/eb/article-69149 and Justice,” 2016, https://www.britannica.com/place/
Afghanistan/Political-process
171 BBC News, “Religions: Islam: Beliefs: Basic Articles
of Faith,” 3 September 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/ 184 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, U.S.
religions/islam/beliefs/beliefs.shtml Department of State, “International Religious Freedom
Report 2008: Afghanistan,” September 2008, http://www.
172 Office of the Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence, state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108497.htm
TRADOC DCSINT Handbook No. 2, Arab Cultural
Awareness: 58 Factsheets (Fort Leavenworth, Kansas: U.S. 185 Kwintessential, “Afghanistan: Language, Culture,
Army Training and Doctrine Command, January 2006), Customs, and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.
http://www.fas.org/irp/agency/army/arabculture.pdf co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/afghanistan.html
173 Allison Keyes, “How to Properly Dispose of Sacred 186 Cyril Glassé, “Wudu,” in The New Encyclopedia of
Texts,” National Public Radio, 24 February 2012, http:// Islam, 3rd ed. (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield,
www.npr.org/2012/02/24/147321213/how-to-properlydispose-of- 2008), 553–555.
sacred-texts
174 Whitney Eulich, “Quran Burning: What is the Department of State, “International Religious Freedom
Respectful Way to Dispose of Islam’s Holy Book?” Report 2015: Afghanistan,” 2015, 7, http://www.state.gov/
Christian Science Monitor, 21 February 2012, http://www. documents/organization/256511.pdf
csmonitor.com/World/Global-News/2012/0221/Quran-burning-
What-is-the-respectful-way-to-dispose-of-Islam-s-holy-book 188 Abdul Ahad Mohammadi, Musab Omer, and
Muhammad Moheq “Trends in Radicalization across
175 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Islam: Islamic Thought: Unregistered Madrassas in Afghanistan,” Afghan Institute
Theology and Sectarianism,” 2009, https://www.britannica. for Strategic Studies, September 2015, 32, http://www.
com/topic/Islam/Islamic-thought#toc69163 aiss.af/wp-content/uploads/2015/09/English-version-Trends-in-
Radicalization-across-Unregistered-Madrassas-in-Afghanistan.pdf
176 BBC News, “Religions: Islam: Beliefs: Sunni and
Shi’a,” 19 August 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/ 189 Malyar Sadeq Azad, “The Afghan Madrassa Accused
religions/islam/subdivisions/sunnishia_1.shtml of Radicalising Women,” BBC News, 16 March 2014, http://
www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26418558
Department of State, “International Religious Freedom 190 Reza Fazli, Casey Johnson, and Peyton Cooke,
Report for 2015: Afghanistan,” 2015, http://www.state. “Understanding and Countering Violent Extremism
gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=25 in Afghanistan,” United States Institute of Peace,
6299#wrapper September 2015, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR379-
Understanding-and-Countering-Violent-Extremism-in-Afghanistan.pdf
178 Afghan Bios, “Gilani, Pir Sayed Ahmad Gailani Dead,”
Who Is Who in Afghanistan? Biographies of Important 191 Ahmad Shah, “Parallel Schools for Girls in Southeast
People, 1 January 2017, http://www.afghan-bios.info/index. Afghan Province,” Institute for War & Peace Reporting,
php?option=com_afghanbios&id=569&task=view&total=2869&sta 30 November 2015, https://iwpr.net/global-voices/parallel-
rt=865&Itemid=2 schools-girls-southeast-afghan
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Endnotes for Chapter 2: Religion

Department of State, “International Religious Freedom
Report 2015: Afghanistan,” 2015, http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/
irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?year=2015&dlid=256299#wrapper
193 Farishta Karim, “Mosques in Afghanistan Bringing

Women out of Their Homes,” PajhwokAfghan News, 4
August 2016, http://www3.pajhwok.com/en/2016/08/04/
mosques-afghanistan-bringing-women-out-their-homes

“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Religion:
Meaning and Practice,” in Afghanistan: A Country
Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/
afghanistan/69.htm
195 Syed Mohsin Naqvi, “Violence Mars Ashura Festival,”

CNN World, 10 February 2006, http://www.cnn.com/2006/
WORLD/asiapcf/02/09/ashura.wrap/index.html
196 U.S. Embassy, U.S. Department of State, “Afghan

Government Helps 22,000 Make the Hajj Pilgrimage,”
n.d., http://iipdigital.usembassy.gov/st/english/article/2003/03/
20030317100808namfuaks0.0325281.html#axzz4S09mT3QO
197 Sayed Abbas Kazimi, “First Kabul Flight Leaves for

Hajj,” Tolo News, 21 August 2015, http://www.tolonews.
com/en/afghanistan/21010-first-kabul-flight-leaves-for-hajj
198 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Hajj,” 21 November 2011,

https://www.britannica.com/topic/hajj
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Chapter 2 | Religion
Assessment
1. Most Afghan Muslims are Shi’a.
2. There is a history of persecution of Shi’a Muslims in Afghanistan.
3. Islam is Afghanistan’s state religion.
4. Most legal issues in Afghanistan are judged according to Islamic law.
5. Women can enter most mosques in Afghanistan.
Assessment Answers: 1. False; 2. True; 3. True; 4. True; 5. False
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An Afghan family, female members in burqas walking behind the male Flickr/Kenneth Taylor, Jr
Traditions
Introduction
Afghan traditions are deeply rooted in Islamic and tribal customs, many of which
have been in practice for centuries. The term “Afghan” was originally a synonym
for “Pashtun,” and Pashtun culture has greatly influenced today’s Afghan society.
From Pashtunwali tenets woven into the current Afghan legal system, to the concept
of equality as represented by the jirga, Pashtun influence is evident throughout
the country.199 Ranging from basic manners of interaction to codes of honor and
responsibility, these tribal and religious traditions make Afghanistan a conservative,
traditional society. Attempts at social reform have been made in Afghanistan in the
modern era. In many cases, such reforms were overturned following fierce resistance
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51
from the nation’s tribal and Islamic fundamentalist factions.200 Although attitudes
vary throughout the country, such resistance to change demonstrates the strength of
Afghan traditions.
The foremost priority of the Pashtun social

code is the preservation of individual and
family honor, which are deeply connected
and valued above all else. Perceptions
of character not only affect every day
social relations, but also political and
economic matters within the community.
An Afghan’s honor is directly linked to
whether he or she conforms to customary
views and practices. It is especially
contingent on a person’s adherence to the
rules that enforce the clear distinction Panjwai District governor greeting district elders before a
and segregation of the sexes. local shura, Kandahar Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Greetings and Codes of Conduct

Afghans place great value on hospitality. They
are generally quick to greet friends as well as
strangers. Greetings, especially to strangers,
are offered in a formal manner respectful of
status and gender. A common greeting is the
standard Arabic blessing, “Assalamu alaikum,”
and the response, “Wa alaikum assalam.”
Handshakes are a typical greeting between men

in Afghanistan. Using both hands to shake hands
demonstrates warmth and sincerity. When
exchanging greetings, Afghans may also offer a
slight bow and touch their hands to their heart
as a show of sincerity or respect.201 This gesture
should be returned. Afghans will also stand when Men greeting one another, Shakardara District of
a leader or elder enters the room. Kabul Flickr/Anna Maria Adhikari UNAMA
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Chapter 3 | Traditions 52
Good morning.
Soldier: sahaar mo po Khayr Good morning.
Local: sahaar mo po Khayr Good morning.
Exchange 5
It is customary to exchange a series of friendly greetings before conducting any business.

Expressing concern about health and family, and making time for light conversation are
important. The length of time a task will take is not as important as accomplishing the
task. An Afghan’s sense of personal space is different from that of most Westerners.
Afghan men typically stand closer to one another than Westerners when communicating.
Stepping back may be considered offensive.
Good evening.
Soldier: shpa mo po Khayr Good evening.
Local: shpa mo po Khayr Good evening.
Exchange 6
Titles are used to greet persons in formal situations.
Hi, Mr. Hamidi.

Soldier: salaamo ‘alaykum hameedee sayb Hi, Mr. Hamidi.
Local: wa ‘alaykumo salaam! Hello!
Soldier: Khee yaast? Are you doing well?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 7
Male friends or relatives may hug and kiss

each other on the cheek. They may also
hold hands. In Afghan culture, these acts are
demonstrations of friendship, nothing more.
Women may greet each other with a

handshake or simply exchange a verbal
greeting. Close female friends and relatives
may hug and kiss each other on the
Women holding hands, a sign of friendship
cheek. They may also hold hands. Flickr/Afghanistan Matters
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How are you?
Soldier: tsanga yaast? How are you?
Local: manana, der Kheh Fine, very well.
Exchange 8
Afghan men do not make physical or eye contact with women while greeting, as such
contact is a serious offense. Verbal greetings may be used between men and women
in some circumstances. However, it is more common for men and women to not be
introduced at all, especially in conservative areas populated by Pashtuns.
Eye Contact
In Afghanistan, it is not impolite to break
eye contact during a conversation, and
it does not indicate any dishonesty or
hostility. It is a demonstration of modesty.
Afghans consider staring or fixed gazes as
a sign of aggression. Such looks may also
be interpreted as the “evil eye,” which is
considered extremely offensive. Members
of the opposite sex do not look each other
in the eye, including in some cases within
the extended family.202 Male foreigners
should avoid making eye contact with
Afghan women, as it could cause offense. Rural schoolgirl breaking eye contact, a sign of modesty USAID
Right Hand vs. Left Hand

Afghans maintain an important distinction between
the right and left hands. They use their right hand
for all public interactions, including shaking hands,
eating, drinking, making a payment, presenting or
receiving a gift, etc. The left hand is traditionally
associated with matters of personal hygiene, and it
is considered unclean. It is therefore inappropriate
to use the left hand for eating, passing things to
others, or gesturing. Even left-handed persons U.S. Army major shaking hands with a villager
should observe this custom. Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
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Male-Female Interactions
Islamic and tribal customs heavily influence
Afghan social codes. These codes dictate
that men and women should maintain
distinct boundaries. As a result, the
segregation of men and women is common
practice in Afghanistan, especially among
the Pashtun. Members of the opposite sex
do not mix socially in public, particularly
if they are unrelated. While circumstances
vary according to location and family,
many women are largely restricted to
the home. Gender boundaries are also Muslims, shoes removed, at the Jama Masjid of Herat
observed in the home. Physical contact Flickr/Marius Arnesen
between unrelated men and women is taboo, and even friendship between members
of the opposite sex is seen as inappropriate.
Afghan men maintain a respectful distance from unrelated women in public. It is

unacceptable for men to shake hands or initiate any physical contact with women
outside their own families. It is also inappropriate for a man to address any female
directly or initiate a conversation with her. Men should instead communicate through
the woman’s husband or close male relatives.
It is a serious offense for a man to compliment a woman on her looks or her clothing.
Unless the person voicing such sentiments is also female, this type of compliment
may offend the woman and her family. For the same reason, Afghan men do not
welcome questions about their wives and daughters. One should ask about their
family as a whole instead.
How is your family?

Soldier: koraney da changa da? How is your family?
Local: Khada, manana They are doing fine, thank you.
Exchange 9
Gender Roles and Relationships

Although men and women have equal rights under the Afghan constitution, the country
remains deeply conservative and patriarchal. Afghan men participate in politics
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and relationships with outsiders. Within the family, they are the breadwinners,
disciplinarians, and providers for elderly relatives. In general, male family members
decide over a female’s life. The head of the household will make all major decisions for a
woman: whether she can attend school as a girl, who she marries, and even whether she
is allowed to seek professional medical help. A male Pashtun, in particular, adheres to a
code of behavior that stresses honor and its defense. His dignity is defined by his ability
to control and defend his property, his household, and his wife and female relatives.203
Afghan women are the custodians of

family honor, and their actions reflect on
themselves and the family. As such, Afghan
women face the contradiction between the
freedoms and opportunities they have under
Afghan law, and what is actually acceptable
in practice. Women have the right to
vote, drive, go to school, and pursue a
career. But, many women continue to face
severe abuse or discrimination if they do
not follow traditional Islamic and tribal Afghan family, village of Chil Gazi, Balkh Province
customs.204 The extent to which a woman Flickr/DVIDSHUB
observes such traditions, either forced or freely chosen, varies according to her
occupation and education, and where she lives. Regardless, veiling and seclusion are
commonplace in many Afghan communities.205
Segregation and Seclusion

Afghan social norms and traditions require separate spaces for men and women in
many aspects of daily life. Additionally, they restrict women’s freedom of movement.
These practices are meant to control women and to shield them from outside forces,
such as tribal enemies or unfamiliar men. Male family members are responsible for
protecting and supervising their female relatives, especially in public. In Afghanistan,
as in many Muslim societies, the public realm is a male-dominated space, as well as a
space that is prone to danger. When given permission to go out in public, women are
typically required to be escorted by their male relatives.
Reclaiming Family Honor

Family honor is inseparably bound to the preservation of a woman’s virginity before
marriage. Even events that are beyond a woman’s control, such as cases of assault, will
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be viewed as bringing disgrace to her family and community.206 In extreme instances,
“honor killings” occur in Afghanistan. These killings are carried out in cases in which
a woman or girl is thought to have shamed her family. Serious offenses include
committing adultery, engaging in premarital sex, refusing an arranged marriage, or
suffering rape. Honor killings are most commonly committed against women accused
of sex outside a marriage (zina), or even suspicion of it (running away from home).
The death of the shamed woman in such a killing is thought to restore the family’s
honor. Male relatives usually carry out the killings themselves, and they are often
supported by other males in the community in the effort.207, 208
Social Codes: Pashtunwali

Pashtunwali is the ancient tribal
code adhered to by Pashtun peoples,
especially those living in rural areas
effectively beyond the reach of the
central government.209 Pashtunwali is
defined by its emphasis on community
consensus and local decision-making. The
code outlines the social responsibilities of
Pashtuns, and is traditionally the basis for
local law in Pashtun communities. Within
these communities, it is often associated
with Islamic legal codes and traditions, Shura with 180 village elders and locals, Nad-e Ali District
even though there are contradictions of Helmand Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
between the two. When Pashtunwali conflicts with stricter interpretations of Islam
210
(Sharia), most Pashtuns will observe their traditional code of conduct, as they believe
that Muslim and Pashtun are equivalent.211 However, the Taliban, who are largely
composed of Pashtuns, base their rule of law on a combination of Pashtunwali and a
strict interpretation of Islam.212 Overall, the strength of the Pashtunwali tradition varies
according to region. The following are its major principles.
Honor (Nang)
For Pashtuns, and the Afghan people as a whole, honor (nang) is the defining
characteristic of an individual’s self-worth and reputation within society. The Afghan
concept of honor is closely related to bravery (principally in battle), self-respect,
and responsibility. A Pashtun’s honor is deeply connected to that of his or her family
and the tribe as a whole. Under Pashtunwali, men have an absolute duty to protect
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the respectability of women and to safeguard the integrity of the homeland. Honor
demands maintaining sexual propriety. Complete chastity among female relatives is
imperative. Without honor, a Pashtun is no longer respected or accepted. Accordingly,
Pashtuns are quick to defend their honor. Insults upon a Pashtun’s honor are taken
extremely seriously and may be cause for violence, including murder and prolonged
blood feuds between tribes.213
Hospitality (Melmastia)
The generous display of hospitality
(melmastia) is one of the most important
principles in the Pashtunwali code. Pashtun
hospitality extends to both guests and
strangers. Pashtun hosts traditionally offer
food, shelter, and, in some cases, gifts to their
guests. Meals prepared for guests will often
be more lavish than those the Pashtun family
regularly eats. A closely related Pashtunwali
principle is nanawati. This principle requires
the defense and protection of anyone during
U.S. reconstruction team members and local Afghan
their stay with a Pashtun family. It may also officials at iftar dinner, Farah, Farah Province Flickr /
involve the mediation of a dispute in which ResoluteSupportMedia
the guest may be involved. For Pashtuns, it is a great honor to provide hospitality and
protection to their guests.214
Protection of Women, Land, Honor, and Wealth (Namus)

The concept of namus has a broad meaning. In
general, it applies to the protection of sanctity
and honor, which, in turn, are upheld through the
protection of the tribe’s assets. For example, any
insult or attack upon the tribe’s territory or women
is seen as a direct attack upon the tribe’s honor
and sanctity. The protection of the tribe’s sanctity
extends to the preservation of social customs
within the community.
Afghan woman with khaal markings, a beauty

Namus is primarily tied to the protection and sign women receive before marriage, near
control of women and the preservation of their Charikar Flickr/DVIDSHUB
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chastity. The concept of parda (purdah), or the veiling and seclusion of women, is
closely linked to namus, as is the general practice of segregating the sexes. Male and
female Pashtuns are required to respect the established gender boundaries, and they
may face shame and punishment for not doing so. In extreme cases, a man may be forced
out of the community, while a woman’s punishment may be far more severe. 215, 216, 217 In a
very broad sense, namus may also refer to the protection of land or property, which is
closely linked with women in some Pashtun tribes.218
Revenge (Badal)
Badal is revenge or retribution for insults or attacks made upon one’s honor, family,
or tribal assets. According to Pashtunwali, a person who violates another’s namus is
subject to punishment, generally of an equivalent nature. It is a Pashtun’s duty to
exact revenge when his honor has been insulted, and other Pashtuns may look down
on him if he does not seek retaliation. This mandate for retribution is strong among
Pashtun communities, and it has led to long-running blood feuds between tribes.
However, conflict mediation and reconciliation is possible through some channels,
including the jirga, or tribal council.219
Tribal Council (Jirga)

The jirga is a council of tribal
leaders, usually composed of elder
men known for their adherence to
the Pashtunwali code. The jirga
acts as the local legislative and
judicial body and thus oversees
disputes or addresses important
issues within the community.
In judicial matters, the council
interviews those involved and
considers relevant evidence. Its
members reach decisions based
on consensus, and the persons Provincial Grand Jirga, Muqur District, Ghazni Province
involved are required to abide by Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
the council’s decision. This process provides a relatively democratic and peaceful way
to resolve disputes within or between tribes. However, the council’s decision may
override a person’s individual rights, particularly in the case of women.220
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Escort (Badragga)
The concept of badragga is important because it applies to strangers passing through
Pashtun tribal lands. Badraggas are armed escorts that accompany travelers (or even
fugitives) on their trek through Pashtun territory. The traveler must first ask permission
from the tribe and pay for the services of the badragga. When under the escort of a
badragga, travelers are guaranteed safe passage. It is against Pashtunwali code for
other Pashtun tribes, including enemies of the traveler, to harm the traveler when
under the protection of the badragga of another tribe.221
Hospitality and Gift-Giving

It is very important for Afghans, regardless of their wealth, to show hospitality to all
visitors. To do so is a source of pride and honor. Guests receive the best an Afghan
family has to offer, which varies according to the family’s means. This applies not only
to Pashtuns, but all Afghan peoples.
I really appreciate your hospitality.

Visitor: les taasoo da meelma paa leena dera I really appreciate your hospitality.
manana kom
Local: qaabelyat nalaree It is nothing.
Exchange 10
The most basic form of Afghan hospitality

is an invitation for tea. It is customary
for Afghans to drink at least three cups
of tea. While guests should accept the
offered tea, they may leave it without
drinking and not cause offense. When
visiting an Afghan home for tea or a
meal, it is appropriate to bring a small
gift such as fruit or pastries. 222 Gifts are
not expected, however, as it is the host’s
honor to provide for the guest. Guests City elders drinking tea during a shura, Marjah,
should present any gift in a subtle way, Helmand Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
by setting the gift aside, perhaps near the door or seating area. Such gifts will not
be opened in front of the giver. When giving gifts, foreigners should respect Islamic
dietary customs that prohibit Muslims from consuming pork or alcohol.223
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This gift is for you.
Visitor: da taaso ta yawa soghaatee da This gift is for you.
Local: manana, magar zey na qablawom Thank you, but I cannot accept this.
Exchange 11
Traditional Jobs and Economy

Agriculture and animal husbandry
have historically formed the basis of
the Afghan economy. Most Afghans
continue to work as farmers and
livestock herders, or in related
businesses. Major conventional
crops include grains (such as wheat
and barley), cotton, fruits, and nuts.
Cultivating opium poppies has become
widespread due to its hardiness and
high market value. Cows, sheep,
goats, donkeys, and horses are
typical breeds of livestock. The first Young shepherd with elder, Tarok Kolache village, Arghandab
three are especially important for River Valley, Kandahar Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
milk production. Other varieties include camels, buffalo, and mules.224 Some tribes,
including Pashtun tribes in the southeast, subsist as nomadic shepherds, migrating in
search of grazing land. The production of handicrafts and textiles, such as carpets, is
another common economic activity.
Are you the only person in your family who has a job?
Soldier: po Khpol faameel ke taasee Are you the only person in your family who
yowazeeney kaar kawonke yaast? has a job?
Local: na No.
Exchange 12
Traditional Pastimes
Buzkashi (goat-grabbing) is the national sport of Afghanistan. The ancient, polo-like
game is played on horseback by teams of 10 men who grapple for the carcass of a goat
or calf and take it across the goal line. Uzbeks are considered champions.
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Kite-fighting is another competitive pastime in
Afghanistan. The kites are made of brightly colored
tissue paper and bamboo and are flown on glass-coated
“cutting lines.” The object is to cut down each other’s
kites, with the last kite in the sky winning. Young boys
will try to capture the cut kites (kite-running).225
Traditional Dress
Following Islamic and tribal customs, traditional
Afghan dress is conservative. Afghan men generally
wear loose-fitting, full-length pants and a long shirt
that reaches down to their knees (shalwar kameez).
Vests may be worn over the shirt, and it is common for
men to carry a shawl-like garment on their shoulders. Kite fighter launching his kite Flickr/
This piece of cloth is often used as a rug for prayer. Afghanistan Matters
Turbans, which consist of a long strip of cloth wrapped around the head, are customary
among Pashtun men, who often leave a loose end hanging. Pakul, round-topped wool
hats, and skullcaps are other popular forms of headgear.226
In public, Afghan women are often completely concealed in accordance with local
custom. Many wear a blue chadri, an extensive, loose-fitting garment that covers the
entire body. Latticework openings near the eyes allow them to see out. This piece
of clothing is meant to shield women from the view of strangers. In recent years
however, fewer women are wearing it. Instead, they wear baggy cotton pants and a
long, loose-fitting shirt (kameez partug or kaalee). 227 A headscarf or shawl (chador or
saader) is used to cover the hair and, when necessary, the face. It is not uncommon,
especially in Pashtun families, to see women with tattoos on their chin, forehead, and
cheeks. These green dots, or khaal, are considered a sign of beauty, and most women
get them before marriage.
Foreigners should respect the Afghan tradition of conservative attire.
How should I dress?

Visitor: tsa dool kaalee aghoostalee sham? How should I dress?
Local: daasee kaalee waaghoondee che praaKh Wear loose fitting clothes which
wee aw haykal dee pit kree cover your body.
Exchange 13
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It is advisable for women to carry a scarf
in order to cover their hair or face in
certain situations.
Neither men nor women should wear shorts

in public. Women should avoid wearing
tight-fitting clothing such as leggings, short
skirts, short-sleeved shirts, and tight-fitting
or low-cut blouses in public. Although men
commonly take their shirt off in hot weather
in the U.S., this practice is considered highly U.S. Army combat medic and Afghan girl, Urgun
inappropriate in Afghanistan. District, Paktika Province Flickr/DVIDSHUB
Is this acceptable to wear?

Visitor: daa dool kaalee da aghoostoloo war dee? Is this acceptable to wear?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 14
Food
The Afghan region has been exposed to many different culinary influences throughout
its history. As most Afghans are farmers and livestock herders, cereals and animal
products are staples of the Afghan diet.
This food is very good.

Visitor: daa Khowaro der sheh dee This food is very good.
Local: dee cherge qoorma dah It’s Qorma-e Morgh.
Exchange 15
In general, an Afghan meal usually consists of tea,

bread (naan), rice, and a main dish containing some
type of meat, such as lamb, goat, chicken, or beef.
Stews (qorma) are popular dishes. Afghan Muslims
must ensure that their food, particularly their
meat, is halal (much like kosher).
Kabobs, naan, and tea Flickr/Munir Squires
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What ingredients are used to make Qorma-e Morgh?
Visitor: de day qoorma mawaad tsa dee? What ingredients are used to make
Qorma-e Morgh?
Local: dee cherge ghowha da che po peeyaazo ke It is chicken meat sautéed in
sara shawe da. adweeya jaat aw roomee onions. Spices, tomato sauce and
baanjaan de logo boo sara peeka achool a little water are added to it.
shawee dee
Exchange 16
A popular Afghan dish is pilau (pilaf), which consists of rice, meat (typically lamb or
goat), vegetables, nuts, dried fruit, and spices. Carrots, raisins, and lamb are the
main ingredients in qabili pilau, one of the nation’s most famous dishes, but there
are many other variations.
What is the name of this dish?

Visitor: da Khoraak tsa noom laree? What is the name of this dish?
Local: da qaabelee palaw de This is Qabili Palaw.
Exchange 17
Kebabs, skewered chunks of seasoned meat,

are another popular meal in Afghanistan,
although they are mostly found in urban
centers. They are typically accompanied
by naan or, sometimes, vegetables. Meat
dumplings, noodle soups, and lamb stews
are also popular. Fruits and nuts typically
complement all meals, as they are common
Afghan agricultural products. Yogurt, eggs,
and other animal products are also staples.
Alcohol and pork are strictly avoided in Chopan kebab (lamb) being prepared
accordance with Islamic tradition.228 Wikicommons/Iain Cochran
Eating at an Afghan Home

An invitation for a meal is a customary form of Afghan hospitality. This will certainly
occur if one is visiting an Afghan village as a guest. Meals will often be given in the
village hujra, or guesthouse. In many cases, the host will slaughter an animal for the
meal as a sign of his generous hospitality. If the guest is male, the meal will likely
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be attended only by men. The women will eat separately. Dining etiquette may vary
according to region and family.
When entering an Afghan home for a meal, it is customary to remove one’s shoes.
Meals in Afghan homes are usually served on a cloth or rug on the ground, and cushions
may be provided for seating. The hosts will generally direct the guest where to sit,
and guests should wait for them to do so. Guests should sit cross-legged and take care
not to show the soles of their feet or point them at other persons. This is considered
offensive.229 Before the meal, it is customary to wash one’s hands.
Customary Eating Habits

Afghans often eat from a single large plate
and use their right hand to take food from
the dish. Even if guests are left-handed,
they should not take food from the
communal plate with their left hand or
use it to consume food. Likewise, items
should only be passed with the right hand.
Each person may have an individual

plate for food. Afghans generally do not
use utensils, but they may offer them Qurutob, a traditional Tajik dish, eaten with the right
to foreigners. The most common eating hand from a communal plate Wikicommons/Zlerman
method is to collect small portions of food with the fingertips, at times rolling it into
a ball, before eating it. Bread may also be used to scoop food. Certain meals require
bowls and spoons.
It is polite to compliment the quality of the food.
This food tastes so good.

Visitor: da Khowara derah Kha maza This food tastes so good.
kawee
Local: manana Thank you.
Exchange 18
Afghans may wipe or stroke their face or beard to indicate they have finished.
The gesture demonstrates thanks to God for the food. Guests should leave a small
amount of food on their individual plate to show that they are full. Otherwise,
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the host will continue to offer food, as his honor is tied to his ability to provide
for guests.
Non-Religious Holidays
Although Islamic holidays are the most
important events of the year, Afghans also
celebrate a number of secular holidays and
festivals. The largest of these is Nowruz,
a New Year’s celebration that follows the
solar calendar. This event typically falls on
21 March, the first day of spring. During
this time, Afghans traditionally decorate
their homes and wear new clothing,
depending upon their means. Friends and
Wreath-laying ceremony in honor of Afghan Independence
families gather to celebrate the holiday
Day Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia with special meals, including a sweet,
pudding-like dish known as samanak. A variety of local events and festivals may be
held on this day in various regions of the country.
Will you be celebrating the festival?

Visitor: taaso de newee kaal jeshin Will you be celebrating New Year?
tar sara kawee??
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 19
Another important holiday is Jashn, or Independence Day, which is celebrated on 19

August. This event commemorates Afghanistan’s formal independence in 1919, when
the British relinquished control over the region.230
During celebrations, it is not uncommon for Afghans to fire guns, especially in rural
areas. Gunshots may be fired, for example, to mark the end of Ramadan, the first day
of Eid, a marriage, or the birth of a child.
Weddings
Afghan marriages, which are typically arranged, settle debts or strengthen family
status through social alliances with other families; they are not private unions between
individuals. Roughly 80% of Afghan women enter forced or arranged marriages.231, 232
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While weddings remain traditional affairs
in which parents select the partners
of their children, the celebrations are
full of color and as lavish as budgets
permit. Guests often bring their entire
families. In villages, it is necessary to
invite everyone or risk losing face in
the community. In the cities, weddings
have become financial burdens for the
groom’s family, who pays for the lengthy
celebration and its many related events, Afghan locals dancing at a wedding in Jalalabad,
in addition to the bride price. Depending Nangarhar Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
on the region and the circumstances, the bride price alone can reach the equivalent
of tens of thousands of U.S. dollars.233, 234 As the wedding ceremony is an important
display of social status, even poor Afghans will go to great lengths to arrange an
elaborate celebration.235
Congratulations on your wedding!

Visitor: wadoo mo mobaarak sha! Congratulations on your wedding!
Local: staaso ishteraak kawel mog We are honored you could attend.
te ifteeKhaar bahee
Exchange 20
After negotiations and preparations for the wedding, the ceremony is generally
performed by a mullah, or Muslim clergy member. The formal ceremony is followed
by an elaborate celebration and feast, traditionally held at the bridegroom’s home.
Today, weddings in some areas, particularly in cities, may be held in public wedding
halls. The reception includes music and dancing, and the bride traditionally receives
gifts from the wedding guests.
I wish you both happiness.

Visitor: dowaro ta de neyk marghee I wish you both happiness.
heela kawoom
Local: mog ta ifteeKhaar dey We are honored.
Exchange 21
Men and women generally celebrate in different rooms or banquet halls, as Islamic and
tribal custom requires them to be segregated. In some tribal communities, “proof” of
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the bride’s virginity will be required on the wedding night; evidence to the contrary
may result in a broken marriage contract.236
Funerals
Burials in Afghanistan are conducted according to Islamic custom. The body
of the deceased is first washed and then shrouded in clean linen. Women are
shrouded in extra linen to conceal their face and further cover their torso.
To maintain the segregation of the sexes, deceased men and women are not
buried together.
I would like to give my condolences to you.

Visitor: zo ghowaarim che taaso aw taaso I would like to give my condolences to
kooranee ta iKhpalee Khwaa Khoogee you and your family.
oraan dekram
Local: manana Thank you.
Exchange 22
In Pashtun communities, male and

female mourners are segregated at
the burial site. Women often perform
loud wailing as a demonstration of
their grief. If related to the deceased,
Pashtun women are prohibited from
wearing colored clothing or jewelry
for three days. After this period,
widows may wear white or black.
Male and female graves are marked
differently. Stones are lined on men’s
graves from side to side, while on
women’s graves, they run from end Cemetary overlooking Shahr-e Gholghola, Bamiyan
to end.237 Flickr/Tracy Hunter
Please be strong.
Visitor: lotfan Khpal zaan satr wosaatee Please be strong.
Local: koshesh be oo wokroo We will try.
Exchange 23
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Celebrating with Guns
During celebrations it is not
uncommon for Afghans to fire
guns, especially in rural areas. For
example, gunshots might be fired
to mark the beginning or end of
Ramadan, the first day of Eid, a
marriage, or the birth of a child.
Many people have been killed or

critically injured by falling bullets,
so onlookers should keep a safe
distance. It is crucial to distinguish
friendly celebration fire from hostile
fire. If unsure, foreigners should ask
Insurgents surrendering weapons, Badghis Province,
a local about the reason for rifle fire. northwestern Afghanistan Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Dos and Don’ts

• Do use your whole hand and motion inward to summon someone.
• Do keep the soles of your shoes hidden from public view when seated.
• Do place your right hand briefly on your chest when greeting people; this
gesture conveys humility and respect.
• Do remove your gloves before shaking hands.
• Don’t use the OK sign; it could be taken by some as an obscene gesture.
• Don’t summon people by using a crooked finger.
• Don’t sit on a floor with your legs stretched out in front of you.
• Don’t point directly at Afghans; they consider this a rude gesture.
• Don’t wag your finger at somebody; this is perceived as threatening.
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Endnotes for Chapter 3: Traditions

199 Leo Karrer, “Pashtun Traditions versus Western 211 GlobalSecurity.org, “Ethnicity and Tribe:
Perceptions: Cross-Cultural Negotiations in Afghanistan: 1. Distribution,” n.d., http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/
The Pashtun Element in Afghan Society,” The Graduate world/afghanistan/society-distribution.htm
Institute Geneva ePapers, 4 December 2012, http://books.
openedition.org/iheid/546?lang=en 212 Zachary Laub, “The Taliban in Afghanistan,” Council
on Foreign Relations, 4 July 2014, http://www.cfr.org/
200 Marvin G. Weinbaum and Meena Yousufzy, “Political- afghanistan/taliban-afghanistan/p10551
Cultural Impediments to Reform in Afghanistan,” Foreign
Policy, 5 March 2015, http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/05/ 213 Hamid M. Khan, “Islamic Law, Customary Law, and
political-cultural-impediments-to-reform-in-afghanistan/ Afghan Informal Justice,” United States Institute of Peace,
March 2015, 3, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/
201 Kwintessential, “Afghanistan: Language, SR363-Islamic-Law-CustomaryLaw-and-Afghan-Informal-
Culture, Customs, and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www. Justice.pdf
kwintessential.co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/
afghanistan.html 214 Palwasha Kakar, “Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and
Women’s Legislative Authority,” Harvard Law School,
202 Global Affairs Canada, Centre for Intercultural Islamic Legal Studies Program, n.d., 3–4, https://www.
Learning, “Cultural Information: Afghanistan,” 15 scribd.com/document/39200955/Pashtunwali-Report-by-
October 2009, http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/ci-ic-eng. Harvard-Law
asp?iso=af#cn-2
215 Hamid M. Khan, “Islamic Law, Customary Law, and
203 GlobalSecurity.org, “Ethnicity and Tribe: Afghan Informal Justice,” United States Institute of Peace,
Distribution,” n.d., http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ March 2015, 3, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR363-
world/afghanistan/society-distribution.htm Islamic-Law-CustomaryLaw-and-Afghan-Informal-Justice.pdf
204 World Bank, “Afghanistan: National Reconstruction 216 Helen Redmond, “Their Empty Talk of Liberating
and Poverty Reduction—The Role of Women in Afghan Women,” SocialistWorker.org, http://socialistworker.
Afghanistan’s Future,” March 2005, 75–76, http:// org/2011/03/23/empty-talk-about-liberation
siteresources.worldbank.org/AFGHANISTANEXTN/Resources/
AfghanistanGenderReport.pdf 217 Rod Nordland, “In Spite of the Law, Afghan ‘Honor
Killings’ of Women Continue,” New York Times, 3 May
205 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/05/04/world/asia/in-spite-
Gender Issues: Seclusion and Restriction,” in Culture and of-the-law-afghan-honor-killings-of-women-continue.html?_r=0
Customs of Afghanistan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
2005), 169–171. 218 LandInfo, Country of Origin Information Centre,
“Afghanistan: Blood Feuds, Traditional Law (Pashtunwali)
206 Rashida Manjoo, “Violence Against Women in the and Traditional Conflict Resolution,” 1 November 2011, 7,
Community,” in Report of the Special Rapporteur on 10, http://www.landinfo.no/asset/1940/1/1940_1.pdf
Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences:
Addendum, Human Rights Council, UN General Assembly, 219 Jennifer Brick Murtazashvili, Informal Order and
12 May 2015, http://www.refworld.org/docid/5583f8224. the States in Afghanistan (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
html, paragraph 19 University Press, 2016) 197–200.
207 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian 220 Palwasha Kakar, “Tribal Law of Pashtunwali and
Affairs, “Honour Killings on the Rise,” 15 September 2006, Women’s Legislative Authority,” Harvard Law School,
http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=61698 Islamic Legal Studies Program, n.d., 6, https://www.scribd.
com/document/39200955/Pashtunwali-Report-by-Harvard-Law
208 Afghanistan Independent Human Rights Commission,
“National Inquiry Report on Factors and Causes of Rape 221 Nabi Misdaq, “Historic Perspective on Afghanistan,
and Honor Killing in Afghanistan,” 9 June 2013, http:// Its People and Culture,” Congressional Progressive
www.aihrc.org.af/en/research-reports/1571/national-inquiry-on- Caucus, n.d., 5, https://cpc-grijalva.house.gov/uploads/
rape-and-honor-killing-in-afghanistan-report-summary.html Historic%20Perspective%20on%20Afghanistan_Misdaq1.doc
209 Barnett R. Rubin, “Chapter 2: Social Structure under 222 Commisceo Global, “Afghanistan Guide,” 2016, http://
the Old Regime: Kinship, Qawm, Tribe, Ethnicity,” in The www.commisceo-global.com/country-guides/afghanistan-guide
Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 2002), 28–29. 223 Kwintessential, “Afghanistan: Language, Culture,
Customs, and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.
210 Hamid M. Khan, “Islamic Law, Customary Law, and co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/afghanistan.html
Afghan Informal Justice,” United States Institute of Peace,
March 2015, 5, https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/SR363- 224 Encyclopædia Britannica, “Afghanistan: The
Islamic-Law-CustomaryLaw-and-Afghan-Informal-Justice.pdf Economy: Agriculture and Forestry,” 2016, https://www.
britannica.com/place/Afghanistan/Agriculture-and-forestry
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Endnotes for Chapter 3: Traditions

225 Kirk Semple, “For Afghan Boys and Men, Kite
Flying Is a Way of Life,” New York Times, 14 December
2012, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/14/world/asia/14iht-
kites.4.8751433.html
226 Timothy L. Gall, “Pashtun,” in Worldmark

Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life, 1st ed. (Detroit:
Gale Research, 1998).
227 Kenneth Katzman, “Afghanistan: Post-Taliban

Governance, Security and U.S. Policy,” Congressional
Research Service, 22 December 2015, https://www.fas.org/
sgp/crs/row/RL30588.pdf
228 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 5: Social Customs,

Cuisine, and Traditional Dress: Clothing and Fashions,”
in Culture and Customs of Afghanistan (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 2005), 137–145.
229 Kwintessential, “Afghanistan: Language, Culture,

Customs, and Etiquette,” n.d., http://www.kwintessential.
co.uk/resources/global-etiquette/afghanistan.html
230 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 5: Social Customs,

Cuisine, and Traditional Dress: Clothing and Fashions,”
in Culture and Customs of Afghanistan (Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press, 2005), 151–155.

“Country Profile: Afghanistan,” August 2008, https://www.
232 Deutsche Welle “Afghan Women Escape Marriage

through Suicide,” 18 April 2013, http://www.dw.com/en/
afghan-women-escape-marriage-through-suicide/a-16750044
233 Fazal Muzhary, “The Bride Price: The Afghan

Tradition of Paying for Wives,” Afghanistan Analysts
Network, 25 October 2016, https://www.afghanistan-
analysts.org/the-bride-price-the-afghan-tradition-of-paying-for-
wives/

“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Gender Roles,”
in Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood,
2001, http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/58.htm
235 Kirk Semple, “Big Weddings Bring Afghans Joy, and

Debt,” New York Times, 14 January 2008, http://www.
nytimes.com/2008/01/14/world/asia/14weddings.html
236 World Bank, “Afghanistan: National Reconstruction

and Poverty Reduction—The Role of Women in
Afghanistan’s Future,” March 2005, 79, http://
siteresources.worldbank.org/AFGHANISTANEXTN/Resources/
AfghanistanGenderReport.pdf
237 Suad Joseph and Afsaneh Najmabadi, “Funerary

Practices: Iran and Afghanistan,” in Encyclopedia of
Women and Islamic Cultures, vol. III: Family, Body,
Sexuality, and Health (Leiden: Brill, 2006), 119–120.
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Chapter 3 | Traditions
Assessment
1. In Afghanistan, walking hand in hand, hugging, and shaking hands are only
allowed between people of the same sex.
2. It is acceptable for a man to speak to a woman who is not related to him.
3. Female family members are considered custodians of the family’s honor.
4. The code of Pashtunwali is still followed by many Pashtuns in Afghanistan.
5. Pashtuns are very distrustful of strangers and often chase away unknown visitors.
Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. True; 4. True; 5. False
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Overview of a section of Kabul City Flickr/Ahson Wardak
Urban Life
Introduction
While Afghanistan’s population remains predominantly agrarian, rural Afghans have
been relocating to urban centers in increasing numbers. In 2015, more than one in
four Afghans lived in cities, reflecting a trend toward urbanization of almost 4.5% a
year since 2000. 238, 239, 240 Many of these urban settlers are laborers who have migrated
to the cities to escape the violence, poverty, and drought-ridden conditions that have
afflicted provincial areas. But much of the urban growth has been driven by the return
of over 5.8 million Afghan refugees from Pakistan and Iran since 2002.241, 242
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73
Most of Afghanistan’s city populations live in informal—or unplanned—settlements in
or around the major cities of Kabul, Herat, Mazar-e Sharif, Jalalabad, and Kandahar.243
They are generally a mixture of people from different ethnic and tribal groups, of
which nearly a quarter are youths between 15 and 24 years old.
The Afghan capital, Kabul, has grown quickly since the fall of the Taliban in 2001,
from a population of 2 million to an estimated 5 million in 2016. Twice the size of any
other major Afghan city, Kabul contains 41% of the country’s total urban population.244
Security issues in urban areas, particularly in Kabul, have increased significantly.
Vehicle-born improvised explosive devices are being used with greater frequency.
These are a serious threat to civilians, Afghan security forces, and members of the
international community.245, 246, 247, 248
Urban Issues
IDPs and Economic Refugees
Afghanistan has experienced a steady
stream of returnees since 2002, when
nearly 2 million Afghans returned from
Iran and Pakistan after the fall of the
Taliban. Many had fled during Soviet
occupation 20 years earlier. Nearly half of
the internationally displaced people (IDP)
have settled in and around Afghanistan’s
largest cities. While 90% of the refugees
returning from Pakistan settled in the Refugee camp in Kabul Flickr/NATO Training Mission -
eastern province of Nangarhar, many Afghanistan
others moved to Kabul, straining services and contributing to increased housing costs.
In 2016, nearly half of Kabul residents live in encampments on the city’s outskirts.249
In 2016 alone, an average of 1,000 Afghans fled their homes each day due to conflict,
and the number of refugees returning to Afghanistan topped 1 million. City centers
have been unable to accommodate the steady stream of settlers, and the result has
been an extensive urban sprawl of tented camps and hastily built structures. These
areas typically have little to no employment opportunities and limited public services
for refugees. Many have no access to clean water or healthcare and are dependent on
food assistance.250, 251, 252
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Chapter 4 | Urban Life 74
Income Gap
Afghan cities, most notably Kabul, have experienced
high-end development projects since 2001. Some
observers have noted that most of these projects
have benefited a small class of wealthy citizens and
upper-level government and military officials.253
Overall, urban expansion and development has
suffered from a general lack of proper planning and
regulation. As a result, many cities have serious
deficiencies, such as a lack of waste treatment
facilities.254 Traditional pit latrines are the most
common form of sanitation, even in cities. 255 While
most urban residents have access to electricity, it is
irregular and unreliable.
Kabul has turned into a two-tiered city. While some Water well development in Kabul
Afghans found well-paying jobs with international DVID/US Government Public Domain
companies or NGOs (non-governmental organizations), most work for only a dollar or

two a day.256, 257, 258 Unemployment is critical and a growing concern, especially among
poor urban families. 259
Healthcare and Health Issues

The Afghan healthcare system, devastated
by years of civil war, has improved in
recent years due to international aid and
reconstruction efforts. NGOs have played
a major role in this process; they have
established clinics in various locations
throughout the country. Maternal, infant,
and under-five mortality rates have
improved, but still are far higher than
international averages.260 The country
continues to face medical challenges—lack Afghan women at a hospital in Kabul, Afghanistan
of qualified personnel, run-down facilities, Wikimedia/Ben Barber (USAID)
lack of proper equipment, and shortages of clean drinking water and electricity.
In general, urban residents have access to better and more advanced medical services
than those living in small towns and villages. Kabul, for example, is home to several
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hospitals and multiple private clinics staffed with Western-trained medical personnel.
But urban hospitals and rural clinics are targets of the Taliban and, most recently, the
Islamic State militant group. Between 2015 and 2016, roughly 240 health facilities
or medical staff were attacked. Moreover, with an increasing number of rural Afghans
seeking refuge in cities, urban healthcare facilities and hospitals lack the space and staff
to treat all of the sick.261 Residents of informal urban settlements and slums are exposed
to health dangers related to pollution, unsanitary living conditions, and lack of shelter.
Is the doctor in?

Soldier: daaktor ‘azeezee dalta tashreef laree? Is Dr. Azizi in?
Local: na No.
Exchange 24
Is there a hospital nearby?

Soldier: po daa sha Khowa kee yo roghtoon shta? Is there a hospital nearby?
Local: ho, de Khaar po markaz ke dey Yes, in the center of town.
Exchange 25
As part of the reconstruction effort,

there is a particular need to train female
doctors because customary views and
practices restrict female patients from
receiving treatment from male doctors.
Furthermore, while many residents
now have access to primary healthcare
(including vaccinations), they lack access
to most forms of costly secondary care,
such as surgery or emergency treatment.
These forms of treatment are often only
available in private hospitals, which are
too expensive for most Afghans.262 Afghan midwife, Kabul Flickr/USAID Afghanistan
Do you know what is wrong?

Soldier: po hejee che bada Khabara tsa da? Do you know what is wrong?
Local: na No.
Exchange 26
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Education
Officially, primary education in Afghanistan
is free and compulsory in areas where it
is available, but a comprehensive level of
enrollment has never been achieved. This
remains true today for urban Afghans, as
the educational opportunities for children
in cities depend on the financial status
of their families. Children who live in
squatter settlements are far less likely to
be enrolled than those from families of
means, typically because their families High school science teacher, Khost Province Flickr/USAID
need them to work. A family’s proximity Afghanistan
to a school is also a major factor in whether children receive an education. In these

cases, and many others, girls are more likely to be kept at home than boys due to
cultural norms that prioritize male education.263
Is there a school nearby?

Soldier: po daa shaaKhowa ke yaw Khwanze ishta? Is there a school nearby?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 27
With the establishment of a democratic

government in 2002, efforts were made to
repair the nation’s education system. As of
2015, an estimated 9 million Afghan children—
including 3.6 million girls—were attending
school. While this figure represented a
significant increase, some 6 million children
remained out of school.264, 265 These factors
contribute to low literacy rates, especially
among women; according to 2015 estimates,
only 52% of Afghan men and 24% of Afghan Students at Aschiana School, Kabul Flickr/
women can read and write.266, 267 ResoluteSupportMedia
With the first wave of post-Taliban students to reach university age in 2009, higher
education enrollment in Afghanistan also expanded. The number of universities and
higher education institutions jumped from only 7 in 2007, to 82 in 2014.268 Many of
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these are privately funded, and provide much needed job-specific and technical
training. Still, university attendance remains among the lowest in the world, and only
one-fifth of students are women.
Telecommunications
Afghanistan has greatly expanded
its telecommunications sector
since the Taliban regime was
ousted from power. In 2001,
telephone availability was minimal
and cellular phone coverage was
nonexistent. While fixed line
telephone service is still limited,
an increasing number of Afghans
use mobile phones. In 2015, more
than 60% of Afghans had cell phones,
with the number increasing by 5–10% Roshan Telecom cell tower, Daykundi Province Flickr/Institute for
annually (2016). 269, 270
Cellular phone Money, Technology and Financial Inclusion
coverage reached over 80% of the country’s population in 2016, although financial
limitations prevented many Afghans from subscribing to it. 271
What is your telephone number?

Visitor: staaso de teeleefoon naambar tsa dey? What is your telephone number?
Local: izmaa teeleefoon naambar dey (yawo My phone number is (144-356-9573)
saloo chaloor chalweKht - dre sawoh
peenjash peta - peenja nawee dree
awyaa)
Exchange 28
The Taliban has also disrupted coverage through attacks on cell towers and nightly
blackouts on cell phone service in areas that it controls.272 It has achieved the latter
by intimidating service providers—through attacks on infrastructure and personnel—to
comply with its demands.273 Fixed line services and mobile communication are best in
larger cities. In rural areas, satellite phones are required for communication.
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May I use your phone?
Visitor: kawalay sham staasee la teelee- May I use your phone?
foon tsKha isteefaada wokrem?
Local: ho Sure.
Exchange 29
Following a leap in the number

of internet users in 2009–2010,
internet access is rapidly expanding
while the cost is dropping.274 More
than 4 million Afghans have access
to the web as of 2016, up from an
estimated 300,000 users in 2006.275
Public internet access is available
in Kabul and other larger urban
centers in internet cafés and some
coffee houses, although electrical Female Afghan engineer with USAID’s Afghanistan Infrastructure
outages often interrupt service.276 Rehabilitation Program Wikimedia/USAID Afghanistan
Transportation and Traffic

Pro lo ng ed co n fl i ct h as dam aged
Afghanistan’s existing transportation
network and slowed the development of
new infrastructure. Although reconstruction
teams have made considerable progress,
many roads remain in disrepair.
Afghanistan’s railway system is still
under development. While there were
no passenger rail lines as of 2016, two short,
cross-border cargo lines connect northern
Construction of the Gardez-Khost National Highway
cities to Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan and linking eastern Afghanistan with the Ghulam Khan
more were being built.277, 278 Highway in Pakistan Flickr/USAID Afghanistan
One success has been the completion of Highway 1, or the Ring Road, in 2016. The
3,360 km (2,088 mi) stretch of paved road wraps through the heart Afghanistan and
connects many of the provincial capitals. As such, it is a frequent target for Taliban
roadblocks and attacks.279 Most of Afghanistan’s major national and private airlines
are designated as unsafe by the United States and various foreign entities.
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Is there a train station nearby?
Visitor: pa dey shaa Khwa kee d orgaadee Is there a train station nearby?
taam zaay ishta?
Local: na No.
Exchange 30
Which road leads to the airport?

Visitor: koom sarak hawaay dagar ta zee? Which road leads to the airport?
Local: da sarak che Khatyiz ta zee The road heading east.
Exchange 31
Urban Roads
Road conditions throughout
Afghanistan are hazardous. Urban
roads are often in poor condition
and may be unlit at night. Accidents
frequently occur as many Afghan
drivers are unlicensed and traffic
rules are often neither obeyed nor
enforced. The mixture of vehicles,
pedestrians, cyclists, military
convoys, and animals provides for
crowded and dangerous conditions
for drivers and pedestrians.280 Kabul street market Wikimedia/Scott Clarkson
Continuous road work and a high volume of vehicles have created immense traffic
jams in urban areas. Traffic is notoriously bad in Kabul, where there are few traffic
lights, virtually no signage, and no lane demarcation. 281 Accidents involving foreign
nationals may quickly escalate into confrontations. Typically, the foreigner involved
is expected to pay for damages, no matter who is at fault. 282, 283
In 2014, an estimated 700,000 vehicles were on the narrow streets of Kabul, which
can only accommodate about 30,000. 284, 285 Most imported vehicles are used or
salvaged and often do not meet basic safety and emissions standards, thereby
contributing to pollution.286, 287
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Taxis
Shared taxis are one of the most common
forms of public transportation in
Afghanistan. Service within major Afghan
city limits is cheap and easy to find, but
traveling between cities can be expensive.
Shared taxis do not have set rates or
meters, so it is best to negotiate price
before getting into the cab. Fares usually
depend on the distance covered, but
the cost is negotiable. Some shared taxi
companies hire English-speaking drivers
and mainly service the airport–downtown Kabul streets Flickr/Ahson Wardak
route. Extra precaution should be used when hailing cabs in Afghanistan, especially
near sensitive locations like military bases. Private taxis are available for hire in some
of the larger cities; passengers are expected to haggle, and foreigners may pay an
“inflation” rate on top of the regular price. When entering a taxi, it is customary for
women to sit in the back seat.288, 289
Where can I get a cab?

Visitor: cheree kawalaay sham che yo taksee Where can I get a cab?
wooneesam?
Local: lahaa ghezaay na Over there.
Exchange 32
Buses
Milli buses are the glue that holds Afghanistan together. These government-run buses
and shared taxis can be found at transport depots. Milli buses don’t have a fixed
departure time; they leave as soon as they have collected enough passengers. Milli
buses have a per-seat fare that is cheaper than any other form of transportation, but
there are usually more passengers than seats. 290
Will the bus be here soon?

Visitor: serwees ba dalta zhir wora see-ee? Will the bus be here soon?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 33
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Can you take me there?
Visitor: kawalaay shee che maa halta warasawee? Can you take me there?
Local: ho, kawalaay sham Yes, I can.
Exchange 34
Restaurants and the Marketplace

Restaurants
Restaurants and teahouses are popular
social venues in urban areas, although many
Afghans may not have the financial means
to visit them. The variety of available
cuisine has expanded, especially in Kabul,
where Italian, French, German, and other
styles of restaurants can be found.
Food stalls specializing in kebabs are

common in cities. Care should be taken
when purchasing food at these stalls as
conditions may be unsanitary. Again, such
places are often too expensive for many Street market in Herat, a regional hub in western
Afghans to afford.291 Afghanistan Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Are you still serving breakfast?

Visitor: tir oosa pore laa naashta warkawee? Are you still serving breakfast?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 35
What type of meat is this?

Visitor: da tsa daal ghwaKha da? What type of meat is this?
Local: doree da Lamb.
Exchange 36
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As in the majority of Afghan homes during mealtime, utensils are not typically used
when dining out at restaurants.
Instead, food is eaten using the right hand, or scooped up with bread.
U.S. reconstruction team members and local Afghan

officials at iftar, Farah, Farah Province Flickr/
ResoluteSupportMedia
I would like coffee or tea.

Visitor: ze qahwa aw yaa chaay ghwaarim I would like coffee or tea.
Local: deer Kha Very well.
Exchange 37
I’d like some hot soup.

Visitor: lik taawda shorwa ghowaarim I’d like some hot soup.
Local: deer Kha Very well.
Exchange 38
May I have a glass of water?

Visitor: kawalaay shee che maa ta yo geelaas May I have a glass of water?
oob raakree?
Local: ho, hamdaa dastee Yes, right away.
Exchange 39
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Do you have a dessert?
Visitor: do Khwaarloolaa na pas orostanay Do you have a dessert?
Khoraak ham laree?
Local: ho, frinee laroo Yes, we have ferni.
Exchange 40
Afghans are very generous, and when dining out in a group they do not request separate
checks; rather, the one who invites others to dinner pays for everything, even if it is a
financial hardship. Paying individually is uncommon and may cause offense to Afghans.
Can I have my total bill, please?

Visitor: kowalaay sham che de hisaab Can I have my total bill, please?
paana waKhlam?
Local: ho, hatmee Yes, of course.
Exchange 41
Put this all in one bill.

Visitor: daa tool ba pa yo hisaab ke waachom Put this all in one bill.
Local: ho Okay.
Exchange 42
Cash is required for payment, as credit card services are

mostly unavailable in Afghanistan. There is typically no service
charge added to a bill, though a tip of about 5% for the server
is appreciated.
The consumption of alcohol is prohibited, and public restaurants

do not serve it. With rising security issues in recent years,
including the Taliban attacks on the Taverna du Liban and Serna
Afghan bank notes
in 2014, nightlife has dwindled. Flickr/Ian Barbour
Do you accept U.S. currency?

Visitor: taasee amreekaayee daalar qablawee? Do you accept U.S. currency?
Local: na, moog faqat afghaanee paysee qablawo No we only accept Afghanis.
Exchange 43
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Marketplace
There are various shopping options in Afghan
cities, including a handful of shopping malls
such as the Roshan Shopping Center, Majid
Mall, and Park Mall, all in Kabul. Traditionally,
shopping is done at open-air markets, or
bazaars. Pul-e Khishti Bazaar is the main
open-air market in Kabul; Chicken Street
is popular for its tourist fare of carpets,
carvings, knives, and antiques. City Center Mall, Kabul Flickr/Jim Kelly
These busy markets are usually located in old city centers and districts populated by
craftsmen and skilled artisans. Different regions specialize in different products.292
Is the market nearby?

Visitor: bazaar dalta nazhde day? Is the market nearby?
Local: ho, halta shee laas ta day Yes, over there on the right.
Exchange 44
How much longer will you be here?

Visitor: tir koma waKhte poor taasee ba How much longer will you be here?
dalta yaast?
Local: tir dryo nooro saa’too porey Three more hours.
Exchange 45
A wide array of items can be purchased at bazaars, including carpets and textiles,
jewelry, lapis lazuli, handicrafts, spices, foodstuffs, and various consumer goods.
Services, such as tailoring may also be available.
Do you have any more of these?

Visitor: dedey po shaan laa noor ham laree? Do you have any more of these?
Local: na No.
Exchange 46
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For the most part, prices in Afghan markets are not fixed, and customers are expected
to haggle over the price with the vendor. Depending on the item and vendor, the
bargaining process may be lengthy and involved, so patience and calm are required.
Some vendors may offer tea to customers.
May I examine this close up?

Visitor: kawalaay sham daa la nazhday na wooweenam? May I examine this close up?
Local: hatmee Sure.
Exchange 47
Customers can familiarize

themselves with the market and
its practices by visiting a number
of different stalls and comparing
prices and qualities of goods.
With an understanding of local

pricing norms, foreigners will
be able to better conduct
negotiations with vendors. Bazaar vendor, Kabul Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Do you sell shawls?

Visitor: taase patkee Khar tsaawee? Do you sell shawls?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 48
Can I buy a carpet with this much money?

Visitor: dee day paysoo sara kawalaay Can I buy a carpet with this much money?
sham che yo qaaleena waKhlam?
Local: na No.
Exchange 49
After a price has been agreed on, the customer should follow through with the
transaction. It is inappropriate to withdraw an offer that has been accepted.
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Can you give me change for this?
Visitor: kowalaay shee che daa paysee maa Can you give me change for this?
ta maayda kree?
Local: na No.
Exchange 50
Money and ATMs

The main currency of Afghanistan is the
Afghani (AFN). In late 2016, the AFN had
an average conversion rate of USD 1 to 70
AFN.293 Most of the Afghan economy operates
on a cash-only basis, though the use of
credit cards has become more common in
major cities. ATMs that accept international
cards can be found around Kabul, and most
dispense Afghanis and U.S. dollars. However,
access to banking facilities is limited and
unreliable, and ATMs are not dependable, Afghan bank notes: 5 Afghanis, 20 Afghanis Flickr/Erik
so it is a good idea to carry a small amount of cash at all times. Credit cards such
as Visa and Mastercard can only be used in some establishments in larger cities,
usually airline offices, travel agencies, and top-end hotels. 294, 295
Vendors and Beggars

Due to a surging population and
widespread unemployment, informal
street vendors and beggars are
common in urban areas. Beggars
are often women (especially widows)
and small children from poor,
rural areas. Many who have not found
work have resorted to begging or
selling odds and ends on the street to
support themselves and their families.
Afghan woman begging Flickr/Todd Huffman
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Afghanistan’s street children are the legacy of decades of war and a system struggling to
cope with the swelling numbers of jobless in urban areas. Afghanistan has one of the world’s
youngest populations. Nearly half of its 33 million people are under the age of 15.296, 297 In
Kabul alone, tens of thousands of children as young as 6 years old beg and hawk assorted
items on the street. Primarily boys, these young street vendors can be quite persistent.298, 299
Despite the government’s efforts to crack down on begging, it remains widespread.300
Give me money.
Local: maa ta paysee raakra Give me money.
Visitor: za hits paysee nalarim I don’t have any.
Exchange 51
Please, buy something from me.

Local: lotf ukree aw yo shay lemaana waaKhlee Please, buy something from me.
Visitor: Khwashee na yam, paysee me Khlaasee Sorry, I have no money left.
shwee dee
Exchange 52
Urban Crime
Violent crime, such as kidnapping,
car theft, highway robbery, and
drug-related violence, has become
more common in city streets. In some
cases, these acts are carried out by
people posing as law enforcement or
Afghan Army officers.301 While Afghan
cities are generally safer than rural
areas, violence has increased in
recent years, primarily as a result
of increased insurgent activity,
civil unrest, and poverty. 302 Suicide
Suicide bomb protection outside of a building in Kabul
bombings and coordinated attacks Flickr/Jeremy Weate
against government offices, foreign embassies, and U.S. military installations are on the
rise. Marketplaces are also vulnerable. Foreigners and Afghans associated with them are
potential targets, including NGO employees, local medical staff, and aid workers.303, 304
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Endnotes for Chapter 4: Urban Life

238 World Bank, “Leveraging Urbanization in 250 World Bank, “Research Study on IDPs in Urban
Afghanistan,” n.d., http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ Settings—Afghanistan,” May 2011, http://siteresources.
afghanistan/publication/leveraging-urbanization-afghanistan worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/
244362-1265299949041/6766328-1265299960363/WB
239 Central Intelligence Agency, “Afghanistan,” in The -UNHCR-IDP_Full-Report.pdf
World Factbook, 21 November 2016, https://www.cia.gov/
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html 251 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre,
“Afghanistan IDP Figures Analysis,” July 2015, http://
240 United Nations Statistics Division, “Country Profile: www.internal-displacement.org/south-and-south-east-asia/
Afghanistan,” 2016, http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx afghanistan/figures-analysis
241 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government 252 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees,
of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul Municipality, “Afghanistan Fact Sheet,” June 2016, http://reporting.unhcr.
“State of Afghan Cities 2015,” vol. 1, 2015, 16, http:// org/sites/default/files/UNHCR%20Afghanistan%20Factsheet%20
reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20of%20 -%20JUN16.pdf
Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1.pdf
253 Sudarsan Raghavan, “Years after Invasion, the U.S.
242 Ali Karimi, “Can Cities Save Afghanistan?” Foreign Leaves a Cultural Imprint on Afghanistan,” Washington
Policy, 20 March 2015, http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/20/ Post, 28 June 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/
can-cities-save-afghanistan/ world/years-after-invasion-the-us-leaves-a-cultural-imprint-on-
afghanistan/2015/06/28/fd521cb4-e518-11e4-ae0f-f8c46aa8c3a4_
243 Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre Blog, “Still story.html
at Risk: The Forced Eviction of Displaced People in Urban
Afghanistan,” 11 February 2014, http://www.internal- 254 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
displacement.org/blog/2014/still-at-risk-the-forced-eviction-of- Affairs, “Kabul Facing ‘Unregulated’ Urbanization,”
displaced-people-in-urban-afghanistan 26 November 2007, http://www.irinnews.org/Report.
aspx?ReportId=75508
244 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government
of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul Municipality, 255 Danish Refugee Council, “Urban Poverty Report: A
“State of Afghan Cities 2015,” vol. 1, 2015, 16, http:// Study of Poverty, Food Insecurity and Resilience in Afghan
reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20of%20 Cities,” 2014, 76, https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/
Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1.pdf sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/assessments/Urban_
Report_WEB.pdf
245 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Affairs, “Unsafe Housing Puts Kabul Residents at 256 Marc W. Herold, “Afghanistan: Wealth, Corruption
Risk,” 15 July 2009, http://www.irinnews.org/Report. and Criminality Amidst Mass Poverty,” Global Research,
aspx?ReportId=85286 Centre for Research on Globalization, 25 September 2010,
http://www.globalresearch.ca/afghanistan-wealth-corruption-
246 Ali Karimi, “Can Cities Save Afghanistan?” Foreign and-criminality-amidst-mass-poverty/21174
Policy, 20 March 2015, http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/03/20/
can-cities-save-afghanistan/ 257 Sudarsan Raghavan, “Years after Invasion, the U.S.
Leaves a Cultural Imprint on Afghanistan,” Washington
247 Sune Engel Rasmussen, “Kabul—The Fifth Fastest Post, 28 June 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/
Growing City in the World—Is Bursting at the Seams,” world/years-after-invasion-the-us-leaves-a-cultural-imprint-on-
Guardian, 11 December 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/ afghanistan/2015/06/28/fd521cb4-e518-11e4-ae0f-f8c46aa8c3a4_
cities/2014/dec/11/kabul-afghanistan-fifth-fastest-growing-city- story.html
world-rapid-urbanisation
258 Sune Engel Rasmussen, “Kabul—The Fifth Fastest
248 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department Growing City in the World—Is Bursting at the Seams,”
of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety Guardian, 11 December 2014, https://www.theguardian.com/
Report,” 15 March 2016, https://www.osac.gov/pages/ cities/2014/dec/11/kabul-afghanistan-fifth-fastest-growing-city-
ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292 world-rapid-urbanisation
249 Charles Recknagel and Mustafa Sarwar, “The 259 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government
Changing Face of Kabul: After Years of Foreign-Fueled of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul Municipality,
Growth, An Uncertain Future,” Radio Free Europe/Radio “State of Afghan Cities Report 2015,” vol. 1, 2015, 55,
Liberty, 13 June 2016, http://www.rferl.org/a/changing-face- http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20
of-kabul-uncertain-fututure-foreign-troops-leaving/27795414. of%20Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1.pdf
html
260 World Bank “Afghanistan Builds Capacity to Meet
Healthcare Challenges,” 22 December 2015, http://www.
worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2015/12/22/afghanistan-builds-
capacity-meet-healthcare-challenges
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261 Rachel Lowry, “Inside One of Afghanistan’s Largest 274 BuddeComm, “Afghanistan - Telecoms, Mobile and
Hospitals,” Time, 31 August 2016, http://time.com/4428860/ Broadband - Statistics and Analyses,” 2016, https://www.
inside-one-of-afghanistans-largest-hospitals/ budde.com.au/Research/Afghanistan-Telecoms-Mobile-and-
Broadband-Statistics-and-Analyses
262 Melissa Charbonneau, “‘Woman of Courage’
Recipient Lobbies for Women’s Health Care in 275 Internet World Stats, “Afghanistan Internet Usage,
Afghanistan,” George W. Bush Institute, 18 March 2014, Broadband and Telecommunications Reports,” 2016,
http://www.bushcenter.org/publications/articles/2014/03/ http://www.internetworldstats.com/asia/af.htm
woman-of-courage-recipient-lobbies-for-womens-health-care-in-
afghanistan.html 276 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,
“Country Profile: Afghanistan,” August 2008, https://www.
263 Jo Beall and Stefan Schütte, “Urban Livelihoods loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf
in Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Research Evaluation Unit,
August 2006, http://www.refworld.org/docid/47c3f3cc0.html 277 Kay Johnson and Rahim Faiez, “Afghanistan
Opening First Major Train Service,” Boston.com,
264 RAWA News, “No School for Almost Half of Afghan Associated Press, 21 December 2011, http://archive.
Children,” 6 March 2010, http://www.rawa.org/temp/ boston.com/business/articles/2011/12/21/afghanistan_
runews/2010/03/06/no-school-for-almost-half-of-afghan- opening_first_major_train_service/
children.html
278 BBC News, “Afghanistan and Turkmenistan Open First
265 USAID, “Afghanistan: Education,” 5 December 2015, Rail Connection,” 28 November 2016, http://www.bbc.com/
https://www.usaid.gov/afghanistan/education news/world-asia-38133207
266 Central Intelligence Agency, “Afghanistan: People 279 Rod Norland, “Taliban Cut Off Afghan Highway
and Society: Literacy,” in The World Factbook, 2015, Linking Kabul to Northern Gateways,” New York Times,
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ 14 May 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/15/world/
geos/af.html asia/taliban-cut-off-afghan-highway-linking-kabul-to-northern-
gateways.html?_r=0
“Country Profile: Afghanistan,” August 2008, https://www. 280 U.S. Passports and International Travel, U.S.
loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf Department of State, “Afghanistan,”19 January 2017,
https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/
268 Afghanistan Analysts Network, “How Good are afghanistan.html
Afghanistan’s Private Universities? An Interview with the
Author of AAN’s Latest Paper,” 1 June 2014, https://www. 281 RAWA News, “Kabul Traffic Cops Fight to Keep City
afghanistan-analysts.org/how-good-are-afghanistans-private- Moving but Government Slow to Pay,” 21 January 2010,
universities-an-interview-with-the-author-of-aans-latest-paper/ http://www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2010/01/21/kabul-traffic-
cops-fight-to-keep-city-moving-but-government-slow-to-pay.html
269 World Health Organization, “Global Health
Observatory Country Views: Afghanistan Statistics 282 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department
Summary (2002–Present),” 2016, http://apps.who.int/gho/ of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety
data/node.country.country-AFG?lang=en Report,” 15 March 2016, https://www.osac.gov/pages/
ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292
270 Central Intelligence Agency, “South Asia:
Afghanistan,” in The World Factbook, 21 November 2016, 283 U.S. Passports and International Travel, U.S.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ Department of State, “Afghanistan,” 19 January 2017,
geos/af.html https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/
afghanistan.html
271 BuddeComm, “Afghanistan - Telecoms, Mobile and
Broadband - Statistics and Analyses,” 2016, https://www. 284 Wadsam Afghan Business News Portal, “Kabul
budde.com.au/Research/Afghanistan-Telecoms-Mobile-and- Traffic, Who is at Fault?” 17 October 2013, http://wadsam.
Broadband-Statistics-and-Analyses com/afghan-business-news/kabul-traffic-who-is-at-fault-232/
272 Jon Boon, “Taliban Targets Mobile Phone Masts to 285 United Nations Office for Project Services,
Prevent Tipoffs from Afghan Civilians,” Guardian, 11 “Roads to Ease Gridlock in Kabul City Now Open,” 18
November 2011, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/ September 2014, https://www.unops.org/english/News/Pages/
nov/11/taliban-targets-mobile-phone-masts Inauguration-of-airport-and-community-roads-to-help-ease-
traffic-in-Kabul-City.aspx
273 Yaroslav Trofimov, “Cell Carriers Bow to Taliban
Threat,” Wall Street Journal, 22 March 2010, http://online. 286 Reuters, “Dodgy Cars Clogging Kabul’s
wsj.com/article/SB100014240527487041173045751375414652359 Roads,” 9 May 2009, http://www.abc.net.au/news/
72.html stories/2009/05/09/2565599.htm
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287 Mark Magnier, “Smashed U.S. Cars Get Second 300 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
Chance in Afghanistan,” Los Angeles Times, 6 May 2014, Affairs, “Crackdown on Kabul Beggars Continues,”
http://www.latimes.com/news/la-fg-afghanistan-us-autos- 10 September 2009, http://www.irinnews.org/Report.
20130506-dto-htmlstory.html aspx?ReportId=86089
288 Afghan Tours and Travel, “Transportation in 301 Pamela Constable, “As Crime Increases in Kabul,
Afghanistan,” 29 July 2013, http://www.flyafghanistan.us/ So Does Nostalgia for Taliban,” Washington Post, 25
blog/2013/07/29/transportation-in-afghanistan/ September 2008, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/
content/article/2008/09/24/AR2008092403339.html
289 iExplore, “Afghanistan-Transportation,” n.d., http://
www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/ 302 U.S. Passports and International Travel, U.S.
afghanistan/transportation Department of State, “Afghanistan,” 19 January 2017,
290 Afghan Zariza, “India to Provide 1,000 New Millie afghanistan.html
Buses to Afghanistan and Develop Three Workshops
in Kabul,” 26 July 2015, http://www.afghanzariza. 303 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government
com/2015/07/26/india-to-provide-1000-new-millie-buses-to- of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul Municipality,
afghanistan-and-develop-three-workshops-in-kabul# “State of Afghan Cities 2015,” vol. 1, 2015, 22, http://
reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20of%20
291 Kathy Gannon, “Post-Taliban Kabul Blossoms for Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1.pdf
the Rich,” Washington Post, 11 November 2006, http://
www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/11/ 304 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department
AR2006111100615.html of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety
Report,” 15 March 2016, https://www.osac.gov/pages/
292 Roberta Staley, “The Kabul Markets-Afghanistan,” ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292
Montecristo Magazine, Summer 2013, http://
montecristomagazine.com/magazine/summer-2013/the-kabul-
markets-afghanistan
293 XE Currency Data, “Live Exchange Rates,” December

2016, http://www.xe.com/
294 U.S. Passports and International Travel, U.S.

Department of State, “Afghanistan,” 19 January 2017,
afghanistan.html
295 iExplore, “Afghanistan-Travel Tips,” n.d., http://www.

iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/afghanistan/
travel-tips
296 Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Government

of Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, and Kabul
Municipality, “State of Afghan Cities Report 2015,” vol.
1 English,” 2015, 55, http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.
int/files/resources/State%20of%20Afghan%20Cities%202015%20
Volume_1.pdf
297 Pazhman Pazhohish, “No Respite for Kabul’s Street

Children,” Institute for War & Peace Reporting, 9
December 2016, https://iwpr.net/global-voices/no-respite-
kabuls-street-children
298 Soraya Sarhaddi Nelson, “Children Try to Make a

Living on Afghan Streets,” National Public Radio, 30
January 2008, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
php?storyId=18525484
299 RAWA News, “Afghanistan: What Hope Is there for

the Lost Children of the Bazaar?” 15 May 2008, http://
www.rawa.org/temp/runews/2008/05/15/afghanistan-what-
hope-is-there-for-the-lost-children-of-the-bazaar.html
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Chapter 4 | Urban Life
Assessment
1. Nearly half of Afghanistan’s urban population lives in and around Kabul.
2. Emergency care is available for most urban residents at public hospitals.
3. Commuter trains are the most common form of public transportation

in Afghanistan.
4. In recent years, girls have begun to outnumber boys in most schools.
5. The number of universities and higher education institutions has increased

since 2009.
Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. False; 4. False; 5. True
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A rural road a few miles from the town of Surobi, east of Kabul Flickr/Afghanistan Matters
Rural Life
Introduction
The central Afghan government has historically lacked a strong presence in rural
areas, which have long been locally administered by traditional tribal organizations.
The jirga or shura, which is a local council, traditionally exercises authority within
each community. Together with the malik (executive authority) and mullah (religious
authority), they provide the foundation of informal political order throughout
most Afghan villages.305 Numerous efforts by central administrations to influence,
control, or eliminate these customary organizations have been largely unsuccessful.
Thus, the pattern of local governance in Afghanistan continues today. While rural
communities remain relatively independent, they generally lack access to resources
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93
and modern services. Services such as electricity, waste disposal, and water
treatment are nonexistent in many outlying regions, especially in remote, isolated
villages. Healthcare and education are often inadequate or only available at remote
distances.306 Other forms of infrastructure, such as paved roads or modern irrigation
systems, are uncommon in the countryside areas.
As such, rural Afghans are resourceful and fiercely independent. Making up nearly
two-thirds of the country’s population, they lead a life deeply rooted in tradition.
Tribes and families are responsible for protecting their own, and they rely on ancient
modes of subsistence to survive. This situation often lends itself toward poverty
and hardship, but also hardiness and relative autonomy. Accordingly, remote areas
have long served as a refuge for insurgents who seek to evade government forces or
influence. Specifically, the Pashtun-dominated eastern and southern regions of the
country have experienced heavy insurgent activity in recent years.307, 308
Tribal Divisions
Afghanistan’s rural areas are often
divided along tribal lines. Among the
Pashtun-dominated areas, the eastern
region of the country is heavily populated
by the Ghilzai Pashtun tribes. The southern
and western areas of the country are
dominated by Durranis, who form the other
major Pashtun tribe.309 These areas are
further divided among subtribes, although
they also contain pockets of other ethnic Pashtun tribal elders in a Zambar village shura, Khost
and tribal factions, such as the Hazaras and Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Tajiks. This tradition of fragmented tribal rule has historically made it difficult for the
central government to consolidate power.
Pashtuns make a distinction between two types of Pashtun tribal regions: those
that are predominantly free from government control (yaghistan) and those that
receive greater oversight from the state (hukamat). For the Pashtuns, these areas
correspond, respectively, with the mountainous tribal regions, which are more remote
and inaccessible (and thus more independent), and the plains, which are exposed to
greater government influence and other external forces. In the hukamat areas, which
extend to urban centers, Pashtuns follow more modern socioeconomic practices, such
as paying taxes to the state and paying rent to wealthy landowners. On the other
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Chapter 5 | Rural Life 94
hand, Pashtuns in the yaghistan generally do not observe these practices. A Pashtun
proverb speaks to the difference between the two regions: “Honor (nang) ate up
the mountains; taxes (qalang) ate up the plains.” In other words, while taxes and
rent may exhaust the resources of the qalang Pashtuns, blood feuds and inter-tribal
conflicts often exhaust the resources of the nang Pashtuns. As the proverb suggests,
Pashtuns in the yaghistan, or independent regions, are more likely to follow a strict
interpretation of the traditional Pashtun tribal code, Pashtunwali.310
Rural Economy
For centuries, most rural Afghans have subsisted as
farmers and livestock herders. But only 12% of the
land in Afghanistan is arable and resources are limited.
Approximately 45% of the country is pastureland,
which supports livestock owned by settled farmers
and nomadic herders.311, 312 Historically, the primary
farming obstacle is water, which is most plentiful in
the spring. Long ago, farmers developed a variety of
techniques to capture water and channel it to their
crops. In the northern plains, dams diverted water into
irrigation schemes. Throughout much of the rest of
the country, Afghans used a Persian technique known
as the karez. The karez consists of an underground
Afghan boy washing his hands in an
tunnel intersected with numerous vertical shafts that irrigation canal, Dubazai village, Logar
open to the surface. Fed by the shafts, the underground Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
canal collects runoff from the hillside and carries it toward the fields below. Both
techniques demand frequent and labor-intensive maintenance.313, 314
Where do you work, sir?

Visitor: saahiba chere kaar kawee? Where do you work, sir?
Local: ze o bazgar yam I am a farmer.
Exchange 53
Prolonged conflict has left much of the country’s irrigation infrastructure in disrepair.
Farm and grazing lands are unsafe, as landmines and unexploded ordnance are
scattered throughout the countryside. Furthermore, severe drought frequently
hampers agricultural production. After the Taliban was overthrown, reconstruction
teams worked to reduce crop vulnerability to drought.315, 316 Such efforts have entailed
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repairing irrigation systems and introducing drought-resistant seeds.317 To further
develop the country’s agricultural sector, conventional crop farming must become
more financially attractive to Afghan farmers.
Markets in Rural Areas

An important tradition in rural Afghanistan
is market day—when traders, craftsmen,
and farmers gather to engage in commerce.
At these gatherings, farmers can sell
their marketable surplus and buy goods
or resources that they cannot produce
themselves. The bazaar usually takes place
in the largest town or village in the region.
In addition to promoting commerce, the
market serves as a communal meeting
place and a venue for the exchange of
information between those who have few Market in the city of Gardez, Paktya Province,
other opportunities to meet. eastern Afghanistan Flickr/Afghanistan Matters
Market day can draw large crowds. Afghans living in more remote villages must leave
their homes very early in the morning to set up for business before the market opens,
which usually occurs shortly after daybreak. The movement of large numbers of people
and goods on market day is common.
Land Ownership
Afghanistan lacks a clear and consistent
national policy for registering and validating
land ownership claims. This is due in large
part to the population’s historical reliance
on informal customs and local legal systems.
However, a history of unjust land distribution
policies—many of which benefited the Pashtun
majority—also complicates matters.318
Property disputes are a frequent cause of
conflict within or between families, villages,
Afghan farmer ploughing in preparation for
and tribes. Such conflicts often stoked ethnic cultivation, Keshem, Badakhshan Province
or tribal tensions, and led to violent clashes. Flickr/United Nations Photo
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In the last three decades, this situation has worsened because of successive wars and
repeated changes in government.319 Political and social upheaval led to large-scale
migration and routine changes in official land tenure policy. Foremost, as many
Afghans were forced to flee their lands, the status of their property often became
unclear. In many cases, refugees have returned to Afghanistan to find their property
inhabited or redistributed without their permission, typically by those who assumed
“squatter’s rights” in the owner’s absence.320
Do you own this land?

Visitor: taaso de dey zmakit cheKhtan yaast? Do you own this land?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 54
In this context, it can be difficult for

returnees to reassert their property rights;
land titles are difficult to verify or may
be rejected outright by local leaders,
sometimes due to ethnic tensions.321 With
little help from the central government,
some warring tribes rely on Taliban
insurgents, who provide weapons and
money, to support their feuds.322 Moreover,
multiple claims on a single plot of land
Afghan refugees, many who had fled to Pakistan years
make land rights difficult to resolve, leaving
earlier, Kabul Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia members of the community with no place
to farm. Some people, such as local warlords, take advantage of the unclear land
tenure system to expand their own holdings at the expense of the less powerful.
Overall, as a considerable percentage of the population remains landless, such
disputes will remain a source of contention in the absence of an impartial resolution
mechanism and enforceable rule of law.323, 324
Self-Protection and Gun Ownership

Centuries of intertribal strife and conflict have instilled Afghans with a ready and
dedicated sense of personal and familial protection. Afghans under the age of 30 have
known little else besides conflict, be it from Soviet occupation, civil war, tribal feuds,
terrorism, insurgency, or counter-insurgency. Under these circumstances, large stores
of weapons have been brought into the country, and Afghans are forced to defend
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themselves in the absence of any rule of law. This is particularly true in rural areas,
where the government lacks a strong security presence and local militias wield power.
As a result, many men in towns and villages

routinely carry firearms and keep personal
weapons in their home, despite wide-scale
disarmament efforts.325 These weapons are
typically rifles and older Soviet Kalashnikovs
(AK-47s), but in recent years Afghans
locals (and insurgents) have acquired
more sophisticated assault rifles (M-16s,
M-4s), machine guns, and rocket-propelled
grenades. 326 In most cases, weapons are
carried for self-defense, and it is not
Women of the Afghan Uniform Police practicing
uncommon for men to arm themselves for
conducting a high-risk traffic stop, Khost Province
long treks between villages.327 DVIDS/dvidshubnet
Did these people threaten you?

Soldier: de Khalko taaso ta gwaKh karey dey? Did these people threaten you?
Local: na No.
Exchange 55
Nomadic Tribes
Afghanistan is home to several nomadic
or seminomadic groups, although their
numbers have decreased. Traditionally,
Afghan nomads are pastoralists who
engage in seasonal migration. They base
their livestock herds in lowland pastures
during winter and move them to higher
elevation grazing lands for spring and
summer. Sheep and goats are the most
common stock, and dogs are used as
fellow sheepherders. Belongings are often Kuchi nomads migrating with livestock Flickr/
transported on camels or donkeys. As they Tracy Hunter
move from area to area, nomads sleep in tents (typically made from black goat’s
hair), trading animals and animal products for other goods and foodstuffs with
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villagers they encounter. In the past, their migratory practices played a major role
in regional trade.328
Do you know this area very well?

Visitor: dee shaa Khowa sara Kheh baladyaat laree? Do you know this area very well?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 56
The Kuchi, a Pashtun group of nomads, is

the largest nomadic tribe in the country.
Their population is estimated at roughly
1.5 million, but the number of those who
actually maintain a nomadic lifestyle
may be much lower.329, 330 Traditionally,
the Kuchi moved their herds throughout
the Afghan-Pakistani border region.331
However, their way of life is compromised
by a number of pressures, including war, Kuchi girl herding sheep outside Kandahar Flickr/43rd
drought, ethnic tension, environmental Sustainment Brigade Public Affairs
degradation, and changes in commerce and transportation.332 As one Kuchi who had
given up the nomadic lifestyle observed, “The grazing land is not there, trade and
transportation have changed so much. Kuchis are not needed.”333 The Kuchi who
remain nomadic must contend with the prevalence of landmines.
Rural Healthcare
Historically, lack of healthcare and sanitation
services, the physical effects of war, and the
maintenance of strict cultural taboos all
contributed to serious health risks for the
country’s population, particularly in outlying
areas. For example, Afghanistan has one of
the highest levels of child malnutrition in
the world—about 41% of children under 5
suffer from chronic malnutrition.334
Of those Afghans who have access to medical Rural health clinic doctor writing a prescription,
services in outlying areas, most are served Kunar Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
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by small healthcare facilities or mobile health clinics. These facilities provide services
to rural Afghans who previously had to travel long distances for treatment.
Is there a medical clinic nearby?

Visitor: pe daa sha Khowa kee yo orooghton Is there a medical clinic nearby?
ya kleeneek shta?
Local: ho, halta Yes, over there.
Exchange 57
But intensified conflict is causing a steady

erosion of humanitarian activities.335 Attacks
on healthcare clinics and medics rose
50% from 2015 to 2016, and NGOs and
international aid organizations have been
forced to close facilities or move them
to safer areas.336 At the same time, an
increasing number of Afghans are fleeing
conflict areas and seeking refuge and
treatment in cities. However, fighting and Afghan doctor examining a young child at a health
clinic in Danishmand, outside of Kabul Flickr/DFID-UK
roadblocks have made it extremely difficult Dept for International Devleopment
or impossible for many to travel, and they are left without access to healthcare of any
kind. Those that are able to get to urban hospitals and clinics are faced with facilities
that lack the space and staff to treat them.337
My arm is broken, can you help me?

Visitor: mat may maat shaway day, kawalaay My arm is broken, can you help me?
shee che maa sara marasta wokree?
Local: ho, kawalaay sham che taaso sara Yes, I can help you.
marasta wokrem
Exchange 58
Prenatal and Neonatal Care

Since 2002, moderately successful efforts have expanded medical services to rural
areas, focusing on providing reproductive healthcare. Training female doctors and
midwives was a central goal of these initiatives since cultural prohibitions prevent
Afghan women from receiving healthcare services from men. As a result, between
2002 and 2015 pregnancy-related mortality dropped from 1,600 to 396 deaths for
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every 100,000 live births.338 Nonetheless, two-thirds of all women give birth at home
without the assistance of a midwife or trained medical practitioner; infant and
maternal mortality in Afghanistan remains among the highest in the world.339
Sickness and death among new and

expecting mothers is worsened by the
high birth rate, early child bearing, and
pregnancies at close intervals. Afghan
women bear more than five children during
their lifetimes, more than twice the global
average.340 In addition, estimates indicate
that 60% of girls are married before the
age of 16.341 Among babies born to young
mothers, stillbirths and death in the first
week of life are 50% higher. Many of the
babies who die succumb to preventable
birth complications, including prolonged
labor and infection.342, 343 Midwifery project in Bamiyan Flickr/USAID Afghanistan
Malnutrition and disease afflict most of the country, but rural areas are most vulnerable.
In 2016, an estimated 1.8 million Afghans suffered severe, acute malnutrition,
most of them children under age 5. Malnutrition causes one-third of child deaths in
Afghanistan. Marginal living conditions, poor sanitation, and little access to clean
water also expose Afghans to acute diarrhea, cholera, and measles.344, 345, 346, 347, 348
Rural Education
Like the nation’s health services, Afghanistan’s
education system suffered greatly from
prolonged conflict and the fundamentalist
policies of the Taliban. For years, girls were
prohibited from attending schools, female
teachers were not allowed to work, and many
educational institutions were closed. During
this time, madrassas, Islamic schools that
base their curriculum on study of the Quran,
became prominent. Before madrassas, a
student would get his education in a village Afghan girls from Ali Haydar village in class outside a
hujra, or community room. mosque, Paktika Province DVIDS/dvidshubnet
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In rural areas today, various factors continue to contribute to low enrollment rates,
especially for girls. Traditional gender stereotypes are strong in the countryside,
where schooling is often reserved for boys. Poverty, disability, and lack of local
schools prevent many children from getting an education. In many provinces, a
major cause for low enrollment has been an increasing number of attacks on schools.
There, a resurgent Taliban has used violent means to restore its restrictive policies
concerning education—destroying school buildings, killing teachers, and disfiguring
female students.349 In 2015 alone, these attacks forced more than 369 schools to
close, and compelled many parents to keep their children, especially their daughters,
at home.350, 351, 352 Many young men without education or job opportunities fall prey to
Taliban recruitment.353
Do your children go to school?

Visitor: staaso kochneeyaan shoo-oon ta zee? Do your children go to school?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 59
Gender Roles in Rural Areas

The respective roles of Afghan men
and women vary according to their
socioeconomic background, location,
and age. A factor in determining these
roles is the extent to which the sexes
are segregated, which varies from area
to area. For Pashtun peoples, segregation
is typically more strictly enforced by
qalang Pashtuns (those who own land and
live in the plains or urban areas) than by
nang Pashtuns (those who live in remote, Afghan tailor and child, Balkh Province Flickr/Hand in
mountainous regions).354 Hand International
When the sexes are thoroughly segregated, they each maintain their own spaces
and duties. Women are restricted to the home, where they perform tasks such as
cooking, cleaning, child-rearing, and household maintenance. They also engage in
handicrafts, horticulture, crop or animal product processing, and other tasks that
can be performed in the family compound. Women also manage food resources,
including collecting water. Though often hidden from view and subordinate to
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male family members, rural women are sharp observers and knowledgeable about
goings-on in the village; within the home, they wield some influence. 355
Men are generally responsible for ensuring the economic welfare of the family,
providing protection, instilling discipline, and engaging in social, political, and
financial interactions outside the home.356 They are more likely than women to perform
agricultural duties and tend to livestock, but this is not always the case. For example,
in less segregated areas, women may be heavily involved in various tasks related to
crop production and animal husbandry. This includes activities that take place outside
the family compound, such as harvesting. Widows take on a wide range of duties
because they must provide for their family.
Transportation
Prolonged conflict in Afghanistan has
severely damaged the existing transportation
network and slowed development of new
infrastructure. Although reconstruction
teams have made substantial progress in
building new roads in certain areas, many
roads remain in a state of disrepair.357
There were no passenger rail lines as of
2016, although two short cross-border
cargo lines now connect northern cities to
Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan, and more
USAID-funded roadwork, Gardez-Khost National
were in development.358, 359 The Amu Darya Highway linking eastern Afghanistan with Pakistan’s
River is the only major waterway used for Ghulam Khan Highway Flickr/USAID Afghanistan
transport. A major reconstruction goal is developing an extensive highway network
360
linking Afghanistan’s major cities—Kabul, Kandahar, Herat, and Mazar-e Sharif.

Highway 1, also known as the “Ring Road,” has experienced a number of setbacks due
to roadblocks and bombings.361
Rural Roads
Road conditions are particularly poor in outlying areas. Destruction to the nation’s
roads and bridges have left large sections of the country physically isolated. While
over 10,000 miles of roads and highways were built between 2002 and 2014, much
of it has since been worn away by overuse or damaged by IEDs.362 Most roads in rural
areas are unpaved; in remote areas, there are often no roads at all, only trails.
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Afghan vehicles are typically old and
poorly maintained, and drivers are
often unlicensed. Traffic rules are
not regularly obeyed or enforced.
Pedestrians, animals, and carts also
present hazards to drivers. Many
roads outside the capital can become
impassable during the winter.363
Although accurate, updated maps

have been published recently, it
Road construction in Helmand Province, part of 10,000 miles of
may be difficult to find an Afghan roads and highways built between 2002 and 2014 Flickr/USAID
who can read one. Most Afghans use Afghanistan
topographical features and the directions of sunrise and sunset for reference when
they travel. Distance is measured in travel time rather than kilometers or miles.
Security Issues
Military convoys also share Afghan roads,
and drivers should never try to pass a
military vehicle; approaching with speed
or driving too close may be interpreted
as a threat.364 While some roads in Kabul
and other large cities are acceptable
for normal sedans, a four-wheel drive
vehicle is essential outside major cities.
That said, driving off-road or at night is
extremely dangerous.
Cargo transport vehicles, part of a combat logistics patrol,

Many roads are not completely cleared mine sweepers in front, Helmand Province Flickr/
of landmines, and roads and highways Defence Images
are often newly planted with improvised explosive devices (IEDs). That, coupled
with the risk of kidnapping and attacks by militants and insurgents, makes travel
in all areas of Afghanistan increasingly unsafe.365, 366 The Afghan Defense Ministry
has shifted many Afghan National Defense and Security Forces from roadblocks and
checkpoints to offensive operations, leading to undermanned checkpoints that have
become an increasing source of casualties.367, 368 Finally, criminal activity, particularly
robbery, has become common on highways outside urban areas.369
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Rural Leadership
Rural Afghan communities traditionally turn to local non-government groups, such
as councils (jirgas or shuras), village leaders (maliks or khans), and religious leaders
(mullahs or pirs), for legal matters, conflict resolution, and issues concerning social and
economic needs. This is the basic Afghan localized system of governance. The malik,
is selected through consultation by the community jirga or shura. He represents the
village’s needs and interests to external parties and deals with any internal matters.
Very rarely do village Afghans benefit from or seek out parliament or its electoral
processes. They do not believe that the central government works in the interest of
ordinary Afghans, but rather, in individual political interests.
Does your leader live here?

Visitor: speen zheeree aw yaa staaso da Does your leader live here?
kelee mashir dalta zhwand kawee?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 60
Shura and Jirga

In traditional Pashtun tribal areas,
the jirga is the main forum for
decision-making processes. Jirgas
decide the necessity of using various
local tribal forces, such as arbakai
(community police), tsalweshtai (tribal
guard force), or lashkar (offensive
regional-level force) to implement
their decisions.370 In vilages and small
towns, more than 90% of issues are
solved through jirgas. In general, rural
Afghans have less confidence in the District Governor conducting a shura in Saidabad,
formal justice system. Wardak Province Flickr/Defence Images
Members of a shura local council are elected for longer periods. During the last
three decades, several kinds of shura could be found in each district: those for
military council or community development, and others made up of religious
scholars or elders.371, 372, 373
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Can you take me to your leader?
Soldier: kawalaay shee che maa daKhpl kelee ma Can you take me to your leader?
shir ta bozee?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 61
Meetings with local leaders or councils often take place in the village hujra, or
guesthouse. The hujra may be at the home of the village malik or maintained by the
village as a separate building. Mosques may also be used for meetings.
Respected leader, we need your help.

Soldier: mohtaram mashir sahib, moog staaso Respected leader, we need your help /
marastee / naseehat / ‘aqeedeya ta advice / opinion.
zaroorat laroo
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 62
Dos and Don’ts

• Do show respect to each Afghan.
• Do stand when a tribal elder enters;

placing the palm of your right hand
on your heart conveys respect and
sincerity.
• Do greet or serve seniors first.
• Do be patient; expect small talk and

things to take time. U.S. captain speaking with the headmaster of a school
in Logar Province, after donating supplies to 300
students Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
• Do keep your composure; emotions
are a sign of weakness.
• Do keep your promises.
• Do shake hands gently with the same gender only; a limp shake conveys
humbleness, not insincerity.
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• Do remove shoes in an Afghan home.
• Do wear appropriate, conservative clothing; for Western women,

a chador or saader (head covering) is appreciated.
• Do keep the soles of your shoes/feet hidden from public view

when seated.
• Don’t speak loudly; it conveys anger or domination.
• Don’t rush to close a meeting, it is considered rude; ask to reschedule

if pressed for time.
• Don’t wave farewell; it is inappropriate.
• Don’t show a picture of your wife when developing personal

relationships. You may show a picture of your children (including
girls) to establish trust.
• Don’t use you left hand for eating, passing things to others,
or gesturing.
Checkpoints
Roadblocks and checkpoints controlled
by the Afghan National Defense and
Security Forces and random insurgent
checkpoints are set up throughout
Afghanistan; Afghans who travel are
familiar with them.374
Because of unclear jurisdictional

boundaries, some checkpoints in close
proximity are administered by different
regional leaders. At checkpoints run by
U.S. or international forces, Afghans
Searching for illegal drugs or weapons, vehicle checkpoint
will anticipate the need to step out of inspection, Trek Nawa, Helmand Province Flickr/
the vehicle and show identification, if ResoluteSupportMedia
available. Unrelated males and females should be kept in separate areas for body
pats, which should be conducted by a person of the same gender.
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Where is the nearest checkpoint?
Soldier: de palatano kantrolee markaz che Where is the nearest checkpoint?
dalta nazhdee wee, cherey dey?
Local: la day zay na dowa keelo metra larey It’s two kilometers.
Exchange 63
Please get out of the car.

Soldier: marhamat wokree aw la mortor na sha ta see Please get out of the car.
Local: sha OK.
Exchange 64
Show us the car registration.

Soldier: de Khpal motar da raajistir sanadoona Show us the car registration.
raata woKh-ee
Local: Kha OK.
Exchange 65
Is this all the ID you have?

Soldier: daa tol istaaso de pezhandelo sanadoona dee? Is this all the ID you have?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 66
Checkpoints are insurgent targets. Afghans may feel tension when dealing with local
enforcement agents of a different ethnic background.
Are you carrying any guns?

Soldier: zaan sara toopok laree? Are you carrying any guns?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 67
Landmines and IEDs

From the Soviets to the Taliban, numerous factions have used landmines and IEDs
in Afghanistan. High estimates place the number of landmines scattered throughout
the country in the millions.375 While many demining operations continue, the amount
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of land known to be mine-contaminated has risen in
the last three years. These areas are sometimes marked
with red-painted rocks, although many hazardous areas
are unmarked. The resurgent Taliban place mines and
pressure-plate IEDs along main roads and highways. 376
Vehicle-borne IEDs are being used with greater frequency
throughout Afghanistan, especially in the capital where
they are a serious threat.377, 378
There is also widespread abandoned and unexploded

ordnance across the country, though eastern and southern
Afghanistan are the most affected areas, particularly the
provinces of Helmand and Kandahar.379 In 2014, there
Laying out minefield control
were 1,296 deaths due to mines, IEDs, and explosive markers, Bagram, Parwan Province
remnants of war.380 Flickr/Babak Fakhamzadeh
Landmine contamination has displaced Afghan communities and prevented them from
farming and herding in certain areas.381
Is this area mined?

Visitor: daa mantiqa mayn laree? Is this area mined?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 68
Confiscated insurgent antipersonnel mines, drugs, and

detonation cord, Baghran District, Helmand Province
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Endnotes for Chapter 5: Rural Life

305 Jennifer Brick, “The Political Economy of Customary 318 Liz Alden Wiley, “Land Rights in Crisis: Restoring
Village Organizations in Rural Afghanistan,” Department Tenure Security in Afghanistan,” Afghanistan Research
of Political Science, University of Wisconsin–Madison and Evaluation Unit, 31 March 2003, http://www.reliefweb.
(paper for the Annual Meeting of the Central Eurasian int/rw/rwb.nsf/AllDocsByUNID/4aecf9d78aaba09cc1256d2700
Studies Society, Washington, DC, September 2008), 42cf16
https://www.bu.edu/aias/brick.pdf
306 Global Health Observatory Data Repository, World Affairs, “New Report Identifies Land Disputes as a Major
Health Organization, “Exposure: Data by Country,” 8 Source of Conflict,” 12 May 2003, http://www.irinnews.org/
December 2015, http://apps.who.int/gho/data/node.main.46 report.aspx?reportid=19920
307 Google My Maps, “Map of Taliban-Controlled and 320 World Bank, “Afghanistan Agricultural Sector
Contested Districts in Afghanistan, 2017, https://www. Review: Revitalizing Agriculture for Economic Growth,
google.com/maps/d/viewer?mid=10Qz0dzwDWpj6bkfyWN6qoLIh Job Creation and Food Security,” June 2014, 107, http://
aaU&ll=33.561088482066296%2C65.77805051109522&z=6 documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/245541467973233146/
Afghanistan-Agricultural-sector-review-revitalizing-agriculture-
308 Cheryl Pellerin, “Resolute Support Commander: for-economic-growth-job-creation-and-food-security
More Troops Needed to Break Afghan ‘Stalemate’,”
GlobalSecurity.org, 9 February 2017, http://www. 321 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2017/02/mil-170209- Affairs, “Ethnic Antagonism Spurs Land Disputes in
afps02.htm?_m=3n%2e002a%2e1936%2eko0ao0af58%2e1s3a North,” 11 September 2008, http://www.irinnews.org/fr/
node/243073
309 Program for Culture and Conflict Studies,
Naval Postgraduate School, “Afghanistan 322 Bethany Matta, “Tribal Dispute in Afghanistan
Administrative Divisions,” 1–2, n.d., https://my.nps.edu/ Benefits Taliban,” VOA News Asia, 10 October 2011, http://
documents/105988371/107571254/East_tribal_map07.pdf/ www.voanews.com/a/tribal-dispute-in-afghanistan-benefits-
e48b5c16-800d-42bb-9e24-3d84ac394666 taliban-131515658/168097.html
310 Barnett R. Rubin, “Chapter 2: Social Structure 323 Conor Foley, “Chapters 2–5,” in A Guide to Property
under the Old Regime: Religion,” in The Fragmentation Law in Afghanistan, 2nd ed., Norwegian Refugee Council,
of Afghanistan, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Yale University 2011, 28, 52, 71, https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/
Press, 2002), 28. reports/a-guide-to-property-law-in-afghanistan.pdf
311 World Bank, “Arable Land (% of Land Area),” 2013, 324 USAID, “Land Tenure and Property Rights in
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/AG.LND.ARBL.ZS Afghanistan: Do LTPR Conflicts and Grievances Foster
Support for the Taliban?” 2, https://www.land-links.org/
312 Global Economy, “Percent Agricultural Land-Country wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Land-Tenure-and-Property-Rights-
Rankings,” 2013, http://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/ in-Afghanistan.pdf
Percent_agricultural_land/
325 Deedee Derksen, “The Politics of Disarmament and
313 UNESCO, “Karez System Cultural Landscape,” 4 Rearmament in Afghanistan,” United States Institute of
December 2016, http://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6110/ Peace, 2015, 5, http://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/PW110-
The-Politics-of-Disarmament-and-Rearmament-in-Afghanistan.pdf
314 University of Kansas, “KU Researchers Safeguard
Afghanistan’s Ancient Water Systems,” 27 October 2011, 326 Special Inspector General for Afghanistan
http://archive.news.ku.edu/2011/october/27/karez.shtml Reconstruction, “Afghan National Security Forces: Actions
Needed to Improve Weapons Accountability,” July 2014,
315 International Maize and Improvement Center, 12, https://www.sigar.mil/pdf/audits/SIGAR-14-84-AR.pdf
“Sustainable Wheat and Maize Production in Afghanistan,”
2016, http://www.cimmyt.org/project-profile/sustainable- 327 Mark Thompson, “Afghanistan: Awash in Guns,
wheat-and-maize-production-in-afghanistan/ as Well as Narcotics,” Time, 28 July 2014, http://time.
com/3043360/afghanistan-awash-in-guns-as-well-as-narcotics/
316 Fast Start Financing, U.S. Department of State,
“Meeting the Fast Start Commitment: U.S. Climate 328 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,
Finance in Fiscal Year 2012,” United Nations Framework “Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Modes of
Convention on Climate Change, 2012, 116–117, http:// Subsistence: Pastoralism,” in Afghanistan: A Country
unfccc.int/climatefinance/sfiles/d_USA_136.pdf Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/
afghanistan/55.htm
317 Dion Nissenbaum, “Afghan Poppy Harvest is Next
Challenge for U.S. Marines,” McClatchy DC, 16 March 329 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,
2010, http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2010/03/16/90477/afghan- “Country Profile: Afghanistan,” August 2008, https://www.
poppy-harvest-is-next-challenge.html loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf
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330 Fabrizio Foschini, “2.2 Rise and Decline of Nomadism 342 Central Intelligence Agency, “Country Comparison:
in the Recent History of Afghanistan,” in The Social Infant Mortality Rate,” in The World Factbook, 2016,
Wandering of the Afghan Kuchis, Afghanistan Analysts https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
Network, April 2013, 9, http://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/ rankorder/2091rank.html
wp-content/uploads/2013/11/20131125_FFoschini-Kuchis.pdf
343 World Health Organization, “Maternal, Newborn,
331 Becky Pemberton, “Untouched Afghanistan,” Child and Adolescent Health: Adolescent Pregnancy,”
DailyMail.com, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/ 2016, http://www.who.int/maternal_child_adolescent/topics/
travel_news/article-3311855/Untouched-Afghanistan-Striking- maternal/adolescent_pregnancy/en/
photographs-reveal-rural-lives-Wakhan-Corridor-s-nomadic-
tribes-nearest-neighbours-live-weeks-away.html 344 Matthew Green, “Fresh Hope for Kandahar Newborns
as Afghan Healthcare Gets a Shot in the Arm,” Guardian,
332 Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, “Afghanistan’s 1 December 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/global-
Kuchi Nomads Forced to Settle,” 18 September development/2016/dec/01/fresh-hope-kandahar-newborns-
2015, http://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-society- afghanistan-healthcare-mirwais-hospital
nomads/27241125.html
345 Sune Engel Rasmussen, “The Starving Children of
333 Paul Garwood, “Poverty, Violence Put Afghanistan’s Helmand Province,” Foreign Policy, 1 May 2015, http://
Fabled Kuchi Nomads on a Road to Nowhere,” RAWA foreignpolicy.com/2015/05/01/the-starving-children-of-helmand-
News, Associated Press, 14 May 2006, http://www.rawa. province/
org/nomad.htm
346 World Bank, “Malnutrition in Afghanistan: Scale,
334 World Bank, “Countries: Afghanistan: Overview,” Scope, Causes and Potential Response,” 10 November
2 November 2016, http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ 2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFGHANISTAN/
afghanistan/overview Resources/Afghanistan-Reconstructional-Trust-Fund/
Malnutrition_inAfghanistan_for_High_level_audience.pdf
335 Jared Ferrie, “Medical Care Cut Off As Taliban
Assaults Key Afghan City,” IRIN, UN Office for the 347 United Nations Children’s Fund, “Afghanistan WASH
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, 17 August 2016, Cluster Detail Operational Plan - HRP 2017,” 10 February
https://www.irinnews.org/news/2016/08/17/medical-care-cut- 2017, http://reliefweb.int/report/afghanistan/afghanistan-wash-
taliban-assaults-key-afghan-city cluster-detail-operational-plan-hrp-2017-feb-2017
336 Erin Cunnigham, “International Red Cross Official 348 United Nations Office for the Coordination of
Sees ‘Disturbing Trend’ in Attacks on Hospitals in Conflict Humanitarian Affairs, “Afghanistan: Humanitarian Needs
Zones,” Washington Post, 18 March 2016, https://www. Overview 2017,” November 2016, 5, http://reliefweb.int/
washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/03/18/ sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/afg_2017_hno_english.pdf
the-president-of-the-icrc-sees-disturbing-trend-in-attacks-on-
hospitals-in-conflict-zones/ 349 Allie Torgan, “Acid Attacks, Poison: What Afghan
Girls Risk by Going to School,” CNN, 17 March 2016, http://
337 Melissa Charbonneau, “‘Woman of Courage’ edition.cnn.com/2012/08/02/world/meast/cnnheroes-jan-
Recipient Lobbies for Women’s Health Care in afghan-school/
Afghanistan,” George W. Bush Institute, 18 March 2014,
http://www.bushcenter.org/publications/articles/2014/03/ 350 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
woman-of-courage-recipient-lobbies-for-womens-health-care-in- Affairs, “Attacks Deprive 300,000 Students of Education,”
afghanistan.html 22 September 2008, http://www.irinnews.org/report.
aspx?ReportId=80506
338 Central Intelligence Agency, “Afghanistan,” in The
World Factbook, 21 November 2016, https://www.cia.gov/ 351 Golnaz Esfandiari, “Protesters Demand Afghan
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html Government Action Against Acid Attacks on Women,”
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 July 2016,
339 United Nations Population Fund Afghanistan, “Sexual http://www.rferl.org/a/afghanistan-acid-attacks-women-
and Reproductive Health,” n.d., http://afghanistan.unfpa. protesters/27856027.html
org/topics/sexual-reproductive-health-3
352 United Nations, “Key Facts and Figures 2015,” in
340 United Nations Population Fund Afghanistan, “Sexual Education and Health Care at Risk: Key Trends and
and Reproductive Health,” n.d., http://afghanistan.unfpa. Incidents Affecting Children’s Access to Healthcare and
org/topics/sexual-reproductive-health-3 Education in Afghanistan, April 2016, 2, https://unama.
unmissions.org/sites/default/files/education_and_healthcare_
341 Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, at_risk.pdf
U.S. Department of State, “Afghanistan 2013 Human
Rights Report,” 2014, 44, http://www.state.gov/documents/
organization/220598.pdf
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353 Bilal Sarwary, “School Closures Fuel Taliban 365 U.S. Passports and International Travel, U.S.
Recruitment,” IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Department of State, “Afghanistan Travel Warning,” 5
Humanitarian Affairs, 16 December 2015, http://www. October 2016, https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/
irinnews.org/report/102301/school-closures-fuel-taliban- alertswarnings/afghanistan-travel-warning.html
recruitment
366 Hamid Shalizi, “Facing Fewer Checkpoints, Taliban
354 Holly A. Ritchie, Institutional Innovation and Change Makes Afghan Road Trips More Risky,” Reuters, 13 June
in Value Chain Development: Negotiating Tradition, 2016, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-afghanistan-highways-
Power, and Fragility in Afghanistan (London and New idUSKCN0YY12V
York: Routledge, 2016), 89.
367 Courtney Kube, “U.S. General Concerned About
355 GlobalSecurity.org, “Afghan Culture: Newsletter 10- State of Afghan Security Forces,” NBC News, 23 October
64,” September 2010, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ 2016, http://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/u-s-general-
library/report/call/call_10-64.htm concerned-about-state-afghan-security-forces-n671371
356 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 368 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Gender Roles,” of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety
in Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, Report,” 15 March 2016, https://www.osac.gov/pages/
http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/58.htm ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292
357 Reuters, “U.S. Watchdog Highlights Dire State of 369 U.S. Passports and International Travel, U.S.
Afghan Road System,” 29 October 2016, http://www.reuters. Department of State, “Afghanistan,”19 January 2017,
com/article/us-afghanistan-roads-idUSKCN12U00Q?il=0 https://travel.state.gov/content/passports/en/country/
afghanistan.html
358 Kay Johnson and Rahim Faiez, “Afghanistan Opening
First Major Train Service,” Boston.com, Associated Press, 370 Seth G. Jones and Arturo Muñoz, “Afghanistan’s
21 December 2011, http://archive.boston.com/business/ Local War: Building Local Defense,” RAND National
articles/2011/12/21/afghanistan_opening_first_major_train_ Defense Research Institute, 2010, 27, http://www.rand.org/
service/ content/dam/rand/pubs/monographs/2010/RAND_MG1002.pdf
359 BBC News, “Afghanistan and Turkmenistan Open First 371 Jennifer Brick, “The Political Economy of Customary
Rail Connection,” 28 November 2016, http://www.bbc.com/ Village Organizations in Rural Afghanistan,” Department
news/world-asia-38133207 of Political Science, University of Wisconsin–Madison
(paper for the Annual Meeting of the Central Eurasian
360 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Studies Society, Washington, DC, September 2008),
“Country Profile: Afghanistan,” August 2008, https://www. https://www.bu.edu/aias/brick.pdf
372 Jennifer Brick Murtazashvili, Informal Order and
361 Rod Nordland, “Taliban Cut Off Afghan Highway the States in Afghanistan (Cambridge, MA: Cambridge
Linking Kabul to Northern Gateways,” New York Times, University Press, 2016), 72.
14 May 2016, http://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/15/world/
asia/taliban-cut-off-afghan-highway-linking-kabul-to-northern- 373 Jennifer Brick, “The Political Economy of Customary
gateways.html Village Organizations in Rural Afghanistan,” Department
of Political Science, University of Wisconsin–Madison
362 Kevin Sieff, “After Billions in U.S. Investment, Afghan (paper for the Annual Meeting of the Central Eurasian
Roads Are Falling Apart,” Washington Post, 30 January Studies Society, Washington, DC, September 2008),
2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/asia_pacific/ https://www.bu.edu/aias/brick.pdf
after-billions-in-us-investment-afghan-roads-are-falling-
apart/2014/01/30/9bd07764-7986-11e3-b1c5-739e63e9c9a7_ 374 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department
story.html?utm_term=.573f41de37f4 of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety
363 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292
of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety
Report,” 15 March 2016, https://www.osac.gov/pages/ 375 Charles Recknagel, “Afghanistan: Land Mines from
ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292 Afghan-Soviet War Leave Bitter Legacy (Part 2),” Radio
Free Europe/Radio Liberty, 13 February 2004, http://www.
364 iExplore, “Afghanistan: Transportation,” n.d., rferl.org/content/article/1051546.html
http://www.iexplore.com/articles/travel-guides/middle-east/
afghanistan/transportation 376 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of
Humanitarian Affairs, “Aid Agencies Withdraw from
Afghanistan’s North,” 5 October 2015, http://www.
irinnews.org/report/102057/aid-agencies-withdraw-
afghanistan%E2%80%99s-north
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377 Bureau of Diplomatic Security, U.S. Department
of State, “Afghanistan 2016 Crime and Safety
ContentReportDetails.aspx?cid=19292
378 United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan,

“UN Chief in Afghanistan Renews Call for Parties to
Protect Civilians,” 19 October 2016, http://unama.
unmissions.org/sites/default/files/19_october_2016_-_un_chief_
in_afghanistan_renews_call_for_parties_to_protect_civilians_
english.pdf
379 Landmine Monitor, “Afghanistan: 2008 Key

Data,” in Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor,
2008, http://www.the-monitor.org/index.php/publications/
display?act=submit&pqs_year=2009&pqs_type=lm&pqs_
report=afghanistan&pqs_section=
380 Landmine and Cluster Munition Monitor,

“Afghanistan: Mine Action,” 14 November 2016, http://
www.the-monitor.org/en-gb/reports/2016/afghanistan/mine-
action.aspx

Affairs, “Landmines Impede Civilians’ Return to Volatile
Arghandab,” 22 June 2008, http://www.irinnews.org/report.
aspx?ReportID=78869
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Chapter 5 | Rural Life
Assessment
1. Rural communities in Afghanistan generally lack access to public healthcare

and other services.
2. In Afghanistan, approximately 45% of the land can be used for farming.
3. The central Afghan government has historically lacked a strong presence in

rural areas.
4. Due to extremely high maternal, infant, and under-5 mortality rates, rural
health initiatives have focused on women and children.
5. Road conditions in rural areas have improved in recent years.
Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. True; 4. True; 5. False
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Rural well by a road, Shiring Tagab, Faryab Province Wikicommons/Didiervbergh
Family Life
Introduction
The extended family is the single most important social institution in Afghanistan. In a
country that has historically lacked nationwide public welfare, security, and education
systems, the extended family is the primary social support network for Afghan people.
Broad networks of families and family members support the financial and social needs
of the extended family or tribe as a whole. These networks are essential in political or
commercial affairs. Afghan family solidarity is strong, and nepotism is commonplace.
Because personal honor is tied to family honor, an individual’s identity is tied to those
of his or her family members. The reputation and actions of each family member
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115
reflects on the whole family. Ideally, this creates a tight bond between relatives, but it
can have negative consequences, as in the case of honor killings. Overall, the Western
notion of individual self-sufficiency is neither practical nor socially acceptable in
Afghan society. Living in a poor and conflict-ridden country, most Afghan families
need the assets, labor, and support of their members. In many regions of the country,
it is simply not possible to subsist on one’s own.
Familial and Tribal Relations

The Afghan extended family is the
tribe, which is both a political and social
institution. Families have a very strong sense
of maintaining their honor and any perceived
wrongdoing brings shame on the entire
family. In this context, loyalties to family and
tribe come before all other relationships. The
loyalties of a Pashtun nuclear family (koranay)
extend far beyond the walls of the home: the
extended family (kahol), the clan (khel), the
tribe (qawm), and finally the confederation Nuristani tribal elders at an intertribal Jirga in
of tribes in which it exists.382, 383 Jalalabad, Nangarhar Province Flickr/UNAMA News
Qawms
Afghan family networks extend into larger
social units based on lineage, ethnicity, tribal
affiliation, location, or other shared traits or
interests. This basic network of affiliations
is known as an Afghan’s qawm. This term is
somewhat fluid, and varies according to tribe,
ethnic group, and region. Foremost, a person’s
qawm is often based on his or her clan, or tribal
affiliation. Members of a qawm may trace their
heritage to a common ancestor. A qawm may
Pashtun and Hazara tribal elders at a shura to discuss
also refer to a specific village or region, or to a an unsanctioned intertribal marrriage, Uruzgan
profession or other social or economic factors Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
the group has in common. These social units have historically organized and identified
384
Afghans and provided cooperative social bonds. A qawm is typically governed by a

council of elder males, or jirga.
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Chapter 6 | Family Life 116
Did you grow up here?
Soldier: taasee dalta loo shwee yaast? Did you grow up here?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 69
Feuds
Competition for power or resources is a
frequent cause for conflict among groups.
For example, when the head of a family
dies, the brothers and male cousins of the
family may disagree over the distribution
of resources among them. Specifically, the
allocation or division of land is a major
source of dispute in rural Afghanistan. Adult
males may also disagree over who should
become the family’s authority figure. In
Loya Jirga in Muqur calling together locals and
particular, violent disputes between male regional leaders, Badghis Province, western
cousins are quite common. (In Pashto, the Afghanistan Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
term for hostile dislike between two persons is tarburghanay, which is derived from
the word tarbur, meaning male cousin.) In any case, such conflicts may force extended
families to divide into separate households.385
Are these people part of your family?

Soldier: daa Khalik staase do koraaney gheree Are these people part of your family?
dee?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 70
On a larger scale, a dispute between clans or tribes

over resources or a breach of honor may lead to
violent clashes and vendettas. Sometimes these
feuds can take years to resolve.386 Nonetheless,
it is not uncommon for tribal factions to unite
against an outside threat, even if they are
involved in an internal feud.
Right: Elders at a shura in Gereshk, Helmand Province
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Does your family live here?
Soldier: staaso koraanee dalta zhowand kawee? Does your family live here?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 71
Afghan Homes
In urban areas, families may live in modern
houses or apartments. Poor migrants
often live in makeshift structures in
city slums. In outlying areas, traditional
mud-brick and stone houses predominate,
although wooden structures are in some
regions. The clusters of houses that make
up a village are traditionally fortified
with exterior walls and, in some cases,
towers. Nomadic populations generally Earthquake-damaged homes in Badakshan Province
live in tents or yurts. Flickr/USAID Afghanistan
Traditional housing compounds for an extended Afghan family consist of individual

structures with flat or domed roofs built around a courtyard and surrounded by
reinforced walls. In conservative areas where strict segregation of the sexes is
practiced, these compounds have specific male and female spaces. 387 In families
where there are multiple wives, each wife has her own room with her own
belongings. A courtyard provides space for household activities and entertainment
in which the entire extended family takes part. 388 When entering a residence in
a noncombat situation, foreigners should respect the division of these spaces by
knocking before entering both exterior and interior doors.
Hujra (Guesthouse)
The hujra, or guesthouse, is significant in the life of many Pashtun families, especially
in villages. The hujra is the essential symbol of melmastia, or Pashtunwali honor. It
consists of a room or separate building in family compound or village where a guest is
welcomed and free food and lodging is provided. A hujra more commonly serves as a
site for male village members to receive male guests and friends. It also serves as the
center of learning, music, and storytelling, and as a decision-making forum where the
jirga will meet. While hujras exist in settled districts as well, they have lost much of
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their functional importance. The mosque has replaced the hujra in many cases, and
families who can afford it will have a guest room or drawing room instead.389, 390, 391
The Typical Household

Extended Family
A traditional rural Afghan household
contains an extended family, usually
consisting of multiple generations and
may include dozens of family members.
In a family compound, it is not unusual
for there to be a husband and wife, their
sons, their sons’ wives and children, their
unmarried daughters, in-laws, elderly
grandparents, cousins and their children.392
Once married, a woman moves into the

Afghan children in the city of Asadabad, near the
home of her husband’s family. From that Afghan-Pakistani border, Kunar Province
point on, she belongs to that family and Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
must obey, in particular, her husband and the senior female. Of course, the composition
of a household may vary according to tribe and socioeconomic status. Nuclear family
households may also be grouped within extended family settings. Younger members of
wealthy families are more likely to move out and start their own households.393
How many people live in this house?

Soldier: po daa koor ke tso mara Khalk zhowand How many people live in this house?
kawee?
Local: las kasan Ten.
Exchange 72
Polygamy
In some cases, an Afghan man will have multiple wives. (Islamic law allows men
to marry up to four women at the same time.) In general, a man may marry more
than one woman if he is wealthy and can support them or if a man’s existing wife
has not provided him with a son. In other instances, a man will marry a second wife
of his choosing after marrying the first in an arranged marriage, or he will marry a
young woman in the hopes of producing more children. 394 According to Islamic law,
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the husband must treat the wives equally. 395 The practice of taking more than one
wife, however, has become less common over the last 20 years.
Is this your entire family?

Soldier: daa staasee de koraaney tool gheree dee? Is this your entire family?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 73
Widows
With large numbers of Afghan men
killed in conflict, widows are common
in Afghanistan. In 2016, the number of
Afghan widows was estimated at over 2
million.396 Such circumstances expose
widows to a variety of difficulties. As
an expert observed, “In Afghanistan’s
patriarchal society, the death of a husband
not only diminishes a woman’s financial
independence, but also damages her sense
of social protection.”397 In most instances, Widow and her son begging in the street, Kabul
young widows remarry, typically to a Flickr/Jeremy Weate
brother or cousin of their deceased husband. Sometimes a man will take a widow as
a second wife or simply provide her a place within the larger household.398
Are you married?

Soldier: wadeh dey karey dey? Are you married?
Local: na No.
Exchange 74
The Afghan government offers a small stipend to war widows, but many women are
either unaware or do not have the skills to apply for it. Many widows who cannot
remarry live in extreme poverty and are forced to beg, or take other measures, to
support themselves and their children. In an effort to combat this trend, Western
aid organizations have targeted these women, helping them by offering literacy
classes and job skills training.399
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Gender Roles
Afghan families are headed by a male authority figure. This role is filled by the father
or, in the case of his death, the eldest son. The patriarch and the other male adults
of the family are responsible for the family’s financial security, safety, and strict
adherence to traditional social codes.
Do you have any brothers?

Soldier: taasee woroor laree? Do you have any brothers?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 75
As women are often restricted to the home, men

act as the family’s representatives in the public
sphere. In urban areas, this involves working a
paid job. In rural areas, men often perform most
of the agricultural labor outside the household
compound. Men also participate in local politics
and serve in militias.
The eldest women in the family have authority in

various domestic matters, such as allocation of
chores. They are in charge of the younger women
in the household. Child-rearing, caring for the
family, and the many tasks involved in operating the
household are women’s primary responsibilities. In
some cases, women may work outside the home,
although this practice was banned under the Taliban
and remains taboo in many communities. Overall,
women are required to submit to the will of their
Pashtun man thumbing tasbih prayer beads,
fathers, husbands, and other male relatives. Failure Arghandab River Valley near Kandahar Flickr/
to do so may result in domestic violence.400 ResoluteSupportMedia
Married Life, Divorce, and Birth

Marriage
In Afghanistan, marriages are social and financial contracts between families, rather
than romantic unions between individuals. Parents arrange marriages for their
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children, with marriage between cousins
being a preferred practice among many
Afghans. (Such an arrangement keeps
resources within the family.) Marriage is
also used to build alliances.401 Arranged
marriages involving minors remain
common, despite laws that prohibit girls
younger than 15 from marrying.402, 403
This is especially true in villages, where
marriages are often arranged to settle
tribal disputes or debts between families Afghan men dancing at a wedding in downtown Jalalabad,
(baad).404 Grooms are usually older than Nangarhar Province Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
their brides; in some cases, they may be significantly older.
Divorce
In Afghanistan, divorce is uncommon because of the social stigmatization. Current
Afghan laws regarding divorce are restrictive and unevenly applied to men and
women. For example, under Islamic law, men can divorce their wives simply by
declaring their intent to dissolve the union three times; consent of the wife is not
required. Men may suffer some financial loss, as they are expected to return the
bride price that was given to the wife as part of the marriage contract. This does
not always take place. 405
Officially, women can initiate divorce

for various reasons, but this occurs
less frequently because the effects of
separation are often damaging for them.
Both men and women involved in a
divorce will likely suffer social censure.
But the outcome can have especially
devastating effects on women, who lose
the financial support and community
security provided by the extended Women in blue chadri and child, Herat Flickr/
family, which remains the husband’s Marius Arnesen
domain. It is more difficult for women to remarry, especially if they are older
and unable to produce children. Women, in many cases, will also lose custody of
their older children, particularly if they remarry. Suicide among unhappily married
wives is not uncommon, with physical abuse being a primary motivating factor. 406
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Birth
The birth of a child is a joyous event,
especially when the child is a boy.
Traditionally, Muslim fathers whisper the
shahada (Muslim declaration of faith) into
the baby’s right ear.407 This is to ensure
that these are the first words the newborn
hears. In many areas, celebrations include
the firing of guns and a feast with family
and friends. After the seventh day, Afghans
celebrate the shaving of the infant’s head,
after the Muslim tradition. Urban Afghans USAID-trained midwife handing newborn to mother
usually have a baby shower; in rural USAID/USAID.gov
areas, this may be celebrated simply. The Muslim rite of passage for male children is
circumcision. Most Afghan boys are circumcised between the ages of two and five, and
the event marks the beginning of a boy’s life as an adult.408, 409
Children are valued as a source of social

security in Afghanistan, and the average
Afghan woman has five children.410 Large
families ensure that some children will
survive to provide for its elderly members.
Because many Afghan women lack access
to proper medical care, childbirth can
be dangerous. Afghanistan has one of the
world’s highest maternal mortality rates.
In 2015, nearly 40% of women died during
pregnancy or childbirth.411 Views on shame Baby Afghan boy recovering after mother gave birth via
and honor contribute to the high mortality emergency cesarean section Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
rate. To address the shortage of trained female doctors in outlying areas, the Afghan
government has launched a program to train more midwives throughout the country.412
Superstition
It is a common belief in Afghanistan that one should not admire or compliment
someone’s children or a loved one, unless you use the expression mashallah (“what
God has willed”). Many believe that invoking thankfulness to God, when giving a
compliment, provides protection. Otherwise, calling attention to a child or loved
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one may bring the individual bad luck. The belief is that the child may fall ill,
or some other harm may befall them. A family member may also recite a surah
(chapter) from the Quran to ward this off.
In rural areas, Afghans blend Muslim beliefs with superstitions that predate Islam.
Women and children often wear protective charms or tawiz amulets; cowives may
wear wolf claws to promote harmony.413 Some talismans are hung in homes. Many
Afghans also believe in good and bad spirits, such as angels and jinn—demon-like
beings who create mischief. References to both appear in the Quran, and belief in
them is widespread throughout the Muslim world.414, 415, 416
Life Stages
Status of the Elderly
The elderly are well-respected
and cared for by their children and
grandchildren, and they maintain
important roles within the family
throughout old age. For example,
elderly women often help raise the
family’s young children, and they are
frequently in charge of allocating food
resources. 417 Overall, older members
have authority over younger ones,
with the eldest male having authority Afghan villager and girl reading the Koran, southern
over the family as a whole. Afghanistan DVIDS/dvidshubnet
Status of Children
Children are highly valued but boys have a much higher status than girls. This is
due to several reasons. Foremost, familial descent is traced through the male line
and inheritance passes to the male children. Afghan women are supposed to receive
a portion of the inheritance, but this does not always occur.418 In this way, male
children propagate the family and accumulate its wealth, whereas female children
become members of other families through marriage. Overall, this makes investment
in boys more socially and financially practical than investing in girls.
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Are these your children?
Soldier: daa staasee kochneeyaan dee? Are these your children?
Local: ho Yes.
Exchange 76
Both boys and girls contribute to the household from

a young age. In addition to performing household and
agricultural chores, boys may seek paid employment
outside the home (in areas where it is available).
Girls typically help their female elders cook, wash,
and care for younger family members. Educational
opportunities vary according to a family’s means
and location, with priority given to sending boys
to school. Often however, the family is faced with
the difficult choice between an education for their
child and keeping the child home to help support the
family. Many children split their days between work Pregnant woman and child, Naw Abad
and school. village Flickr/ResoluteSupportMedia
Date of Birth
As a result of the displacement and confusion Afghans experienced during the wars
of the last 30 years, many do not have a record of their actual birth date. As a
result, they may not know the day they were born, just the season. To complete
legal documents, these Afghans chose their own birth dates. A significant number
picked the western New Year’s Day, January 1. Young Afghans have rallied around
this idea and many celebrate a mass birthday that is also an acknowledgment of
their country’s difficulties.419
Naming Conventions
Afghans usually use only a first name and lack a middle or last name. Instead
they are often distinguished by their tribal affiliation, place of birth, profession,
or an honorific title. Often first names consist of two parts: a common name
(typically an Islamic or Arabic component) followed by a less common name, such
as Ahmad Youness. The less common name is considered the proper name—in this
case, Youness. In formal situations, Afghans are identified by their first name(s)
and their father’s name. For example, Ahmad Youness walade Muhammad Moqim
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translates to Ahmad Youness son of Muhammad Moqim. Ahmad Youness is the first
name, and walade means “son of.”
Within the family and larger community,

family members, particularly women,
are sometimes referred to using a kinship
name. For example, a woman has a son
named Nasim. Instead of using her first
name, which would be impolite and
disrespectful, she would be referred to,
and even addressed as, “mother of Nasim.”
It is also considered polite to address
older men as baaba (father) or kakaa
(uncle). Honorific titles are given to those Herati boys working as baggage handlers, Herat
who have earned it, and it is important International Airport Flickr/Jim Kelly
to address such men with their honorific titles, such as Ghazi (military rank), Kahn
(leadership position), or Mullah (religious position), as in Mullah Mohamad Omar.420
For Pashtuns, first names are often the names of valued objects or qualities, such as
Batoor, one of many male names meaning “brave,” or Sarbaz, which means “eagle.”
For girls, names such as Ranrha, meaning “light,” or Gulalai, which means “beautiful,”
are popular. Last names are often Pashtun tribal names.421
Today, using a family name is becoming more popular among Afghans who have
traveled abroad or have had contact with international visitors.422 Some are using
their tribe’s name as their family name. Foreigners should be aware of possible
spelling variations when transliterating names from Pashto to English. A name spelled
differently on two documents may nonetheless refer to the same person.
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Endnotes for Chapter 6: Family Life

382 GlobalSecurity.org, “Afghan Culture: Newsletter 10- 395 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,
64,” September 2010, http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ “Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Family,” in
library/report/call/call_10-64.htm Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001,
http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/57.htm
383 Raymond A. Millen, “Afghanistan: Reconstituting
a Collapsed State,” Strategic Studies Institute, 396 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
U.S. Army War College, April 2005, 5, http://www. Affairs, “Bleak Prospects for Country’s Estimated 1.5
strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/pub600.pdf Million Widows,” 30 January 2008, http://www.irinnews.org/
Report.aspx?ReportId=76492
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Social 397 United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and
Structure,” in Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. the Empowerment of Women, “Women’s Centers in
Blood, 2001, http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/37.htm Afghanistan,” n.d., https://www.unwomen-usnc.org/
progafghanwomen
385 Barnett R. Rubin, “Chapter 2: Social Structure under
the Old Regime: Kinship, Qawm, Tribe, Ethnicity,” in The 398 Margherita Stancati, “After Decades of Conflict,
Fragmentation of Afghanistan, 2nd ed. (New Haven, CT: Many Afghan Women Struggle to Survive on Their Own,”
Yale University Press, 2002), 23. Wall Street Journal, 3 November 2015, http://www.wsj.
com/articles/after-decades-of-conflict-many-struggle-to-survive-
386 Tom Coghlan, “Afghan Blood Feud Ends After 30 on-their-own-1446601663
Years,” Telegraph, 3 June 2008, http://www.telegraph.
co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/afghanistan/2061531/Afghan-blood- 399 UNESCO Office in Kabul, “Enhancement of Literacy
feud-ends-after-30-years.html in Afghanistan (ELA) Program,” 2016, http://www.unesco.
org/new/en/kabul/education/enhancement-of-literacy-in-
387 Archinomy, “Traditional House in Kabul, afghanistan-ela-program/
Afghanistan,” n.d., http://www.archinomy.com/case-
studies/674/traditional-house-in-kabul-afghanistan 400 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress,
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Family,” in
388 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001,
“Chapter 2: The Society and Environment: Family,” in http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/57.htm
Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001,
http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/57.htm 401 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and
Gender Issues: Concept of the Family,” in Culture and
389 Pashtun Times, “Pashtun’s Hujra,” 31 January 2016, Customs of Afghanistan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press,
http://thepashtuntimes.com/pashtuns-hujra/ 2005), 165–166.
390 Express Tribune, “History of Pashtuns,” 13 October 402 Asian Legal Information Institute, “Civil Law of
2013, http://www.barmazid.com/2015/05/decline-of-hujra- the Republic of Afghanistan (Civil Code),” 5 January
tradition_6.html 1977, Articles 70 and 71, English translation revised
by USAID 2006, http://www.asianlii.org/af/legis/laws/
391 Lutz Rzehak, “Doing Pashto: Pashtunwali as the clotroacogn353p1977010513551015a650/
Ideal of Honourable Behavior and Tribal Life among
the Pashtuns,” Afghanistan Analysts Network, 16, 403 United Nations Population Fund Afghanistan,
https://www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/ “National Action Plan to Eliminate Early and Child
downloads/2012/10/20110321LR-Pashtunwali-FINAL.pdf Marriage in Afghanistan,” 31 December 2014, http://
afghanistan.unfpa.org/news/national-action-plan-eliminate-
392 Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, early-and-child-marriage-afghanistan
Afghanistan: A Country Study, ed. Peter R. Blood, 2001, 404 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
http://countrystudies.us/afghanistan/57.htm Affairs, “Law on Forced Marriages Still Widely
Flouted,” 16 March 2005, http://www.irinnews.org/report.
393 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and aspx?reportid=28332
Customs of Afghanistan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 405 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and
2005), 165–166. Gender Issues: Concept of the Family,” in Culture and
394 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and 2005), 179–181.
Customs of Afghanistan (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 406 IRIN, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
2005), 166–168. Affairs, “Women Reluctant to Seek Marital Redress
through the Courts,” 21 August 2007, http://www.irinnews.
org/report.aspx?ReportID=73829
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Endnotes for Chapter 6: Family Life

407 Mission Islam, “The Rights of the New Born Baby 421 Khyber.org., “Pashto Names for Children,” 19 May
in Islam,” n.d., http://www.missionislam.com/family/ 2005, http://www.khyber.org/culture/a/Pashto_Names_for_
rightsnewborn.htm Children.shtml
408 BBC News, “Islam and Male Circumcision,” 13 422 Barbara Robson, Juliene Lipson, Farid Younos, and
August 2009, http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/ Mariam Mehdi, “The Afghans: Their History and Culture,”
islamethics/malecircumcision.shtml 2002, 32, http://www.culturalorientation.net/library/
publications/the-afghans-culture-profile
409 Hafizullah Emadi, “Chapter 6: Family, Women, and
2005), 177–178.
410 United Nations Statistics Division, “Country Profile:

Afghanistan,” 2016, http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx
411 World Health Organization, United Nations Children’s
Fund, United Nations Population Fund, World Bank Group,
and the United Nations Population Division, “Trends
in Maternal Mortality: 1990–2015,” 2015, http://data.
worldbank.org/indicator/SH.STA.MMRT?year_high_desc=true
412 Nadene Ghouri, “Afghan Midwives Deliver Life-Saving

Birth Education,” BBC News, 9 April 2011, http://news.bbc.
co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/9450345.
stm

414 Economist, “Jinn: Born of Fire,” 19 December 2006,

http://www.economist.com/node/8401289
415 Pew Research Center, “Chapter 4: Other Beliefs and

Practices,” in The World’s Muslims: Unity and Diversity,
9 August 2012, http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/
the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-4-other-beliefs-and-
practices/
416 Louis Dupree, Afghanistan (Princeton: Princeton

University Press, 1980), 208.


419 Aziz Amin Ahmadzai and Ziauddin Wahaj,

“Afghanistan, Birthdays and War,” Diplomat, 15 January
2015, http://thediplomat.com/2015/01/afghanistan-birthdays-
and-war/
420 Karine Megerdoomian, “The Structure of Afghan

Names,” MITRE Corporation, November 2009, 1–4,
http://www.zoorna.org/papers/AfghanNames-MP090315-
Released_10-4604.pdf
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Chapter 6 | Family Life
Assessment
1. In rural areas, traditional mud-brick or stone houses are the norm.
2. In Afghanistan, a feud between families is known as a qawm.
3. A typical Afghan household consists of a husband, wife, and their children.
4. Marriages are often arranged to build alliances between families or settle tribal
disputes.
5. Divorce is common in Afghanistan.
Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. False; 4. True; 5. False
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Further Readings and Resources
Articles and Websites
Afghanistan Ministry of Urban Development Affairs, Independent Directorate of Local Governance,

and Kabul Municipality. State of Afghan Cities 2015, vol. 1. 2015. http://reliefweb.int/sites/
reliefweb.int/files/resources/State%20of%20Afghan%20Cities%202015%20Volume_1_0.pdf
Barfield, Thomas. Afghanistan: A Cultural and Political History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 2010.
Brick, Jennifer. The Political Economy of Customary Village Organizations in Rural Afghanistan.
Department of Political Science University of Wisconsin–Madison. Prepared for the Annual
Meeting of the Central Eurasian Studies Society, Washington, DC, September 2008. https://
www.bu.edu/aias/brick.pdf
Central Intelligence Agency. “Afghanistan.” The World Factbook. 21 November 2016. https://
www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/af.html
DA Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat. Energy Consumption and Available Energy Resources in

Afghanistan. n.d. https://www.usea.org/sites/default/files/event-file/522/Afghan_Power_
Sector_Briefing_June_2011.pdf
Fazli, Reza, and Casey Johnson, Peyton Cooke. Understanding and Countering Violent Extremism
in Afghanistan. United States Institute of Peace. September 2015. https://www.usip.org/sites/
default/files/SR379-Understanding-and-Countering-Violent-Extremism-in-Afghanistan.pdf
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. Afghanistan: A Country Study. Edited by Peter
R. Blood. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office. 2001. http://countrystudies.
us/afghanistan/index.htm
Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. “Country Profile: Afghanistan.” August 2008.
https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/cs/profiles/Afghanistan.pdf
Felbab-Brown, Vanda. Blood and Faith in Afghanistan. Brookings Center on 21st Century
Security and Intelligence. June 2016. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/
Felbab-Brown-Paper-BLOOD-AND-FAITH-IN-AFGHANISTAN-May-2016.pdf
Foschini, Fabrizio. The Social Wandering of the Afghan Kuchis: Changing Patterns, Perceptions
and Politics of an Afghan Community. Afghanistan Analysts Network. 28 November 2013. http://
www.afghanistan-analysts.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/11/20131125_FFoschini-Kuchis-Exec_
Summary.pdf
Hafizullah Emadi. Culture and Customs of Afghanistan. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005.
Hall, Samuel. Urban Poverty Report: A Study of Poverty, Food Insecurity and Resilience in
Afghan Cities. Danish Refugee Council and People in Need. 2014. https://drc.dk/media/1181597/
urban-poverty-report-a-study-of-poverty-food-insecurity-and-resilience-in-afghan-cities.pdf
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Pashto Cultural Orientation | Further Reading 130
Integrity Watch Afghanistan. Access to Information in Afghanistan: A Preliminary Review. 2015.
https://iwaweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/ATI-report-English-for-screen.pdf
Jalali, Ali. Forging Afghanistan’s National Unity Government. United States Institute of Peace.
January 2015. https://www.usip.org/sites/default/files/PB183-Forging-Afghanistans-National-
Unity-Government.pdf
Jones, Seth G., and Arturo Muñoz. Afghanistan’s Local War: Building Local Defense Forces.
RAND National Security Research Institute. 2010. http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/
MG1002.html
Katzman, Kenneth. Afghanistan: Politics, Elections, and Government Performance. Congressional

Research Service Report. 12 January 2015. https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RS21922.pdf
Livingston, Ian S., and Michael O’Hanlon. Afghanistan Index: Also Including Selected Data on
Pakistan. Brookings Institution. 10 February 2015. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/
uploads/2016/07/index20150210.pdf
Miakhel, Shahmahmood. The Importance of Tribal Structures and Pakhtunwali in Afghanistan:

Their Role in Security and Governance. 1995. http://pashtoonkhwa.com/files/articles/
Miakhel%20-%20Importance%20of%20Tribal%20Structures%20in%20Afghanistan.pdf
Millen, Raymond A. Afghanistan: Reconstituting a Collapsed State. Strategic Studies Institute,

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DLIFLC
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DLIFLC
Final Assessment
1. Pashtuns dominate the eastern and southern regions of Afghanistan.
2. Pashtuns form the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan.
3. The Afghan state was founded by a Pashtun leader in the 18th century.
4. Most Pashtuns are Shi’a Muslims.
5. Shi’a Muslims in Afghanistan have avoided persecution by their Sunni neighbors.
6. Islam is the state religion of Afghanistan.
7. Pashtun beliefs prohibit men from belonging to Sufi groups.
8. Afghan families are patriarchal.
9. Displays of affection, such as kissing on the cheek, are only appropriate between
members of the same sex.
10. Roughly 80% of Afghan marriages are arranged.
DLIFLC
Pashto Cultural Orientation | Final Assessment 133
11. Since the fall of the Taliban, millions of girls who were previously barred from
education are now attending school.
12. Less than 10% of all Afghans live in urban areas.
13. Many urban Afghans now have access to primary healthcare, such as vaccinations.
14. In Afghanistan, only about one-tenth of the land can be used as pastureland.
15. In rural areas, the ancient tribal code of Pashtunwali is still closely followed.
16. In recent years, the large number of Afghan refugees returning to Afghanistan
has contributed to job growth.
17. To get a divorce, Afghan men must gain permission from the local mullah.
18. Feuds are a common occurrence among Pashtuns.
19. Afghan custom restricts a man from having more than one wife.
20.An Afghan’s network of affiliations is known as his qawm.
True; 11. True; 12. False; 13. True; 14. False; 15. True; 16. False; 17. False; 18. True; 19. False; 20. True.
Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. True; 3. True; 4. False; 5. False; 6. True; 7. False; 8. True; 9. True; 10.
DLIFLC
Pashto Cultural Orientation | Final Assessment 134

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Chapter 4 | Urban Life

Chapter 5 | Rural Life

Self-Protection and Gun Ownership....................................................................... 96

Chapter 6 | Family Life

Further Readings and Resources

Chapter 1 | Pashto Cultural Orientation

Pass. Earthquakes, which frequently trigger destructive landslides, occur in the

Several mountain ranges shoot off from

Rivers and Lakes

The city’s population is dominated by Pashtuns, and it is close to Peshawar, a major

The Persians were one of the first major powers to control

The Afghan State and the Colonial Era

In the 19th and early 20th centuries,

In 1978, the People’s Democratic Party of Afghanistan, a communist group, seized

The Taliban Regime and U.S. Intervention

Centralized Afghan governments, Village elder participating in a planning shura to build a

Industries and Manufacturing

Opium Drug Trade

Afghan Pashtuns are Sunni Muslims

Within Afghanistan, other Afghan

Other Ethnic Groups

Turkmen and Uzbeks occupy the

In mountainous northeastern Afghanistan,

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

66 Ludwig W. Adamic, Historical Dictionary of 79 Special Inspector General for Afghanistan

70 J. Alexander Thier, “The Making of a Constitution 83 GlobalSecurity.org, “Afghanistan: Politics,” 2015,

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

Endnotes for Chapter 1: Profile

164 University of California, Los Angeles, “Dari,”

165 Karlos Zurutuza, “Afghanistan’s Re-Emerging

1. Prior to the 20th century, the term “Afghan” applied only to

2. Islam arrived in Afghanistan in the 5th century C.E.

3. The Durand Line now marks the modern Afghan-Pakistani border.

4. The Taliban took control of most of Afghanistan, including Kabul, in 1990.

5. Ethnicity continues to play a dominant role in Afghan politics.

Assessment Answers: 1. True; 2. False; 3. True; 4. False; 5. True

Chapter 2 | Pashto Cultural Orientation

Care and Treatment of the Quran

Sunni and Shi’a Divide

The Role of Religion in Government

Influence of Religion on Daily Life

In addition to Muslim schools, there is

Religion and Gender

Religious Events and Holidays

In addition to fasting, many people

Shrines and Cemeteries

Cemeteries are, of course, sacred

May I enter the mosque?

Must I take off my shoes before I enter the mosque?

Kabuli men and women at prayer on Ashura, which marks the