Calculus Volume 1 01 04 2020

Calculus Volume 1
Calculus Volume 1
GILBERT STRANG AND EDWIN "JED" HERMAN
OPENSTAX
HOUSTON, TX
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Contents
Preface vii
1. Functions and Graphs
1 Introduction 15
1.1 Review of Functions 16
1.2 Basic Classes of Functions 51
1.3 Trigonometric Functions 83
1.4 Inverse Functions 105
1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 127
Chapter 1 Review Exercises 158
2. Limits
2 Introduction 162
2.1 A Preview of Calculus 164
2.2 The Limit of a Function 180
2.3 The Limit Laws 212
2.4 Continuity 236
2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit 256
2.6 Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes 272
3. Derivatives
3 Introduction 302
3.1 Defining the Derivative 303
3.2 The Derivative as a Function 326
3.3 Differentiation Rules 349
3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change 374
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 388
3.6 The Chain Rule 402
3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions 418
3.8 Implicit Differentiation 432
3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 443
4. Applications of Derivatives
4 Introduction 461
4.1 Related Rates 462
4.2 Linear Approximations and Differentials 478
4.3 Maxima and Minima 493
4.4 The Mean Value Theorem 511
4.5 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph 526
4.6 Curve Sketching 548
4.7 Applied Optimization Problems 559
4.8 L’Hôpital’s Rule 579
4.9 Newton’s Method 600
4.10 Antiderivatives 618
5. Integration
5 Introduction 640
5.1 Approximating Areas 641
5.2 The Definite Integral 669
5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 695
5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem 718
5.5 Substitution 740
5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 756
5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions 773
Table of Integrals 787
Table of Derivatives 793
Review of Pre-Calculus 795

Preface
Welcome to Calculus Volume 1 , an OpenStax resource adapted for use at the University of Manitoba. This textbook was
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at little to no cost.
About OpenStax
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Preface | vii
About Calculus Volume 1
Calculus is designed for the typical two- or three-semester general calculus course, incorporating innovative features to
enhance student learning. The book guides students through the core concepts of calculus and helps them understand
how those concepts apply to their lives and the world around them. Due to the comprehensive nature of the material,
we are offering the book in three volumes for flexibility and efficiency. Volume 1 covers functions, limits, derivatives, and
integration.
Coverage and Scope
Our Calculus Volume 1 textbook adheres to the scope and sequence of most general calculus courses nationwide. We
have worked to make calculus interesting and accessible to students while maintaining the mathematical rigor inherent
in the subject. With this objective in mind, the content of the three volumes of Calculus have been developed and
arranged to provide a logical progression from fundamental to more advanced concepts, building upon what students
have already learned and emphasizing connections between topics and between theory and applications. The goal of
each section is to enable students not just to recognize concepts, but work with them in ways that will be useful in later
courses and future careers. The organization and pedagogical features were developed and vetted with feedback from
mathematics educators dedicated to the project.
Volume 1
• Chapter 1: Functions and Graphs
• Chapter 2: Limits
• Chapter 3: Derivatives
• Chapter 4: Applications of Derivatives
• Chapter 5: Integration
• Chapter 6: Applications of Integration
Volume 2
• Chapter 1: Integration
• Chapter 2: Applications of Integration
• Chapter 3: Techniques of Integration
• Chapter 4: Introduction to Differential Equations
• Chapter 5: Sequences and Series
• Chapter 6: Power Series
• Chapter 7: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
Volume 3
• Chapter 1: Parametric Equations and Polar Coordinates
• Chapter 2: Vectors in Space
• Chapter 3: Vector-Valued Functions
• Chapter 4: Differentiation of Functions of Several Variables
• Chapter 5: Multiple Integration
viii | Preface
• Chapter 6: Vector Calculus
• Chapter 7: Second-Order Differential Equations
Pedagogical Foundation
Throughout Calculus Volume 1 you will find examples and exercises that present classical ideas and techniques as well
as modern applications and methods. Derivations and explanations are based on years of classroom experience on the
part of long-time calculus professors, striving for a balance of clarity and rigor that has proven successful with their
students. Motivational applications cover important topics in probability, biology, ecology, business, and economics, as
well as areas of physics, chemistry, engineering, and computer science. Student Projects in each chapter give students
opportunities to explore interesting sidelights in pure and applied mathematics, from determining a safe distance
between the grandstand and the track at a Formula One racetrack, to calculating the center of mass of the Grand
Canyon Skywalk or the terminal speed of a skydiver. Chapter Opening Applications pose problems that are solved
later in the chapter, using the ideas covered in that chapter. Problems include the hydraulic force against the Hoover
Dam, and the comparison of relative intensity of two earthquakes. Definitions, Rules, and Theorems are highlighted
throughout the text, including over 60 Proofs of theorems.
Assessments That Reinforce Key Concepts
In-chapter Examples walk students through problems by posing a question, stepping out a solution, and then asking
students to practice the skill with a “Checkpoint” question. The book also includes assessments at the end of each
chapter so students can apply what they’ve learned through practice problems. Many exercises are marked with a [T] to
indicate they are suitable for solution by technology, including calculators or Computer Algebra Systems (CAS). Answers
for selected exercises are available in the Answer Key at the back of the book. The book also includes assessments at
the end of each chapter so students can apply what they’ve learned through practice problems.
Early or Late Transcendentals
Calculus Volume 1 is designed to accommodate both Early and Late Transcendental approaches to calculus. Exponential
and logarithmic functions are introduced informally in Chapter 1 and presented in more rigorous terms in Chapter 6.
Differentiation and integration of these functions is covered in Chapters 3–5 for instructors who want to include them
with other types of functions. These discussions, however, are in separate sections that can be skipped for instructors
who prefer to wait until the integral definitions are given before teaching the calculus derivations of exponentials and
logarithms.
Comprehensive Art Program

Our art program is designed to enhance students’ understanding of concepts through clear and effective illustrations,
diagrams, and photographs.
Preface | ix
Additional Resources
Student and Instructor Resources

We’ve compiled additional resources for both students and instructors, including Getting Started Guides, an instructor
solution manual, and PowerPoint slides. Instructor resources require a verified instructor account, which can be
requested on your openstax.org log-in. Take advantage of these resources to supplement your OpenStax book.
Partner Resources
OpenStax Partners are our allies in the mission to make high-quality learning materials affordable and accessible to
students and instructors everywhere. Their tools integrate seamlessly with our OpenStax titles at a low cost. To access
the partner resources for your text, visit your book page on openstax.org.
About the Authors
Senior Contributing Authors
Gilbert Strang, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Dr. Strang received his PhD from UCLA in 1959 and has been teaching mathematics at MIT ever since. His Calculus
x | Preface
online textbook is one of eleven that he has published and is the basis from which our final product has been derived
and updated for today’s student. Strang is a decorated mathematician and past Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University.
Edwin “Jed” Herman, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point
Dr. Herman earned a BS in Mathematics from Harvey Mudd College in 1985, an MA in Mathematics from UCLA in
1987, and a PhD in Mathematics from the University of Oregon in 1997. He is currently a Professor at the University of
Wisconsin-Stevens Point. He has more than 20 years of experience teaching college mathematics, is a student research
mentor, is experienced in course development/design, and is also an avid board game designer and player.
Contributing Authors
Catherine Abbott, Keuka College
Nicoleta Virginia Bila, Fayetteville State University
Sheri J. Boyd, Rollins College
Joyati Debnath, Winona State University
Valeree Falduto, Palm Beach State College
Joseph Lakey, New Mexico State University
Julie Levandosky, Framingham State University
David McCune, William Jewell College
Michelle Merriweather, Bronxville High School
Kirsten R. Messer, Colorado State University – Pueblo
Alfred K. Mulzet, Florida State College at Jacksonville
William Radulovich (retired), Florida State College at Jacksonville
Erica M. Rutter, Arizona State University
David Smith, University of the Virgin Islands
Elaine A. Terry, Saint Joseph’s University
David Torain, Hampton University
Reviewers
Marwan A. Abu-Sawwa, Florida State College at Jacksonville
Preface | xi
Kenneth J. Bernard, Virginia State University
John Beyers, University of Maryland
Charles Buehrle, Franklin & Marshall College
Matthew Cathey, Wofford College
Michael Cohen, Hofstra University
William DeSalazar, Broward County School System
Murray Eisenberg, University of Massachusetts Amherst
Kristyanna Erickson, Cecil College
Tiernan Fogarty, Oregon Institute of Technology
David French, Tidewater Community College
Marilyn Gloyer, Virginia Commonwealth University
Shawna Haider, Salt Lake Community College
Lance Hemlow, Raritan Valley Community College
Jerry Jared, The Blue Ridge School
Peter Jipsen, Chapman University
David Johnson, Lehigh University
M.R. Khadivi, Jackson State University
Robert J. Krueger, Concordia University
Tor A. Kwembe, Jackson State University
Jean-Marie Magnier, Springfield Technical Community College
Cheryl Chute Miller, SUNY Potsdam
Bagisa Mukherjee, Penn State University, Worthington Scranton Campus
Kasso Okoudjou, University of Maryland College Park
Peter Olszewski, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College
xii | Preface
Steven Purtee, Valencia College
Alice Ramos, Bethel College
Doug Shaw, University of Northern Iowa
Hussain Elalaoui-Talibi, Tuskegee University
Jeffrey Taub, Maine Maritime Academy
William Thistleton, SUNY Polytechnic Institute
A. David Trubatch, Montclair State University
Carmen Wright, Jackson State University
Zhenbu Zhang, Jackson State University
Preface | xiii
1. FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS
14 | 1. Functions and Graphs

1 Introduction
Figure 1. A portion of the
San Andreas Fault in
California. Major faults
like this are the sites of
most of the strongest
earthquakes ever
recorded. (credit:
modification of work by
Robb Hannawacker, NPS)
In the past few years, major earthquakes have occurred in several countries around the world. In January 2010, an
earthquake of magnitude 7.3 hit Haiti. A magnitude 9 earthquake shook northeastern Japan in March 2011. In April 2014,
an 8.2-magnitude earthquake struck off the coast of northern Chile. What do these numbers mean? In particular, how
does a magnitude 9 earthquake compare with an earthquake of magnitude 8.2? Or 7.3? Later in this chapter, we show
how logarithmic functions are used to compare the relative intensity of two earthquakes based on the magnitude of
each earthquake (see (Figure) ).
Calculus is the mathematics that describes changes in functions. In this chapter, we review all the functions necessary
to study calculus. We define polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions. We review how
to evaluate these functions, and we show the properties of their graphs. We provide examples of equations with terms
involving these functions and illustrate the algebraic techniques necessary to solve them. In short, this chapter provides
the foundation for the material to come. It is essential to be familiar and comfortable with these ideas before proceeding
to the formal introduction of calculus in the next chapter.
1 Introduction | 15
1.1 Review of Functions
Learning Objectives
• Use functional notation to evaluate a function.
• Determine the domain and range of a function.
• Draw the graph of a function.
• Find the zeros of a function.
• Recognize a function from a table of values.
• Make new functions from two or more given functions.
• Describe the symmetry properties of a function.
In this section, we provide a formal definition of a function and examine several ways in which functions are
represented—namely, through tables, formulas, and graphs. We study formal notation and terms related to functions.
We also define composition of functions and symmetry properties. Most of this material will be a review for you, but it
serves as a handy reference to remind you of some of the algebraic techniques useful for working with functions.
Functions
Given two sets and , a set with elements that are ordered pairs , where is an element of and is
an element of , is a relation from to . A relation from to defines a relationship between those two sets.
A function is a special type of relation in which each element of the first set is related to exactly one element of the
second set. The element of the first set is called the input ; the element of the second set is called the output . Functions
are used all the time in mathematics to describe relationships between two sets. For any function, when we know the
input, the output is determined, so we say that the output is a function of the input. For example, the area of a square is
determined by its side length, so we say that the area (the output) is a function of its side length (the input). The velocity
of a ball thrown in the air can be described as a function of the amount of time the ball is in the air. The cost of mailing
a package is a function of the weight of the package. Since functions have so many uses, it is important to have precise
definitions and terminology to study them.
Definition
A function consists of a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for assigning each input to exactly one output.
The set of inputs is called the domain of the function. The set of outputs is called the range of the function.
For example, consider the function , where the domain is the set of all real numbers and the rule is to square the
input. Then, the input is assigned to the output . Since every nonnegative real number has a real-value
square root, every nonnegative number is an element of the range of this function. Since there is no real number with a
square that is negative, the negative real numbers are not elements of the range. We conclude that the range is the set
of nonnegative real numbers.
For a general function with domain , we often use to denote the input and to denote the output associated
with . When doing so, we refer to as the independent variable and as the dependent variable , because it depends
on . Using function notation, we write , and we read this equation as “ equals of .” For the squaring
function described earlier, we write .
The concept of a function can be visualized using (Figure) , (Figure) , and (Figure) .
16 | 1.1 Review of Functions

Figure 1. A function can be visualized as an input/output device.
Figure 2. A function maps every element in the domain to exactly

one element in the range. Although each input can be sent to only
one output, two different inputs can be sent to the same output.
Visit this applet link to see more about graphs of functions.
We can also visualize a function by plotting points in the coordinate plane where . The graph
of a function is the set of all these points. For example, consider the function , where the domain is the set
and the rule is . In (Figure) , we plot a graph of this function.
1.1 Review of Functions | 17

Figure 4. Here we see a graph of the function with
domain and rule .
The graph consists of the points for all
in the domain.
Every function has a domain. However, sometimes a function is described by an equation, as in , with no
specific domain given. In this case, the domain is taken to be the set of all real numbers for which is a real
number. For example, since any real number can be squared, if no other domain is specified, we consider the domain of
to be the set of all real numbers. On the other hand, the square root function only gives
a real output if is nonnegative. Therefore, the domain of the function is the set of nonnegative real
numbers, sometimes called the natural domain .
For the functions and , the domains are sets with an infinite number of elements. Clearly
we cannot list all these elements. When describing a set with an infinite number of elements, it is often helpful to use
set-builder or interval notation. When using set-builder notation to describe a subset of all real numbers, denoted , we
write
.
We read this as the set of real numbers such that has some property. For example, if we were interested in the set of
real numbers that are greater than one but less than five, we could denote this set using set-builder notation by writing
.
A set such as this, which contains all numbers greater than and less than , can also be denoted using the interval
notation . Therefore,
.
The numbers 1 and 5 are called the endpoints of this set. If we want to consider the set that includes the endpoints, we
would denote this set by writing
.
We can use similar notation if we want to include one of the endpoints, but not the other. To denote the set of
nonnegative real numbers, we would use the set-builder notation
.

The smallest number in this set is zero, but this set does not have a largest number. Using interval notation, we would
use the symbol , which refers to positive infinity, and we would write the set as
.
It is important to note that is not a real number. It is used symbolically here to indicate that this set includes all real
numbers greater than or equal to zero. Similarly, if we wanted to describe the set of all nonpositive numbers, we could
write
.
Here, the notation refers to negative infinity, and it indicates that we are including all numbers less than or equal
to zero, no matter how small. The set
refers to the set of all real numbers.
Some functions are defined using different equations for different parts of their domain. These types of functions are
known as piecewise-defined functions . For example, suppose we want to define a function with a domain that is the
set of all real numbers such that for and for . We denote this function
by writing
When evaluating this function for an input , the equation to use depends on whether or . For example,
since , we use the fact that for and see that . On the
other hand, for , we use the fact that for and see that .
Evaluating Functions
For the function , evaluate

a.
b.
c.
Solution
Substitute the given value for in the formula for .
a.
b.
c.
For , evaluate and .
Solution
and
Hint
Substitute 1 and for in the formula for .

Finding Domain and Range
For each of the following functions, determine the i. domain and ii. range.
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. Consider .
1. Since is a real number for any real number , the domain of is the
interval .
2. Since , we know . Therefore, the range must be a
subset of . To show that every element in this set is in the range, we need to show that
for a given in that set, there is a real number such that . Solving
this equation for , we see that we need such that
.
This equation is satisfied as long as there exists a real number such that
.
Since , the square root is well-defined. We conclude that for , ,
and therefore the range is .
b. Consider .
1. To find the domain of , we need the expression . Solving this inequality, we conclude
that the domain is .
2. To find the range of , we note that since , .
Therefore, the range of must be a subset of the set . To show that every element in
this set is in the range of , we need to show that for all in this set, there exists a real number in
the domain such that . Let . Then, if and only if
.
Solving this equation for , we see that must solve the equation
.
Since , such an could exist. Squaring both sides of this equation, we have
.
Therefore, we need
,
which implies
.
We just need to verify that is in the domain of . Since the domain of consists of all real numbers
greater than or equal to , and
,
there does exist an in the domain of . We conclude that the range of is .
c. Consider .
1. Since is defined when the denominator is nonzero, the domain is .
2. To find the range of , we need to find the values of such that there exists a real number in the
domain with the property that

.
Solving this equation for , we find that
.
Therefore, as long as , there exists a real number in the domain such that .
Thus, the range is .
Find the domain and range for .
Solution
Domain = , range =
Hint
Use .
Representing Functions
Typically, a function is represented using one or more of the following tools:
• A table
• A graph
• A formula
We can identify a function in each form, but we can also use them together. For instance, we can plot on a graph the
values from a table or create a table from a formula.
Tables
Functions described using a table of values arise frequently in real-world applications. Consider the following simple
example. We can describe temperature on a given day as a function of time of day. Suppose we record the temperature
every hour for a 24-hour period starting at midnight. We let our input variable be the time after midnight, measured
in hours, and the output variable be the temperature hours after midnight, measured in degrees Fahrenheit. We
record our data in (Figure) .

Temperature as a Function of Time of Day
Hours after Midnight Temperature Hours after Midnight Temperature
0 58 12 84
1 54 13 85
2 53 14 85
3 52 15 83
4 52 16 82
5 55 17 80
6 60 18 77
7 64 19 74
8 72 20 69
9 75 21 65
10 78 22 60
11 80 23 58
We can see from the table that temperature is a function of time, and the temperature decreases, then increases, and
then decreases again. However, we cannot get a clear picture of the behavior of the function without graphing it.
Graphs
Given a function described by a table, we can provide a visual picture of the function in the form of a graph. Graphing
the temperatures listed in (Figure) can give us a better idea of their fluctuation throughout the day. (Figure) shows the
plot of the temperature function.

Figure 5. The graph of the data from ( Table ) shows temperature as
a function of time.
From the points plotted on the graph in (Figure) , we can visualize the general shape of the graph. It is often useful
to connect the dots in the graph, which represent the data from the table. In this example, although we cannot
make any definitive conclusion regarding what the temperature was at any time for which the temperature was not
recorded, given the number of data points collected and the pattern in these points, it is reasonable to suspect that the
temperatures at other times followed a similar pattern, as we can see in (Figure) .

Figure 6. Connecting the dots in ( Figure) shows the general pattern
of the data.
Algebraic Formulas
Sometimes we are not given the values of a function in table form, rather we are given the values in an explicit formula.
Formulas arise in many applications. For example, the area of a circle of radius is given by the formula .
When an object is thrown upward from the ground with an initial velocity ft/s, its height above the ground from the
time it is thrown until it hits the ground is given by the formula . When dollars are invested
in an account at an annual interest rate compounded continuously, the amount of money after years is given by the
formula . Algebraic formulas are important tools to calculate function values. Often we also represent
these functions visually in graph form.
Given an algebraic formula for a function , the graph of is the set of points , where is in the domain of
and is in the range. To graph a function given by a formula, it is helpful to begin by using the formula to create
a table of inputs and outputs. If the domain of consists of an infinite number of values, we cannot list all of them, but
because listing some of the inputs and outputs can be very useful, it is often a good way to begin.
When creating a table of inputs and outputs, we typically check to determine whether zero is an output. Those values
of where are called the zeros of a function . For example, the zeros of are .
The zeros determine where the graph of intersects the -axis, which gives us more information about the shape of

the graph of the function. The graph of a function may never intersect the -axis, or it may intersect multiple (or even
infinitely many) times.
Another point of interest is the -intercept, if it exists. The -intercept is given by .
Since a function has exactly one output for each input, the graph of a function can have, at most, one -intercept. If
is in the domain of a function , then has exactly one -intercept. If is not in the domain of , then
has no -intercept. Similarly, for any real number , if is in the domain of , there is exactly one output , and
the line intersects the graph of exactly once. On the other hand, if is not in the domain of , is not
defined and the line does not intersect the graph of . This property is summarized in the vertical line test .
Rule: Vertical Line Test
Given a function , every vertical line that may be drawn intersects the graph of no more than once. If any
vertical line intersects a set of points more than once, the set of points does not represent a function.
We can use this test to determine whether a set of plotted points represents the graph of a function ( (Figure) ).
Figure 7. (a) The set of plotted points represents the graph of a

function because every vertical line intersects the set of
points, at most, once. (b) The set of plotted points does not
represent the graph of a function because some vertical lines
intersect the set of points more than once.
Finding Zeros and -Intercepts of a Function
Consider the function .

a. Find all zeros of .
b. Find the -intercept (if any).
c. Sketch a graph of .
Solution
a. To find the zeros, solve . We discover that has one zero at .
b. The -intercept is given by .
c. Given that is a linear function of the form that passes through the points

and , we can sketch the graph of ( (Figure) ).
Figure 8. The function is a line with

-intercept and -intercept .
Using Zeros and -Intercepts to Sketch a Graph

a. Find all zeros of .
b. Find the -intercept (if any).
Solution
a. To find the zeros, solve . This equation implies . Since
for all , this equation has no solutions, and therefore has no zeros.
b. The -intercept is given by .
c. To graph this function, we make a table of values. Since we need , we need to choose values of
. We choose values that make the square-root function easy to evaluate.
-3 -2 1
1 2 3
Making use of the table and knowing that, since the function is a square root, the graph of should be similar to
the graph of , we sketch the graph ( (Figure) ).

Figure 9. The graph of has a
-intercept but no -intercepts.
Find the zeros of .
Solution
Hint
Factor the polynomial.
Finding the Height of a Free-Falling Object
If a ball is dropped from a height of 100 ft, its height at time is given by the function
, where is measured in feet and is measured in seconds. The domain is restricted to the interval , where
is the time when the ball is dropped and is the time when the ball hits the ground.
a. Create a table showing the height when and . Using the data from the
table, determine the domain for this function. That is, find the time when the ball hits the ground.
b. Sketch a graph of .
Solution
a. Height as a Function of Time
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
100 96 84 64 36 0
Since the ball hits the ground when , the domain of this function is the interval .

b.
Note that for this function and the function graphed in (Figure) , the values of are getting
smaller as is getting larger. A function with this property is said to be decreasing. On the other hand, for the function
graphed in (Figure) , the values of are getting larger as the values of are getting larger.
A function with this property is said to be increasing. It is important to note, however, that a function can be increasing
on some interval or intervals and decreasing over a different interval or intervals. For example, using our temperature
function in (Figure) , we can see that the function is decreasing on the interval , increasing on the interval
, and then decreasing on the interval . We make the idea of a function increasing or decreasing over a
particular interval more precise in the next definition.
Definition
We say that a function is increasing on the interval if for all ,
.
We say is strictly increasing on the interval if for all ,
.
We say that a function is decreasing on the interval if for all ,
.
We say that a function is strictly decreasing on the interval if for all ,
.
For example, the function is increasing on the interval because whenever

. On the other hand, the function is decreasing on the interval because
whenever ( (Figure) ).

Figure 10. (a) The function is increasing on the interval . (b) The function is decreasing
on the interval .
Combining Functions
Now that we have reviewed the basic characteristics of functions, we can see what happens to these properties when
we combine functions in different ways, using basic mathematical operations to create new functions. For example, if
the cost for a company to manufacture items is described by the function and the revenue created by the sale
of items is described by the function , then the profit on the manufacture and sale of items is defined as
. Using the difference between two functions, we created a new function.
Alternatively, we can create a new function by composing two functions. For example, given the functions
and , the composite function is defined such that
.
The composite function is defined such that

.

Note that these two new functions are different from each other.
Combining Functions with Mathematical Operators

To combine functions using mathematical operators, we simply write the functions with the operator and simplify. Given
two functions and we can define four new functions:
Combining Functions Using Mathematical Operations
Given the functions and , find each of the following functions and state its
domain.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Solution
a. . The domain of this function is the
interval .
b. . The domain of this function is the
interval .
c. . The domain of this function is the
interval .
d. . The domain of this function is .
For and , find and state its domain.
Solution
. The domain is .
Hint
The new function is a quotient of two functions. For what values of is the denominator zero?
Function Composition
When we compose functions, we take a function of a function. For example, suppose the temperature on a given
day is described as a function of time (measured in hours after midnight) as in (Figure) . Suppose the cost , to heat
or cool a building for 1 hour, can be described as a function of the temperature . Combining these two functions, we
can describe the cost of heating or cooling a building as a function of time by evaluating . We have defined

a new function, denoted , which is defined such that for all in the domain of .
This new function is called a composite function. We note that since cost is a function of temperature and temperature
is a function of time, it makes sense to define this new function . It does not make sense to consider
, because temperature is not a function of cost.
Definition
Consider the function with domain and range , and the function with domain and range . If is a
subset of , then the composite function is the function with domain such that
.
A composite function can be viewed in two steps. First, the function maps each input in the domain of to
its output in the range of . Second, since the range of is a subset of the domain of , the output is an
element in the domain of , and therefore it is mapped to an output in the range of . In (Figure) , we see a
visual image of a composite function.
Figure 11. For the composite function , we have

and .
Compositions of Functions Defined by Formulas
Consider the functions and .

a. Find and state its domain and range.
b. Evaluate and .
c. Find and state its domain and range.
d. Evaluate and .
Solution
a. We can find the formula for in two different ways. We could write
.
Alternatively, we could write
.
Since for all real numbers , the domain of is the set of all real numbers. Since

, the range is, at most, the interval . To show that the range is this entire
interval, we let and solve this equation for to show that for all in the interval
, there exists a real number such that . Solving this equation for , we see that
, which implies that
If is in the interval , the expression under the radical is nonnegative, and therefore there exists a
real number such that . We conclude that the range of is the interval .
b.
c. We can find a formula for in two ways. First, we could write

.
Alternatively, we could write
.
The domain of is the set of all real numbers such that . To find the range of , we need to
find all values for which there exists a real number such that
.
Solving this equation for , we see that we need to satisfy
,
which simplifies to
.
Finally, we obtain
.
Since is a real number if and only if , the range of is the set .

d.
In (Figure) , we can see that . This tells us, in general terms, that the order in which we
compose functions matters.
Let Let Find .
Solution
.
Composition of Functions Defined by Tables
Consider the functions and described by (Figure) and (Figure) .
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
0 4 2 4 -2 0 -2 4

-4 -2 0 2 4
1 0 3 0 5
a. Evaluate and .
b. State the domain and range of .
c. Evaluate and .
d. State the domain and range of .
Solution
a.
b. The domain of is the set . Since the range of is the set

, the range of is the set .
c.
d. The domain of is the set . Since the range of is the set

, the range of is the set .
Application Involving a Composite Function
A store is advertising a sale of off all merchandise. Caroline has a coupon that entitles her to an additional
off any item, including sale merchandise. If Caroline decides to purchase an item with an original price of
dollars, how much will she end up paying if she applies her coupon to the sale price? Solve this problem by using
a composite function.
Solution
Since the sale price is off the original price, if an item is dollars, its sale price is given by
. Since the coupon entitles an individual to off the price of any item, if an item is
dollars, the price, after applying the coupon, is given by . Therefore, if the price is originally
dollars, its sale price will be and then its final price after the coupon will be
.
If items are on sale for off their original price, and a customer has a coupon for an additional off,
what will be the final price for an item that is originally dollars, after applying the coupon to the sale price?
Solution
Hint
The sale price of an item with an original price of dollars is . The coupon price for an item that is
dollars is .

Symmetry of Functions
The graphs of certain functions have symmetry properties that help us understand the function and the shape of its
graph. For example, consider the function shown in (Figure) (a). If we take the part of the
curve that lies to the right of the -axis and flip it over the -axis, it lays exactly on top of the curve to the left of the
-axis. In this case, we say the function has symmetry about the -axis . On the other hand, consider the function
shown in (Figure) (b). If we take the graph and rotate it 180° about the origin, the new graph will
look exactly the same. In this case, we say the function has symmetry about the origin.
Figure 12. (a) A graph that is symmetric about the -axis. (b) A graph that is symmetric about the origin.
If we are given the graph of a function, it is easy to see whether the graph has one of these symmetry properties. But
without a graph, how can we determine algebraically whether a function has symmetry? Looking at (Figure) again, we
see that since is symmetric about the -axis, if the point is on the graph, the point is on the graph.
In other words, . If a function has this property, we say is an even function , which has symmetry
about the -axis. For example, is even because
.
In contrast, looking at (Figure) again, if a function is symmetric about the origin, then whenever the point is
on the graph, the point is also on the graph. In other words, . If has this property,
we say is an odd function , which has symmetry about the origin. For example, is odd because
.

Definition
If for all in the domain of , then is an even function. An even function is symmetric about
the -axis.
If for all in the domain of , then is an odd function. An odd function is symmetric about
the origin.
Even and Odd Functions
Determine whether each of the following functions is even, odd, or neither.

a.
b.
c.
Solution
To determine whether a function is even or odd, we evaluate and compare it to and .
a. . Therefore, is even.
b. . Now, . Furthermore,
noting that , we see that . Therefore, is neither
even nor odd.
c. .
Therefore, is odd.
Determine whether is even, odd, or neither.
Solution
is odd.
Hint
Compare with and .
One symmetric function that arises frequently is the absolute value function , written as . The absolute value function
is defined as
Some students describe this function by stating that it “makes everything positive.” By the definition of the absolute
value function, we see that if , then , and if , then . However, for
. Therefore, it is more accurate to say that for all nonzero inputs, the output is positive, but if
, the output . We conclude that the range of the absolute value function is . In (Figure) , we see
that the absolute value function is symmetric about the -axis and is therefore an even function.

Figure 13. The graph of is symmetric about the
-axis.
Working with the Absolute Value Function
Find the domain and range of the function .
Solution
Since the absolute value function is defined for all real numbers, the domain of this function is . Since
for all , the function . Therefore, the range is, at most, the set
. To see that the range is, in fact, this whole set, we need to show that for there exists a real
number such that
.
A real number satisfies this equation as long as
.
Since , we know , and thus the right-hand side of the equation is nonnegative, so it is
possible that there is a solution. Furthermore,
Therefore, we see there are two solutions:

.
The range of this function is .
For the function , find the domain and range.

Solution
Domain = , range = .
Hint
for all real numbers .
Key Concepts
• A function is a mapping from a set of inputs to a set of outputs with exactly one output for each input.
• If no domain is stated for a function , the domain is considered to be the set of all real numbers
for which the function is defined.
• When sketching the graph of a function , each vertical line may intersect the graph, at most, once.
• A function may have any number of zeros, but it has, at most, one -intercept.
• To define the composition , the range of must be contained in the domain of .
• Even functions are symmetric about the -axis whereas odd functions are symmetric about the origin.
Key Equations
• Composition of two functions
• Absolute value function
For the following exercises, (a) determine the domain and the range of each relation, and (b) state whether the relation
is a function.
1.
-3 9 1 1
-2 4 2 4
-1 1 3 9
0 0
Solution
a. Domain = , range = b. Yes, a function
2.

-3 -2 1 1
-2 -8 2 8
-1 -1 3 -2
0 0
3.
1 -3 1 1
2 -2 2 2
3 -1 3 3
0 0
Solution
a. Domain = , range = b. No, not a function
4.
1 1 5 1
2 1 6 1
3 1 7 1
4 1
5.
3 3 15 1
5 2 21 2
8 1 33 3
10 0
Solution
a. Domain = , range = b. Yes, a function
6.

-7 11 1 -2
-2 5 3 4
-2 1 6 11
0 -1
For the following exercises, find the values for each function, if they exist, then simplify.
a. b. c. d. e. f.
7.
Solution
a. -2 b. 3 c. 13 d. e. f.
8.
9.
Solution
a. Undefined b. 2 c. d. e f.
10.
11.
Solution
a. b. c. d. e. f.
12.
13.
Solution
a. 9 b. 9 c. 9 d. 9 e. 9 f. 9
For the following exercises, find the domain of the functions.
14.
15.
Solution
Domain:

For the following exercises, find the domain, range, and all zeros/intercepts, if any, of the functions.
16.
17.
Solution
Domain: ; Range: ; Zeros: ; no -intercepts
18.
19.
Solution
Domain: ; Range: ; Zeros: ; -intercepts:
20.
21.
Solution
Domain: ; Range: ; no -intercept; -intercept:
22.
23.
Solution
Domain: ; Range: ; no intercepts
For the following exercises, set up a table to sketch the graph of each function using the following values:
.
24.
-3 10 1 2
-2 5 2 5
-1 2 3 10
0 1
25.

-3 -15 1 -3
-2 -12 2 0
-1 -9 3 3
0 -6
Solution
26.
-3 1
-2 0 2 2
-1 3
0 1
27.
-3 6 1 2
-2 4 2 4
-1 2 3 6
0 0

Solution
28.
-3 -9 1 -1
-2 -4 2 -4
-1 -1 3 -9
0 0
29.
-3 -27 1 1
-2 -8 2 8
-1 -1 3 27
0 0

Solution
For the following exercises, use the vertical line test to determine whether each of the given graphs represents a
function. Assume that a graph continues at both ends if it extends beyond the given grid. If the graph represents a
function, then determine the following for each graph:
a. Domain and range
b. -intercept, if any (estimate where necessary)
c. -Intercept, if any (estimate where necessary)
d. The intervals for which the function is increasing
e. The intervals for which the function is decreasing
f. The intervals for which the function is constant
g. Symmetry about any axis and/or the origin
h. Whether the function is even, odd, or neither
30.
31.

Solution
Function; a. Domain: all real numbers, Range: b. c. d. and
e. and f. Not constant g. -axis h. Even
32.
33.
Solution
Function; a. Domain: all real numbers, Range: b. c. d. All real numbers e. None f. Not
constant g. Origin h. Odd
34.

35.
Solution
Function; a. Domain: , Range: b. c. d. e. Not decreasing f.
and g. Origin h. Odd
36.
37.

Solution
Function; a. Domain: , Range: b. c. d. Not increasing e. f.
g. No Symmetry h. Neither
For the following exercises, for each pair of functions, find a. b. c. d. . Determine the
domain of each of these new functions.
38.
39.
Solution
a. ; all real numbers b. ; all real numbers c. ; all real numbers d.
40.
41.
Solution
a. ; all real numbers b. ; all real numbers c.
; all real numbers d.
42.
43.
Solution
a. b. 6; c. d.
For the following exercises, for each pair of functions, find a. and b. Simplify the results.
Find the domain of each of the results.
44.
45.
Solution
a. ; all real numbers b. ; all real numbers
46.
47.

Solution
a. ; all real numbers b. ; all real numbers
48.
49.
Solution
a. b.
50.
51. The table below lists the NBA championship winners for the years 2001 to 2012.
Year Winner
2001 LA Lakers
2002 LA Lakers
2003 San Antonio Spurs
2004 Detroit Pistons
2006 Miami Heat

2008 Boston Celtics
2009 LA Lakers
2010 LA Lakers
2011 Dallas Mavericks

2012 Miami Heat
a. Consider the relation in which the domain values are the years 2001 to 2012 and the range is the
corresponding winner. Is this relation a function? Explain why or why not.
b. Consider the relation where the domain values are the winners and the range is the corresponding years. Is
this relation a function? Explain why or why not.
Solution
a. Yes, because there is only one winner for each year. b. No, because there are three teams that won more than
once during the years 2001 to 2012.
52. [T] The area of a square depends on the length of the side .
a. Write a function for the area of a square.
b. Find and interpret .
c. Find the exact and the two-significant-digit approximation to the length of the sides of a square with area
56 square units.

53. [T] The volume of a cube depends on the length of the sides .
a. Write a function for the area of a square.
b. Find and interpret .
Solution
a. b. ; a cube of side length 11.8 each has a volume of approximately 1643 cubic
units.
54. [T] A rental car company rents cars for a flat fee of $20 and an hourly charge of $10.25. Therefore, the total
cost to rent a car is a function of the hours the car is rented plus the flat fee.
a. Write the formula for the function that models this situation.
b. Find the total cost to rent a car for 2 days and 7 hours.
c. Determine how long the car was rented if the bill is $432.73.
55. [T] A vehicle has a 20-gal tank and gets 15 mpg. The number of miles that can be driven depends on the
amount of gas in the tank.
a. Write a formula that models this situation.
b. Determine the number of miles the vehicle can travel on (i) a full tank of gas and (ii) 3/4 of a tank of gas.
c. Determine the domain and range of the function.
d. Determine how many times the driver had to stop for gas if she has driven a total of 578 mi.
Solution
a. b. i. ; therefore, the vehicle can travel 300 mi on a full tank of
gas. ii. ; therefore, the vehicle can travel 225 mi on 3/4 of a tank of gas. c. Domain:
; Range: d. The driver had to stop at least once, given that it takes approximately 39 gal of
gas to drive a total of 578 mi.
56. [T] The volume of a sphere depends on the length of its radius as . Because Earth is not
a perfect sphere, we can use the mean radius when measuring from the center to its surface. The mean radius is
the average distance from the physical center to the surface, based on a large number of samples. Find the
volume of Earth with mean radius m.
57. [T] A certain bacterium grows in culture in a circular region. The radius of the circle, measured in
centimeters, is given by , where is time measured in hours since a circle of a 1 cm
radius of the bacterium was put into the culture.
a. Express the area of the bacteria as a function of time.
b. Find the exact and approximate area of the bacterial culture in 3 hours.
c. Express the circumference of the bacteria as a function of time.
d. Find the exact and approximate circumference of the bacteria in 3 hours.
Solution
a. b. Exact: ; approximately 95 cm 2 c.
d. Exact: ; approximately 35 cm

58. [T] An American tourist visits Paris and must convert U.S. dollars to Euros, which can be done using the
function , where is the number of U.S. dollars and is the equivalent number of Euros.
Since conversion rates fluctuate, when the tourist returns to the United States 2 weeks later, the conversion from
Euros to U.S. dollars is , where is the number of Euros and is the equivalent number
of U.S. dollars.
a. Find the composite function that converts directly from U.S. dollars to U.S. dollars via Euros. Did this
tourist lose value in the conversion process?
b. Use (a) to determine how many U.S. dollars the tourist would get back at the end of her trip if she converted
an extra $200 when she arrived in Paris.
59. [T] The manager at a skateboard shop pays his workers a monthly salary of $750 plus a commission of
$8.50 for each skateboard they sell.
a. Write a function that models a worker’s monthly salary based on the number of skateboards
he or she sells.
b. Find the approximate monthly salary when a worker sells 25, 40, or 55 skateboards.
c. Use the INTERSECT feature on a graphing calculator to determine the number of skateboards that must be
sold for a worker to earn a monthly income of $1400. (Hint: Find the intersection of the function and the line
.)
Solution
a. b. $962.50, $1090, $1217.50 c. 77 skateboards
60. [T] Use a graphing calculator to graph the half-circle . Then, use the INTERCEPT
feature to find the value of both the – and -intercepts.

Glossary
absolute value function
composite function
given two functions and , a new function, denoted , such that
decreasing on the interval
a function decreasing on the interval if, for all if
dependent variable
the output variable for a function
domain
the set of inputs for a function
even function
a function is even if for all in the domain of
function
a set of inputs, a set of outputs, and a rule for mapping each input to exactly one output
graph of a function
the set of points such that is in the domain of and
increasing on the interval
a function increasing on the interval if for all if
independent variable
the input variable for a function
odd function
a function is odd if for all in the domain of
range
the set of outputs for a function
symmetry about the origin
the graph of a function is symmetric about the origin if is on the graph of whenever
is on the graph
symmetry about the -axis
the graph of a function is symmetric about the -axis if is on the graph of whenever is
on the graph
table of values
a table containing a list of inputs and their corresponding outputs
vertical line test
given the graph of a function, every vertical line intersects the graph, at most, once
zeros of a function
when a real number is a zero of a function ,

1.2 Basic Classes of Functions
Learning Objectives
• Calculate the slope of a linear function and interpret its meaning.
• Recognize the degree of a polynomial.
• Find the roots of a quadratic polynomial.
• Describe the graphs of basic odd and even polynomial functions.
• Identify a rational function.
• Describe the graphs of power and root functions.
• Explain the difference between algebraic and transcendental functions.
• Graph a piecewise-defined function.
• Sketch the graph of a function that has been shifted, stretched, or reflected from its initial graph position.
We have studied the general characteristics of functions, so now let’s examine some specific classes of functions. We
begin by reviewing the basic properties of linear and quadratic functions, and then generalize to include higher-degree
polynomials. By combining root functions with polynomials, we can define general algebraic functions and distinguish
them from the transcendental functions we examine later in this chapter. We finish the section with examples of
piecewise-defined functions and take a look at how to sketch the graph of a function that has been shifted, stretched,
or reflected from its initial form.
Linear Functions and Slope

The easiest type of function to consider is a linear function . Linear functions have the form , where
and are constants. In (Figure) , we see examples of linear functions when is positive, negative, and zero. Note that
if , the graph of the line rises as increases. In other words, is increasing on
. If , the graph of the line falls as increases. In this case, is decreasing on . If
, the line is horizontal.
1.2 Basic Classes of Functions | 51

Figure 1. These linear functions are increasing or decreasing on
and one function is a horizontal line.
As suggested by (Figure) , the graph of any linear function is a line. One of the distinguishing features of a line is its slope.
The slope is the change in for each unit change in . The slope measures both the steepness and the direction of a
line. If the slope is positive, the line points upward when moving from left to right. If the slope is negative, the line points
downward when moving from left to right. If the slope is zero, the line is horizontal. To calculate the slope of a line, we
need to determine the ratio of the change in versus the change in . To do so, we choose any two points
and on the line and calculate . In (Figure) , we see this ratio is independent of the points chosen.
52 | 1.2 Basic Classes of Functions

Figure 2. or any linear function, the slope is independent of the
choice of points and on the line.
Definition
Consider line passing through points and . Let and
denote the changes in and , respectively. The slope of the line is
.
We now examine the relationship between slope and the formula for a linear function. Consider the linear function given
by the formula . As discussed earlier, we know the graph of a linear function is given by a line. We
can use our definition of slope to calculate the slope of this line. As shown, we can determine the slope by calculating
for any points and on the line. Evaluating the function at , we
see that is a point on this line. Evaluating this function at , we see that is also a point on this
line. Therefore, the slope of this line is
We have shown that the coefficient is the slope of the line. We can conclude that the formula
describes a line with slope . Furthermore, because this line intersects the -axis at the point , we see that the
-intercept for this linear function is . We conclude that the formula tells us the slope, , and
the -intercept, , for this line. Since we often use the symbol to denote the slope of a line, we can write

to denote the slope-intercept form of a linear function.
Sometimes it is convenient to express a linear function in different ways. For example, suppose the graph of a linear
function passes through the point and the slope of the line is . Since any other point on the
graph of must satisfy the equation
,
this linear function can be expressed by writing

.
We call this equation the point-slope equation for that linear function.
Since every nonvertical line is the graph of a linear function, the points on a nonvertical line can be described using the
slope-intercept or point-slope equations. However, a vertical line does not represent the graph of a function and cannot
be expressed in either of these forms. Instead, a vertical line is described by the equation for some constant .
Since neither the slope-intercept form nor the point-slope form allows for vertical lines, we use the notation
,
where are both not zero, to denote the standard form of a line.
Definition
Consider a line passing through the point with slope . The equation
is the point-slope equation for that line.

Consider a line with slope and -intercept . The equation
is an equation for that line in slope-intercept form .

The standard form of a line is given by the equation
,
where and are both not zero. This form is more general because it allows for a vertical line, .
Finding the Slope and Equations of Lines
Consider the line passing through the points and , as shown in (Figure) .

a. Find the slope of the line.
b. Find an equation for this linear function in point-slope form.
c. Find an equation for this linear function in slope-intercept form.
Solution
a. The slope of the line is
.
b. To find an equation for the linear function in point-slope form, use the slope and choose any
point on the line. If we choose the point , we get the equation
.
c. To find an equation for the linear function in slope-intercept form, solve the equation in part b. for .
When we do this, we get the equation
.
Consider the line passing through points and . Find the slope of the line.
Find an equation of that line in point-slope form. Find an equation of that line in slope-intercept form.
Solution
. The point-slope form is
.
The slope-intercept form is
.
Hint
The slope .
A Linear Distance Function
Jessica leaves her house at 5:50 a.m. and goes for a 9-mile run. She returns to her house at 7:08 a.m. Answer the
following questions, assuming Jessica runs at a constant pace.

a. Describe the distance (in miles) Jessica runs as a linear function of her run time (in minutes).
b. Sketch a graph of .
c. Interpret the meaning of the slope.
Solution
a. At time , Jessica is at her house, so . At time minutes, Jessica has finished
running 9 mi, so . The slope of the linear function is
.
The -intercept is , so the equation for this linear function is
.
b. To graph , use the fact that the graph passes through the origin and has slope .
c. The slope describes the distance (in miles) Jessica runs per minute, or her average
velocity.
Polynomials
A linear function is a special type of a more general class of functions: polynomials. A polynomial function is any
function that can be written in the form
for some integer and constants , where . In the case when , we allow
for ; if , the function is called the zero function . The value is called the degree of the
polynomial; the constant is called the leading coefficient . A linear function of the form is a
polynomial of degree 1 if and degree 0 if . A polynomial of degree 0 is also called a constant function
. A polynomial function of degree 2 is called a quadratic function . In particular, a quadratic function has the form
, where . A polynomial function of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
Power Functions
Some polynomial functions are power functions. A power function is any function of the form , where
and are any real numbers. The exponent in a power function can be any real number, but here we consider
the case when the exponent is a positive integer. (We consider other cases later.) If the exponent is a positive
integer, then is a polynomial. If is even, then is an even function because
if is even. If is odd, then is an odd function because
if is odd ( (Figure) ).

Behavior at Infinity
To determine the behavior of a function as the inputs approach infinity, we look at the values as the inputs,
, become larger. For some functions, the values of approach a finite number. For example, for the function
, the values become closer and closer to zero for all values of as they get larger and larger.
For this function, we say “ approaches two as goes to infinity,” and we write as . The line
is a horizontal asymptote for the function because the graph of the function gets closer to
the line as gets larger.
For other functions, the values may not approach a finite number but instead may become larger for all values
of as they get larger. In that case, we say “ approaches infinity as approaches infinity,” and we write
as . For example, for the function , the outputs become larger as the
inputs get larger. We can conclude that the function approaches infinity as approaches infinity,
and we write as . The behavior as and the meaning of as
or can be defined similarly. We can describe what happens to the values of as and as
as the end behavior of the function.
To understand the end behavior for polynomial functions, we can focus on quadratic and cubic functions. The behavior
for higher-degree polynomials can be analyzed similarly. Consider a quadratic function . If
, the values as . If , the values as . Since the graph
of a quadratic function is a parabola, the parabola opens upward if ; the parabola opens downward if .
(See (Figure) (a).)
Now consider a cubic function . If , then as and

as . If , then as and as . As
we can see from both of these graphs, the leading term of the polynomial determines the end behavior. (See (Figure) (b).)

Zeros of Polynomial Functions
Another characteristic of the graph of a polynomial function is where it intersects the -axis. To determine where a
function intersects the -axis, we need to solve the equation for . In the case of the linear function
, the -intercept is given by solving the equation . In this case, we see that the
-intercept is given by . In the case of a quadratic function, finding the -intercept(s) requires finding the
zeros of a quadratic equation: . In some cases, it is easy to factor the polynomial
to find the zeros. If not, we make use of the quadratic formula.
Rule: The Quadratic Formula
Consider the quadratic equation
,
where . The solutions of this equation are given by the quadratic formula
.
If the discriminant , this formula tells us there are two real numbers that satisfy the quadratic
equation. If , this formula tells us there is only one solution, and it is a real number. If
, no real numbers satisfy the quadratic equation.
In the case of higher-degree polynomials, it may be more complicated to determine where the graph intersects the
-axis. In some instances, it is possible to find the -intercepts by factoring the polynomial to find its zeros. In other
cases, it is impossible to calculate the exact values of the -intercepts. However, as we see later in the text, in cases
such as this, we can use analytical tools to approximate (to a very high degree) where the -intercepts are located. Here
we focus on the graphs of polynomials for which we can calculate their zeros explicitly.
Graphing Polynomial Functions
For the following functions a. and b., i. describe the behavior of as , ii. find all zeros of , and
iii. sketch a graph of .
a.
b.

Solution
a. The function is a quadratic function.
1. Because , as .
2. To find the zeros of , use the quadratic formula. The zeros are
.
3. To sketch the graph of , use the information from your previous answers and combine it with the
fact that the graph is a parabola opening downward.
b. The function is a cubic function.

1. Because , as . As .
2. To find the zeros of , we need to factor the polynomial. First, when we factor out of all the terms,
we find
.
Then, when we factor the quadratic function , we find
.
Therefore, the zeros of are .
3. Combining the results from parts i. and ii., draw a rough sketch of .

Consider the quadratic function . Find the zeros of . Does the parabola open upward
or downward?
Solution
The zeros are . The parabola opens upward.
Hint
Use the quadratic formula.
Mathematical Models
A large variety of real-world situations can be described using mathematical models. A mathematical model is a method
of simulating real-life situations with mathematical equations. Physicists, engineers, economists, and other researchers
develop models by combining observation with quantitative data to develop equations, functions, graphs, and other
mathematical tools to describe the behavior of various systems accurately. Models are useful because they help predict
future outcomes. Examples of mathematical models include the study of population dynamics, investigations of weather
patterns, and predictions of product sales.
As an example, let’s consider a mathematical model that a company could use to describe its revenue for the sale of a
particular item. The amount of revenue a company receives for the sale of items sold at a price of dollars per
item is described by the equation . The company is interested in how the sales change as the price of the
item changes. Suppose the data in (Figure) show the number of units a company sells as a function of the price per item.
Number of Units Sold (in

Thousands) as a Function of
Price per Unit (in Dollars)
6 8 10 12 14
19.4 18.5 16.2 13.8 12.2
In (Figure) , we see the graph the number of units sold (in thousands) as a function of price (in dollars). We note from the
shape of the graph that the number of units sold is likely a linear function of price per item, and the data can be closely
approximated by the linear function for , where predicts the number of units
sold in thousands. Using this linear function, the revenue (in thousands of dollars) can be estimated by the quadratic
function
for . In Example, we use this quadratic function to predict the amount of revenue the company receives
depending on the price the company charges per item. Note that we cannot conclude definitively the actual number of
units sold for values of , for which no data are collected. However, given the other data values and the graph shown,
it seems reasonable that the number of units sold (in thousands) if the price charged is dollars may be close to the
values predicted by the linear function .

Maximizing Revenue
A company is interested in predicting the amount of revenue it will receive depending on the price it charges for
a particular item. Using the data from (Figure) , the company arrives at the following quadratic function to model
revenue as a function of price per item :
for .
a. Predict the revenue if the company sells the item at a price of and .
b. Find the zeros of this function and interpret the meaning of the zeros.
d. Use the graph to determine the value of that maximizes revenue. Find the maximum revenue.
Solution
a. Evaluating the revenue function at and , we can conclude that
b. The zeros of this function can be found by solving the equation . When we factor
the quadratic expression, we get . The solutions to this equation are given by
. For these values of , the revenue is zero. When , the revenue is zero because the
company is giving away its merchandise for free. When , the revenue is zero because the price is
too high, and no one will buy any items.
c. Knowing the fact that the function is quadratic, we also know the graph is a parabola. Since the leading
coefficient is negative, the parabola opens downward. One property of parabolas is that they are symmetric
about the axis of symmetry, located at the middle of its graph, so since the zeros are at and
, the parabola must be symmetric about the line halfway between them, or .

d. The function is a parabola with zeros at and , and it is symmetric about the line
, so the maximum revenue occurs at a price of per item. At that price, the
revenue is .
Algebraic Functions
By allowing for quotients and fractional powers in polynomial functions, we create a larger class of functions. An
algebraic function is one that involves addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, rational powers, and roots. Two
types of algebraic functions are rational functions and root functions.
Just as rational numbers are quotients of integers, rational functions are quotients of polynomials. In particular, a
rational function is any function of the form , where and are polynomials. For
example,
and
are rational functions. A root function is a power function of the form , where is a positive integer
greater than one. For example, is the square-root function and is the
cube-root function. By allowing for compositions of root functions and rational functions, we can create other algebraic
functions. For example, is an algebraic function.
Finding Domain and Range for Algebraic Functions
For each of the following functions, find the domain and range.
a.
b.
Solution
a. It is not possible to divide by zero, so the domain is the set of real numbers such that . To
find the range, we need to find the values for which there exists a real number such that

.
When we multiply both sides of this equation by , we see that must satisfy the equation
.
From this equation, we can see that must satisfy

.
If , this equation has no solution. On the other hand, as long as ,
satisfies this equation. We can conclude that the range of is .

b. To find the domain of , we need . When we factor, we write
. This inequality holds if and only if both terms are positive or both
terms are negative. For both terms to be positive, we need to find such that
and .
These two inequalities reduce to and . Therefore, the set must be
part of the domain. For both terms to be negative, we need
and .
These two inequalities also reduce to and . There are no values of that satisfy both of
these inequalities. Thus, we can conclude the domain of this function is .
If , then . Therefore, , and the range of is
.
Find the domain and range for the function .
Solution
The domain is the set of real numbers such that . The range is the set .
Hint
The denominator cannot be zero. Solve the equation for to find the range.
The root functions have defining characteristics depending on whether is odd or even. For all even
integers , the domain of is the interval . For all odd integers , the domain of
is the set of all real numbers. Since for odd integers is an odd
function if is odd. See the graphs of root functions for different values of in (Figure) .

Finding Domains for Algebraic Functions
For each of the following functions, determine the domain of the function.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Solution
a. You cannot divide by zero, so the domain is the set of values such that . Therefore, the
domain is .
b. You need to determine the values of for which the denominator is zero. Since for all real
numbers , the denominator is never zero. Therefore, the domain is .
c. Since the square root of a negative number is not a real number, the domain is the set of values for which
. Therefore, the domain is .
d. The cube root is defined for all real numbers, so the domain is the interval .
Find the domain for each of the following functions: and

.
Solution
The domain of is The domain of is .
Hint
Determine the values of when the expression in the denominator of is nonzero, and find the values of when the
expression inside the radical of is nonnegative.
Transcendental Functions
Thus far, we have discussed algebraic functions. Some functions, however, cannot be described by basic algebraic
operations. These functions are known as transcendental functions because they are said to “transcend,” or go
beyond, algebra. The most common transcendental functions are trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions.
A trigonometric function relates the ratios of two sides of a right triangle. They are
, and . (We discuss trigonometric functions later in the chapter.) An
exponential function is a function of the form , where the base . A logarithmic function
is a function of the form for some constant , where if and only if
. (We also discuss exponential and logarithmic functions later in the chapter.)
Classifying Algebraic and Transcendental Functions
Classify each of the following functions, a. through c., as algebraic or transcendental.
a.
b.
c.

Solution
a. Since this function involves basic algebraic operations only, it is an algebraic function.
b. This function cannot be written as a formula that involves only basic algebraic operations, so it is
transcendental. (Note that algebraic functions can only have powers that are rational numbers.)
c. As in part b., this function cannot be written using a formula involving basic algebraic operations only;
therefore, this function is transcendental.
Is an algebraic or a transcendental function?
Solution
Algebraic
Piecewise-Defined Functions
Sometimes a function is defined by different formulas on different parts of its domain. A function with this property
is known as a piecewise-defined function . The absolute value function is an example of a piecewise-defined function
because the formula changes with the sign of :
Other piecewise-defined functions may be represented by completely different formulas, depending on the part of the
domain in which a point falls. To graph a piecewise-defined function, we graph each part of the function in its respective
domain, on the same coordinate system. If the formula for a function is different for and , we need to
pay special attention to what happens at when we graph the function. Sometimes the graph needs to include an
open or closed circle to indicate the value of the function at . We examine this in the next example.
Graphing a Piecewise-Defined Function
Sketch a graph of the following piecewise-defined function:
Solution
Graph the linear function on the interval and graph the quadratic function
on the interval . Since the value of the function at is given by the formula
, we see that . To indicate this on the graph, we draw a closed circle at the point
. The value of the function is given by for all , but not at . To indicate this
on the graph, we draw an open circle at .

This piecewise-defined function is linear for and quadratic for .
Sketch a graph of the function
Solution
Hint
Graph one linear function for and then graph a different linear function for .
Parking Fees Described by a Piecewise-Defined Function
In a big city, drivers are charged variable rates for parking in a parking garage. They are charged $10 for the first

hour or any part of the first hour and an additional $2 for each hour or part thereof up to a maximum of $30 for
the day. The parking garage is open from 6 a.m. to 12 midnight.
a. Write a piecewise-defined function that describes the cost to park in the parking garage as a function of
hours parked .
b. Sketch a graph of this function .
Solution
a. Since the parking garage is open 18 hours each day, the domain for this function is .
The cost to park a car at this parking garage can be described piecewise by the function
b. The graph of the function consists of several horizontal line segments.
The cost of mailing a letter is a function of the weight of the letter. Suppose the cost of mailing a letter is for
the first ounce and for each additional ounce. Write a piecewise-defined function describing the cost as a
function of the weight for , where is measured in cents and is measured in ounces.
Solution
Hint
The piecewise-defined function is constant on the intervals

Transformations of Functions
We have seen several cases in which we have added, subtracted, or multiplied constants to form variations of simple
functions. In the previous example, for instance, we subtracted 2 from the argument of the function to get
the function . This subtraction represents a shift of the function two units to the right. A
shift, horizontally or vertically, is a type of transformation of a function . Other transformations include horizontal and
vertical scalings, and reflections about the axes.
A vertical shift of a function occurs if we add or subtract the same constant to each output . For , the graph of
is a shift of the graph of up units, whereas the graph of is a shift of the graph of
down units. For example, the graph of the function is the graph of shifted up 4 units; the
graph of the function is the graph of shifted down 4 units ( (Figure) ).
A horizontal shift of a function occurs if we add or subtract the same constant to each input . For , the graph of
is a shift of the graph of to the left units; the graph of is a shift of the graph of to
the right units. Why does the graph shift left when adding a constant and shift right when subtracting a constant? To
answer this question, let’s look at an example.
Consider the function and evaluate this function at Since and

, the graph of is the graph of shifted left 3 units. Similarly, the graph of
is the graph of shifted right 3 units ( (Figure) ).

A vertical scaling of a graph occurs if we multiply all outputs of a function by the same positive constant. For
, the graph of the function is the graph of scaled vertically by a factor of . If , the values of the
outputs for the function are larger than the values of the outputs for the function ; therefore, the graph
has been stretched vertically. If , then the outputs of the function are smaller, so the graph has
been compressed. For example, the graph of the function is the graph of stretched vertically
by a factor of 3, whereas the graph of is the graph of compressed vertically by a factor of 3 (
(Figure) ).
The horizontal scaling of a function occurs if we multiply the inputs by the same positive constant. For , the
graph of the function is the graph of scaled horizontally by a factor of . If , the graph of
is the graph of compressed horizontally. If , the graph of is the graph of stretched
horizontally. For example, consider the function and evaluate at Since , the
graph of is the graph of compressed horizontally. The graph of is a horizontal
stretch of the graph of ( (Figure) ).
We have explored what happens to the graph of a function when we multiply by a constant to get a new
function . We have also discussed what happens to the graph of a function when we multiply the independent
variable by to get a new function . However, we have not addressed what happens to the graph of the

function if the constant is negative. If we have a constant , we can write as a positive number multiplied by -1;
but, what kind of transformation do we get when we multiply the function or its argument by -1? When we multiply all
the outputs by -1, we get a reflection about the -axis. When we multiply all inputs by -1, we get a reflection about the
-axis. For example, the graph of is the graph of reflected about the -axis.
The graph of is the graph of reflected about the -axis ( (Figure) ).
If the graph of a function consists of more than one transformation of another graph, it is important to transform the
graph in the correct order. Given a function , the graph of the related function can
be obtained from the graph of by performing the transformations in the following order.
1. Horizontal shift of the graph of . If , shift left. If , shift right.

2. Horizontal scaling of the graph of by a factor of . If , reflect the graph about the -axis.
3. Vertical scaling of the graph of by a factor of . If , reflect the graph about the
-axis.
4. Vertical shift of the graph of . If , shift up. If , shift down.
We can summarize the different transformations and their related effects on the graph of a function in the following
table.
0)” and has the values “f(x) +c; f(x) -c; f(x + c); f(x – c); cf(x); f(cx); -f(x); f(-x)”. The second column is labeled “Effect on the
graph of f” and the values are “Vertical shift up c units; Vertical shift down c units; Shift left by c units; Shift right by
c units; ‘Vertical stretch if c \symbol{“3E} 1, Vertical compression is 0 < c < 1′; ‘Horizontal stretch if 0 < c 1′; reflection
about the x-axis; reflection about the y-axis”.

Transformations of Functions
Transformation of Effect on the graph of
Vertical shift up units
Vertical shift down units
Shift left by units
Shift right by units
Vertical stretch if ;
vertical compression if
Horizontal stretch if ; horizontal compression if
Reflection about the -axis
Reflection about the -axis
Transforming a Function
For each of the following functions, a. and b., sketch a graph by using a sequence of transformations of a well-
known function.
a.
b.
Solution
a. Starting with the graph of , shift 2 units to the left, reflect about the -axis, and then shift down 3
units.
Figure 13. The function

can be viewed as a
sequence of three transformations of the function
.
b. Starting with the graph of , reflect about the -axis, stretch the graph vertically by a factor of 3,

and move up 1 unit.
Describe how the function can be graphed using the graph of and a
sequence of transformations.
Solution
Shift the graph of to the left 1 unit, reflect about the -axis, then shift down 4 units.
Hint
Use (Table) .
Key Concepts
• The power function is an even function if is even and , and it is an odd function if
is odd.
• The root function has the domain if is even and the domain if is
odd. If is odd, then is an odd function.
• The domain of the rational function , where and are polynomial
functions, is the set of such that .
• Functions that involve the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and powers are
algebraic functions. All other functions are transcendental. Trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic
functions are examples of transcendental functions.
• A polynomial function with degree satisfies as . The sign of the
output as depends on the sign of the leading coefficient only and on whether is even or odd.
• Vertical and horizontal shifts, vertical and horizontal scalings, and reflections about the – and -axes are
examples of transformations of functions.

Key Equations
• Point-slope equation of a line
• Slope-intercept form of a line
• Standard form of a line
• Polynomial function
For the following exercises, for each pair of points, a. find the slope of the line passing through the points and b.
indicate whether the line is increasing, decreasing, horizontal, or vertical.
1. and
Solution
a. -1 b. Decreasing
2. and
3. and
Solution
a. 3/4 b. Increasing
4. and
5. and
Solution
a. 4/3 b. Increasing
6. and
7. and
Solution
a. 0 b. Horizontal
8. and
For the following exercises, write the equation of the line satisfying the given conditions in slope-intercept form.
9. Slope , passes through

Solution
Solution
12. Slope , -intercept
13. Passing through and
Solution
14. Passing through and
15. -intercept and -intercept
Solution
16. -Intercept and -intercept
For the following exercises, for each linear equation, a. give the slope and -intercept , if any, and b. graph the
line.
17.
Solution
a. b.
18.

19.
Solution
a. b.
20.
21.
Solution
a. b.
22.
23.
Solution
a. b.

24.
For the following exercises, for each polynomial, a. find the degree; b. find the zeros, if any; c. find the -intercept(s),
if any; d. use the leading coefficient to determine the graph’s end behavior; and e. determine algebraically whether the
polynomial is even, odd, or neither.
25.
Solution
a. 2; b. ; c. -5; d. Both ends rise; e. Neither
26.
27.
Solution
a. 2; b. ; c. -1; d. Both ends rise; e. Even
28.
29.
Solution
a. 3; b. 0, ; c. 0; d. Left end rises, right end falls; e. Odd
For the following exercises, use the graph of to graph each transformed function .
30.
31.

Solution
For the following exercises, use the graph of to graph each transformed function .
32.
33.
Solution
For the following exercises, use the graph of to graph each transformed function
34.
35.

Solution
For the following exercises, for each of the piecewise-defined functions, a. evaluate at the given values of the
independent variable and b. sketch the graph.
36. ;
37. ;
Solution
a. b.
38. ;
39. ;
Solution
a. b.

For the following exercises, determine whether the statement is true or false . Explain why.
40. is a transcendental function.
41. is an odd root function
Solution
True, because
42. A logarithmic function is an algebraic function.
43. A function of the form , where is a real valued constant, is an exponential function.
Solution
False, because – where is a real-valued constant – is a power function. Exponential functions are
of the form , where is a real-valued constant.
44. The domain of an even root function is all real numbers.
45. [T] A company purchases some computer equipment for $20,500. At the end of a 3-year period, the value of
the equipment has decreased linearly to $12,300.
1. Find a function that determines the value of the equipment at the end of years.
2. Find and interpret the meaning of the – and -intercepts for this situation.
3. What is the value of the equipment at the end of 5 years?
4. When will the value of the equipment be $3000?
Solution
a. b. means that the initial purchase price of the equipment is
$20,500; means that in 7.5 years the computer equipment has no value. c. $6835 d. In approximately 6.4
years
46. [T] Total online shopping during the Christmas holidays has increased dramatically during the past 5 years. In
2012 , total online holiday sales were $42.3 billion, whereas in 2013 they were $48.1 billion.
1. Find a linear function that estimates the total online holiday sales in the year .
2. Interpret the slope of the graph of .
3. Use part a. to predict the year when online shopping during Christmas will reach $60 billion.

47. [T] A family bakery makes cupcakes and sells them at local outdoor festivals. For a music festival, there is a
fixed cost of $125 to set up a cupcake stand. The owner estimates that it costs $0.75 to make each cupcake. The
owner is interested in determining the total cost as a function of number of cupcakes made.
1. Find a linear function that relates cost to , the number of cupcakes made.
2. Find the cost to bake 160 cupcakes.
3. If the owner sells the cupcakes for $1.50 apiece, how many cupcakes does she need to sell to start making
profit? ( Hint : Use the INTERSECTION function on a calculator to find this number.)
Solution
a. b. $245 c. 167 cupcakes
48. [T] A house purchased for $250,000 is expected to be worth twice its purchase price in 18 years.
1. Find a linear function that models the price of the house versus the number of years since the original
purchase.
2. Interpret the slope of the graph of .
3. Find the price of the house 15 years from when it was originally purchased.
49. [T] A car was purchased for $26,000. The value of the car depreciates by $1500 per year.
1. Find a linear function that models the value of the car after years.
2. Find and interpret .
Solution
a. b. In 4 years, the value of the car is $20,000.
50. [T] A condominium in an upscale part of the city was purchased for $432,000. In 35 years it is worth $60,500.
Find the rate of depreciation.
51. [T] The total cost (in thousands of dollars) to produce a certain item is modeled by the function
, where is the number of items produced. Determine the cost to produce 175
items.
Solution
$30,337.50
52. [T] A professor asks her class to report the amount of time they spent writing two assignments. Most
students report that it takes them about 45 minutes to type a four-page assignment and about 1.5 hours to type a
nine-page assignment.
1. Find the linear function that models this situation, where is the number of pages typed and
is the time in minutes.
2. Use part a. to determine how many pages can be typed in 2 hours.
3. Use part a. to determine how long it takes to type a 20-page assignment.
53. [T] The output (as a percent of total capacity) of nuclear power plants in the United States can be modeled by
the function , where is time in years and corresponds to the beginning
of 2000. Use the model to predict the percentage output in 2015.

Solution
96% of the total capacity
54. [T] The admissions office at a public university estimates that 65% of the students offered admission to the
class of 2019 will actually enroll.
1. Find the linear function , where is the number of students that actually enroll and is the
number of all students offered admission to the class of 2019.
2. If the university wants the 2019 freshman class size to be 1350, determine how many students should be
admitted.
Glossary
algebraic function
a function involving any combination of only the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, powers, and roots applied to an input variable
cubic function
a polynomial of degree 3; that is, a function of the form , where
degree
for a polynomial function, the value of the largest exponent of any term
linear function
a function that can be written in the form
logarithmic function
a function of the form for some base such that if and
only if
mathematical model
A method of simulating real-life situations with mathematical equations
piecewise-defined function
a function that is defined differently on different parts of its domain
point-slope equation
equation of a linear function indicating its slope and a point on the graph of the function
polynomial function
a function of the form
power function
a function of the form for any positive integer
quadratic function
a polynomial of degree 2; that is, a function of the form where
rational function
a function of the form , where and are polynomials
root function
a function of the form for any integer
slope
the change in for each unit change in

slope-intercept form
equation of a linear function indicating its slope and -intercept
transcendental function
a function that cannot be expressed by a combination of basic arithmetic operations
transformation of a function
a shift, scaling, or reflection of a function

1.3 Trigonometric Functions
Learning Objectives
• Convert angle measures between degrees and radians.
• Recognize the triangular and circular definitions of the basic trigonometric functions.
• Write the basic trigonometric identities.
• Identify the graphs and periods of the trigonometric functions.
• Describe the shift of a sine or cosine graph from the equation of the function.
Trigonometric functions are used to model many phenomena, including sound waves, vibrations of strings, alternating
electrical current, and the motion of pendulums. In fact, almost any repetitive, or cyclical, motion can be modeled by
some combination of trigonometric functions. In this section, we define the six basic trigonometric functions and look
at some of the main identities involving these functions.
Radian Measure
To use trigonometric functions, we first must understand how to measure the angles. Although we can use both radians
and degrees, radians are a more natural measurement because they are related directly to the unit circle, a circle with
radius 1. The radian measure of an angle is defined as follows. Given an angle , let be the length of the corresponding
arc on the unit circle ( (Figure) ). We say the angle corresponding to the arc of length 1 has radian measure 1.
Figure 1. The radian measure of an angle is the arc length of

the associated arc on the unit circle.
Since an angle of 360° corresponds to the circumference of a circle, or an arc of length , we conclude that an angle
with a degree measure of 360° has a radian measure of . Similarly, we see that 180° is equivalent to radians. (Figure)
shows the relationship between common degree and radian values.
1.3 Trigonometric Functions | 83

Common Angles Expressed in Degrees
and Radians
Degrees Radians Degrees Radians
0 0 120
30 135
45 150
60 180
90
Converting between Radians and Degrees
a. Express 225° using radians.

b. Express rad using degrees.
Solution
Use the fact that 180° is equivalent to radians as a conversion factor: .
a. rad
b. rad =
Express 210° using radians. Express rad using degrees.
Solution
rad; 330°
Hint
radians is equal to .
The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions

Trigonometric functions allow us to use angle measures, in radians or degrees, to find the coordinates of a point on any
circle—not only on a unit circle—or to find an angle given a point on a circle. They also define the relationship among the
sides and angles of a triangle.
To define the trigonometric functions, first consider the unit circle centered at the origin and a point on
the unit circle. Let be an angle with an initial side that lies along the positive -axis and with a terminal side that is the
line segment . An angle in this position is said to be in standard position ( (Figure) ). We can then define the values
of the six trigonometric functions for in terms of the coordinates and .
84 | 1.3 Trigonometric Functions

Figure 2. The angle is in standard position. The values of
the trigonometric functions for are defined in terms of the
coordinates and .
Definition
Let be a point on the unit circle centered at the origin . Let be an angle with an initial side along
the positive -axis and a terminal side given by the line segment . The trigonometric functions are then
defined as
If , then and are undefined. If , then and are undefined.
We can see that for a point on a circle of radius with a corresponding angle , the coordinates and
satisfy
The values of the other trigonometric functions can be expressed in terms of , and ( (Figure) ).

Figure 3. For a point on a circle of radius , the coordinates and satisfy
and .
(Figure) shows the values of sine and cosine at the major angles in the first quadrant. From this table, we can determine
the values of sine and cosine at the corresponding angles in the other quadrants. The values of the other trigonometric
functions are calculated easily from the values of and .
Values of and
at Major
Angles in the First
Quadrant
0 0 1
1 0
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
Evaluate each of the following expressions.
a.
b.
c.

Solution
a. On the unit circle, the angle corresponds to the point . Therefore,
b. An angle corresponds to a revolution in the negative direction, as shown. Therefore,
c. An angle . Therefore, this angle corresponds to more than one revolution, as

shown. Knowing the fact that an angle of corresponds to the point , we can conclude that
Evaluate and .

Solution
Hint
Look at angles on the unit circle.
As mentioned earlier, the ratios of the side lengths of a right triangle can be expressed in terms of the trigonometric
functions evaluated at either of the acute angles of the triangle. Let be one of the acute angles. Let be the length of
the adjacent leg, be the length of the opposite leg, and be the length of the hypotenuse. By inscribing the triangle
into a circle of radius , as shown in (Figure) , we see that , and satisfy the following relationships with :
Figure 4. By inscribing a right triangle in a circle, we can

express the ratios of the side lengths in terms of the
trigonometric functions evaluated at .
Constructing a Wooden Ramp
A wooden ramp is to be built with one end on the ground and the other end at the top of a short staircase. If the
top of the staircase is 4 ft from the ground and the angle between the ground and the ramp is to be , how
long does the ramp need to be?
Solution
Let denote the length of the ramp. In the following image, we see that needs to satisfy the equation
. Solving this equation for , we see that ft.

A house painter wants to lean a 20-ft ladder against a house. If the angle between the base of the ladder and the
ground is to be , how far from the house should she place the base of the ladder?
Solution
10 ft
Hint
Draw a right triangle with hypotenuse 20 ft.
Trigonometric Identities
A trigonometric identity is an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for all angles for which the
functions are defined. We can use the identities to help us solve or simplify equations. The main trigonometric identities
are listed next.
Rule: Trigonometric Identities
Reciprocal identities
Pythagorean identities
Addition and subtraction formulas
Double-angle formulas
Solving Trigonometric Equations
For each of the following equations, use a trigonometric identity to find all solutions.
a.
b.
a. Using the double-angle formula for , we see that is a solution of
if and only if
,
which is true if and only if
.
To solve this equation, it is important to note that we need to factor the left-hand side and not divide both sides
of the equation by . The problem with dividing by is that it is possible that is zero. In fact, if

we did divide both sides of the equation by , we would miss some of the solutions of the original equation.
Factoring the left-hand side of the equation, we see that is a solution of this equation if and only if
.
Since when
,
and when
, or ,
we conclude that the set of solutions to this equation is
, and .
b. Using the double-angle formula for and the reciprocal identity for , the equation can be
written as
.
To solve this equation, we multiply both sides by to eliminate the denominator, and say that if satisfies
this equation, then satisfies the equation
.
However, we need to be a little careful here. Even if satisfies this new equation, it may not satisfy the original
equation because, to satisfy the original equation, we would need to be able to divide both sides of the equation
by . However, if , we cannot divide both sides of the equation by . Therefore, it is possible
that we may arrive at extraneous solutions. So, at the end, it is important to check for extraneous solutions.
Returning to the equation, it is important that we factor out of both terms on the left-hand side instead of
dividing both sides of the equation by . Factoring the left-hand side of the equation, we can rewrite this
equation as
.
Therefore, the solutions are given by the angles such that or . The solutions of the
first equation are . The solutions of the second equation are
. After checking for extraneous solutions, the set of solutions
to the equation is
and .
Find all solutions to the equation .
Solution
for
Hint
Use the double-angle formula for cosine.
Proving a Trigonometric Identity
Prove the trigonometric identity .
Solution
We start with the identity
.

Dividing both sides of this equation by , we obtain
.
Since and , we conclude that
.
Prove the trigonometric identity .
Hint
Divide both sides of the identity by .
Graphs and Periods of the Trigonometric Functions

We have seen that as we travel around the unit circle, the values of the trigonometric functions repeat. We can see this
pattern in the graphs of the functions. Let be a point on the unit circle and let be the corresponding
angle. Since the angle and correspond to the same point , the values of the trigonometric functions at
and at are the same. Consequently, the trigonometric functions are periodic functions . The period of a
function is defined to be the smallest positive value such that for all values in the domain
of . The sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant functions have a period of . Since the tangent and cotangent functions
repeat on an interval of length , their period is ( (Figure) ).

Figure 5. The six trigonometric functions are periodic.
Just as with algebraic functions, we can apply transformations to trigonometric functions. In particular, consider the
following function:
.
In (Figure) , the constant causes a horizontal or phase shift. The factor changes the period. This transformed sine
function will have a period . The factor results in a vertical stretch by a factor of . We say is the
“amplitude of .” The constant causes a vertical shift.

Figure 6. A graph of a general sine function.
Notice in (Figure) that the graph of is the graph of shifted to the left units. Therefore,
we can write . Similarly, we can view the graph of as the graph of
shifted right units, and state that .
A shifted sine curve arises naturally when graphing the number of hours of daylight in a given location as a function of
the day of the year. For example, suppose a city reports that June 21 is the longest day of the year with 15.7 hours and
December 21 is the shortest day of the year with 8.3 hours. It can be shown that the function
is a model for the number of hours of daylight as a function of day of the year ( (Figure) ).

Figure 7. The hours of daylight as a function of day of the year can be modeled by a shifted sine curve.
Sketching the Graph of a Transformed Sine Curve
Sketch a graph of .
Solution
This graph is a phase shift of to the right by units, followed by a horizontal compression by a
factor of 2, a vertical stretch by a factor of 3, and then a vertical shift by 1 unit. The period of is .

Describe the relationship between the graph of and the graph of .
Solution
To graph , the graph of needs to be compressed horizontally by a factor
of 4, then stretched vertically by a factor of 3, then shifted down 5 units. The function will have a period of
and an amplitude of 3.
Hint
The graph of can be sketched using the graph of and a sequence of three transformations.
Key Concepts
• Radian measure is defined such that the angle associated with the arc of length 1 on the unit circle has radian
measure 1. An angle with a degree measure of 180° has a radian measure of rad.
• For acute angles , the values of the trigonometric functions are defined as ratios of two sides of a right
triangle in which one of the acute angles is .
• For a general angle , let be a point on a circle of radius corresponding to this angle . The
trigonometric functions can be written as ratios involving , and .
• The trigonometric functions are periodic. The sine, cosine, secant, and cosecant functions have period .
The tangent and cotangent functions have period .
Key Equations
• Generalized sine function
For the following exercises, convert each angle in degrees to radians. Write the answer as a multiple of .
1. 240°

Solution
rad
2. 15°
3. -60°
Solution
rad
4. -225°
5. 330°
Solution
rad
For the following exercises, convert each angle in radians to degrees.
6. rad
7. rad
Solution
210°
8. rad
9. rad
Solution
-540°
10. rad
Evaluate the following functional values.
11.
Solution
-1/2
12.

13.
Solution
14.
15.
Solution
16.
For the following exercises, consider triangle , a right triangle with a right angle at . a. Find the missing side
of the triangle. b. Find the six trigonometric function values for the angle at . Where necessary, round to one
decimal place.
17.
Solution
a. b.
18.
19.
Solution
a. b.
20.

21.
Solution
a. b.
22.
For the following exercises, is a point on the unit circle. a. Find the (exact) missing coordinate value of each point
and b. find the values of the six trigonometric functions for the angle with a terminal side that passes through point
. Rationalize all denominators.
23.
Solution
a. b.
24.
25.
Solution
a. b.
26.
For the following exercises, simplify each expression by writing it in terms of sines and cosines, then simplify. The
final answer does not have to be in terms of sine and cosine only.
27.
Solution
28.
29.
Solution
30.

31.
Solution
32.
33.
Solution
34.
For the following exercises, verify that each equation is an identity.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
For the following exercises, solve the trigonometric equations on the interval .
43.
Solution
44.
45.

Solution
46.
47.
Solution
48.
49.
Solution
50.
For the following exercises, each graph is of the form or , where . Write
the equation of the graph.
51.
Solution
52.

53.
Solution
54.
For the following exercises, find a. the amplitude, b. the period, and c. the phase shift with direction for each function.
55.
Solution
a. 1 b. c. units to the right
56.
57.

Solution
a. b. c. No phase shift
58.
59.
Solution
a. 3 b. 2 c. units to the left
60.
61. [T] The diameter of a wheel rolling on the ground is 40 in. If the wheel rotates through an angle of , how
many inches does it move? Approximate to the nearest whole inch.
Solution
Approximately 42 in.
62. [T] Find the length of the arc intercepted by central angle in a circle of radius . Round to the nearest
hundredth.
a. cm, rad
b. cm, rad
c. cm,
d. cm,
63. [T] As a point moves around a circle, the measure of the angle changes. The measure of how fast the angle
is changing is called angular speed , , and is given by , where is in radians and is time. Find the
angular speed for the given data. Round to the nearest thousandth.
a. rad, sec
b. rad, sec
c. rad, min
d. rad, min
Solution
a. 0.550 rad/sec b. 0.236 rad/sec c. 0.698 rad/min d. 1.697 rad/min
64. [T] A total of 250,000 m 2 of land is needed to build a nuclear power plant. Suppose it is decided that the area
on which the power plant is to be built should be circular.
1. Find the radius of the circular land area.
2. If the land area is to form a 45° sector of a circle instead of a whole circle, find the length of the curved side.
65. [T] The area of an isosceles triangle with equal sides of length is
,

where is the angle formed by the two sides. Find the area of an isosceles triangle with equal sides of length 8 in.
and angle rad.
Solution
66. [T] A particle travels in a circular path at a constant angular speed . The angular speed is modeled by the
function . Determine the angular speed at sec.
67. [T] An alternating current for outlets in a home has voltage given by the function
,
where is the voltage in volts at time in seconds.
1. Find the period of the function and interpret its meaning.
2. Determine the number of periods that occur when 1 sec has passed.
Solution
a. ; the voltage repeats every sec b. Approximately 59 periods
68. [T] The number of hours of daylight in a northeast city is modeled by the function
,
where is the number of days after January 1.
1. Find the amplitude and period.
2. Determine the number of hours of daylight on the longest day of the year.
3. Determine the number of hours of daylight on the shortest day of the year.
4. Determine the number of hours of daylight 90 days after January 1.
5. Sketch the graph of the function for one period starting on January 1.
69. [T] Suppose that is a mathematical model of the temperature (in degrees
Fahrenheit) at hours after midnight on a certain day of the week.
1. Determine the amplitude and period.
2. Find the temperature 7 hours after midnight.
3. At what time does ?
4. Sketch the graph of over .
Solution
a. Amplitude = 10; period = 24 b. c. 14 hours later, or 2 p.m. d.

70. [T] The function models the height (in feet) of the tide hours after midnight.
Assume that is midnight.
1. Find the amplitude and period.
2. Graph the function over one period.
3. What is the height of the tide at 4:30 a.m.?
Glossary
periodic function
a function is periodic if it has a repeating pattern as the values of move from left to right
radians
for a circular arc of length on a circle of radius 1, the radian measure of the associated angle is
trigonometric functions
functions of an angle defined as ratios of the lengths of the sides of a right triangle
trigonometric identity
an equation involving trigonometric functions that is true for all angles for which the functions in the
equation are defined

1.4 Inverse Functions
Learning Objectives
• Determine the conditions for when a function has an inverse.
• Use the horizontal line test to recognize when a function is one-to-one.
• Find the inverse of a given function.
• Draw the graph of an inverse function.
• Evaluate inverse trigonometric functions.
An inverse function reverses the operation done by a particular function. In other words, whatever a function does, the
inverse function undoes it. In this section, we define an inverse function formally and state the necessary conditions for
an inverse function to exist. We examine how to find an inverse function and study the relationship between the graph
of a function and the graph of its inverse. Then we apply these ideas to define and discuss properties of the inverse
trigonometric functions.
Existence of an Inverse Function

We begin with an example. Given a function and an output , we are often interested in finding what
value or values were mapped to by . For example, consider the function . Since any output
, we can solve this equation for to find that the input is . This equation defines as
a function of . Denoting this function as , and writing , we see that for any in
the domain of . Thus, this new function, , “undid” what the original
function did. A function with this property is called the inverse function of the original function.
Definition
Given a function with domain and range , its inverse function (if it exists) is the function with domain
and range such that if . In other words, for a function and its inverse ,
for all in , and for all in .
Note that is read as “f inverse.” Here, the -1 is not used as an exponent and . (Figure) shows
the relationship between the domain and range of and the domain and range of .
Recall that a function has exactly one output for each input. Therefore, to define an inverse function, we need to
map each input to exactly one output. For example, let’s try to find the inverse function for . Solving
the equation for , we arrive at the equation . This equation does not describe as a function
of because there are two solutions to this equation for every . The problem with trying to find an inverse
1.4 Inverse Functions | 105

function for is that two inputs are sent to the same output for each output . The function
discussed earlier did not have this problem. For that function, each input was sent to a different
output. A function that sends each input to a different output is called a one-to-one function.
Definition
We say a is a one-to-one function if when .
One way to determine whether a function is one-to-one is by looking at its graph. If a function is one-to-one, then no
two inputs can be sent to the same output. Therefore, if we draw a horizontal line anywhere in the -plane, according
to the horizontal line test , it cannot intersect the graph more than once. We note that the horizontal line test is
different from the vertical line test. The vertical line test determines whether a graph is the graph of a function. The
horizontal line test determines whether a function is one-to-one ( (Figure) ).
Rule: Horizontal Line Test
A function is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of no more than once.
Determining Whether a Function Is One-to-One
For each of the following functions, use the horizontal line test to determine whether it is one-to-one.
106 | 1.4 Inverse Functions

a.
b.
Solution
a. Since the horizontal line for any integer intersects the graph more than once, this function
is not one-to-one.

b. Since every horizontal line intersects the graph once (at most), this function is one-to-one.
Is the function graphed in the following image one-to-one?

Solution
No.
Hint
Use the horizontal line test.
Finding a Function’s Inverse

We can now consider one-to-one functions and show how to find their inverses. Recall that a function maps elements in
the domain of to elements in the range of . The inverse function maps each element from the range of back to its
corresponding element from the domain of . Therefore, to find the inverse function of a one-to-one function , given
any in the range of , we need to determine which in the domain of satisfies . Since is one-to-one,
there is exactly one such value . We can find that value by solving the equation for . Doing so, we are
able to write as a function of where the domain of this function is the range of and the range of this new function
is the domain of . Consequently, this function is the inverse of , and we write . Since we typically use
the variable to denote the independent variable and to denote the dependent variable, we often interchange the
roles of and , and write . Representing the inverse function in this way is also helpful later when we
graph a function and its inverse on the same axes.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Finding an Inverse Function
1. Solve the equation for .
2. Interchange the variables and and write .

Finding an Inverse Function
Find the inverse for the function . State the domain and range of the inverse function. Verify
that .
Solution
Follow the steps outlined in the strategy.
Step 1. If , then and .
Step 2. Rewrite as and let .
Therefore, .
Since the domain of is , the range of is . Since the range of is , the
domain of is .
You can verify that by writing
.
Note that for to be the inverse of , both and for all in
the domain of the inside function.
Find the inverse of the function . State the domain and range of the inverse function.
Solution
. The domain of is . The range of is .
Hint
Use the (Note) for finding inverse functions.
Graphing Inverse Functions

Let’s consider the relationship between the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse. Consider the graph of
shown in (Figure) and a point on the graph. Since , then . Therefore, when we graph
, the point is on the graph. As a result, the graph of is a reflection of the graph of about the line
.

Sketching Graphs of Inverse Functions
For the graph of in the following image, sketch a graph of by sketching the line and using
symmetry. Identify the domain and range of .
Solution
Reflect the graph about the line . The domain of is . The range of is . By using
the preceding strategy for finding inverse functions, we can verify that the inverse function is
, as shown in the graph.
Sketch the graph of and the graph of its inverse using the symmetry property of inverse
functions.

Solution
Hint
The graphs are symmetric about the line .
Restricting Domains
As we have seen, does not have an inverse function because it is not one-to-one. However, we can
choose a subset of the domain of such that the function is one-to-one. This subset is called a restricted domain.
By restricting the domain of , we can define a new function such that the domain of is the restricted domain
of and for all in the domain of . Then we can define an inverse function for on that domain.
For example, since is one-to-one on the interval , we can define a new function such that the
domain of is and for all in its domain. Since is a one-to-one function, it has an inverse
function, given by the formula . On the other hand, the function is also one-to-one on
the domain . Therefore, we could also define a new function such that the domain of is and
for all in the domain of . Then is a one-to-one function and must also have an inverse. Its inverse is
given by the formula ( (Figure) ).

Restricting the Domain

a. Sketch the graph of and use the horizontal line test to show that is not one-to-one.
b. Show that is one-to-one on the restricted domain . Determine the domain and range for the
inverse of on this restricted domain and find a formula for .
Solution
a. The graph of is the graph of shifted left 1 unit. Since there exists a horizontal line intersecting
the graph more than once, is not one-to-one.
b. On the interval is one-to-one.

The domain and range of are given by the range and domain of , respectively. Therefore, the domain
of is and the range of is . To find a formula for , solve the equation
for . If , then . Since we are restricting the domain to
the interval where , we need . Therefore, . Interchanging and ,
we write and conclude that .
Consider restricted to the domain . Verify that is one-to-one on this domain.

Determine the domain and range of the inverse of and find a formula for .
Solution
The domain of is . The range of is . The inverse function is given by the formula
.
Hint
The domain and range of is given by the range and domain of , respectively. To find , solve for
.

Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic, and therefore they are not one-to-one. However, if we restrict the
domain of a trigonometric function to an interval where it is one-to-one, we can define its inverse. Consider the sine
function ( (Figure) ). The sine function is one-to-one on an infinite number of intervals, but the standard convention is
to restrict the domain to the interval . By doing so, we define the inverse sine function on the domain
such that for any in the interval , the inverse sine function tells us which angle in the interval
satisfies . Similarly, we can restrict the domains of the other trigonometric functions to define i nverse
trigonometric functions , which are functions that tell us which angle in a certain interval has a specified trigonometric
value.
Definition
The inverse sine function, denoted or arcsin, and the inverse cosine function, denoted or arccos,
are defined on the domain as follows:
The inverse tangent function, denoted or arctan, and inverse cotangent function, denoted or
arccot, are defined on the domain as follows:
The inverse cosecant function, denoted or arccsc, and inverse secant function, denoted or arcsec,
are defined on the domain as follows:
To graph the inverse trigonometric functions, we use the graphs of the trigonometric functions restricted to the
domains defined earlier and reflect the graphs about the line ( (Figure) ).

Go to the following site for more comparisons of functions and their inverses.
When evaluating an inverse trigonometric function, the output is an angle. For example, to evaluate , we
need to find an angle such that . Clearly, many angles have this property. However, given the definition
of , we need the angle that not only solves this equation, but also lies in the interval . We conclude that
.
We now consider a composition of a trigonometric function and its inverse. For example, consider the two expressions
and . For the first one, we simplify as follows:
For the second one, we have

.
The inverse function is supposed to “undo” the original function, so why isn’t ? Recalling our
definition of inverse functions, a function and its inverse satisfy the conditions for all in
the domain of and for all in the domain of , so what happened here? The issue is that the
inverse sine function, , is the inverse of the restricted sine function defined on the domain . Therefore,
for in the interval , it is true that . However, for values of outside this interval, the
equation does not hold, even though is defined for all real numbers .
What about ? Does that have a similar issue? The answer is no . Since the domain of is the interval
, we conclude that if and the expression is not defined for other values of
. To summarize,
and
.
Similarly, for the cosine function,
and
.
Similar properties hold for the other trigonometric functions and their inverses.
Evaluating Expressions Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions
a.
b.
c.
d.

Solution
a. Evaluating is equivalent to finding the angle such that and
. The angle satisfies these two conditions. Therefore,
.
b. First we use the fact that . Then . Therefore,
.
c. To evaluate , first use the fact that . Then we need to
find the angle such that and . Since satisfies both these
conditions, we have .
d. Since , we need to evaluate . That is, we need to find the angle
such that and . Since satisfies both these conditions, we
can conclude that .
The Maximum Value of a Function

In many areas of science, engineering, and mathematics, it is useful to know the maximum value a function can
obtain, even if we don’t know its exact value at a given instant. For instance, if we have a function describing the
strength of a roof beam, we would want to know the maximum weight the beam can support without breaking. If
we have a function that describes the speed of a train, we would want to know its maximum speed before it jumps
off the rails. Safe design often depends on knowing maximum values.
This project describes a simple example of a function with a maximum value that depends on two equation
coefficients. We will see that maximum values can depend on several factors other than the independent variable
.
1. Consider the graph in (Figure) of the function . Describe its overall shape. Is it
periodic? How do you know?
Using a graphing calculator or other graphing device, estimate the – and -values of the maximum point
for the graph (the first such point where ). It may be helpful to express the -value as a multiple of
.

2. Now consider other graphs of the form for various values of and . Sketch
the graph when and , and find the – and -values for the maximum point. (Remember to
express the -value as a multiple of , if possible.) Has it moved?
3. Repeat for . Is there any relationship to what you found in part (2)?
4. Complete the following table, adding a few choices of your own for and :
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 12 5
1 2 5 12
2 1
2 2
3 4
4 3
5. Try to figure out the formula for the -values.

6. The formula for the -values is a little harder. The most helpful points from the table are
. ( Hint : Consider inverse trigonometric functions.)
7. If you found formulas for parts (5) and (6), show that they work together. That is, substitute the -value
formula you found into and simplify it to arrive at the -value formula you
found.
Key Concepts
• For a function to have an inverse, the function must be one-to-one. Given the graph of a function, we can
determine whether the function is one-to-one by using the horizontal line test.
• If a function is not one-to-one, we can restrict the domain to a smaller domain where the function is one-
to-one and then define the inverse of the function on the smaller domain.
• For a function and its inverse for all in the domain of and
for all in the domain of .
• Since the trigonometric functions are periodic, we need to restrict their domains to define the inverse
• The graph of a function and its inverse are symmetric about the line .
Key Equations
• Inverse functions
for all in , and for all in .[/latex]
For the following exercises, use the horizontal line test to determine whether each of the given graphs is one-to-one.
1.

Solution
Not one-to-one
2.
3.
Solution
Not one-to-one
4.
5.

Solution
One-to-one
6.
For the following exercises, a. find the inverse function, and b. find the domain and range of the inverse function.
7.
Solution
a. b. Domain: , Range:
8.
9.
Solution
a. b. Domain: all real numbers, Range: all real numbers
10.
11.
Solution
a. , b. Domain: , Range:
12.
For the following exercises, use the graph of to sketch the graph of its inverse function.

13.
Solution
14.
15.

Solution
16.
For the following exercises, use composition to determine which pairs of functions are inverses.
17.
Solution
These are inverses.
18.
19.
Solution
These are not inverses.
20.
21.
Solution
These are inverses.
22.
23.

Solution
These are inverses.
24.
For the following exercises, evaluate the functions. Give the exact value.
25.
Solution
26.
27.
Solution
28.
29.
Solution
30.
31.
32.
33.
Solution
34. The function converts degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius.

a. Find the inverse function
b. What is the inverse function used for?

35. [T] The velocity (in centimeters per second) of blood in an artery at a distance cm from the center of the
artery can be modeled by the function for .
a. Find .
b. Interpret what the inverse function is used for.
c. Find the distance from the center of an artery with a velocity of 15 cm/sec, 10 cm/sec, and 5 cm/sec.
Solution
a. b. The inverse function determines the distance from the center of the
artery at which blood is flowing with velocity . c. 0.1 cm; 0.14 cm; 0.17 cm
36. A function that converts dress sizes in the United States to those in Europe is given by .
a. Find the European dress sizes that correspond to sizes 6, 8, 10, and 12 in the United States.
b. Find the function that converts European dress sizes to U.S. dress sizes.
c. Use part b. to find the dress sizes in the United States that correspond to 46, 52, 62, and 70.
37. [T] The cost to remove a toxin from a lake is modeled by the function
, where is the cost (in thousands of dollars) and is the amount of toxin in a small
lake (measured in parts per billion [ppb]). This model is valid only when the amount of toxin is less than 85 ppb.
a. Find the cost to remove 25 ppb, 40 ppb, and 50 ppb of the toxin from the lake.
b. Find the inverse function. c. Use part b. to determine how much of the toxin is removed for $50,000.
Solution
a. $31,250, $66,667, $107,143 b. c. 34 ppb
38. [T] A race car is accelerating at a velocity given by

,
where is the velocity (in feet per second) at time .
a. Find the velocity of the car at 10 sec.
b. Find the inverse function.
c. Use part b. to determine how long it takes for the car to reach a speed of 150 ft/sec.
39. [T] An airplane’s Mach number is the ratio of its speed to the speed of sound. When a plane is flying at a
constant altitude, then its Mach angle is given by .
Find the Mach angle (to the nearest degree) for the following Mach numbers.
1.0”.
a.
b.
c.

Solution
a. b. c.
40. [T] Using , find the Mach number for the following angles.
a.
b.
c.
41. [T] The temperature (in degrees Celsius) of a city in the northern United States can be modeled by the
function
,
where is time in months and corresponds to January 1. Determine the month and day when the
temperature is C.
Solution
; so, the temperature occurs on June 21 and August 15
42. [T] The depth (in feet) of water at a dock changes with the rise and fall of tides. It is modeled by the function
,
where is the number of hours after midnight. Determine the first time after midnight when the depth is 11.75 ft.
43. [T] An object moving in simple harmonic motion is modeled by the function
,
where is measured in inches and is measured in seconds. Determine the first time when the distance moved
is 4.5 in.
Solution
44. [T] A local art gallery has a portrait 3 ft in height that is hung 2.5 ft above the eye level of an average person.
The viewing angle can be modeled by the function
,
where is the distance (in feet) from the portrait. Find the viewing angle when a person is 4 ft from the portrait.
45. [T] Use a calculator to evaluate and . Explain the results of each.
Solution
; the expression does not equal 2.1 since —in other
words, it is not in the restricted domain of . , since 2.1 is in the restricted
domain of .
46. [T] Use a calculator to evaluate and . Explain the results of each.

Glossary
horizontal line test

a function is one-to-one if and only if every horizontal line intersects the graph of , at most, once
inverse function
for a function , the inverse function satisfies if
inverse trigonometric functions
the inverses of the trigonometric functions are defined on restricted domains where they are one-to-one
functions
one-to-one function
a function is one-to-one if if
restricted domain
a subset of the domain of a function

1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Learning Objectives
• Identify the form of an exponential function.
• Explain the difference between the graphs of and .
• Recognize the significance of the number .
• Identify the form of a logarithmic function.
• Explain the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions.
• Describe how to calculate a logarithm to a different base.
• Identify the hyperbolic functions, their graphs, and basic identities.
In this section we examine exponential and logarithmic functions. We use the properties of these functions to solve
equations involving exponential or logarithmic terms, and we study the meaning and importance of the number . We
also define hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions, which involve combinations of exponential and logarithmic
functions. (Note that we present alternative definitions of exponential and logarithmic functions in the chapter
Applications of Integrations, and prove that the functions have the same properties with either definition.)
Exponential Functions
Exponential functions arise in many applications. One common example is population growth.
For example, if a population starts with individuals and then grows at an annual rate of , its population after 1
year is
.
Its population after 2 years is

.
In general, its population after years is

,
which is an exponential function. More generally, any function of the form , where , is an
exponential function with base and exponent . Exponential functions have constant bases and variable exponents.
Note that a function of the form for some constant is not an exponential function but a power function.
To see the difference between an exponential function and a power function, we compare the functions and
. In (Figure), we see that both and approach infinity as . Eventually, however, becomes
larger than and grows more rapidly as . In the opposite direction, as , whereas
. The line is a horizontal asymptote for .
1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions | 127

Values of and
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
9 4 1 0 1 4 9 16 2
1 2 4 8 16 3
In (Figure), we graph both and to show how the graphs differ.
Figure 1. Both and approach infinity as , but grows more

rapidly than . As , whereas .
Evaluating Exponential Functions

Recall the properties of exponents: If is a positive integer, then we define (with factors of ). If
is a negative integer, then for some positive integer , and we define . Also, is
defined to be 1. If is a rational number, then , where and are integers and . For
example, . However, how is defined if is an irrational number? For example, what do we
128 | 1.5 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

mean by ? This is too complex a question for us to answer fully right now; however, we can make an approximation.
In (Figure), we list some rational numbers approaching , and the values of for each rational number are
presented as well. We claim that if we choose rational numbers getting closer and closer to , the values of get
closer and closer to some number . We define that number to be .
Values of for a List of Rational Numbers Approximating
1.4 1.41 1.414 1.4142 1.41421 1.414213
2.639 2.65737 2.66475 2.665119 2.665138 2.665143
Bacterial Growth
Suppose a particular population of bacteria is known to double in size every 4 hours. If a culture starts with 1000
bacteria, the number of bacteria after 4 hours is . The number of bacteria after 8 hours is
. In general, the number of bacteria after hours is
. Letting , we see that the number of bacteria after hours is
. Find the number of bacteria after 6 hours, 10 hours, and 24 hours.
Solution
The number of bacteria after 6 hours is given by bacteria. The number of
bacteria after 10 hours is given by bacteria. The number of bacteria after 24
hours is given by bacteria.
Given the exponential function , evaluate and .
Solution
.
Go to World Population Balance for another example of exponential population growth.
Graphing Exponential Functions
For any base , the exponential function is defined for all real numbers and
. Therefore, the domain of is and the range is . To graph , we note that for
is increasing on and as , whereas as . On the other
hand, if is decreasing on and as whereas as
((Figure)).

Figure 2. If , then is increasing on . If
, then is decreasing on .
Visit this site for more exploration of the graphs of exponential functions.
Note that exponential functions satisfy the general laws of exponents. To remind you of these laws, we state them as
rules.
Rule: Laws of Exponents
For any constants , and for all and ,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Using the Laws of Exponents
Use the laws of exponents to simplify each of the following expressions.
a.
b.
Solution
a. We can simplify as follows:
b. We can simplify as follows:
Use the laws of exponents to simplify .

Solution
Hint
The Number
A special type of exponential function appears frequently in real-world applications. To describe it, consider the
following example of exponential growth, which arises from compounding interest in a savings account. Suppose a
person invests dollars in a savings account with an annual interest rate , compounded annually. The amount of
money after 1 year is
.
The amount of money after 2 years is

.
More generally, the amount after years is

.
If the money is compounded 2 times per year, the amount of money after half a year is
.
The amount of money after 1 year is

.
After years, the amount of money in the account is

.
More generally, if the money is compounded times per year, the amount of money in the account after years is given
by the function
.
What happens as ? To answer this question, we let and write

,
and examine the behavior of as , using a table of values ((Figure)).
Values of as
10 100 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000
2.5937 2.7048 2.71692 2.71815 2.718268 2.718280
Looking at this table, it appears that is approaching a number between 2.7 and 2.8 as . In fact,
does approach some number as . We call this number . To six decimal places of accuracy,
.

The letter was first used to represent this number by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler during the 1720s.
Although Euler did not discover the number, he showed many important connections between and logarithmic
functions. We still use the notation today to honor Euler’s work because it appears in many areas of mathematics and
because we can use it in many practical applications.
Returning to our savings account example, we can conclude that if a person puts dollars in an account at an
annual interest rate , compounded continuously, then . This function may be familiar. Since functions
involving base arise often in applications, we call the function the natural exponential function. Not
only is this function interesting because of the definition of the number , but also, as discussed next, its graph has an
important property.
Since , we know is increasing on . In (Figure), we show a graph of along with a

tangent line to the graph of at . We give a precise definition of tangent line in the next chapter; but, informally,
we say a tangent line to a graph of at is a line that passes through the point and has the same
“slope” as at that point. The function is the only exponential function with tangent line at
that has a slope of 1. As we see later in the text, having this property makes the natural exponential function the simplest
exponential function to use in many instances.
Figure 3. The graph of has a tangent line with slope

1 at .
Compounding Interest
Suppose is invested in an account at an annual interest rate of , compounded continuously.

a. Let denote the number of years after the initial investment and denote the amount of money in the
account at time . Find a formula for .
b. Find the amount of money in the account after 10 years and after 20 years.
Solution
a. If dollars are invested in an account at an annual interest rate , compounded continuously, then
. Here and . Therefore, .
b. After 10 years, the amount of money in the account is
.
After 20 years, the amount of money in the account is
.

If is invested in an account at an annual interest rate of , compounded continuously, find a formula for
the amount of money in the account after years. Find the amount of money after 30 years.
. After 30 years, there will be approximately .
Hint
.
Logarithmic Functions
Using our understanding of exponential functions, we can discuss their inverses, which are the logarithmic functions.
These come in handy when we need to consider any phenomenon that varies over a wide range of values, such as pH in
chemistry or decibels in sound levels.
The exponential function is one-to-one, with domain and range . Therefore, it has
an inverse function, called the logarithmic function with base . For any , the logarithmic function with
base , denoted , has domain and range , and satisfies
if and only if .
For example,
Furthermore, since and are inverse functions,

.
The most commonly used logarithmic function is the function . Since this function uses natural as its base,
it is called the natural logarithm. Here we use the notation or to mean . For example,
.
Since the functions and are inverses of each other,

,
and their graphs are symmetric about the line ((Figure)).

Figure 4: The functions and are inverses
of each other, so their graphs are symmetric about the line
.
At this site you can see an example of a base-10 logarithmic scale.
In general, for any base , the function is symmetric about the line with the
function . Using this fact and the graphs of the exponential functions, we graph functions for
several values of ((Figure)).
Figure 5: Graphs of are depicted for

.

Before solving some equations involving exponential and logarithmic functions, let’s review the basic properties of
logarithms.
Rule: Properties of Logarithms
If , and is any real number, then
Solving Equations Involving Exponential Functions
Solve each of the following equations for .

a.
b.
Solution
a. Applying the natural logarithm function to both sides of the equation, we have
.
Using the power property of logarithms,
.
Therefore, .
b. Multiplying both sides of the equation by , we arrive at the equation
.
Rewriting this equation as
,
we can then rewrite it as a quadratic equation in :
.
Now we can solve the quadratic equation. Factoring this equation, we obtain
.
Therefore, the solutions satisfy and . Taking the natural logarithm of both sides gives us
the solutions .
Solve .
Solution
Hint
First solve the equation for .
Solving Equations Involving Logarithmic Functions
Solve each of the following equations for .

a.
b.
c.

Solution
a. By the definition of the natural logarithm function,
.
Therefore, the solution is .
b. Using the product and power properties of logarithmic functions, rewrite the left-hand side of the equation
as
.
Therefore, the equation can be rewritten as
.
The solution is .
c. Using the power property of logarithmic functions, we can rewrite the equation as
.
Using the quotient property, this becomes
.
Therefore, , which implies . We should then check for any extraneous solutions.
Solve .
Solution
Hint
First use the power property, then use the product property of logarithms.
When evaluating a logarithmic function with a calculator, you may have noticed that the only options are or
log, called the common logarithm, or ln, which is the natural logarithm. However, exponential functions and logarithm
functions can be expressed in terms of any desired base . If you need to use a calculator to evaluate an expression with
a different base, you can apply the change-of-base formulas first. Using this change of base, we typically write a given
exponential or logarithmic function in terms of the natural exponential and natural logarithmic functions.
Rule: Change-of-Base Formulas
Let , and .
1. for any real number .
If , this equation reduces to .
2. for any real number .
If , this equation reduces to .
Proof
For the first change-of-base formula, we begin by making use of the power property of logarithmic functions. We know
that for any base . Therefore,
.
In addition, we know that and are inverse functions. Therefore,

.
Combining these last two equalities, we conclude that .
To prove the second property, we show that

.
Let , and . We will show that . By the definition of logarithmic

functions, we know that , and . From the previous equations, we see that
.
Therefore, . Since exponential functions are one-to-one, we can conclude that .
□
Changing Bases
Use a calculating utility to evaluate with the change-of-base formula presented earlier.
Solution
Use the second equation with and :
.
Use the change-of-base formula and a calculating utility to evaluate .
Solution
1.29248
Hint
Use the change of base to rewrite this expression in terms of expressions involving the natural logarithm function.
Chapter Opener: The Richter Scale for Earthquakes
Figure 6: (credit: modification of work by Robb Hannawacker, NPS)
In 1935, Charles Richter developed a scale (now known as the Richter scale) to measure the magnitude of an
earthquake. The scale is a base-10 logarithmic scale, and it can be described as follows: Consider one earthquake
with magnitude on the Richter scale and a second earthquake with magnitude on the Richter scale.
Suppose , which means the earthquake of magnitude is stronger, but how much stronger is it than
the other earthquake? A way of measuring the intensity of an earthquake is by using a seismograph to measure
the amplitude of the earthquake waves. If is the amplitude measured for the first earthquake and is the

amplitude measured for the second earthquake, then the amplitudes and magnitudes of the two earthquakes
satisfy the following equation:
.
Consider an earthquake that measures 8 on the Richter scale and an earthquake that measures 7 on the Richter
scale. Then,
.
Therefore,
,
which implies or . Since is 10 times the size of , we say that the first
earthquake is 10 times as intense as the second earthquake. On the other hand, if one earthquake measures 8 on
the Richter scale and another measures 6, then the relative intensity of the two earthquakes satisfies the
equation
.
Therefore, . That is, the first earthquake is 100 times more intense than the second earthquake.
How can we use logarithmic functions to compare the relative severity of the magnitude 9 earthquake in Japan in
2011 with the magnitude 7.3 earthquake in Haiti in 2010?
Solution
To compare the Japan and Haiti earthquakes, we can use an equation presented earlier:
.
Therefore, , and we conclude that the earthquake in Japan was approximately 50 times more
intense than the earthquake in Haiti.
Compare the relative severity of a magnitude 8.4 earthquake with a magnitude 7.4 earthquake.
The magnitude 8.4 earthquake is roughly 10 times as severe as the magnitude 7.4 earthquake.
Hint
.
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of certain combinations of and . These functions arise naturally
in various engineering and physics applications, including the study of water waves and vibrations of elastic membranes.
Another common use for a hyperbolic function is the representation of a hanging chain or cable, also known as a
catenary ((Figure)). If we introduce a coordinate system so that the low point of the chain lies along the -axis, we can
describe the height of the chain in terms of a hyperbolic function. First, we define the hyperbolic functions.

Figure 7. The shape of a strand of silk in a spider’s web can be described in terms of a hyperbolic
function. The same shape applies to a chain or cable hanging from two supports with only its own
weight. (credit: “Mtpaley”, Wikimedia Commons)
Definition
Hyperbolic cosine
Hyperbolic sine
Hyperbolic tangent
Hyperbolic cosecant
Hyperbolic secant
Hyperbolic cotangent
The name cosh rhymes with “gosh,” whereas the name sinh is pronounced “cinch.” Tanh, sech, csch, and coth are
pronounced “tanch,” “seech,” “coseech,” and “cotanch,” respectively.

Using the definition of and principles of physics, it can be shown that the height of a hanging chain, such as
the one in (Figure), can be described by the function for certain constants and .
But why are these functions called hyperbolic functions? To answer this question, consider the quantity
. Using the definition of and , we see that
.
This identity is the analog of the trigonometric identity . Here, given a value , the point
lies on the unit hyperbola ((Figure)).
Figure 8.The unit hyperbola .
Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions

To graph and , we make use of the fact that both functions approach as , since
as . As approaches , whereas approaches .
Therefore, using the graphs of , and as guides, we graph and . To graph
, we use the fact that for all as , and
as . The graphs of the other three hyperbolic functions can be sketched using the graphs
of , and ((Figure)).

Figure 9. The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of and .
Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions
The identity , shown in (Figure), is one of several identities involving the hyperbolic functions,
some of which are listed next. The first four properties follow easily from the definitions of hyperbolic sine and
hyperbolic cosine. Except for some differences in signs, most of these properties are analogous to identities for
Rule: Identities Involving Hyperbolic Functions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Evaluating Hyperbolic Functions
a. Simplify .
b. If , find the values of the remaining five hyperbolic functions.
Solution
a. Using the definition of the function, we write
.
b. Using the identity , we see that
.
Since for all , we must have . Then, using the definitions for the other
hyperbolic functions, we conclude that , and
.
Simplify .
Solution
Hint
Use the definition of the cosh function and the power property of logarithm functions.

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
From the graphs of the hyperbolic functions, we see that all of them are one-to-one except and . If
we restrict the domains of these two functions to the interval , then all the hyperbolic functions are one-to-
one, and we can define the inverse hyperbolic functions. Since the hyperbolic functions themselves involve exponential
functions, the inverse hyperbolic functions involve logarithmic functions.
Definition
Let’s look at how to derive the first equation. The others follow similarly. Suppose . Then,
and, by the definition of the hyperbolic sine function, . Therefore,
.
Multiplying this equation by , we obtain

.
This can be solved like a quadratic equation, with the solution

.
Since , the only solution is the one with the positive sign. Applying the natural logarithm to both sides of the
equation, we conclude that
.
Evaluating Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Solution
Evaluate .
Solution
.
Hint
Use the definition of and simplify.

Key Concepts
• The exponential function is increasing if and decreasing if . Its domain is
and its range is .
• The logarithmic function is the inverse of . Its domain is and its range is
.
• The natural exponential function is and the natural logarithmic function is .
• Given an exponential function or logarithmic function in base , we can make a change of base to convert
this function to any base . We typically convert to base .
• The hyperbolic functions involve combinations of the exponential functions and . As a result, the
inverse hyperbolic functions involve the natural logarithm.
For the following exercises, evaluate the given exponential functions as indicated, accurate to two significant digits
after the decimal.
1. a. b. c.
Solution
a. 125 b. 2.24 c. 9.74
2. a. b. c.
3. a. b. c.
Solution
a. 0.01 b. 10,000 c. 46.42
4. a. b. c.
For the following exercises, match the exponential equation to the correct graph.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

5.
Solution
d
6.

7.
Solution
b
8.

9.
Solution
e
10.
For the following exercises, sketch the graph of the exponential function. Determine the domain, range, and
horizontal asymptote.
11.
Solution
Domain: all real numbers, Range: , Horizontal asymptote at
12.

13.
Solution
14.
15.

Solution
16.
17.
Solution
For the following exercises, write the equation in equivalent exponential form.
18.
19.
Solution
20.
21.
Solution
22.

23.
Solution
24.
25.
Solution
For the following exercises, write the equation in equivalent logarithmic form.
26.
27.
Solution
28.
29.
Solution
30.
31.
Solution
32.
33.
Solution
34.

35.
Solution
For the following exercises, use the given graphs of the logarithmic functions to determine their domain, range, and
vertical asymptote.
36.
37.
Solution
Domain: Range: , Vertical asymptote at
38.
39.

Solution
Domain: , Range: , Vertical asymptote at
40.
41.
Solution
Domain: , Range: , Vertical asymptote at
For the following exercises, use properties of logarithms to write the expressions as a sum, difference, and/or
product of logarithms.
42.
43.
Solution
44.

45.
Solution
46.
47.
Solution
For the following exercises, solve the exponential equation exactly.
48.
49.
Solution
50.
51.
Solution
52.
53.
Solution
54.
55.
Solution
For the following exercises, solve the logarithmic equation exactly, if possible.

56.
57.
Solution
58.
59.
Solution
60.
61.
Solution
62.
63.
Solution
For the following exercises, use the change-of-base formula and either base 10 or base to evaluate the given
expressions. Answer in exact form and in approximate form, rounding to four decimal places.
64.
65.
Solution
66.
67.
Solution

68.
69.
Solution
70. Rewrite the following expressions in terms of exponentials and simplify.

a.
b.
c.
d.
71. [T] The number of bacteria in a culture after days can be modeled by the function
. Find the number of bacteria present after 15 days.
Solution
72. [T] The demand (in millions of barrels) for oil in an oil-rich country is given by the function
, where is the price (in dollars) of a barrel of oil. Find the amount of oil demanded
(to the nearest million barrels) when the price is between $15 and $20.
73. [T] The accumulated amount of a $100,000 investment whose interest compounds continuously for years
is given by . Find the amount accumulated in 5 years.
Solution
Approximately $131,653 is accumulated in 5 years.
74. [T] An investment is compounded monthly, quarterly, or yearly and is given by the function
, where is the value of the investment at time is the initial principle that was
invested, is the annual interest rate, and is the number of time the interest is compounded per year. Given a
yearly interest rate of 3.5% and an initial principle of $100,000, find the amount accumulated in 5 years for
interest that is compounded a. daily, b., monthly, c. quarterly, and d. yearly.
75. [T] The concentration of hydrogen ions in a substance is denoted by , measured in moles per liter. The
pH of a substance is defined by the logarithmic function . This function is used to measure
the acidity of a substance. The pH of water is 7. A substance with a pH less than 7 is an acid, whereas one that has
a pH of more than 7 is a base.
a. Find the pH of the following substances. Round answers to one digit.
b. Determine whether the substance is an acid or a base.
1. Eggs: mol/L
2. Beer: mol/L

3. Tomato Juice: mol/L
Solution
i. a. pH = 8 b. Base ii. a. pH = 3 b. Acid iii. a. pH = 4 b. Acid
76. [T] Iodine-131 is a radioactive substance that decays according to the function ,
where is the initial quantity of a sample of the substance and is in days. Determine how long it takes (to the
nearest day) for 95% of a quantity to decay.
77. [T] According to the World Bank, at the end of 2013 ( ) the U.S. population was 316 million and was
increasing according to the following model:
,
where is measured in millions of people and is measured in years after 2013.
a. Based on this model, what will be the population of the United States in 2020?
b. Determine when the U.S. population will be twice what it is in 2013.
Solution
a. million b. 94 years from 2013, or in 2107
78. [T] The amount accumulated after 1000 dollars is invested for years at an interest rate of 4% is modeled
by the function .
a. Find the amount accumulated after 5 years and 10 years.
b. Determine how long it takes for the original investment to triple.
79. [T] A bacterial colony grown in a lab is known to double in number in 12 hours. Suppose, initially, there are
1000 bacteria present.
a. Use the exponential function to determine the value , which is the growth rate of the
bacteria. Round to four decimal places.
b. Determine approximately how long it takes for 200,000 bacteria to grow.
Solution
a. b. hours
80. [T] The rabbit population on a game reserve doubles every 6 months. Suppose there were 120 rabbits initially.
a. Use the exponential function to determine the growth rate constant . Round to four decimal
places.
b. Use the function in part a. to determine approximately how long it takes for the rabbit population to reach
3500.
81. [T] The 1906 earthquake in San Francisco had a magnitude of 8.3 on the Richter scale. At the same time, in
Japan, an earthquake with magnitude 4.9 caused only minor damage. Approximately how much more energy was
released by the San Francisco earthquake than by the Japanese earthquake?

Solution
The San Francisco earthquake had or times more energy than the Japan earthquake.
Glossary
base
the number in the exponential function and the logarithmic function
exponent
the value in the expression
hyperbolic functions
the functions denoted , and , which involve certain combinations
of and
inverse hyperbolic functions
the inverses of the hyperbolic functions where and are restricted to the domain ; each of
these functions can be expressed in terms of a composition of the natural logarithm function and an algebraic
function
natural exponential function
the function
natural logarithm
the function
number e
as gets larger, the quantity gets closer to some real number; we define that real number
to be ; the value of is approximately 2.718282

Chapter 1 Review Exercises
True or False ? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
1. A function is always one-to-one.
2. , assuming and are functions.
Solution
False
3. A relation that passes the horizontal and vertical line tests is a one-to-one function.
4. A relation passing the horizontal line test is a function.
Solution
False
For the following problems, state the domain and range of the given functions:
5.
6.
Solution
Domain: , Range: all real numbers
7.
8.
Solution
Domain: or , Range: all real numbers
Find the degree, -intercept, and zeros for the following polynomial functions.
9.
10.
Solution
Degree of 3, -intercept: 0, Zeros: 0,
158 | Chapter 1 Review Exercises

Simplify the following trigonometric expressions.
11.
12.
Solution
or
Solve the following trigonometric equations on the interval exactly.
13.
14.
Solution
Solve the following logarithmic equations.
15.
16.
Solution
4
Are the following functions one-to-one over their domain of existence? Does the function have an inverse? If so, find
the inverse of the function. Justify your answer.
17.
18.
Solution
One-to-one; yes, the function has an inverse; inverse:
For the following problems, determine the largest domain on which the function is one-to-one and find the inverse on
that domain.
19.
20.
Chapter 1 Review Exercises | 159

Solution
21. A car is racing along a circular track with diameter of 1 mi. A trainer standing in the center of the circle marks
his progress every 5 sec. After 5 sec, the trainer has to turn to keep up with the car. How fast is the car
traveling?
For the following problems, consider a restaurant owner who wants to sell T-shirts advertising his brand. He recalls that
there is a fixed cost and variable cost, although he does not remember the values. He does know that the T-shirt printing
company charges $440 for 20 shirts and $1000 for 100 shirts.
22. a. Find the equation that describes the total cost as a function of number of shirts and b.
determine how many shirts he must sell to break even if he sells the shirts for $10 each.
Solution
a. b. 100 shirts
23. a. Find the inverse function and describe the meaning of this function. b. Determine how
many shirts the owner can buy if he has $8000 to spend.
For the following problems, consider the population of Ocean City, New Jersey, which is cyclical by season.
24. The population can be modeled by , where is time in months (

represents January 1) and is population (in thousands). During a year, in what intervals is the population
less than 20,000? During what intervals is the population more than 140,000?
Solution
The population is less than 20,000 from December 8 through January 23 and more than 140,000 from May 29
through August 2
25. In reality, the overall population is most likely increasing or decreasing throughout each year. Let’s
reformulate the model as , where is time in months (
represents January 1) and is population (in thousands). When is the first time the population reaches 200,000?
For the following problems, consider radioactive dating. A human skeleton is found in an archeological dig. Carbon
dating is implemented to determine how old the skeleton is by using the equation , where is the percentage
of radiocarbon still present in the material, is the number of years passed, and is the decay rate
of radiocarbon.
26. If the skeleton is expected to be 2000 years old, what percentage of radiocarbon should be present?
Solution
78.51%
27. Find the inverse of the carbon-dating equation. What does it mean? If there is 25% radiocarbon, how old is the
skeleton?

2. LIMITS
2. Limits | 161
2 Introduction
Figure 1. The vision of human exploration by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) to distant parts of the universe
illustrates the idea of space travel at high speeds. But, is there a limit to how fast a spacecraft can go? (credit: NASA)
Science fiction writers often imagine spaceships that can travel to far-off planets in distant galaxies. However, back in
1905, Albert Einstein showed that a limit exists to how fast any object can travel. The problem is that the faster an object
moves, the more mass it attains (in the form of energy), according to the equation
,
where is the object’s mass at rest, is its speed, and is the speed of light. What is this speed limit? (We explore
this problem further in (Figure) .)
The idea of a limit is central to all of calculus. We begin this chapter by examining why limits are so important. Then, we
go on to describe how to find the limit of a function at a given point. Not all functions have limits at all points, and we
discuss what this means and how we can tell if a function does or does not have a limit at a particular value. This chapter
has been created in an informal, intuitive fashion, but this is not always enough if we need to prove a mathematical
162 | 2 Introduction
statement involving limits. The last section of this chapter presents the more precise definition of a limit and shows how
to prove whether a function has a limit.
2 Introduction | 163
2.1 A Preview of Calculus
Learning Objectives
• Describe the tangent problem and how it led to the idea of a derivative.
• Explain how the idea of a limit is involved in solving the tangent problem.
• Recognize a tangent to a curve at a point as the limit of secant lines.
• Identify instantaneous velocity as the limit of average velocity over a small time interval.
• Describe the area problem and how it was solved by the integral.
• Explain how the idea of a limit is involved in solving the area problem.
• Recognize how the ideas of limit, derivative, and integral led to the studies of infinite series and multivariable
calculus.
As we embark on our study of calculus, we shall see how its development arose from common solutions to practical
problems in areas such as engineering physics—like the space travel problem posed in the chapter opener. Two key
problems led to the initial formulation of calculus: (1) the tangent problem, or how to determine the slope of a line
tangent to a curve at a point; and (2) the area problem, or how to determine the area under a curve.
The Tangent Problem and Differential Calculus

Rate of change is one of the most critical concepts in calculus. We begin our investigation of rates of change by looking
at the graphs of the three lines , and , shown in (Figure).
Figure 1. The rate of change of a linear function is constant in each of these three graphs, with the constant determined by the slope.
As we move from left to right along the graph of , we see that the graph decreases at a constant
rate. For every 1 unit we move to the right along the -axis, the -coordinate decreases by 2 units. This rate of change is
determined by the slope (−2) of the line. Similarly, the slope of 1/2 in the function tells us that for every change in
of 1 unit there is a corresponding change in of 1/2 unit. The function has a slope of zero, indicating that
the values of the function remain constant. We see that the slope of each linear function indicates the rate of change of
the function.
164 | 2.1 A Preview of Calculus

Compare the graphs of these three functions with the graph of ((Figure)). The graph of
starts from the left by decreasing rapidly, then begins to decrease more slowly and level off, and then finally begins to
increase—slowly at first, followed by an increasing rate of increase as it moves toward the right. Unlike a linear function,
no single number represents the rate of change for this function. We quite naturally ask: How do we measure the rate of
change of a nonlinear function?
Figure 2. The function does not have a constant rate of change.
We can approximate the rate of change of a function at a point on its graph by taking another point
on the graph of , drawing a line through the two points, and calculating the slope of the resulting line.
Such a line is called a secant line. (Figure) shows a secant line to a function at a point .
2.1 A Preview of Calculus | 165

Figure 3. The slope of a secant line through a point estimates the rate of change of the
function at the point .
We formally define a secant line as follows:

Definition
The secant to the function through the points and is the line passing through these
points. Its slope is given by
The accuracy of approximating the rate of change of the function with a secant line depends on how close is to . As
we see in (Figure), if is closer to , the slope of the secant line is a better measure of the rate of change of at .

Figure 4. As x gets closer to a, the slope of the secant line becomes a better approximation to the rate
of change of the function at a.
The secant lines themselves approach a line that is called the tangent to the function at ((Figure)). The slope
of the tangent line to the graph at measures the rate of change of the function at . This value also represents the
derivative of the function at , or the rate of change of the function at . This derivative is denoted by .
Differential calculus is the field of calculus concerned with the study of derivatives and their applications.
For an interactive demonstration of the slope of a secant line that you can manipulate yourself, visit this applet
(Note: this site requires a Java browser plugin): Math Insight.

Figure 5. Solving the Tangent Problem: As x approaches a, the secant lines approach the tangent line.
(Figure) illustrates how to find slopes of secant lines. These slopes estimate the slope of the tangent line or, equivalently,
the rate of change of the function at the point at which the slopes are calculated.
Finding Slopes of Secant Lines
Estimate the slope of the tangent line (rate of change) to at by finding slopes of secant lines
through and each of the following points on the graph of .
a.
b.
Solution
Use the formula for the slope of a secant line from the definition.
a.
b.
The point in part b. is closer to the point , so the slope of 2.5 is closer to the slope of the tangent line. A
good estimate for the slope of the tangent would be in the range of 2 to 2.5 ((Figure)).

The secant lines to at through (a) and (b) provide successively closer approximations to
the tangent line to at .
Estimate the slope of the tangent line (rate of change) to at by finding slopes of secant lines
through and the point on the graph of .
Solution
2.25
Hint
Use (Figure) and (Figure) as a solving guide.
We continue our investigation by exploring a related question. Keeping in mind that velocity may be thought of as the
rate of change of position, suppose that we have a function, , that gives the position of an object along a coordinate
axis at any given time . Can we use these same ideas to create a reasonable definition of the instantaneous velocity at a
given time ? We start by approximating the instantaneous velocity with an average velocity. First, recall that the
speed of an object traveling at a constant rate is the ratio of the distance traveled to the length of time it has traveled.
We define the average velocity of an object over a time period to be the change in its position divided by the length of
the time period.
Definition
Let be the position of an object moving along a coordinate axis at time . The average velocity of the object
over a time interval where (or if ) is
As is chosen closer to , the average velocity becomes closer to the instantaneous velocity. Note that finding the
average velocity of a position function over a time interval is essentially the same as finding the slope of a secant line

to a function. Furthermore, to find the slope of a tangent line at a point , we let the -values approach in the slope
of the secant line. Similarly, to find the instantaneous velocity at time , we let the -values approach in the average
velocity. This process of letting or approach in an expression is called taking a limit. Thus, we may define the
instantaneous velocity as follows.
Definition
For a position function , the instantaneous velocity at a time is the value that the average velocities
approach on intervals of the form and as the values of become closer to , provided such a value
exists.
(Figure) illustrates this concept of limits and average velocity.

Finding Average Velocity
A rock is dropped from a height of 64 ft. It is determined that its height (in feet) above ground seconds later (for
) is given by . Find the average velocity of the rock over each of the given
time intervals. Use this information to guess the instantaneous velocity of the rock at time .
a.
b.
Solution
Substitute the data into the formula for the definition of average velocity.
a.
b.
The instantaneous velocity is somewhere between −15.84 and −16.16 ft/sec. A good guess might be −16 ft/sec.
An object moves along a coordinate axis so that its position at time is given by . Estimate its
instantaneous velocity at time by computing its average velocity over the time interval .
Solution
12.006001
Hint
Use .
The Area Problem and Integral Calculus

We now turn our attention to a classic question from calculus. Many quantities in physics—for example, quantities of
work—may be interpreted as the area under a curve. This leads us to ask the question: How can we find the area between
the graph of a function and the -axis over an interval ((Figure))?

Figure 6. The Area Problem: How do we find the area of the shaded
region?
As in the answer to our previous questions on velocity, we first try to approximate the solution. We approximate the
area by dividing up the interval into smaller intervals in the shape of rectangles. The approximation of the area
comes from adding up the areas of these rectangles ((Figure)).
Figure 7. The area of the region under the curve is approximated by

summing the areas of thin rectangles.
As the widths of the rectangles become smaller (approach zero), the sums of the areas of the rectangles approach the
area between the graph of and the -axis over the interval . Once again, we find ourselves taking a limit.
Limits of this type serve as a basis for the definition of the definite integral. Integral calculus is the study of integrals
and their applications.
Estimation Using Rectangles
Estimate the area between the -axis and the graph of over the interval by using the
three rectangles shown in (Figure).

Figure 8. The area of the region under the curve of
can be estimated using rectangles.
Solution
The areas of the three rectangles are 1 unit2, 2 unit2, and 5 unit2. Using these rectangles, our area estimate is 8
unit2.
Estimate the area between the -axis and the graph of over the interval by using the
three rectangles shown here:

Solution
16 unit2
Hint
Use (Figure) as a guide.
Other Aspects of Calculus

So far, we have studied functions of one variable only. Such functions can be represented visually using graphs in two
dimensions; however, there is no good reason to restrict our investigation to two dimensions. Suppose, for example,
that instead of determining the velocity of an object moving along a coordinate axis, we want to determine the velocity
of a rock fired from a catapult at a given time, or of an airplane moving in three dimensions. We might want to graph
real-value functions of two variables or determine volumes of solids of the type shown in (Figure). These are only a few
of the types of questions that can be asked and answered using multivariable calculus. Informally, multivariable calculus
can be characterized as the study of the calculus of functions of two or more variables. However, before exploring these
and other ideas, we must first lay a foundation for the study of calculus in one variable by exploring the concept of a
limit.

Figure 9. We can use multivariable calculus to find the volume
between a surface defined by a function of two variables and a
plane.
Key Concepts
• Differential calculus arose from trying to solve the problem of determining the slope of a line tangent to a
curve at a point. The slope of the tangent line indicates the rate of change of the function, also called the
derivative. Calculating a derivative requires finding a limit.
• Integral calculus arose from trying to solve the problem of finding the area of a region between the graph of
a function and the -axis. We can approximate the area by dividing it into thin rectangles and summing the
areas of these rectangles. This summation leads to the value of a function called the integral. The integral is
also calculated by finding a limit and, in fact, is related to the derivative of a function.
• Multivariable calculus enables us to solve problems in three-dimensional space, including determining
motion in space and finding volumes of solids.
Key Equations
• Slope of a Secant Line
• Average Velocity over Interval
For the following exercises, points and are on the graph of the function .
1. [T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: -coordinate of Q, the point and the
slope of the secant line passing through points P and Q. Round your answer to eight significant digits.

1.1 a. e. i.
1.01 b. f. j.
1.001 c. g. k.
1.0001 d. h. l.
Solution
a. 2.2100000; b. 2.0201000; c. 2.0020010; d. 2.0002000; e. (1.1000000, 2.2100000); f. (1.0100000, 2.0201000); g.
(1.0010000, 2.0020010); h. (1.0001000, 2.0002000); i. 2.1000000; j. 2.0100000; k. 2.0010000; l. 2.0001000
2. Use the values in the right column of the table in the preceding exercise to guess the value of the slope of the
line tangent to at .
3. Use the value in the preceding exercise to find the equation of the tangent line at point . Graph and
the tangent line.
Solution
4. [T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: -coordinate of , the point , and the
slope of the secant line passing through points and . Round your answer to eight significant digits.
1.1 a. e. i.
1.01 b. f. j.
1.001 c. g. k.
1.0001 d. h. l.
tangent line to at .
Solution
3
6. Use the value in the preceding exercise to find the equation of the tangent line at point . Graph and
the tangent line.

4.1 a. e. i.
4.01 b. f. j.
4.001 c. g. k.
4.0001 d. h. l.
Solution
a. 2.0248457; b. 2.0024984; c. 2.0002500; d. 2.0000250; e. (4.1000000,2.0248457); f. (4.0100000,2.0024984); g.
(4.0010000,2.0002500); h. (4.00010000,2.0000250); i. 0.24845673; j. 0.24984395; k. 0.24998438; l. 0.24999844
9. Use the value in the preceding exercise to find the equation of the tangent line at point .
Solution
[T] Complete the following table with the appropriate values: -coordinate of , the point , and the
1.4 a. e. i.
1.49 b. f. j.
1.499 c. g. k.
1.4999 d. h. l.
Solution

−1.05 a. e. i.
−1.01 b. f. j.
−1.005 c. g. k.
−1.001 d. h. l.
Solution
a. −0.95238095; b. −0.99009901; c. −0.99502488; d. −0.99900100; e. (−1;.0500000,−0;.95238095); f.
(−1;.0100000,−0;.9909901); g. (−1;.0050000,−0;.99502488); h. (1.0010000,−0;.99900100); i. −0.95238095; j.
−0.99009901; k. −0.99502488; l. −0.99900100
line tangent to at .
Solution
For the following exercises, the position function of a ball dropped from the top of a 200-meter tall building is given
by , where position is measured in meters and time is measured in seconds. Round your
answer to eight significant digits.
16. [T] Compute the average velocity of the ball over the given time intervals.
a.
b.
c.
d.
17. Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the ball at sec.
Solution
−49 m/sec (velocity of the ball is 49 m/sec downward)
For the following exercises, consider a stone tossed into the air from ground level with an initial velocity of 15 m/sec.
Its height in meters at time seconds is .
18. [T] Compute the average velocity of the stone over the given time intervals.
a.
b.
c.
d.
19. Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the stone at sec.

Solution
5.2 m/sec
For the following exercises, consider a rocket shot into the air that then returns to Earth. The height of the rocket in
meters is given by , where is measured in seconds.
20. [T] Compute the average velocity of the rocket over the given time intervals.
a.
b.
c.
d.
21. Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the rocket at sec.
Solution
−9.8 m/sec
For the following exercises, consider an athlete running a 40-m dash. The position of the athlete is given by
, where is the position in meters and is the time elapsed, measured in seconds.
22. [T] Compute the average velocity of the runner over the given time intervals.
a.
b.
c.
d.
23. Use the preceding exercise to guess the instantaneous velocity of the runner at sec.
Solution
6 m/sec
For the following exercises, consider the function .
24. Sketch the graph of over the interval and shade the region above the -axis.
25. Use the preceding exercise to find the exact value of the area between the -axis and the graph of over the
interval using rectangles. For the rectangles, use the square units, and approximate both above and
below the lines. Use geometry to find the exact answer.
Solution
Under, 1 unit2; over: 4 unit2. The exact area of the two triangles is .
For the following exercises, consider the function . (Hint: This is the upper half of a circle of
radius 1 positioned at .)
26. Sketch the graph of over the interval .

27. Use the preceding exercise to find the exact area between the -axis and the graph of over the interval
using rectangles. For the rectangles, use squares 0.4 by 0.4 units, and approximate both above and below
the lines. Use geometry to find the exact answer.
Solution
Under, 0.96 unit2; over, 1.92 unit2. The exact area of the semicircle with radius 1 is unit2.
28. Sketch the graph of over the interval .
29. Approximate the area of the region between the -axis and the graph of over the interval .
Solution
Approximately 1.3333333 unit2
Glossary
average velocity
the change in an object’s position divided by the length of a time period; the average velocity of an object over
a time interval (if or if ), with a position given by , that is

differential calculus
the field of calculus concerned with the study of derivatives and their applications
instantaneous velocity
The instantaneous velocity of an object with a position function that is given by is the value that the
average velocities on intervals of the form and approach as the values of move closer to ,
provided such a value exists
integral calculus
the study of integrals and their applications
limit
the process of letting or approach in an expression; the limit of a function as approaches is
the value that approaches as approaches
multivariable calculus
the study of the calculus of functions of two or more variables
secant
A secant line to a function at is a line through the point and another point on the
function; the slope of the secant line is given by

tangent
A tangent line to the graph of a function at a point is the line that secant lines through
approach as they are taken through points on the function with -values that approach ; the slope of the
tangent line to a graph at measures the rate of change of the function at

2.2 The Limit of a Function
Learning Objectives
• Using correct notation, describe the limit of a function.
• Use a table of values to estimate the limit of a function or to identify when the limit does not exist.
• Use a graph to estimate the limit of a function or to identify when the limit does not exist.
• Define one-sided limits and provide examples.
• Explain the relationship between one-sided and two-sided limits.
• Using correct notation, describe an infinite limit.
• Define a vertical asymptote.
The concept of a limit or limiting process, essential to the understanding of calculus, has been around for thousands
of years. In fact, early mathematicians used a limiting process to obtain better and better approximations of areas of
circles. Yet, the formal definition of a limit—as we know and understand it today—did not appear until the late 19th
century. We therefore begin our quest to understand limits, as our mathematical ancestors did, by using an intuitive
approach. At the end of this chapter, armed with a conceptual understanding of limits, we examine the formal definition
of a limit.
We begin our exploration of limits by taking a look at the graphs of the functions
, and ,
which are shown in (Figure). In particular, let’s focus our attention on the behavior of each graph at and around .
Each of the three functions is undefined at , but if we make this statement and no other, we give a very
incomplete picture of how each function behaves in the vicinity of . To express the behavior of each graph in the
vicinity of 2 more completely, we need to introduce the concept of a limit.
180 | 2.2 The Limit of a Function

Intuitive Definition of a Limit
Let’s first take a closer look at how the function behaves around in (Figure). As
the values of approach 2 from either side of 2, the values of approach 4. Mathematically, we say that the
limit of as approaches 2 is 4. Symbolically, we express this limit as
.
From this very brief informal look at one limit, let’s start to develop an intuitive definition of the limit. We can think
of the limit of a function at a number as being the one real number that the functional values approach as the
-values approach , provided such a real number exists. Stated more carefully, we have the following definition:
Definition
Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing , with the possible exception of
itself, and let be a real number. If all values of the function approach the real number as the values of
approach the number , then we say that the limit of as approaches is . (More succinct, as
gets closer to , gets closer and stays close to .) Symbolically, we express this idea as
.
We can estimate limits by constructing tables of functional values and by looking at their graphs. This process is
described in the following Problem-Solving Strategy.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values
1. To evaluate , we begin by completing a table of functional values. We should choose two sets of
-values—one set of values approaching and less than , and another set of values approaching and
greater than . (Figure) demonstrates what your tables might look like.
Table of Functional Values for
Use additional values as necessary. Use additional values as necessary.
2. Next, let’s look at the values in each of the columns and determine whether the values seem to be
approaching a single value as we move down each column. In our columns, we look at the sequence
and so on, and
and so on. (Note: Although we have
chosen the -values , and so forth, and these values
will probably work nearly every time, on very rare occasions we may need to modify our choices.)
3. If both columns approach a common -value , we state . We can use the following
strategy to confirm the result obtained from the table or as an alternative method for estimating a limit.
4. Using a graphing calculator or computer software that allows us graph functions, we can plot the function
, making sure the functional values of for -values near are in our window. We can use the
2.2 The Limit of a Function | 181

trace feature to move along the graph of the function and watch the -value readout as the -values
approach . If the -values approach as our -values approach from both directions, then
. We may need to zoom in on our graph and repeat this process several times.
We apply this Problem-Solving Strategy to compute a limit in (Figure).

Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values 1
Evaluate using a table of functional values.
Solution
We have calculated the values of for the values of listed in (Figure).
-0.1 0.998334166468 0.1 0.998334166468

-0.01 0.999983333417 0.01 0.999983333417
-0.001 0.999999833333 0.001 0.999999833333

-0.0001 0.999999998333 0.0001 0.999999998333
Note: The values in this table were obtained using a calculator and using all the places given in the calculator
output.
As we read down each column, we see that the values in each column appear to be approaching one. Thus,
it is fairly reasonable to conclude that . A calculator-or computer-generated graph of
would be similar to that shown in (Figure), and it confirms our estimate.

Figure 2. The graph of confirms the estimate from the table.
Evaluating a Limit Using a Table of Functional Values 2
Evaluate using a table of functional values.
Solution
As before, we use a table—in this case, (Figure)—to list the values of the function for the given values of .
3.9 0.251582341869 4.1 0.248456731317
3.99 0.25015644562 4.01 0.24984394501

3.999 0.250015627 4.001 0.249984377
3.9999 0.250001563 4.0001 0.249998438

3.99999 0.25000016 4.00001 0.24999984
After inspecting this table, we see that the functional values less than 4 appear to be decreasing toward 0.25
whereas the functional values greater than 4 appear to be increasing toward 0.25. We conclude that
. We confirm this estimate using the graph of shown in (Figure).

Figure 3. The graph of confirms the estimate from the table.
Estimate using a table of functional values. Use a graph to confirm your estimate.
Solution
Hint
Use 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.99999 and 1.1, 1.01, 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001 as your table values.
At this point, we see from (Figure) and (Figure) that it may be just as easy, if not easier, to estimate a limit of a function
by inspecting its graph as it is to estimate the limit by using a table of functional values. In (Figure), we evaluate a limit
exclusively by looking at a graph rather than by using a table of functional values.
Evaluating a Limit Using a Graph
For shown in (Figure), evaluate .

Figure 4. The graph of includes one value not on a smooth curve.
Solution
Despite the fact that , as the -values approach -1 from either side, the values approach 3.
Therefore, . Note that we can determine this limit without even knowing the algebraic
expression of the function.
Based on (Figure), we make the following observation: It is possible for the limit of a function to exist at a point, and for
the function to be defined at this point, but the limit of the function and the value of the function at the point may be
different.
Use the graph of in (Figure) to evaluate , if possible.

Figure 5. The graph of consists of a smooth graph with a single removed point at .
Solution
.
Hint
What -value does the function approach as the -values approach 2?
Looking at a table of functional values or looking at the graph of a function provides us with useful insight into the value
of the limit of a function at a given point. However, these techniques rely too much on guesswork. We eventually need
to develop alternative methods of evaluating limits. These new methods are more algebraic in nature and we explore
them in the next section; however, at this point we introduce two special limits that are foundational to the techniques
to come.
Two Important Limits
Let be a real number and be a constant.
1.
2.
We can make the following observations about these two limits.

1. For the first limit, observe that as approaches , so does , because . Consequently,
.
2. For the second limit, consider (Figure).
Observe that for all values of (regardless of whether they are approaching ), the values remain constant at .
We have no choice but to conclude .
The Existence of a Limit

As we consider the limit in the next example, keep in mind that for the limit of a function to exist at a point, the
functional values must approach a single real-number value at that point. If the functional values do not approach a
single value, then the limit does not exist.
Evaluating a Limit That Fails to Exist
Evaluate using a table of values.
Solution
(Figure) lists values for the function for the given values of .
-0.1 0.544021110889 0.1 -0.544021110889

-0.01 0.50636564111 0.01 -0.50636564111
-0.001 -0.8268795405312 0.001 0.826879540532

-0.0001 0.305614388888 0.0001 -0.305614388888
-0.00001 -0.035748797987 0.00001 0.035748797987
-0.000001 0.349993504187 0.000001 -0.349993504187
After examining the table of functional values, we can see that the -values do not seem to approach any one
single value. It appears the limit does not exist. Before drawing this conclusion, let’s take a more systematic
approach. Take the following sequence of -values approaching 0:
The corresponding -values are

At this point we can indeed conclude that does not exist. (Mathematicians frequently abbreviate
“does not exist” as DNE. Thus, we would write DNE.) The graph of is
shown in (Figure) and it gives a clearer picture of the behavior of as approaches 0. You can see that
oscillates ever more wildly between -1 and 1 as approaches 0.
Figure 6. The graph of oscillates rapidly between -1 and 1 as x approaches 0.
Use a table of functional values to evaluate , if possible.
Solution
does not exist.
Hint
Use -values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.9999 and 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001 in your table.
One-Sided Limits
Sometimes indicating that the limit of a function fails to exist at a point does not provide us with enough information
about the behavior of the function at that particular point. To see this, we now revisit the function
introduced at the beginning of the section (see (Figure)(b)). As we pick values of close
to 2, does not approach a single value, so the limit as approaches 2 does not exist—that is, DNE.
However, this statement alone does not give us a complete picture of the behavior of the function around the -value 2.

To provide a more accurate description, we introduce the idea of a one-sided limit. For all values to the left of 2 (or the
negative side of 2), . Thus, as approaches 2 from the left, approaches -1. Mathematically, we say
that the limit as approaches 2 from the left is -1. Symbolically, we express this idea as
.
Similarly, as approaches 2 from the right (or from the positive side), approaches 1. Symbolically, we express this
idea as
.
We can now present an informal definition of one-sided limits.

Definition
We define two types of one-sided limits.
Limit from the left: Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form z, and let be a
real number. If the values of the function approach the real number as the values of (where )
approach the number , then we say that is the limit of as approaches a from the left. Symbolically, we
express this idea as
.
Limit from the right: Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form , and let
be a real number. If the values of the function approach the real number as the values of (where
) approach the number , then we say that is the limit of as approaches from the right.
Symbolically, we express this idea as
.
Evaluating One-Sided Limits
For the function , evaluate each of the following limits.
a.
b.
Solution
We can use tables of functional values again (Figure). Observe that for values of less than 2, we use
and for values of greater than 2, we use .

1.9 2.9 2.1 0.41
1.99 2.99 2.01 0.0401
1.999 2.999 2.001 0.004001

1.9999 2.9999 2.0001 0.00040001
1.99999 2.99999 2.00001 0.0000400001
Based on this table, we can conclude that a. and b. . Therefore, the (two-
sided) limit of does not exist at . (Figure) shows a graph of and reinforces our conclusion
about these limits.
Figure 7. The graph of has a break at .

Use a table of functional values to estimate the following limits, if possible.
a.
b.
Solution
a. ; b.
Hint
a. Use -values 1.9, 1.99, 1.999, 1.9999, 1.9999 to estimate .
b. Use -values 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, 2.00001 to estimate .
(These tables are available from a previous Checkpoint problem.)
Let us now consider the relationship between the limit of a function at a point and the limits from the right and left
at that point. It seems clear that if the limit from the right and the limit from the left have a common value, then that
common value is the limit of the function at that point. Similarly, if the limit from the left and the limit from the right
take on different values, the limit of the function does not exist. These conclusions are summarized in (Figure).
Relating One-Sided and Two-Sided Limits
Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval containing , with the possible exception of
itself, and let be a real number. Then,
if and only if and .
Infinite Limits
Evaluating the limit of a function at a point or evaluating the limit of a function from the right and left at a point helps
us to characterize the behavior of a function around a given value. As we shall see, we can also describe the behavior of
functions that do not have finite limits.
We now turn our attention to , the third and final function introduced at the beginning of this
section (see (Figure)(c)). From its graph we see that as the values of approach 2, the values of
become larger and larger and, in fact, become infinite. Mathematically, we say that the limit of as approaches 2
is positive infinity. Symbolically, we express this idea as
.
More generally, we define infinite limits as follows:

Definition
We define three types of infinite limits.
Infinite limits from the left: Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form .
1. If the values of increase without bound as the values of (where ) approach the number ,
then we say that the limit as approaches from the left is positive infinity and we write
.

2. If the values of decrease without bound as the values of (where ) approach the number ,
then we say that the limit as approaches from the left is negative infinity and we write
.
Infinite limits from the right: Let be a function defined at all values in an open interval of the form .
then we say that the limit as approaches from the right is positive infinity and we write
.
then we say that the limit as approaches from the right is negative infinity and we write
.
Two-sided infinite limit: Let be defined for all in an open interval containing .
then we say that the limit as approaches is positive infinity and we write
.
then we say that the limit as approaches is negative infinity and we write
.
It is important to understand that when we write statements such as or we
are describing the behavior of the function, as we have just defined it. We are not asserting that a limit exists. For the
limit of a function to exist at , it must approach a real number as approaches . That said, if, for example,
, we always write rather than DNE.
Recognizing an Infinite Limit
Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values and graph to
confirm your conclusion.
a.
b.
c.
Solution
Begin by constructing a table of functional values.

-0.1 -10 0.1 10

-0.01 -100 0.01 100
-0.001 -1000 0.001 1000
-0.0001 -10,000 0.0001 10,000

-0.00001 -100,000 0.00001 100,000
-0.000001 -1,000,000 0.000001 1,000,000
a. The values of decrease without bound as approaches 0 from the left. We conclude that
.
b. The values of increase without bound as approaches 0 from the right. We conclude that
.
c. Since and have different values, we conclude that
DNE.
The graph of in (Figure) confirms these conclusions.

Figure 8. The graph of confirms that the limit as
approaches 0 does not exist.
Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible. Use a table of functional values and graph to
confirm your conclusion.
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. ;
b. ;
c.
Hint
Follow the procedures from (Figure).

It is useful to point out that functions of the form , where is a positive integer, have infinite
limits as approaches from either the left or right ((Figure)). These limits are summarized in (Figure).
Figure 9. The function has infinite limits at .
Infinite Limits from Positive Integers

If is a positive even integer, then
.
If is a positive odd integer, then
and
.
We should also point out that in the graphs of , points on the graph having -coordinates very
near to are very close to the vertical line . That is, as approaches , the points on the graph of are
closer to the line . The line is called a vertical asymptote of the graph. We formally define a vertical
asymptote as follows:
Definition
Let be a function. If any of the following conditions hold, then the line is a vertical asymptote of
:

Finding a Vertical Asymptote
Evaluate each of the following limits using (Figure). Identify any vertical asymptotes of the function
.
a.
b.
c.
Solution
We can use (Figure) directly.
a.
b.
c.
The function has a vertical asymptote of .
Evaluate each of the following limits. Identify any vertical asymptotes of the function .
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. ;
b. ;
c. DNE. The line is the vertical asymptote of .
Hint
Use (Figure).
In the next example we put our knowledge of various types of limits to use to analyze the behavior of a function at
several different points.
Behavior of a Function at Different Points
Use the graph of in (Figure) to determine each of the following values:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Figure 10. The graph shows .
Solution
Using (Figure) and the graph for reference, we arrive at the following values:
a.
b. is undefined
c. DNE;
d. is undefined
Evaluate for shown here:

Solution
Does not exist.
Hint
Compare the limit from the right with the limit from the left.
Chapter Opener: Einstein’s Equation
Figure 11. (credit: NASA)
In the chapter opener we mentioned briefly how Albert Einstein showed that a limit exists to how fast any object
can travel. Given Einstein’s equation for the mass of a moving object, what is the value of this bound?
Solution
Our starting point is Einstein’s equation for the mass of a moving object,
,
where is the object’s mass at rest, is its speed, and is the speed of light. To see how the mass changes at
high speeds, we can graph the ratio of masses as a function of the ratio of speeds, ((Figure)).

Figure 12. This graph shows the ratio of masses as a function of the
ratio of speeds in Einstein’s equation for the mass of a moving
object.
We can see that as the ratio of speeds approaches 1—that is, as the speed of the object approaches the speed of
light—the ratio of masses increases without bound. In other words, the function has a vertical asymptote at
. We can try a few values of this ratio to test this idea.
Ratio of Masses and Speeds

for a Moving Object
0.99 0.1411 7.089

0.999 0.0447 22.37
0.9999 0.0141 70.71
Thus, according to (Figure), if an object with mass 100 kg is traveling at 0.9999 , its mass becomes 7071 kg. Since
no object can have an infinite mass, we conclude that no object can travel at or more than the speed of light.
Key Concepts
• A table of values or graph may be used to estimate a limit.
• If the limit of a function at a point does not exist, it is still possible that the limits from the left and right at
that point may exist.
• If the limits of a function from the left and right exist and are equal, then the limit of the function is that
common value.
• We may use limits to describe infinite behavior of a function at a point.
Key Equations
• Intuitive Definition of the Limit

• Two Important Limits
• One-Sided Limits
• Infinite Limits from the Left
• Infinite Limits from the Right
• Two-Sided Infinite Limits

and
and
1. [T] Complete the following table for the function. Round your solutions to four decimal places.
0.9 a. 1.1 e.
0.99 b. 1.01 f.
0.999 c. 1.001 g.
0.9999 d. 1.0001 h.
2. What do your results in the preceding exercise indicate about the two-sided limit ? Explain your
response.
Solution
does not exist because .
3. [T] Make a table showing the values of for and for

. Round your solutions to five decimal places.

-0.01 a. 0.01 e.
-0.001 b. 0.001 f.
-0.0001 c. 0.0001 g.
-0.00001 d. 0.00001 h.
4. What does the table of values in the preceding exercise indicate about the function ?
Solution
5. To which mathematical constant does the limit in the preceding exercise appear to be getting closer?
In the following exercises, use the given values of to set up a table to evaluate the limits. Round your solutions to
eight decimal places.
6. [T]
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
Solution
a. 1.98669331; b. 1.99986667; c. 1.99999867; d. 1.99999999; e. 1.98669331; f. 1.99986667; g. 1.99999867; h.
1.99999999;
7. [T]
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
8. Use the preceding two exercises to conjecture (guess) the value of the following limit: for ,a
positive real value.

Solution
In the following exercises, set up a table of values to find the indicated limit. Round to eight digits.
9. [T]
1.9 a. 2.1 e.
1.99 b. 2.01 f.
1.999 c. 2.001 g.
1.9999 d. 2.0001 h.
10. [T]
0.9 a. 1.1 e.
0.99 b. 1.01 f.
0.999 c. 1.001 g.
0.9999 d. 1.0001 h.
Solution
a. -0.80000000; b. -0.98000000; c. -0.99800000; d. -0.99980000; e. -1.2000000; f. -1.0200000; g. -1.0020000; h.
-1.0002000;
11. [T]
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
12. [T]

-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
Solution
a. -37.931934; b. -3377.9264; c. -333,777.93; d. -33,337,778; e. -29.032258; f. -3289.0365; g. -332,889.04; h.
-33,328,889
13. [T]
0.1 a.
0.01 b.
0.001 c.
0.0001 d.
14. [T]
1.9 a. 2.1 e.
1.99 b. 2.01 f.
1.999 c. 2.001 g.
1.9999 d. 2.0001 h.
Solution
a. 0.13495277; b. 0.12594300; c. 0.12509381; d. 0.12500938; e. 0.11614402; f. 0.12406794; g. 0.12490631; h. 0.12499063;
In the following exercises, set up a table of values and round to eight significant digits. Based on the table of values,
make a guess about what the limit is. Then, use a calculator to graph the function and determine the limit. Was the
conjecture correct? If not, why does the method of tables fail?
15. [T]

θ θ
-0.1 a. 0.1 e.
-0.01 b. 0.01 f.
-0.001 c. 0.001 g.
-0.0001 d. 0.0001 h.
16. [T]
0.1 a.
0.01 b.
0.001 c.
0.0001 d.
Solution
a. -10.00000; b. -100.00000; c. -1000.0000; d. -10,000.000; Guess: , Actual: DNE
In the following exercises, consider the graph of the function shown here. Which of the statements about
are true and which are false? Explain why a statement is false.
17.

18.
Solution
False;
19.
20.
Solution
False; DNE since and .
In the following exercises, use the following graph of the function to find the values, if possible. Estimate
when necessary.
21.
22.
Solution
2
23.
24.
Solution
1
25.
In the following exercises, use the graph of the function shown here to find the values, if possible.
Estimate when necessary.

26.
Solution
1
27.
28.
Solution
DNE
29.
30.
Solution
0
31.

32.
Solution
DNE
33.
34.
Solution
2
35.
36.
Solution
3
37.
38.
Solution
DNE

39.
40.
Solution
0
41.
0, and there is a closed circle at the origin.”
42.
Solution
-2
43.
44.
Solution
DNE

45.
46.
Solution
0
In the following exercises, sketch the graph of a function with the given properties.
47. , the function is not defined at .
48. ,
Solution
Answers may vary.
49. ,
50. ,
Solution
Answers may vary.
51.
52. Shock waves arise in many physical applications, ranging from supernovas to detonation waves. A graph of the

density of a shock wave with respect to distance, , is shown here. We are mainly interested in the location of the
front of the shock, labeled in the diagram.
a. Evaluate .
b. Evaluate .
c. Evaluate . Explain the physical meanings behind your answers.
Solution
a.
b.
c. DNE unless . As you approach from the right, you are in the high-density area of the shock.
When you approach from the left, you have not experienced the “shock” yet and are at a lower density.
53. A track coach uses a camera with a fast shutter to estimate the position of a runner with respect to time. A
table of the values of position of the athlete versus time is given here, where is the position in meters of the
runner and is time in seconds. What is ? What does it mean physically?
(sec) (m)
1.75 4.5
1.95 6.1
1.99 6.42
2.01 6.58
2.05 6.9
2.25 8.5
Glossary
infinite limit
A function has an infinite limit at a point if it either increases or decreases without bound as it approaches
intuitive definition of the limit

If all values of the function approach the real number as the values of approach ,
approaches
one-sided limit
A one-sided limit of a function is a limit taken from either the left or the right

vertical asymptote
A function has a vertical asymptote at if the limit as approaches from the right or left is infinite

2.3 The Limit Laws
Learning Objectives
• Recognize the basic limit laws.
• Use the limit laws to evaluate the limit of a function.
• Evaluate the limit of a function by factoring.
• Use the limit laws to evaluate the limit of a polynomial or rational function.
• Evaluate the limit of a function by factoring or by using conjugates.
• Evaluate the limit of a function by using the squeeze theorem.
In the previous section, we evaluated limits by looking at graphs or by constructing a table of values. In this section,
we establish laws for calculating limits and learn how to apply these laws. In the Student Project at the end of this
section, you have the opportunity to apply these limit laws to derive the formula for the area of a circle by adapting
a method devised by the Greek mathematician Archimedes. We begin by restating two useful limit results from the
previous section. These two results, together with the limit laws, serve as a foundation for calculating many limits.
Evaluating Limits with the Limit Laws

The first two limit laws were stated in (Figure) and we repeat them here. These basic results, together with the other
limit laws, allow us to evaluate limits of many algebraic functions.
Basic Limit Results
For any real number and any constant ,
1.
2.
Evaluating a Basic Limit
Evaluate each of the following limits using (Figure) .

a.
b.
Solution
a. The limit of as approaches is : .
b. The limit of a constant is that constant: .
We now take a look at the limit laws, the individual properties of limits. The proofs that these laws hold are omitted here.
Limit Laws
Let and be defined for all over some open interval containing . Assume that and are
real numbers such that and . Let be a constant. Then, each of the following
statements holds:
Sum law for limits :
212 | 2.3 The Limit Laws

Difference law for limits :
Constant multiple law for limits :
Product law for limits :
Quotient law for limits : for
Power law for limits : for every positive integer .
Root law for limits : for all if is odd and for if is even.
We now practice applying these limit laws to evaluate a limit.

Evaluating a Limit Using Limit Laws
Use the limit laws to evaluate .
Solution
Let’s apply the limit laws one step at a time to be sure we understand how they work. We need to keep in mind
the requirement that, at each application of a limit law, the new limits must exist for the limit law to be applied.
Using Limit Laws Repeatedly
Use the limit laws to evaluate .
Solution
To find this limit, we need to apply the limit laws several times. Again, we need to keep in mind that as we rewrite
the limit in terms of other limits, each new limit must exist for the limit law to be applied.
Use the limit laws to evaluate . In each step, indicate the limit law applied.
Solution
2.3 The Limit Laws | 213

Hint
Begin by applying the product law.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions

By now you have probably noticed that, in each of the previous examples, it has been the case that
. This is not always true, but it does hold for all polynomials for any choice of and for all rational functions at all values
of for which the rational function is defined.
Limits of Polynomial and Rational Functions
Let and be polynomial functions. Let be a real number. Then,
To see that this theorem holds, consider the polynomial . By

applying the sum, constant multiple, and power laws, we end up with
It now follows from the quotient law that if and are polynomials for which , then
.
(Figure) applies this result.

Evaluating a Limit of a Rational Function
Evaluate the .
Solution
Since 3 is in the domain of the rational function , we can calculate the limit by substituting
3 for into the function. Thus,
Evaluate .
Solution
-13
Hint
Use (Figure)

Additional Limit Evaluation Techniques
As we have seen, we may evaluate easily the limits of polynomials and limits of some (but not all) rational functions by
direct substitution. However, as we saw in the introductory section on limits, it is certainly possible for to
exist when is undefined. The following observation allows us to evaluate many limits of this type:
If for all over some open interval containing , then .
To understand this idea better, consider the limit .
The function
and the function are identical for all values of The graphs of these two functions are shown
in (Figure) .
Figure 1. The graphs of and are identical for all . Their limits at 1 are equal.
We see that
The limit has the form , where and . (In this case, we say that
has the indeterminate form 0/0.) The following Problem-Solving Strategy provides a general outline for evaluating
limits of this type.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Calculating a Limit When has the Indeterminate Form 0/0
1. First, we need to make sure that our function has the appropriate form and cannot be evaluated immediately
using the limit laws.
2. We then need to find a function that is equal to for all over some interval
containing . To do this, we may need to try one or more of the following steps:
a. If and are polynomials, we should factor each function and cancel out any common
factors.
b. If the numerator or denominator contains a difference involving a square root, we should try
multiplying the numerator and denominator by the conjugate of the expression involving the square
root.
c. If is a complex fraction, we begin by simplifying it.
3. Last, we apply the limit laws.
The next examples demonstrate the use of this Problem-Solving Strategy. (Figure) illustrates the factor-and-cancel
technique; (Figure) shows multiplying by a conjugate. In (Figure) , we look at simplifying a complex fraction.
Evaluating a Limit by Factoring and Canceling
Evaluate .
Solution
Step 1. The function is undefined for . In fact, if we substitute 3 into the function
we get 0/0, which is undefined. Factoring and canceling is a good strategy:
Step 2. For all . Therefore,
Step 3. Evaluate using the limit laws:

.
Evaluate .
Solution
Hint
Follow the steps in the Problem-Solving Strategy and (Figure) .
Evaluating a Limit by Multiplying by a Conjugate
Evaluate .

Solution
Step 1. has the form 0/0 at -1. Let’s begin by multiplying by , the conjugate of
, on the numerator and denominator:
Step 2. We then multiply out the numerator. We don’t multiply out the denominator because we are hoping that
the in the denominator cancels out in the end:
.
Step 3. Then we cancel:

.
Step 4. Last, we apply the limit laws:

.
Evaluate .
Solution
Hint
Evaluating a Limit by Simplifying a Complex Fraction
Evaluate .
Solution
Step 1. has the form 0/0 at 1. We simplify the algebraic fraction by multiplying by
:
Step 2. Next, we multiply through the numerators. Do not multiply the denominators because we want to be able
to cancel the factor :
Step 3. Then, we simplify the numerator:

.
Step 4. Now we factor out -1 from the numerator:
Step 5. Then, we cancel the common factors of :

.

Step 6. Last, we evaluate using the limit laws:
.
Evaluate .
Solution
-1
Hint
(Figure) does not fall neatly into any of the patterns established in the previous examples. However, with a little
creativity, we can still use these same techniques.
Evaluating a Limit When the Limit Laws Do Not Apply
Evaluate .
Solution
Both and fail to have a limit at zero. Since neither of the two functions has a limit at zero, we
cannot apply the sum law for limits; we must use a different strategy. In this case, we find the limit by performing
addition and then applying one of our previous strategies. Observe that
Thus,
Evaluate .
Solution
Hint
Use the same technique as (Figure) . Don’t forget to factor before getting a common denominator.
Let’s now revisit one-sided limits. Simple modifications in the limit laws allow us to apply them to one-sided limits. For
example, to apply the limit laws to a limit of the form , we require the function to be defined over an
open interval of the form ; for a limit of the form , we require the function to be defined over
an open interval of the form . (Figure) illustrates this point.

Evaluating a One-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws
Evaluate each of the following limits, if possible.

a.
b.
Solution
(Figure) illustrates the function and aids in our understanding of these limits.
Figure 2. The graph shows the function .
a. The function is defined over the interval . Since this function is not defined
to the left of 3, we cannot apply the limit laws to compute . In fact, since
is undefined to the left of 3, does not exist.
b. Since is defined to the right of 3, the limit laws do apply to . By
applying these limit laws we obtain .
In (Figure) we look at one-sided limits of a piecewise-defined function and use these limits to draw a conclusion about
a two-sided limit of the same function.
Evaluating a Two-Sided Limit Using the Limit Laws
For evaluate each of the following limits:
a.
b.
c.
Solution
(Figure) illustrates the function and aids in our understanding of these limits.

Figure 3. This graph shows the function .
a. Since for all in , replace in the limit with and apply the
limit laws:
.
b. Since for all in , replace in the limit with and apply the
limit laws:
.
c. Since and , we conclude that does not exist.
Graph and evaluate .

Solution
Hint
Use the method in (Figure) to evaluate the limit.
We now turn our attention to evaluating a limit of the form , where , where and
. That is, has the form at .
Evaluating a Limit of the Form Using the Limit Laws
Evaluate .
Solution
Step 1. After substituting in , we see that this limit has the form . That is, as approaches 2 from
the left, the numerator approaches -1 and the denominator approaches 0. Consequently, the magnitude of
becomes infinite. To get a better idea of what the limit is, we need to factor the denominator:
Step 2. Since is the only part of the denominator that is zero when 2 is substituted, we then separate
from the rest of the function:
.
Step 3. and . Therefore, the product of and
has a limit of :
.
Evaluate .
Solution

Hint
Use the methods from (Figure) .
The Squeeze Theorem

The techniques we have developed thus far work very well for algebraic functions, but we are still unable to evaluate
limits of very basic trigonometric functions. The next theorem, called the squeeze theorem , proves very useful for
establishing basic trigonometric limits. This theorem allows us to calculate limits by “squeezing” a function, with a limit
at a point that is unknown, between two functions having a common known limit at . (Figure) illustrates this idea.
Figure 4. The Squeeze Theorem applies when and

.
The Squeeze Theorem

Let , and be defined for all over an open interval containing . If
for all in an open interval containing and

where is a real number, then .
Applying the Squeeze Theorem
Apply the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate .
Solution
Because for all , we have for and for
(if is negative the direction of the inequalities changes when we multiply). Since
, from the Squeeze Theorem we obtain . The graphs of
, and are shown in (Figure) .
Use the Squeeze Theorem to evaluate .
Solution
0
Hint
Use the fact that to help you find two functions such that is squeezed
between them.
We now use the Squeeze Theorem to tackle several very important limits. Although this discussion is somewhat lengthy,
these limits prove invaluable for the development of the material in both the next section and the next chapter. The
first of these limits is . Consider the unit circle shown in (Figure) . In the figure, we see that is the
-coordinate on the unit circle and it corresponds to the line segment shown in blue. The radian measure of angle θ is
the length of the arc it subtends on the unit circle. Therefore, we see that for .

Because and , by using the Squeeze Theorem we conclude that
To see that as well, observe that for and hence,
. Consequently, It follows that . An application of the

Squeeze Theorem produces the desired limit. Thus, since and ,
Next, using the identity for , we see that

.
We now take a look at a limit that plays an important role in later chapters—namely, . To evaluate this limit, we
use the unit circle in (Figure) . Notice that this figure adds one additional triangle to (Figure) . We see that the length of
the side opposite angle in this new triangle is . Thus, we see that for .

By dividing by in all parts of the inequality, we obtain
.
Equivalently, we have
.
Since , we conclude that . By applying a manipulation similar to that
used in demonstrating that , we can show that . Thus,
In (Figure) we use this limit to establish . This limit also proves useful in later chapters.
Evaluating an Important Trigonometric Limit
Evaluate .
Solution
In the first step, we multiply by the conjugate so that we can use a trigonometric identity to convert the cosine in
the numerator to a sine:
Therefore,

.
Evaluate .
Solution
0
Hint
Multiply numerator and denominator by .
Using a Given Limit to Compute other Limits
Evaluate .
Solution
We already know that Using and and noting that in both cases as ,
then we can conclude that and . Hence we can determine that:
Therefore,
.
Evaluate .
Solution
Deriving the Formula for the Area of a Circle

Some of the geometric formulas we take for granted today were first derived by methods that anticipate some of
the methods of calculus. The Greek mathematician Archimedes (ca. 287-212 BCE) was particularly inventive, using
polygons inscribed within circles to approximate the area of the circle as the number of sides of the polygon
increased. He never came up with the idea of a limit, but we can use this idea to see what his geometric
constructions could have predicted about the limit.
We can estimate the area of a circle by computing the area of an inscribed regular polygon. Think of the regular
polygon as being made up of triangles. By taking the limit as the vertex angle of these triangles goes to zero, you
can obtain the area of the circle. To see this, carry out the following steps:
1. Express the height and the base of the isosceles triangle in (Figure) in terms of and .

Figure 8.
2. Using the expressions that you obtained in step 1, express the area of the isosceles triangle in terms of and
.
(Substitute for in your expression.)
3. If an -sided regular polygon is inscribed in a circle of radius , find a relationship between and . Solve
this for . Keep in mind there are radians in a circle. (Use radians, not degrees.)
4. Find an expression for the area of the -sided polygon in terms of and .
5. To find a formula for the area of the circle, find the limit of the expression in step 4 as goes to zero. ( Hint:
.)
The technique of estimating areas of regions by using polygons is revisited in Introduction to Integration .
Key Concepts
• The limit laws allow us to evaluate limits of functions without having to go through step-by-step processes
each time.
• For polynomials and rational functions, .
• You can evaluate the limit of a function by factoring and canceling, by multiplying by a conjugate, or by
simplifying a complex fraction.
• The Squeeze Theorem allows you to find the limit of a function if the function is always greater than one
function and less than another function with limits that are known.

Key Equations
• Basic Limit Results
• Important Limits
In the following exercises, use the limit laws to evaluate each limit. Justify each step by indicating the appropriate limit
law(s).
1.
Solution
Use constant multiple law and difference law:
2.
3.
Solution
Use root law:
4.
In the following exercises, use direct substitution to evaluate each limit.
5.
Solution
49
6.
7.

Solution
1
8.
9.
Solution
10.
In the following exercises, use direct substitution to show that each limit leads to the indeterminate form 0/0. Then,
evaluate the limit.
11.
Solution
; then,
12.
13.
Solution
; then,
14.
15.
Solution
; then,
16. , where is a real-valued constant
17.

Solution
; then, .
18.
19.
Solution
; then,
20.
In the following exercises, use direct substitution to obtain an undefined expression. Then, use the method of (Figure)
to simplify the function to help determine the limit.
21.
Solution
22.
23.
Solution
24.
In the following exercises, assume that , and . Use these three
facts and the limit laws to evaluate each limit.
25.
Solution
26.

27.
Solution
28.
29.
Solution
30.
31.
Solution
.
32.
In the following exercises, use a calculator to draw the graph of each piecewise-defined function and study the graph
to evaluate the given limits.
33. [T]
a.
b.
Solution
a. 9; b. 7

34. [T]
a.
b.
35. [T]
a.
b.
Solution
a. 1; b. 1
In the following exercises, use the following graphs and the limit laws to evaluate each limit.

36.
37.
Solution
38.
39.
Solution
40.
41.
42.
43.
Solution
For the following problems, evaluate the limit using the Squeeze Theorem. Use a calculator to graph the functions
, and when possible.
44. [T] True or False? If , then .
45. [T]
Solution
for all . Hence for all .

Since by the Squeeze Theorem, the limit is zero.
46. , where
47. Compute
Solution
48. Compute .
49. [T] In physics, the magnitude of an electric field generated by a point charge at a distance in vacuum is
governed by Coulomb’s law: , where represents the magnitude of the electric field, is the
charge of the particle, is the distance between the particle and where the strength of the field is measured, and
is Coulomb’s constant: .
a. Use a graphing calculator to graph given that the charge of the particle is .
b. Evaluate . What is the physical meaning of this quantity? Is it physically relevant? Why are you
evaluating from the right?
Solution
a.

b. . The magnitude of the electric field as you approach the particle becomes infinite. It
does not make physical sense to evaluate negative distance.
50. [T] The density of an object is given by its mass divided by its volume: .
a. Use a calculator to plot the volume as a function of density , assuming you are examining
something of mass 8 kg ( ).
b. Evaluate and explain the physical meaning.
Glossary
constant multiple law for limits

the limit law
difference law for limits

the limit law
limit laws
the individual properties of limits; for each of the individual laws, let and be defined for all
over some open interval containing ; assume that and are real numbers so that
and ; let be a constant
power law for limits

the limit law for every positive integer
product law for limits

the limit law
quotient law for limits
the limit law for
root law for limits

the limit law for all if is odd and for if is even
Squeeze Theorem
states that if for all over an open interval containing and
where is a real number, then
sum law for limits

The limit law

2.4 Continuity
Learning Objectives
• Explain the three conditions for continuity at a point.
• Describe three kinds of discontinuities.
• Define continuity on an interval.
• State the theorem for limits of composite functions.
• Provide an example of the intermediate value theorem.
Many functions have the property that their graphs can be traced with a pencil without lifting the pencil from the page.
Such functions are called continuous . Other functions have points at which a break in the graph occurs, but satisfy
this property over intervals contained in their domains. They are continuous on these intervals and are said to have a
discontinuity at a point where a break occurs.
We begin our investigation of continuity by exploring what it means for a function to have continuity at a point .
Intuitively, a function is continuous at a particular point if there is no break in its graph at that point.
Continuity at a Point
Before we look at a formal definition of what it means for a function to be continuous at a point, let’s consider various
functions that fail to meet our intuitive notion of what it means to be continuous at a point. We then create a list of
conditions that prevent such failures.
Our first function of interest is shown in (Figure) . We see that the graph of has a hole at . In fact, is
undefined. At the very least, for to be continuous at , we need the following conditions:
i. is defined.
Figure 1. The function is not continuous at a because

is undefined.
236 | 2.4 Continuity

However, as we see in (Figure) , this condition alone is insufficient to guarantee continuity at the point . Although
is defined, the function has a gap at . In this example, the gap exists because does not exist. We must add
another condition for continuity at —namely,

ii. exists.

does not exist.
However, as we see in (Figure) , these two conditions by themselves do not guarantee continuity at a point. The function
in this figure satisfies both of our first two conditions, but is still not continuous at . We must add a third condition to
our list:
iii. .

.
2.4 Continuity | 237

Now we put our list of conditions together and form a definition of continuity at a point.
Definition
A function is continuous at a point if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied:
1. is defined
2. exists
3.
A function is discontinuous at a point if it fails to be continuous at .
The following procedure can be used to analyze the continuity of a function at a point using this definition.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Determining Continuity at a Point
1. Check to see if is defined. If is undefined, we need go no further. The function is not continuous
at . If is defined, continue to step 2.
2. Compute . In some cases, we may need to do this by first computing and
. If does not exist (that is, it is not a real number), then the function is not
continuous at and the problem is solved. If exists, then continue to step 3.
3. Compare and . If , then the function is not continuous at . If
, then the function is continuous at .
The next three examples demonstrate how to apply this definition to determine whether a function is continuous at a
given point. These examples illustrate situations in which each of the conditions for continuity in the definition succeed
or fail.
Determining Continuity at a Point, Condition 1
Using the definition, determine whether the function is continuous at .

Justify the conclusion.
Solution
Let’s begin by trying to calculate . We can see that , which is undefined. Therefore,
is discontinuous at 2 because is undefined. The graph of is shown in (Figure) .

Figure 4. The function is discontinuous at 2 because is undefined.
Using the definition, determine whether the function is continuous at
. Justify the conclusion.
Solution
Let’s begin by trying to calculate .
.
Thus, is defined. Next, we calculate . To do this, we must compute and
and
.

Therefore, does not exist. Thus, is not continuous at 3. The graph of is shown in (Figure)
Using the definition, determine whether the function is continuous at .
Solution
First, observe that
.
Next,
.
Last, compare and . We see that
Since all three of the conditions in the definition of continuity are satisfied, is continuous at .

Using the definition, determine whether the function is continuous at
. If the function is not continuous at 1, indicate the condition for continuity at a point that fails to hold.
Solution
is not continuous at 1 because .
Hint
Check each condition of the definition.
By applying the definition of continuity and previously established theorems concerning the evaluation of limits, we can
state the following theorem.
Continuity of Polynomials and Rational Functions
Polynomials and rational functions are continuous at every point in their domains.
Proof
Previously, we showed that if and are polynomials, for every polynomial and
as long as . Therefore, polynomials and rational functions are continuous on their
domains.
We now apply (Figure) to determine the points at which a given rational function is continuous.
Continuity of a Rational Function
For what values of is continuous?
Solution
The rational function is continuous for every value of except .
For what values of is continuous?
Solution
is continuous at every real number.
Hint
Use (Figure)
Types of Discontinuities
As we have seen in (Figure) and (Figure) , discontinuities take on several different appearances. We classify the types

of discontinuities we have seen thus far as removable discontinuities, infinite discontinuities, or jump discontinuities.
Intuitively, a removable discontinuity is a discontinuity for which there is a hole in the graph, a jump discontinuity
is a noninfinite discontinuity for which the sections of the function do not meet up, and an infinite discontinuity
is a discontinuity located at a vertical asymptote. (Figure) illustrates the differences in these types of discontinuities.
Although these terms provide a handy way of describing three common types of discontinuities, keep in mind that not
all discontinuities fit neatly into these categories.
These three discontinuities are formally defined as follows:

Definition
If is discontinuous at , then
1. has a removable discontinuity at if exists. (Note: When we state that exists, we
mean that , where is a real number.)
2. has a jump discontinuity at if and both exist, but
. (Note: When we state that and both exist, we
mean that both are real-valued and that neither take on the values .)
3. has an infinite discontinuity at if or .
Classifying a Discontinuity
In (Figure) , we showed that is discontinuous at . Classify this discontinuity as removable,

jump, or infinite.
Solution
To classify the discontinuity at 2 we must evaluate :
Since is discontinuous at 2 and exists, has a removable discontinuity at .

In (Figure) , we showed that is discontinuous at . Classify this
discontinuity as removable, jump, or infinite.
Solution
Earlier, we showed that is discontinuous at 3 because does not exist. However, since
and both exist, we conclude that the function has a jump discontinuity
at 3.
Determine whether is continuous at -1. If the function is discontinuous at -1, classify the
Solution
The function value is undefined. Therefore, the function is not continuous at -1. To determine the type
of discontinuity, we must determine the limit at -1. We see that and
. Therefore, the function has an infinite discontinuity at -1.
For , decide whether is continuous at 1. If is not continuous at 1, classify the
Solution
Discontinuous at 1; removable
Hint
Follow the steps in (Figure) . If the function is discontinuous at 1, look at and use the definition to
determine the type of discontinuity.
Continuity over an Interval

Now that we have explored the concept of continuity at a point, we extend that idea to continuity over an interval
. As we develop this idea for different types of intervals, it may be useful to keep in mind the intuitive idea that a
function is continuous over an interval if we can use a pencil to trace the function between any two points in the interval
without lifting the pencil from the paper. In preparation for defining continuity on an interval, we begin by looking at
the definition of what it means for a function to be continuous from the right at a point and continuous from the left at
a point.

Continuity from the Right and from the Left
A function is said to be continuous from the right at if .
A function is said to be continuous from the left at if .
A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. A function is
continuous over a closed interval of the form if it is continuous at every point in and is continuous from
the right at and is continuous from the left at . Analogously, a function is continuous over an interval of the
form if it is continuous over and is continuous from the left at . Continuity over other types of intervals
are defined in a similar fashion.
Requiring that and ensures that we can trace the graph of the function
from the point to the point without lifting the pencil. If, for example, , we
would need to lift our pencil to jump from to the graph of the rest of the function over .
Continuity on an Interval
State the interval(s) over which the function is continuous.
Solution
Since is a rational function, it is continuous at every point in its domain. The domain of
is the set . Thus, is continuous over each of the intervals
, and .
Continuity over an Interval
Solution
From the limit laws, we know that for all values of in . We also know
that exists and exists. Therefore, is continuous over the
interval .
Solution
Hint
Use (Figure) as a guide for solving.
The (Figure) allows us to expand our ability to compute limits. In particular, this theorem ultimately allows us to
demonstrate that trigonometric functions are continuous over their domains.

Composite Function Theorem
If is continuous at and , then
Before we move on to (Figure) , recall that earlier, in the section on limit laws, we showed
. Consequently, we know that is continuous at 0. In (Figure) we see how to combine this result with the
composite function theorem.
Limit of a Composite Cosine Function
Evaluate .
Solution
The given function is a composite of and . Since and is continuous
at 0, we may apply the composite function theorem. Thus,

.
Evaluate .
Solution
0
Hint
is continuous at 0. Use (Figure) as a guide.
The proof of the next theorem uses the composite function theorem as well as the continuity of and
at the point 0 to show that trigonometric functions are continuous over their entire domains.
Continuity of Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are continuous over their entire domains.
Proof
We begin by demonstrating that is continuous at every real number. To do this, we must show that
for all values of .
The proof that is continuous at every real number is analogous. Because the remaining trigonometric functions
may be expressed in terms of and their continuity follows from the quotient limit law.

As you can see, the composite function theorem is invaluable in demonstrating the continuity of trigonometric
functions. As we continue our study of calculus, we revisit this theorem many times. The theorem is true for other
functions as well. We summarize below
Continuity
If a polynomial, rational, trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic or radical function is
defined on an interval, then it is continuous on that interval.
The Intermediate Value Theorem

Functions that are continuous over intervals of the form , where and are real numbers, exhibit many useful
properties. Throughout our study of calculus, we will encounter many powerful theorems concerning such functions.
The first of these theorems is the Intermediate Value Theorem .
The Intermediate Value Theorem
Let be continuous over a closed, bounded interval . If is any real number between and , then
there is a number in satisfying . (See (Figure) ).
Figure 7. There is a number that satisfies .
Application of the Intermediate Value Theorem
Show that has at least one zero.

Solution
Since is continuous over , it is continuous over any closed interval of the
form . If you can find an interval such that and have opposite signs, you can use the
Intermediate Value Theorem to conclude there must be a real number in that satisfies . Note
that
and
.
Using the Intermediate Value Theorem, we can see that there must be a real number in that satisfies
. Therefore, has at least one zero.
When Can You Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem?
If is continuous over , and can we use the Intermediate Value Theorem to

conclude that has no zeros in the interval ? Explain.
Solution
No. The Intermediate Value Theorem only allows us to conclude that we can find a value between and
; it doesn’t allow us to conclude that we can’t find other values. To see this more clearly, consider the
function . It satisfies , and .
When Can You Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem?
For and . Can we conclude that has a zero in the

interval ?
Solution
No. The function is not continuous over . The Intermediate Value Theorem does not apply here.
Show that has a zero over the interval .
Solution
; is continuous over . It must have a zero on this interval.
Hint
Find and . Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem.
Key Concepts
• For a function to be continuous at a point, it must be defined at that point, its limit must exist at the point,
and the value of the function at that point must equal the value of the limit at that point.
• Discontinuities may be classified as removable, jump, or infinite.
• A function is continuous over an open interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval. It is
continuous over a closed interval if it is continuous at every point in its interior and is continuous at its
endpoints.
• The composite function theorem states: If is continuous at and , then

.
• The Intermediate Value Theorem guarantees that if a function is continuous over a closed interval, then the
function takes on every value between the values at its endpoints.
For the following exercises, determine the point(s), if any, at which each function is discontinuous. Classify any
discontinuity as jump, removable, infinite, or other.
1.
The function is defined for all in the interval .
2.
3.
Solution
Removable discontinuity at ; infinite discontinuity at
4.
5.
Solution
Infinite discontinuity at
6.
7.
Solution
Infinite discontinuities at , for
8.
For the following exercises, decide if the function continuous at the given point. If it is discontinuous, what type of
discontinuity is it?
9. at
Solution
No. It is a removable discontinuity.
10. at

11. at
Solution
Yes. It is continuous.
12. , at
13. at
Solution
Yes. It is continuous.
14. at
In the following exercises, find the value(s) of that makes each function continuous over the given interval.
15.
Solution
16.
17.
Solution
18.

19.
Solution
In the following exercises, use the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT).
20. Let Over the interval , there is no value of such that
, although and . Explain why this does not contradict the IVT.
21. A particle moving along a line has at each time a position function , which is continuous. Assume
and . Another particle moves such that its position is given by . Explain
why there must be a value for such that .
Solution
Since both and are continuous everywhere, then is continuous everywhere and, in
particular, it is continuous over the closed interval . Also, and .
Therefore, by the IVT, there is a value such that .
22. [T] Use the statement “The cosine of is equal to cubed.”

a. Write the statement as a mathematical equation.
b. Prove that the equation in part a. has at least one real solution.
c. Use a calculator to find an interval of length 0.01 that contains a solution of the equation.
23. Apply the IVT to determine whether has a solution in one of the intervals or
. Briefly explain your response for each interval.
Solution
The function is continuous over the interval and has opposite signs at the
endpoints.
24. Consider the graph of the function shown in the following graph.
a. Find all values for which the function is discontinuous.

b. For each value in part a., use the formal definition of continuity to explain why the function is
discontinuous at that value.
c. Classify each discontinuity as either jump, removable, or infinite.
25. Let
a. Sketch the graph of .

b. Is it possible to find a value such that , which makes continuous for all real numbers?
Briefly explain.
Solution
a.
b. It is not possible to redefine since the discontinuity is a jump discontinuity.
26. Let for .

a. Sketch the graph of .
b. Is it possible to find values and such that and , and that makes
continuous for all real numbers? Briefly explain.
27. Sketch the graph of the function with properties i. through vii.
1. The domain of is .
2. has an infinite discontinuity at .
3.
4.
5.
6. is left continuous but not right continuous at .
7. and
Solution
Answers may vary; see the following example:

28. Sketch the graph of the function with properties i. through iv.
1. The domain of is .
2. and exist and are equal.
3. is left continuous but not continuous at , and right continuous but not continuous at .
4. has a removable discontinuity at , a jump discontinuity at , and the following limits
hold: and .
In the following exercises, suppose is defined for all . For each description, sketch a graph with the
indicated property.
29. Discontinuous at with and
Solution
Answers may vary; see the following example:
30. Discontinuous at but continuous elsewhere with
Determine whether each of the given statements is true. Justify your response with an explanation or
counterexample.
31. is continuous everywhere.
Solution
False. It is continuous over .
32. If the left- and right-hand limits of as exist and are equal, then cannot be discontinuous at
.

33. If a function is not continuous at a point, then it is not defined at that point.
Solution
False. Consider
34. According to the IVT, has a solution over the interval .
35. If is continuous such that and have opposite signs, then has exactly one
solution in .
Solution
False. Consider on .
36. The function is continuous over the interval .
37. If is continuous everywhere and , then there is no root of in the interval

.
Solution
False. The IVT does not work in reverse! Consider over the interval .
The following problems consider the scalar form of Coulomb’s law, which describes the electrostatic force between
two point charges, such as electrons. It is given by the equation , where is Coulomb’s constant,
are the magnitudes of the charges of the two particles, and is the distance between the two particles.
38. [T] To simplify the calculation of a model with many interacting particles, after some threshold value ,
we approximate as zero.
a. Explain the physical reasoning behind this assumption.
b. What is the force equation?
c. Evaluate the force using both Coulomb’s law and our approximation, assuming two protons with a
charge magnitude of , and the Coulomb constant
are 1 m apart. Also, assume . How much inaccuracy does our
approximation generate? Is our approximation reasonable?
d. Is there any finite value of for which this system remains continuous at ?
39. [T] Instead of making the force 0 at , instead we let the force be for . Assume two protons,
which have a magnitude of charge , and the Coulomb constant
. Is there a value that can make this system continuous? If so, find it.
Solution
Recall the discussion on spacecraft from the chapter opener. The following problems consider a rocket launch from

Earth’s surface. The force of gravity on the rocket is given by , where is the mass of the
rocket, is the distance of the rocket from the center of Earth, and is a constant.
40. [T] Determine the value and units of given that the mass of the rocket on Earth is 3 million kg. ( Hint : The
distance from the center of Earth to its surface is 6378 km.)
41. [T] After a certain distance has passed, the gravitational effect of Earth becomes quite negligible, so we
can approximate the force function by Find the necessary condition
such that the force function remains continuous.
Solution
km
42. As the rocket travels away from Earth’s surface, there is a distance where the rocket sheds some of its
mass, since it no longer needs the excess fuel storage. We can write this function as
Is there a value such that this function is continuous, assuming
Prove the following functions are continuous everywhere
43.
Solution
For all values of is defined, exists, and . Therefore, is continuous
everywhere.
44.
45. Where is continuous?
Solution
Nowhere
Glossary
continuity at a point
A function is continuous at a point if and only if the following three conditions are satisfied: (1)
is defined, (2) exists, and (3)

continuity from the left
A function is continuous from the left at if
continuity from the right

A function is continuous from the right at if
continuity over an interval

a function that can be traced with a pencil without lifting the pencil; a function is continuous over an open
interval if it is continuous at every point in the interval; a function is continuous over a closed interval
of the form if it is continuous at every point in , and it is continuous from the right at and from
the left at
discontinuity at a point
A function is discontinuous at a point or has a discontinuity at a point if it is not continuous at the point
infinite discontinuity
An infinite discontinuity occurs at a point if or
Intermediate Value Theorem

Let be continuous over a closed bounded interval ; if is any real number between and ,
then there is a number in satisfying
jump discontinuity
A jump discontinuity occurs at a point if and both exist, but
removable discontinuity
A removable discontinuity occurs at a point if is discontinuous at , but exists

2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit
Learning Objectives
• Describe the epsilon-delta definition of a limit.
• Apply the epsilon-delta definition to find the limit of a function.
• Describe the epsilon-delta definitions of one-sided limits and infinite limits.
• Use the epsilon-delta definition to prove the limit laws.
By now you have progressed from the very informal definition of a limit in the introduction of this chapter to the
intuitive understanding of a limit. At this point, you should have a very strong intuitive sense of what the limit of a
function means and how you can find it. In this section, we convert this intuitive idea of a limit into a formal definition
using precise mathematical language. The formal definition of a limit is quite possibly one of the most challenging
definitions you will encounter early in your study of calculus; however, it is well worth any effort you make to reconcile
it with your intuitive notion of a limit. Understanding this definition is the key that opens the door to a better
understanding of calculus.
Quantifying Closeness
Before stating the formal definition of a limit, we must introduce a few preliminary ideas. Recall that the distance
between two points and on a number line is given by .
• The statement may be interpreted as: The distance between and is less than .
• The statement may be interpreted as: and the distance between and is less than .
It is also important to look at the following equivalences for absolute value:
• The statement is equivalent to the statement .

• The statement is equivalent to the statement and .
With these clarifications, we can state the formal epsilon-delta definition of the limit .
Definition
Let be defined for all over an open interval containing . Let be a real number. Then
if, for every , there exists a such that if , then .
This definition may seem rather complex from a mathematical point of view, but it becomes easier to understand if
we break it down phrase by phrase. The statement itself involves something called a universal quantifier (for every
), an existential quantifier (there exists a ), and, last, a conditional statement (if then
). Let’s take a look at (Figure) , which breaks down the definition and translates each part.
256 | 2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit

Translation of the Epsilon-Delta Definition of the Limit
Definition Translation
1. For every , 1. For every positive distance from ,
2. there exists a , 2. There is a positive distance from ,
3. such that 3. such that
4. if , then 4. if is closer than to and , then is closer than to

. .
We can get a better handle on this definition by looking at the definition geometrically. (Figure) shows possible values
of for various choices of for a given function , a number , and a limit at . Notice that as we choose
smaller values of (the distance between the function and the limit), we can always find a small enough so that if we
have chosen an value within of , then the value of is within of the limit .
Figure 1. These graphs show possible values of , given successively smaller choices of .
Visit the following applet to experiment with finding values of for selected values of :
• The epsilon-delta definition of limit
(Figure) shows how you can use this definition to prove a statement about the limit of a specific function at a specified
value.
Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function
Prove that .
Solution
Let .
The first part of the definition begins “For every .” This means we must prove that whatever follows is true
no matter what positive value of is chosen. By stating “Let ,” we signal our intent to do so.
Choose .
The definition continues with “there exists a .” The phrase “there exists” in a mathematical statement is
2.5 The Precise Definition of a Limit | 257

always a signal for a scavenger hunt. In other words, we must go and find . So, where exactly did
come from? There are two basic approaches to tracking down . One method is purely algebraic and the other is
geometric.
We begin by tackling the problem from an algebraic point of view. Since ultimately we want
, we begin by manipulating this expression: is equivalent to
, which in turn is equivalent to . Last, this is equivalent to .
Thus, it would seem that is appropriate.
We may also find through geometric methods. (Figure) demonstrates how this is done.
Figure 2. This graph shows how we find geometrically.
Assume . When has been chosen, our goal is to show that if , then
. To prove any statement of the form “If this, then that,” we begin by assuming “this” and
trying to get “that.”
Thus,
Analysis
In this part of the proof, we started with and used our assumption in a key

part of the chain of inequalities to get to be less than . We could just as easily have manipulated
the assumed inequality to arrive at as follows:
Therefore, . (Having completed the proof, we state what we have accomplished.)
After removing all the remarks, here is a final version of the proof:
Let .
Choose .
Assume .
Thus,
Therefore, .
The following Problem-Solving Strategy summarizes the type of proof we worked out in (Figure) .
Problem-Solving Strategy: Proving That for a Specific Function
1. Let’s begin the proof with the following statement: Let .

2. Next, we need to obtain a value for . After we have obtained this value, we make the following statement,
filling in the blank with our choice of : Choose _______.
3. The next statement in the proof should be (filling in our given value for ):
Assume .
4. Next, based on this assumption, we need to show that , where and are our
function and our limit . At some point, we need to use .
5. We conclude our proof with the statement: Therefore, .
Proving a Statement about a Limit
Complete the proof that by filling in the blanks.
Let _____.
Choose ________.
Assume .
Thus, .

Therefore, .
Solution
We begin by filling in the blanks where the choices are specified by the definition. Thus, we have
Let .
Choose _______. (Leave this one blank for now — we’ll choose later)
Assume (or equivalently, ).
Thus, .
Focusing on the final line of the proof, we see that we should choose .
We now complete the final write-up of the proof:
Let .
Choose .
Assume (or equivalently, ).
Thus, .
Complete the proof that by filling in the blanks.
Let _____.
Choose ________.
Assume .
Thus, .
Therefore, .
Solution
Let ; choose ; assume .
Thus, .
Therefore, .
Hint
Follow the outline in the Problem-Solving Strategy that we worked out in full in (Figure) .
In (Figure) and (Figure) , the proofs were fairly straightforward, since the functions with which we were working were
linear. In (Figure) , we see how to modify the proof to accommodate a nonlinear function.
Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function (Geometric Approach)
Prove that .
Solution
1. Let . The first part of the definition begins “For every ,” so we must prove that whatever
follows is true no matter what positive value of is chosen. By stating “Let ,” we signal our intent to
do so.
2. Without loss of generality, assume . Two questions present themselves: Why do we want and

why is it okay to make this assumption? In answer to the first question: Later on, in the process of solving
for , we will discover that involves the quantity . Consequently, we need . In answer to
the second question: If we can find that “works” for , then it will “work” for any as
well. Keep in mind that, although it is always okay to put an upper bound on , it is never okay to put a
lower bound (other than zero) on .
3. Choose . (Figure) shows how we made this choice of .
Figure 3. This graph shows how we find geometrically for a given for the proof in (Figure).
4. We must show: If , then , so we must begin by assuming

.
We don’t really need (in other words, ) for this proof. Since
, it is okay to drop .
So, , which implies .
Recall that . Thus, and consequently
. We also use here. We might ask at this point: Why did we
substitute for on the left-hand side of the inequality and on the right-hand
side of the inequality? If we look at (Figure) , we see that corresponds to the distance on the
left of 2 on the -axis and corresponds to the distance on the right. Thus,
.
We simplify the expression on the left:
.
Then, we add 2 to all parts of the inequality:
.
We square all parts of the inequality. It is okay to do so, since all parts of the inequality are positive:
.
We subtract 4 from all parts of the inequality:

.
Last,
.
5. Therefore,
.
Find corresponding to for a proof that .
Solution
Choose .
Hint
Draw a graph similar to the one in (Figure) .
The geometric approach to proving that the limit of a function takes on a specific value works quite well for some
functions. Also, the insight into the formal definition of the limit that this method provides is invaluable. However, we
may also approach limit proofs from a purely algebraic point of view. In many cases, an algebraic approach may not
only provide us with additional insight into the definition, it may prove to be simpler as well. Furthermore, an algebraic
approach is the primary tool used in proofs of statements about limits. For (Figure) , we take on a purely algebraic
approach.
Proving a Statement about the Limit of a Specific Function (Algebraic Approach)
Prove that .
Solution
Let’s use our outline from the Problem-Solving Strategy:
1. Let .
2. Choose . This choice of may appear odd at first glance, but it was obtained by taking
a look at our ultimate desired inequality: . This inequality is equivalent to
. At this point, the temptation simply to choose is very strong.
Unfortunately, our choice of must depend on only and no other variable. If we can replace by a
numerical value, our problem can be resolved. This is the place where assuming comes into play.
The choice of here is arbitrary. We could have just as easily used any other positive number. In
some proofs, greater care in this choice may be necessary. Now, since and , we
are able to show that . Consequently, . At this point we
realize that we also need . Thus, we choose .
3. Assume . Thus,
and .
Since , we may conclude that . Thus, by subtracting 4 from all parts of
the inequality, we obtain . Consequently, . This gives us
.
Therefore,
.

Complete the proof that .
Let ; choose ; assume .

Since , we may conclude that . Thus, . Hence,
.
Solution
Hint
You will find that, in general, the more complex a function, the more likely it is that the algebraic approach is the easiest
to apply. The algebraic approach is also more useful in proving statements about limits.
Proving Limit Laws

We now demonstrate how to use the epsilon-delta definition of a limit to construct a rigorous proof of one of the limit
laws. The triangle inequality is used at a key point of the proof, so we first review this key property of absolute value.
Definition
The triangle inequality states that if and are any real numbers, then .
Proof
We prove the following limit law: If and , then
Let .
Choose so that if , then .
Choose so that if , then .
Choose .
Assume .
Thus,
and .
Hence,
We now explore what it means for a limit not to exist. The limit does not exist if there is no real number

for which . Thus, for all real numbers , . To understand what this means, we look
at each part of the definition of together with its opposite. A translation of the definition is given in
(Figure) .
<table id=”fs-id1170571696614″ summary=”A table with two columns and four rows. The top row contains the headers
“definition” and “opposite.” The second row contains the definition “for every epsilon
Translation of the Definition of and its Opposite Definition Opposite 1. For every ,1. There
exists so that2. there exists a so that2. for every ,3. if , then

.3. There is an satisfying so that .
Finally, we may state what it means for a limit not to exist. The limit does not exist if for every real number
, there exists a real number so that for all , there is an satisfying , so that
. Let’s apply this in (Figure) to show that a limit does not exist.
Showing That a Limit Does Not Exist
Show that does not exist. The graph of is shown here:
Solution
Suppose that is a candidate for a limit. Choose .
Let . Either or . If , then let . Thus,
and
On the other hand, if , then let . Thus,
and
Thus, for any value of , .

One-Sided and Infinite Limits
Just as we first gained an intuitive understanding of limits and then moved on to a more rigorous definition of a limit,
we now revisit one-sided limits. To do this, we modify the epsilon-delta definition of a limit to give formal epsilon-
delta definitions for limits from the right and left at a point. These definitions only require slight modifications from
the definition of the limit. In the definition of the limit from the right, the inequality replaces
, which ensures that we only consider values of that are greater than (to the right of) . Similarly,
in the definition of the limit from the left, the inequality replaces , which
ensures that we only consider values of that are less than (to the left of) .
Definition
Limit from the Right: Let be defined over an open interval of the form where . Then,
if for every , there exists a such that if , then .

Limit from the Left: Let be defined over an open interval of the form where . Then,
if for every , there exists a such that if , then .
Proving a Statement about a Limit From the Right
Prove that .
Solution
Let
Choose . Since we ultimately want , we manipulate this inequality to get
or, equivalently, , making a clear choice. We may also determine
geometrically, as shown in (Figure) .
Assume . Thus, . Hence, . Finally,

.
Therefore, .

Find corresponding to for a proof that .
Hint
Sketch the graph and use (Figure) as a solving guide.
We conclude the process of converting our intuitive ideas of various types of limits to rigorous formal definitions
by pursuing a formal definition of infinite limits. To have , we want the values of the function
to get larger and larger as approaches . Instead of the requirement that for arbitrarily
small when for small enough , we want for arbitrarily large positive when
for small enough . (Figure) illustrates this idea by showing the value of for successively larger
values of .
Figure 5. These graphs plot values of for to show that .
Definition
Let be defined for all in an open interval containing . Then, we have an infinite limit
if for every , there exists such that if , then .

Let be defined for all in an open interval containing . Then, we have a negative infinite limit
if for every , there exists such that if , then .
Key Concepts
• The intuitive notion of a limit may be converted into a rigorous mathematical definition known as the
epsilon-delta definition of the limit.
• The epsilon-delta definition may be used to prove statements about limits.

• The epsilon-delta definition of a limit may be modified to define one-sided limits.
In the following exercises, write the appropriate – definition for each of the given statements.
1.
2.
Solution
For every , there exists a so that if , then
3.
4.
Solution
For every , there exists a so that if , then
The following graph of the function satisfies . In the following exercises, determine a value of
that satisfies each statement.
5. If , then .
6. If , then .
Solution
The following graph of the function satisfies . In the following exercises, determine a value of
that satisfies each statement.

7. If , then .
8. If , then .
Solution
The following graph of the function satisfies . In the following exercises, for each value of , find a
value of such that the precise definition of limit holds true.
9.
10.
Solution
In the following exercises, use a graphing calculator to find a number such that the statements hold true.
11. [T] , whenever
12. [T] , whenever
Solution
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given limits.

13.
14.
Solution
Let . If , then .
15.
16.
Solution
Let . If , then .
17.
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given one-sided limits.
18.
Solution
Let . If , then .
19. , where .
20. , where
Solution
Let . If , then .
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the given infinite limits.
21.
22.
Solution
Let . If , then .

23.
24. An engineer is using a machine to cut a flat square of Aerogel of area 144 cm 2 . If there is a maximum error
tolerance in the area of 8 cm 2 , how accurately must the engineer cut on the side, assuming all sides have the
same length? How do these numbers relate to , and ?
Solution
0.033 cm,
25. Use the precise definition of limit to prove that the following limit does not exist: .
26. Using precise definitions of limits, prove that does not exist, given that is the ceiling
function. ( Hint : Try any .)
Solution
Answers may vary.
27. Using precise definitions of limits, prove that does not exist:
. ( Hint : Think about how you can always choose a rational number
, but .)
28. Using precise definitions of limits, determine for ( Hint :
Break into two cases, rational and irrational.)
Solution
0
29. Using the function from the previous exercise, use the precise definition of limits to show that
does not exist for .
For the following exercises, suppose that and both exist. Use the precise
definition of limits to prove the following limit laws:
30.
Solution
31. for any real constant ( Hint : Consider two cases: and .)

32. . ( Hint :
.)
Solution
Answers may vary.
Glossary
epsilon-delta definition of the limit
if for every , there exists a such that if , then
triangle inequality
If and are any real numbers, then

2.6 Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes
Learning Objectives
• Calculate the limit of a function as increases or decreases without bound.
• Recognize a horizontal asymptote on the graph of a function.
• Estimate the end behavior of a function as increases or decreases without bound.
• Recognize an oblique asymptote on the graph of a function.
To graph a function defined on an unbounded domain, we also need to know the behavior of as In this
section, we define limits at infinity and show how these limits affect the graph of a function.
Limits at Infinity
We begin by examining what it means for a function to have a finite limit at infinity. Then we study the idea of a function
with an infinite limit at infinity. Back in Introduction to Functions and Graphs, we looked at vertical asymptotes; in this
section we deal with horizontal and oblique asymptotes.
Limits at Infinity and Horizontal Asymptotes
Recall that means becomes arbitrarily close to as long as is sufficiently close to We can
extend this idea to limits at infinity. For example, consider the function As can be seen graphically in
(Figure) and numerically in (Figure), as the values of get larger, the values of approach 2. We say the limit as
approaches of is 2 and write Similarly, for as the values get larger, the values
of approaches 2. We say the limit as approaches of is 2 and write
272 | 2.6 Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes

Figure 1. The function approaches the asymptote as approaches
Values of a function as
10 100 1,000 10,000
2.1 2.01 2.001 2.0001
-10 -100 -1000 -10,000
1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999
More generally, for any function we say the limit as of is if becomes arbitrarily close to
as long as is sufficiently large. In that case, we write Similarly, we say the limit as of
is if becomes arbitrarily close to as long as and is sufficiently large. In that case, we write
We now look at the definition of a function having a limit at infinity.
Definition
(Informal) If the values of become arbitrarily close to as becomes sufficiently large, we say the function
has a limit at infinity and write
If the values of becomes arbitrarily close to for as becomes sufficiently large, we say that the
function has a limit at negative infinity and write
2.6 Limits at Infinity and Asymptotes | 273

If the values are getting arbitrarily close to some finite value as or the graph of
approaches the line In that case, the line is a horizontal asymptote of ((Figure)). For example, for the
function since the line is a horizontal asymptote of
Definition
If or we say the line is a horizontal asymptote of
Figure 2. (a) As the values of are getting arbitrarily close to The line is a horizontal asymptote of (b) As
the values of are getting arbitrarily close to The line is a horizontal asymptote of
A function cannot cross a vertical asymptote because the graph must approach infinity (or from at least
one direction as approaches the vertical asymptote. However, a function may cross a horizontal asymptote. In
fact, a function may cross a horizontal asymptote an unlimited number of times. For example, the function
shown in (Figure) intersects the horizontal asymptote an infinite number of times as it
oscillates around the asymptote with ever-decreasing amplitude.
Figure 3. The graph of crosses its horizontal asymptote an infinite

number of times.

The algebraic limit laws and squeeze theorem we introduced in Introduction to Limits also apply to limits at infinity. We
illustrate how to use these laws to compute several limits at infinity.
Computing Limits at Infinity
For each of the following functions evaluate and Determine the horizontal
asymptote(s) for
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. Using the algebraic limit laws, we have
Similarly,
Therefore, has a horizontal asymptote of and approaches
this horizontal asymptote as as shown in the following graph.
Figure 4. This function approaches a horizontal asymptote as
b. Since for all we have
for all Also, since
we can apply the squeeze theorem to conclude that
Similarly,

Thus, has a horizontal asymptote of and approaches this horizontal
asymptote as as shown in the following graph.
Figure 5. This function crosses its horizontal asymptote multiple times.
c. To evaluate and we first consider the graph of over
the interval as shown in the following graph.
The graph of has vertical asymptotes at
Since
it follows that
Similarly, since
it follows that

As a result, and are horizontal asymptotes of as shown in the following
graph.
Figure 7. This function has two horizontal asymptotes.
Evaluate and Determine the horizontal asymptotes of if
any.
Solution
Both limits are 3. The line is a horizontal asymptote.
Hint
Infinite Limits at Infinity
Sometimes the values of a function become arbitrarily large as (or as In this case, we write
(or On the other hand, if the values of are negative but become arbitrarily
large in magnitude as (or as we write (or
For example, consider the function As seen in (Figure) and (Figure), as the values
become arbitrarily large. Therefore, On the other hand, as the values of
are negative but become arbitrarily large in magnitude. Consequently,
Values of a power function as
10 20 50 100 1000
1000 8000 125,000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000
-10 -20 -50 -100 -1000
-1000 -8000 -125,000 -1,000,000 -1,000,000,000

Figure 8. For this function, the functional values approach infinity as
Definition
(Informal) We say a function has an infinite limit at infinity and write
if becomes arbitrarily large for sufficiently large. We say a function has a negative infinite limit at infinity
and write
if and becomes arbitrarily large for sufficiently large. Similarly, we can define infinite limits
as
Formal Definitions
Earlier, we used the terms arbitrarily close, arbitrarily large, and sufficiently large to define limits at infinity informally.
Although these terms provide accurate descriptions of limits at infinity, they are not precise mathematically. Here are
more formal definitions of limits at infinity. We then look at how to use these definitions to prove results involving limits
at infinity.
Definition
(Formal) We say a function has a limit at infinity, if there exists a real number such that for all there
exists such that
for all In that case, we write
(see (Figure)).
We say a function has a limit at negative infinity if there exists a real number such that for all there
exists such that
for all In that case, we write

Figure 9. For a function with a limit at infinity, for all
Earlier in this section, we used graphical evidence in (Figure) and numerical evidence in (Figure) to conclude that
Here we use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove this result rigorously.
A Finite Limit at Infinity Example
Use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove that
Solution
Let Let Therefore, for all we have
Use the formal definition of limit at infinity to prove that
Solution
Let Let Therefore, for all we have
Therefore,
Hint
Let
We now turn our attention to a more precise definition for an infinite limit at infinity.

Definition
(Formal) We say a function has an infinite limit at infinity and write
if for all there exists an such that
for all (see (Figure)).

We say a function has a negative infinite limit at infinity and write
if for all there exists an such that
for all
Similarly we can define limits as
Figure 10. For a function with an infinite limit at infinity, for all
Earlier, we used graphical evidence ((Figure)) and numerical evidence ((Figure)) to conclude that Here
we use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that result.
An Infinite Limit at Infinity
Use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that
Solution
Let Let Then, for all we have
Therefore,

Use the formal definition of infinite limit at infinity to prove that
Solution
Let Let Then, for all we have
Hint
Let
End Behavior
The behavior of a function as is called the function’s end behavior. At each of the function’s ends, the
function could exhibit one of the following types of behavior:
1. The function approaches a horizontal asymptote

2. The function or
3. The function does not approach a finite limit, nor does it approach or In this case, the function may have
some oscillatory behavior.
Let’s consider several classes of functions here and look at the different types of end behaviors for these functions.
End Behavior for Polynomial Functions
Consider the power function where is a positive integer. From (Figure) and (Figure), we see that
and

Figure 11. For power functions with an even power of
Figure 12. For power functions with an odd power of and

Using these facts, it is not difficult to evaluate and where is any constant and is a positive
integer. If the graph of is a vertical stretch or compression of and therefore
If the graph of is a vertical stretch or compression combined with a reflection about the -axis, and
therefore
If in which case
Limits at Infinity for Power Functions
For each function evaluate and
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. Since the coefficient of is -5, the graph of involves a vertical stretch and reflection of
the graph of about the -axis. Therefore, and
b. Since the coefficient of is 2, the graph of is a vertical stretch of the graph of

Therefore, and
c. This is an form so limit laws don’t help. However, by factoring we get

As , the power where the second
factor gets close to . Hence the limit is As , the power where the second
factor gets close to . Hence the limit is
Let Find
Solution
Hint
The coefficient -3 is negative.
End Behavior for Algebraic Functions

The end behavior for rational functions and functions involving radicals is a little more complicated than for polynomials.
To evaluate the limits at infinity for a rational function, we divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power
of appearing in the denominator. This determines which term in the overall expression dominates the behavior of the
function at large values of

Determining End Behavior for Rational Functions
For each of the following functions, determine the limits as and Then, use this
information to describe the end behavior of the function.
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. The highest power of in the denominator is Therefore, dividing the numerator and denominator by
and applying the algebraic limit laws, we see that
Since we know that is a horizontal asymptote for this function as shown in
the following graph.
Figure 14. The graph of this rational function approaches a horizontal

asymptote as
b. Since the largest power of appearing in the denominator is divide the numerator and denominator

by After doing so and applying algebraic limit laws, we obtain
Therefore has a horizontal asymptote of as shown in the following graph.
Figure 15. The graph of this rational function approaches the horizontal asymptote
as
c. Dividing the numerator and denominator by we have
As the denominator approaches 1. As the numerator approaches As

the numerator approaches Therefore whereas
as shown in the following figure.

Figure 16. As the values As the values
Evaluate and use these limits to determine the end behavior of
Solution
Hint
Divide the numerator and denominator by
Before proceeding, consider the graph of shown in (Figure). As and the

graph of appears almost linear. Although is certainly not a linear function, we now investigate why the graph of
seems to be approaching a linear function. First, using long division of polynomials, we can write

Since as we conclude that
Therefore, the graph of approaches the line as This line is known as an oblique
asymptote for ((Figure)).
Figure 17. The graph of the rational function

approaches
the oblique asymptote
Now let’s consider the end behavior for functions involving a radical.
Determining End Behavior for a Function Involving a Radical
Find the limits as and for and describe the end behavior of
Solution
Let’s use the same strategy as we did for rational functions: divide the numerator and denominator by a power of
To determine the appropriate power of consider the expression in the denominator. Since
for large values of in effect appears just to the first power in the denominator. Therefore, we divide the
numerator and denominator by Then, using the fact that for for and
for all we calculate the limits as follows:

Therefore, approaches the horizontal asymptote as and the horizontal asymptote
as as shown in the following graph.
Figure 18. This function has two horizontal asymptotes and it crosses one of the asymptotes.
Evaluate
Solution
Hint
Divide the numerator and denominator by
Determining End Behavior for Transcendental Functions

The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic and do not approach a finite limit as For example,
oscillates between ((Figure)). The tangent function has an infinite number of vertical asymptotes
as therefore, it does not approach a finite limit nor does it approach as as shown in
(Figure).

Figure 19. The function oscillates between as
Figure 20. The function does not approach a limit and does not approach as
Recall that for any base the function is an exponential function with domain
and range If is increasing over If is decreasing
over For the natural exponential function Therefore,
is increasing on and the range is The exponential function approaches as
and approaches 0 as as shown in (Figure) and (Figure).
End behavior of the natural exponential

function
-5 -2 0 2 5
0.00674 0.135 1 7.389 148.413

Figure 21. The exponential function approaches zero as
and approaches as
Recall that the natural logarithm function is the inverse of the natural exponential function
Therefore, the domain of is and the range is The graph of
is the reflection of the graph of about the line Therefore, as and
as as shown in (Figure) and (Figure).
End behavior of the natural logarithm

function
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
-4.605 -2.303 0 2.303 4.605
Figure 22. The natural logarithm function approaches as

Determining End Behavior for a Transcendental Function
Find the limits as and for and describe the end behavior of
Solution
To find the limit as divide the numerator and denominator by
As shown in (Figure), as Therefore,
We conclude that and the graph of approaches the horizontal asymptote as
To find the limit as use the fact that as to conclude that

and therefore the graph of approaches the horizontal asymptote as
Find the limits as and for
Solution
[latex]\underset{x\to -\infty }{\text{lim}}f(x)=-2[/latex]
Hint
and
Key Concepts
• The limit of is as (or as if the values become arbitrarily close to as
becomes sufficiently large.
• The limit of is as if becomes arbitrarily large as becomes sufficiently large. The
limit of is as if and becomes arbitrarily large as becomes
sufficiently large. We can define the limit of as approaches similarly.
For the following exercises, examine the graphs. Identify where the vertical asymptotes are located.
1.
Solution

2.
3.
Solution
4.
5.
Solution
For the following functions determine whether there is an asymptote at Justify your answer without
graphing on a calculator.
6.

7.
Solution
Yes, there is a vertical asymptote
8.
9.
Solution
Yes, there is vertical asymptote
10.
For the following exercises, evaluate the limit.
11.
Solution
0
12.
13.
Solution
14.
15.
Solution
16.
17.
Solution
-2

18.
19.
Solution
-4
20.
For the following exercises, find the horizontal and vertical asymptotes.
21.
Solution
Horizontal: none, vertical:
22.
23.
Solution
Horizontal: none, vertical:
24.
25.
Solution
Horizontal: none, vertical: none
26.
27.
Solution
Horizontal: vertical:
28.

Solution
Horizontal: vertical: and
29.
30.
Solution
Horizontal: vertical:
31.
32.
Solution
Horizontal: none, vertical: none
33.
For the following exercises, construct a function that has the given asymptotes.
34. and
Solution
Answers will vary, for example:
35. and
36. [latex]x=-1[/latex]
Solution
Answers will vary, for example:
37.
For the following exercises, graph the function on a graphing calculator on the window and estimate
the horizontal asymptote or limit. Then, calculate the actual horizontal asymptote or limit.
38. [T]
Solution
39. [T]

40. [T]
Solution
41. [T]
42. [T]
Solution
43. True or false: Every ratio of polynomials has vertical asymptotes.
Glossary
end behavior
the behavior of a function as and
horizontal asymptote
if or then is a horizontal asymptote of
infinite limit at infinity

a function that becomes arbitrarily large as becomes large
limit at infinity
the limiting value, if it exists, of a function as or
oblique asymptote
the line if approaches it as or

True or False. In the following exercises, justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample.
1. A function has to be continuous at if the exists.
2. You can use the quotient rule to evaluate .
Solution
False
3. If there is a vertical asymptote at for the function , then is undefined at the point .
4. If does not exist, then is undefined at the point .
Solution
False. A removable discontinuity is possible.
5. Using the graph, find each limit or explain why the limit does not exist.
1.
2.
3.
4.
In the following exercises, evaluate the limit algebraically or explain why the limit does not exist.
6.
Solution
5

7.
8.
Solution
9.
10.
Solution
DNE
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution
−4
15.
In the following exercises, use the squeeze theorem to prove the limit.
16.
Solution
Since , then . Since , it
follows that .

17.
18.
Solution
3
19.
20. Determine the domain such that the function is continuous over its domain.
Solution
In the following exercises, determine the value of such that the function remains continuous. Draw your resulting
function to ensure it is continuous.
21.
22.
Solution
In the following exercises, use the precise definition of limit to prove the limit.
23.
24.
Solution
25. A ball is thrown into the air and the vertical position is given by . Use the
Intermediate Value Theorem to show that the ball must land on the ground sometime between 5 sec and 6 sec
after the throw.
26. A particle moving along a line has a displacement according to the function , where
is measured in meters and is measured in seconds. Find the average velocity over the time period .

Solution
m/sec
27. From the previous exercises, estimate the instantaneous velocity at by checking the average velocity
within sec.

3. DERIVATIVES
3. Derivatives | 301
3 Introduction
Figure 2. The Hennessey
Venom GT can go from 0
to 200 mph in 14.51
seconds. (credit:
Codex41, Flickr)
The Hennessey Venom GT is one of the fastest cars in the world. In 2014, it reached a record-setting speed of 270.49
mph. It can go from 0 to 200 mph in 14.51 seconds. The techniques in this chapter can be used to calculate the
acceleration the Venom achieves in this feat (see (Figure) .)
Calculating velocity and changes in velocity are important uses of calculus, but it is far more widespread than that.
Calculus is important in all branches of mathematics, science, and engineering, and it is critical to analysis in business
and health as well. In this chapter, we explore one of the main tools of calculus, the derivative, and show convenient
ways to calculate derivatives. We apply these rules to a variety of functions in this chapter so that we can then explore
applications of these techniques.
3.1 Defining the Derivative
Learning Objectives
• Recognize the meaning of the tangent to a curve at a point.
• Calculate the slope of a tangent line.
• Identify the derivative as the limit of a difference quotient.
• Calculate the derivative of a given function at a point.
• Describe the velocity as a rate of change.
• Explain the difference between average velocity and instantaneous velocity.
• Estimate the derivative from a table of values.
Now that we have both a conceptual understanding of a limit and the practical ability to compute limits, we have
established the foundation for our study of calculus, the branch of mathematics in which we compute derivatives and
integrals. Most mathematicians and historians agree that calculus was developed independently by the Englishman Isaac
Newton (1643–1727) and the German Gottfried Leibniz (1646–1716), whose images appear in (Figure) . When we credit
Newton and Leibniz with developing calculus, we are really referring to the fact that Newton and Leibniz were the first
to understand the relationship between the derivative and the integral. Both mathematicians benefited from the work of
predecessors, such as Barrow, Fermat, and Cavalieri. The initial relationship between the two mathematicians appears to
have been amicable; however, in later years a bitter controversy erupted over whose work took precedence. Although it
seems likely that Newton did, indeed, arrive at the ideas behind calculus first, we are indebted to Leibniz for the notation
that we commonly use today.
Figure 1. Newton and Leibniz are credited with developing calculus independently.
3.1 Defining the Derivative | 303

Tangent Lines
We begin our study of calculus by revisiting the notion of secant lines and tangent lines. Recall that we used the slope of
a secant line to a function at a point to estimate the rate of change, or the rate at which one variable changes
in relation to another variable. We can obtain the slope of the secant by choosing a value of near and drawing a line
through the points and , as shown in (Figure) . The slope of this line is given by an equation in the
form of a difference quotient :
We can also calculate the slope of a secant line to a function at a value by using this equation and replacing with
, where is a value close to . We can then calculate the slope of the line through the points and
. In this case, we find the secant line has a slope given by the following difference quotient with
increment :
.
Definition
Let be a function defined on an interval containing . If is in , then
is a difference quotient .
Also, if is chosen so that is in , then
is a difference quotient with increment .
View several Java applets on the development of the derivative.
These two expressions for calculating the slope of a secant line are illustrated in (Figure) . We will see that each of these
two methods for finding the slope of a secant line is of value. Depending on the setting, we can choose one or the other.
The primary consideration in our choice usually depends on ease of calculation.
304 | 3.1 Defining the Derivative

Figure 2. We can calculate the slope of a secant line in either of two ways.
In (Figure) (a) we see that, as the values of approach , the slopes of the secant lines provide better estimates of the
rate of change of the function at . Furthermore, the secant lines themselves approach the tangent line to the function
at , which represents the limit of the secant lines. Similarly, (Figure) (b) shows that as the values of get closer to 0,
the secant lines also approach the tangent line. The slope of the tangent line at is the rate of change of the function at
, as shown in (Figure) (c).
Figure 3. The secant lines approach the tangent line (shown in green) as the second point approaches the first.
You can use this site to explore graphs to see if they have a tangent line at a point.

In (Figure) we show the graph of and its tangent line at in a series of tighter intervals about
. As the intervals become narrower, the graph of the function and its tangent line appear to coincide, making the
values on the tangent line a good approximation to the values of the function for choices of close to 1. In fact, the
graph of itself appears to be locally linear in the immediate vicinity of .
Figure 4. For values of close to 1, the graph of and its tangent line appear to coincide.
Formally we may define the tangent line to the graph of a function as follows.
Definition
Let be a function defined in an open interval containing . The tangent line to at is the line passing
through the point having slope
provided this limit exists.

Equivalently, we may define the tangent line to at to be the line passing through the point
having slope
Just as we have used two different expressions to define the slope of a secant line, we use two different forms to define
the slope of the tangent line. In this text we use both forms of the definition. As before, the choice of definition will
depend on the setting. Now that we have formally defined a tangent line to a function at a point, we can use this
definition to find equations of tangent lines.
Finding a Tangent Line
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution
First find the slope of the tangent line. In this example, use (Figure) .
Next, find a point on the tangent line. Since the line is tangent to the graph of at , it passes through
the point . We have , so the tangent line passes through the point .
Using the point-slope equation of the line with the slope and the point , we obtain the line
. Simplifying, we have . The graph of and its tangent line at
are shown in (Figure) .
Figure 5. The tangent line to at .

The Slope of a Tangent Line Revisited
Use (Figure) to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution
The steps are very similar to (Figure) . See (Figure) for the definition.
We obtained the same value for the slope of the tangent line by using the other definition, demonstrating that the
formulas can be interchanged.
Finding the Equation of a Tangent Line
Solution
We can use (Figure) , but as we have seen, the results are the same if we use (Figure) .
We now know that the slope of the tangent line is . To find the equation of the tangent line, we also need a
point on the line. We know that . Since the tangent line passes through the point we can use
the point-slope equation of a line to find the equation of the tangent line. Thus the tangent line has the equation
. The graphs of and are shown in (Figure) .

Figure 6. The line is tangent to at
Find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution
Hint
Use either (Figure) or (Figure) . Multiply the numerator and the denominator by a conjugate.
The Derivative of a Function at a Point

The type of limit we compute in order to find the slope of the line tangent to a function at a point occurs in many
applications across many disciplines. These applications include velocity and acceleration in physics, marginal profit
functions in business, and growth rates in biology. This limit occurs so frequently that we give this value a special name:
the derivative . The process of finding a derivative is called differentiation .
Definition
Let be a function defined in an open interval containing . The derivative of the function at ,
denoted by , is defined by

Alternatively, we may also define the derivative of at as

Estimating a Derivative
For , use a table to estimate using (Figure) .
Solution
Create a table using values of just below 3 and just above 3.
2.9 5.9
2.99 5.99
2.999 5.999
3.001 6.001
3.01 6.01
3.1 6.1
After examining the table, we see that a good estimate is .
For , use a table to estimate using (Figure) .
Solution
6
Hint
Evaluate at
Finding a Derivative
For , find by using (Figure) .
Solution
Substitute the given function and value directly into the equation.
Revisiting the Derivative
For , find by using (Figure) .

Solution
Using this equation, we can substitute two values of the function into the equation, and we should get the same
value as in (Figure) .
The results are the same whether we use (Figure) or (Figure) .
For , find .
Solution
Hint
Use either (Figure) , (Figure) , or try both. Use either (Figure) or (Figure) as a guide.
Velocities and Rates of Change

Now that we can evaluate a derivative, we can use it in velocity applications. Recall that if is the position of an
object moving along a coordinate axis, the average velocity of the object over a time interval if or if
is given by the difference quotient
As the values of approach , the values of approach the value we call the instantaneous velocity at . That is,
instantaneous velocity at , denoted , is given by
.
To better understand the relationship between average velocity and instantaneous velocity, see (Figure) . In this figure,
the slope of the tangent line (shown in red) is the instantaneous velocity of the object at time whose position at
time is given by the function . The slope of the secant line (shown in green) is the average velocity of the object
over the time interval .

Figure 7. The slope of the secant line is the average velocity over the interval . The slope of the
tangent line is the instantaneous velocity.
We can use (Figure) to calculate the instantaneous velocity, or we can estimate the velocity of a moving object by using
a table of values. We can then confirm the estimate by using (Figure) .
Estimating Velocity
A lead weight on a spring is oscillating up and down. Its position at time with respect to a fixed horizontal line is
given by ( (Figure) ). Use a table of values to estimate . Check the estimate by using (Figure) .
Figure 8. A lead weight suspended from a spring in vertical

oscillatory motion.
Solution
We can estimate the instantaneous velocity at by computing a table of average velocities using values of
approaching 0, as shown in (Figure) .

Average velocities using values
of approaching 0
-0.1 0.998334166
-0.01 0.9999833333
-0.001 0.999999833
0.001 0.999999833
0.01 0.9999833333
0.1 0.998334166
From the table we see that the average velocity over the time interval is 0.998334166, the average
velocity over the time interval is 0.9999833333, and so forth. Using this table of values, it appears
that a good estimate is .
By using (Figure) , we can see that
.
Thus, in fact, .
A rock is dropped from a height of 64 feet. Its height above ground at time seconds later is given by
. Find its instantaneous velocity 1 second after it is dropped, using (Figure)
.
Solution
-32 ft/sec
Hint
. Follow the earlier examples of the derivative using (Figure) .
As we have seen throughout this section, the slope of a tangent line to a function and instantaneous velocity are
related concepts. Each is calculated by computing a derivative and each measures the instantaneous rate of change of a
function, or the rate of change of a function at any point along the function.
Definition
The instantaneous rate of change of a function at a value is its derivative .

Chapter Opener: Estimating Rate of Change of Velocity
Figure 9. (credit: modification of work by Codex41, Flickr)
Reaching a top speed of 270.49 mph, the Hennessey Venom GT is one of the fastest cars in the world. In tests it
went from 0 to 60 mph in 3.05 seconds, from 0 to 100 mph in 5.88 seconds, from 0 to 200 mph in 14.51 seconds,
and from 0 to 229.9 mph in 19.96 seconds. Use this data to draw a conclusion about the rate of change of velocity
(that is, its acceleration ) as it approaches 229.9 mph. Does the rate at which the car is accelerating appear to be
increasing, decreasing, or constant?
Solution
First observe that 60 mph = 88 ft/s, 100 mph ft/s, 200 mph ft/s, and 229.9 mph
ft/s. We can summarize the information in a table.
at
different
values of
0 0
3.05 88
5.88 147.67
14.51 293.33
19.96 337.19
Now compute the average acceleration of the car in feet per second on intervals of the form as
approaches 19.96, as shown in the following table.

Average acceleration
0.0 16.89
3.05 14.74
5.88 13.46
14.51 8.05
The rate at which the car is accelerating is decreasing as its velocity approaches 229.9 mph (337.19 ft/s).
Rate of Change of Temperature
A homeowner sets the thermostat so that the temperature in the house begins to drop from at 9 p.m.,
reaches a low of during the night, and rises back to by 7 a.m. the next morning. Suppose that the
temperature in the house is given by for , where is the number of
hours past 9 p.m. Find the instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at midnight.
Solution
Since midnight is 3 hours past 9 p.m., we want to compute . Refer to (Figure) .
The instantaneous rate of change of the temperature at midnight is per hour.
Rate of Change of Profit
A toy company can sell electronic gaming systems at a price of dollars per gaming
system. The cost of manufacturing systems is given by dollars. Find the rate of
change of profit when 10,000 games are produced. Should the toy company increase or decrease production?
Solution
The profit earned by producing gaming systems is , where is the revenue
obtained from the sale of games. Since the company can sell games at per game,
.
Consequently,
.
Therefore, evaluating the rate of change of profit gives

Since the rate of change of profit and , the company should increase
production.
A coffee shop determines that the daily profit on scones obtained by charging dollars per scone is
. The coffee shop currently charges per scone. Find , the
rate of change of profit when the price is and decide whether or not the coffee shop should consider
raising or lowering its prices on scones.
Solution
; raise prices
Hint
Use (Figure) for a guide.
Key Concepts
• The slope of the tangent line to a curve measures the instantaneous rate of change of a curve. We can
calculate it by finding the limit of the difference quotient or the difference quotient with increment .
• The derivative of a function at a value is found using either of the definitions for the slope of the
tangent line.
• Velocity is the rate of change of position. As such, the velocity at time is the derivative of the position
at time . Average velocity is given by
.
Instantaneous velocity is given by
• We may estimate a derivative by using a table of values.
Key Equations
• Difference quotient
• Difference quotient with increment
• Slope of tangent line
• Derivative of at

• Average velocity
• Instantaneous velocity
For the following exercises, use (Figure) to find the slope of the secant line between the values and for each
function .
1.
Solution
4
2.
3.
Solution
8.5
4.
5.
Solution
6.
7.
Solution
0.2
8.
9.
Solution
0.25

10.
For the following functions,

a. use (Figure) to find the slope of the tangent line , and
b. find the equation of the tangent line to at .
11.
Solution
a. -4 b.
12.
13.
Solution
a. 3 b.
14.
15.
Solution
a. b.
16.
17.
Solution
a. 12 b.
18.
19.
Solution
a. -2 b.
20.
For the following functions , find using (Figure) .
21.

Solution
5
22.
23.
Solution
13
24.
25.
Solution
26.
27.
Solution
28.
29.
Solution
-3
30.
For the following exercises, given the function ,

a. find the slope of the secant line for each point with value given in the table.
b. Use the answers from a. to estimate the value of the slope of the tangent line at .
c. Use the answer from b. to find the equation of the tangent line to at point .
31. [T] (Round to 6 decimal places.)

Slope Slope
1.1 (i) 0.9 (vii)

1.01 (ii) 0.99 (viii)
1.001 (iii) 0.999 (ix)

1.0001 (iv) 0.9999 (x)
1.00001 (v) 0.99999 (xi)
1.000001 (vi) 0.999999 (xii)
Solution
a. (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi) ,
(vii) , (viii) , (ix) , (x) , (xi) , (xii)
b.
c.
32. [T]
Slope Slope
0.1 (i) -0.1 (vii)

0.01 (ii) -0.01 (viii)
0.001 (iii) -0.001 (ix)
0.0001 (iv) -0.0001 (x)
0.00001 (v) -0.00001 (xi)
0.000001 (vi) -0.000001 (xii)
33. [T] (Round to 4 decimal places.)
Slope
-0.1 (i)
-0.01 (ii)
-0.001 (iii)
-0.0001 (iv)
-0.00001 (v)
-0.000001 (vi)
Solution
a. (i) , (ii) , (iii) , (iv) , (v) , (vi)
b.
c.

34. [T]
Slope
3.1 (i)
3.14 (ii)
3.141 (iii)
3.1415 (iv)
3.14159 (v)
3.141592 (vi)
For the following position functions , an object is moving along a straight line, where is in seconds and
is in meters. Find
a. the simplified expression for the average velocity from to ;
b. the average velocity between and , where (i) , (ii) , (iii) ,
and (iv) ; and
c. use the answer from a. to estimate the instantaneous velocity at seconds.
35. [T]
Solution
a. ;
b. (i) m/s, (ii) m/s, (iii) m/s, (iv) m/s;
c. m/s
36. [T]
37. [T]
Solution
a. ;
b. (i) 25.22 m/s, (ii) 24.12 m/s, (iii) 24.01 m/s, (iv) 24 m/s;
c. 24 m/s
38. [T]
39. Use the following graph to evaluate a. and b. .

Solution
a. ; b. 0.5
40. Use the following graph to evaluate a. and b. .
For the following exercises, use the limit definition of derivative to show that the derivative does not exist at
for each of the given functions.
41.
Solution
42.
43.
Solution
44.
45. [T] The position in feet of a race car along a straight track after seconds is modeled by the function
.

a. Find the average velocity of the vehicle over the following time intervals to four decimal places:
1. [4, 4.1]
2. [4, 4.01]
3. [4, 4.001]
4. [4, 4.0001]
b. Use a. to draw a conclusion about the instantaneous velocity of the vehicle at seconds.
Solution
a. (i) 61.7244 ft/s, (ii) 61.0725 ft/s, (iii) 61.0072 ft/s, (iv) 61.0007 ft/s
b. At 4 seconds the race car is traveling at a rate/velocity of 61 ft/s.
46. [T] The distance in feet that a ball rolls down an incline is modeled by the function , where is
seconds after the ball begins rolling.
a. Find the average velocity of the ball over the following time intervals:
1. [5, 5.1]
2. [5, 5.01]
3. [5, 5.001]
4. [5, 5.0001]
b. Use the answers from a. to draw a conclusion about the instantaneous velocity of the ball at
seconds.
47. Two vehicles start out traveling side by side along a straight road. Their position functions, shown in the
following graph, are given by and , where is measured in feet and is measured in
seconds.
a. Which vehicle has traveled farther at seconds?

b. What is the approximate velocity of each vehicle at seconds?
c. Which vehicle is traveling faster at seconds?
d. What is true about the positions of the vehicles at seconds?
Solution
a. The vehicle represented by , because it has traveled 2 feet, whereas has traveled 1 foot.
b. The velocity of is constant at 1 ft/s, while the velocity of is approximately 2 ft/s.
c. The vehicle represented by , with a velocity of approximately 4 ft/s.
d. Both have traveled 4 feet in 4 seconds.
48. [T] The total cost , in hundreds of dollars, to produce jars of mayonnaise is given by
.

a. Calculate the average cost per jar over the following intervals:
1. [100, 100.1]
2. [100, 100.01]
3. [100, 100.001]
4. [100, 100.0001]
b. Use the answers from a. to estimate the average cost to produce 100 jars of mayonnaise.
49. [T] For the function , do the following.

a. Use a graphing calculator to graph in an appropriate viewing window.
b. Use the ZOOM feature on the calculator to approximate the two values of for which
.
Solution
a.
b.

b. Use the ZOOM feature on the calculator to approximate the values of for which
.
51. Suppose that computes the number of gallons of gas used by a vehicle traveling miles. Suppose the
vehicle gets 30 mpg.
a. Find a mathematical expression for .
b. What is ? Explain the physical meaning.
c. What is ? Explain the physical meaning.
Solution
a.
b. gallons. When the vehicle travels 100 miles, it has used 3.3 gallons of gas.
c. . The rate of gas consumption in gallons per mile that the vehicle is achieving after having traveled 100 miles.

b. Use the function, which numerically finds the derivative, on a graphing calculator to estimate
, and .


b. Use the function on a graphing calculator to find , and .
Solution
a.
b.
Glossary
derivative
the slope of the tangent line to a function at a point, calculated by taking the limit of the difference quotient,
is the derivative
difference quotient
of a function at is given by
or
differentiation
the process of taking a derivative
instantaneous rate of change
the rate of change of a function at any point along the function , also called , or the derivative of the
function at

3.2 The Derivative as a Function
Learning Objectives
• Define the derivative function of a given function.
• Graph a derivative function from the graph of a given function.
• State the connection between derivatives and continuity.
• Describe three conditions for when a function does not have a derivative.
• Explain the meaning of a higher-order derivative.
As we have seen, the derivative of a function at a given point gives us the rate of change or slope of the tangent line to the
function at that point. If we differentiate a position function at a given time, we obtain the velocity at that time. It seems
reasonable to conclude that knowing the derivative of the function at every point would produce valuable information
about the behavior of the function. However, the process of finding the derivative at even a handful of values using
the techniques of the preceding section would quickly become quite tedious. In this section we define the derivative
function and learn a process for finding it.
Derivative Functions
The derivative function gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original function for which
the derivative is defined. We can formally define a derivative function as follows.
Definition
Let be a function. The derivative function , denoted by , is the function whose domain consists of those
values of such that the following limit exists:
A function is said to be differentiable at if

exists. More generally, a function is said to be differentiable on if it is differentiable at every point in an open
set , and a differentiable function is one in which exists on its domain.
In the next few examples we use (Figure) to find the derivative of a function.
Finding the Derivative of a Square-Root Function
Find the derivative of .
Solution
Start directly with the definition of the derivative function. Use (Figure) .
326 | 3.2 The Derivative as a Function

Finding the Derivative of a Quadratic Function
Find the derivative of the function .
Solution
Follow the same procedure here, but without having to multiply by the conjugate.
Solution
Hint
Use (Figure) and follow the example.
We use a variety of different notations to express the derivative of a function. In (Figure) we showed that if
, then . If we had expressed this function in the form , we could
have expressed the derivative as or . We could have conveyed the same information by
writing . Thus, for the function , each of the following notations represents the
derivative of :
.
In place of we may also use Use of the notation (called Leibniz notation) is quite common in
engineering and physics. To understand this notation better, recall that the derivative of a function at a point is the limit
3.2 The Derivative as a Function | 327

of the slopes of secant lines as the secant lines approach the tangent line. The slopes of these secant lines are often
expressed in the form where is the difference in the values corresponding to the difference in the values,
which are expressed as ( (Figure) ). Thus the derivative, which can be thought of as the instantaneous rate of change
of with respect to , is expressed as
.
Figure 1. The derivative is expressed as .
Graphing a Derivative
We have already discussed how to graph a function, so given the equation of a function or the equation of a derivative
function, we could graph it. Given both, we would expect to see a correspondence between the graphs of these two
functions, since gives the rate of change of a function (or slope of the tangent line to ).
In (Figure) we found that for . If we graph these functions on the same axes, as
in (Figure) , we can use the graphs to understand the relationship between these two functions. First, we notice that
is increasing over its entire domain, which means that the slopes of its tangent lines at all points are positive.
Consequently, we expect for all values of in its domain. Furthermore, as increases, the slopes of the
tangent lines to are decreasing and we expect to see a corresponding decrease in . We also observe that
is undefined and that , corresponding to a vertical tangent to at 0.

Figure 2. The derivative is positive everywhere because the function is increasing.
In (Figure) we found that for . The graphs of these functions are shown
in (Figure) . Observe that is decreasing for . For these same values of . For values of
is increasing and . Also, has a horizontal tangent at and .
Figure 3. The derivative where the function is decreasing and

where is increasing. The derivative is zero where the function has a horizontal tangent.

Sketching a Derivative Using a Function
Use the following graph of to sketch a graph of .
Solution
The solution is shown in the following graph. Observe that is increasing and on .
Also, is decreasing and on and on . Also note that has
horizontal tangents at -2 and 3, and and .
Sketch the graph of . On what interval is the graph of above the -axis?
Solution

Hint
The graph of is positive where is increasing.
Derivatives and Continuity

Now that we can graph a derivative, let’s examine the behavior of the graphs. First, we consider the relationship between
differentiability and continuity. We will see that if a function is differentiable at a point, it must be continuous there;
however, a function that is continuous at a point need not be differentiable at that point. In fact, a function may be
continuous at a point and fail to be differentiable at the point for one of several reasons.
Differentiability Implies Continuity
Let be a function and be in its domain. If is differentiable at , then is continuous at .
Proof
If is differentiable at , then exists and

.
We want to show that is continuous at by showing that . Thus,
Therefore, since is defined and , we conclude that is continuous at .
We have just proven that differentiability implies continuity, but now we consider whether continuity implies
differentiability. To determine an answer to this question, we examine the function . This function is
continuous everywhere; however, is undefined. This observation leads us to believe that continuity does not
imply differentiability. Let’s explore further. For ,
.
This limit does not exist because

.
See (Figure) .

Figure 4. The function is continuous at 0 but is not differentiable at 0.
Let’s consider some additional situations in which a continuous function fails to be differentiable. Consider the function
:
.
Thus does not exist. A quick look at the graph of clarifies the situation. The function has a vertical
tangent line at 0 ( (Figure) ).

Figure 5. The function has a vertical tangent at . It is continuous at 0 but
is not differentiable at 0.
The function also has a derivative that exhibits interesting behavior at 0. We see
that
.
This limit does not exist, essentially because the slopes of the secant lines continuously change direction as they
approach zero ( (Figure) ).

Figure 6. The function is not differentiable at
0.
In summary:
1. We observe that if a function is not continuous, it cannot be differentiable, since every differentiable function must
be continuous. However, if a function is continuous, it may still fail to be differentiable.
2. We saw that failed to be differentiable at 0 because the limit of the slopes of the tangent lines on the
left and right were not the same. Visually, this resulted in a sharp corner on the graph of the function at 0. From
this we conclude that in order to be differentiable at a point, a function must be “smooth” at that point.
3. As we saw in the example of , a function fails to be differentiable at a point where there is a vertical
tangent line.
4. As we saw with a function may fail to be differentiable at a point in more
complicated ways as well.
A Piecewise Function that is Continuous and Differentiable
A toy company wants to design a track for a toy car that starts out along a parabolic curve and then converts to a
straight line ( (Figure) ). The function that describes the track is to have the form

, where and are in inches. For the car to move smoothly
along the track, the function must be both continuous and differentiable at -10. Find values of and that
make both continuous and differentiable.
Figure 7. For the car to move smoothly along the track, the function must be both continuous and
differentiable.
Solution
For the function to be continuous at . Thus, since
and , we must have . Equivalently, we have .

For the function to be differentiable at -10,
must exist. Since is defined using different rules on the right and the left, we must evaluate this limit from
the right and the left and then set them equal to each other:
We also have

This gives us . Thus and .
Find values of and that make both continuous and differentiable at 3.
Solution
and
Hint
Higher-Order Derivatives
The derivative of a function is itself a function, so we can find the derivative of a derivative. For example, the derivative
of a position function is the rate of change of position, or velocity. The derivative of velocity is the rate of change
of velocity, which is acceleration. The new function obtained by differentiating the derivative is called the second
derivative. Furthermore, we can continue to take derivatives to obtain the third derivative, fourth derivative, and so
on. Collectively, these are referred to as higher-order derivatives . The notation for the higher-order derivatives of
can be expressed in any of the following forms:
It is interesting to note that the notation for may be viewed as an attempt to express more compactly.
Analogously, .
Finding a Second Derivative
For , find .
Solution
First find .

Next, find by taking the derivative of .
Find for .
Solution
Hint
We found in a previous checkpoint. Use (Figure) to find the derivative of
Finding Acceleration
The position of a particle along a coordinate axis at time (in seconds) is given by (in
meters). Find the function that describes its acceleration at time .
Solution
Since and , we begin by finding the derivative of :
Next,
Thus, .

For , find .
Solution
Hint
Key Concepts
• The derivative of a function is the function whose value at is .
• The graph of a derivative of a function is related to the graph of . Where has a tangent
line with positive slope, . Where has a tangent line with negative slope, .
Where has a horizontal tangent line, .
• If a function is differentiable at a point, then it is continuous at that point. A function is not differentiable at a
point if it is not continuous at the point, if it has a vertical tangent line at the point, or if the graph has a
sharp corner or cusp.
• Higher-order derivatives are derivatives of derivatives, from the second derivative to the derivative.
Key Equations
• The derivative function
For the following exercises, use the definition of a derivative to find .
1.
2.
Solution
-3
3.
4.
Solution
5.
6.

Solution
7.
8.
Solution
9.
10.
Solution
For the following exercises, use the graph of to sketch the graph of its derivative .
11.
12.

Solution
13.
14.
Solution
For the following exercises, the given limit represents the derivative of a function at . Find
and .
15.
16.

Solution
17.
18.
Solution
19.
20.
Solution
For the following functions,

a. sketch the graph and
b. use the definition of a derivative to show that the function is not differentiable at .
21.
22.
Solution
a.
b.

23.
24.
Solution
a.
b. .
For the following graphs,

a. determine for which values of the exists but is not continuous at , and
b. determine for which values of the function is continuous but not differentiable at .
25.
26.
Solution
a. , b.
27. Use the graph to evaluate a. , b. , c. , d. , and e. , if they exist.

For the following functions, use to find .
28.
Solution
0
29.
30.
Solution
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph . Determine the function , then use a calculator to
graph .
31. [T]
32. [T]
Solution
33. [T]
34. [T]

Solution
35. [T]
36. [T]
Solution
For the following exercises, describe what the two expressions represent in terms of each of the given situations. Be
sure to include units.
a.
b.
37. denotes the population of a city at time in years.
38. denotes the total amount of money (in thousands of dollars) spent on concessions by customers at
an amusement park.
Solution
a. Average rate at which customers spent on concessions in thousands per customer.
b. Rate (in thousands per customer) at which customers spent money on concessions in thousands per
customer.
39. denotes the total cost (in thousands of dollars) of manufacturing clock radios.
40. denotes the grade (in percentage points) received on a test, given hours of studying.

Solution
a. Average grade received on the test with an average study time between two amounts.
b. Rate (in percentage points per hour) at which the grade on the test increased or decreased for a given average
study time of hours.
41. denotes the cost (in dollars) of a sociology textbook at university bookstores in the United States in
years since 1990.
42. denotes atmospheric pressure at an altitude of feet.
Solution
a. Average change of atmospheric pressure between two different altitudes.
b. Rate (torr per foot) at which atmospheric pressure is increasing or decreasing at feet.
43. Sketch the graph of a function with all of the following properties:
a. for
b.
c. for
d. and
e. and
f. does not exist.
44. Suppose temperature in degrees Fahrenheit at a height in feet above the ground is given by
.
a. Give a physical interpretation, with units, of .
b. If we know that explain the physical meaning.
Solution
a. The rate (in degrees per foot) at which temperature is increasing or decreasing for a given height .
b. The rate of change of temperature as altitude changes at 1000 feet is -0.1 degrees per foot.
45. Suppose the total profit of a company is thousand dollars when units of an item are sold.
a. What does for measure, and what are the units?

b. What does measure, and what are the units?
c. Suppose that . What is the approximate change in profit if the number of items sold
increases from 30 to 31?
46. The graph in the following figure models the number of people who have come down with the flu
weeks after its initial outbreak in a town with a population of 50,000 citizens.
a. Describe what represents and how it behaves as increases.
b. What does the derivative tell us about how this town is affected by the flu outbreak?

Solution
a. The rate at which the number of people who have come down with the flu is changing weeks after the initial
outbreak.
b. The rate is increasing sharply up to the third week, at which point it slows down and then becomes constant.
For the following exercises, use the following table, which shows the height of the Saturn V rocket for the Apollo 11
mission seconds after launch.
Time (seconds) Height (meters)

0 0
1 2
2 4
3 13
4 25
5 32
47. What is the physical meaning of ? What are the units?
48. [T] Construct a table of values for and graph both and on the same graph. ( Hint: for
interior points, estimate both the left limit and right limit and average them.)
Solution
Time (seconds) (m/s)
0 2
1 2
2 5.5
3 10.5
4 9.5
5 7
49. [T] The best linear fit to the data is given by , where is the height of the
rocket (in meters) and is the time elapsed since takeoff. From this equation, determine . Graph
with the given data and, on a separate coordinate plane, graph .

50. [T] The best quadratic fit to the data is given by , where is
the height of the rocket (in meters) and is the time elapsed since takeoff. From this equation, determine .
Graph with the given data and, on a separate coordinate plane, graph .
Solution
51. [T] The best cubic fit to the data is given by ,

where is the height of the rocket (in m) and is the time elapsed since take off. From this equation, determine
. Graph with the given data and, on a separate coordinate plane, graph . Does the linear,
quadratic, or cubic function fit the data best?
52. Using the best linear, quadratic, and cubic fits to the data, determine what , and are.
What are the physical meanings of , and , and what are their units?
Solution
, and represent the acceleration of the rocket,
with units of meters per second squared ( ).
Glossary
derivative function
gives the derivative of a function at each point in the domain of the original function for which the derivative
is defined
differentiable at
a function for which exists is differentiable at
differentiable on
a function for which exists for each in the open set is differentiable on
differentiable function
a function for which exists is a differentiable function

higher-order derivative
a derivative of a derivative, from the second derivative to the th derivative, is called a higher-order
derivative

3.3 Differentiation Rules
Learning Objectives
• State the constant, constant multiple, and power rules.
• Apply the sum and difference rules to combine derivatives.
• Compute the derivative of
• Use the product rule for finding the derivative of a product of functions.
• Use the quotient rule for finding the derivative of a quotient of functions.
• Extend the power rule to functions with negative exponents.
• Combine the differentiation rules to find the derivative of a polynomial or rational function.
Finding derivatives of functions by using the definition of the derivative can be a lengthy and, for certain functions, a
rather challenging process. For example, previously we found that by using a process that involved
multiplying an expression by a conjugate prior to evaluating a limit. The process that we could use to evaluate
using the definition, while similar, is more complicated. In this section, we develop rules for finding derivatives that
allow us to bypass this process. We begin with the basics.
The Basic Rules

The functions and where is a positive integer are the building blocks from which all
polynomials and rational functions are constructed. To find derivatives of polynomials and rational functions efficiently
without resorting to the limit definition of the derivative, we must first develop formulas for differentiating these basic
functions.
The Constant Rule
We first apply the limit definition of the derivative to find the derivative of the constant function, . For this
function, both and , so we obtain the following result:
The rule for differentiating constant functions is called the constant rule. It states that the derivative of a constant
function is zero; that is, since a constant function is a horizontal line, the slope, or the rate of change, of a constant
function is 0. We restate this rule in the following theorem.
The Constant Rule
Let be a constant.
If , then .
Alternatively, we may express this rule as
3.3 Differentiation Rules | 349

.
Applying the Constant Rule
Solution
This is just a one-step application of the rule:
.
Solution
0
Hint
Use the preceding example as a guide.
The Power Rule

We have shown that
and .
At this point, you might see a pattern beginning to develop for derivatives of the form . We continue our
examination of derivative formulas by differentiating power functions of the form where is a positive
integer. We develop formulas for derivatives of this type of function in stages, beginning with positive integer powers.
Before stating and proving the general rule for derivatives of functions of this form, we take a look at a specific case,
.
Differentiating
Find .
350 | 3.3 Differentiation Rules

Solution
Find .
Solution
Hint
Use and follow the procedure outlined in the preceding
example.
As we shall see, the procedure for finding the derivative of the general form is very similar. Although it is
often unwise to draw general conclusions from specific examples, we note that when we differentiate , the
power on becomes the coefficient of in the derivative and the power on in the derivative decreases by 1. The
following theorem states that this power rule holds for all positive integer powers of . We will eventually extend this
result to negative integer powers. Later, we will see that this rule may also be extended first to rational powers of and
then to arbitrary powers of . Be aware, however, that this rule does not apply to functions in which a constant is raised
to a variable power, such as .
The Power Rule
Let be a positive integer. If , then
.
Alternatively, we may express this rule as
.
Proof
For where is a positive integer, we have

.
Since ,
we see that

.
Next, divide both sides by :
Thus,
.
Finally,
Applying the Power Rule
Find the derivative of the function by applying the power rule.
Solution
Using the power rule with , we obtain
.
Solution
Hint
Use the power rule with .
The Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules

We find our next differentiation rules by looking at derivatives of sums, differences, and constant multiples of functions.
Just as when we work with functions, there are rules that make it easier to find derivatives of functions that we add,
subtract, or multiply by a constant. These rules are summarized in the following theorem.
Sum, Difference, and Constant Multiple Rules
Let and be differentiable functions and be a constant. Then each of the following equations holds.
Sum Rule. The derivative of the sum of a function and a function is the same as the sum of the derivative of
and the derivative of .
;
that is,
for .
Difference Rule. The derivative of the difference of a function and a function is the same as the difference of
the derivative of and the derivative of .
;
that is,

for .
Constant Multiple Rule. The derivative of a constant multiplied by a function is the same as the constant
multiplied by the derivative:
;
that is,
for .
Proof
We provide only the proof of the sum rule here. The rest follow in a similar manner.
For differentiable functions and , we set . Using the limit definition of the
derivative we have
.
By substituting and , we obtain

.
Rearranging and regrouping the terms, we have

.
We now apply the sum law for limits and the definition of the derivative to obtain
Applying the Constant Multiple Rule
Find the derivative of and compare it to the derivative of .
Solution
We use the power rule directly:
.
Since has derivative , we see that the derivative of is 3 times the derivative of
. This relationship is illustrated in (Figure).

The derivative of is 3 times the derivative of .
Applying Basic Derivative Rules
Solution
We begin by applying the rule for differentiating the sum of two functions, followed by the rules for
differentiating constant multiples of functions and the rule for differentiating powers. To better understand the
sequence in which the differentiation rules are applied, we use Leibniz notation throughout the solution:
Solution
.
Hint
Solution
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope. To find the point, compute
.

This gives us the point . Since the slope of the tangent line at 1 is , we must first find . Using
the definition of a derivative, we have
so the slope of the tangent line is . Using the point-slope formula, we see that the equation of the
tangent line is
.
Putting the equation of the line in slope-intercept form, we obtain
.
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at . Use the point-slope form.
Solution
Hint
The Product Rule

Now that we have examined the basic rules, we can begin looking at some of the more advanced rules. The first one
examines the derivative of the product of two functions. Although it might be tempting to assume that the derivative
of the product is the product of the derivatives, similar to the sum and difference rules, the product rule does not
follow this pattern. To see why we cannot use this pattern, consider the function , whose derivative is
and not .
Product Rule
Let and be differentiable functions. Then
.
That is,
if then .
This means that the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second
function plus the derivative of the second function times the first function.
Proof
We begin by assuming that and are differentiable functions. At a key point in this proof we need to use the
fact that, since is differentiable, it is also continuous. In particular, we use the fact that since is continuous,
.
By applying the limit definition of the derivative to , we obtain

.
By adding and subtracting in the numerator, we have

.
After breaking apart this quotient and applying the sum law for limits, the derivative becomes
.
Rearranging, we obtain
.
By using the continuity of , the definition of the derivatives of and , and applying the limit laws, we
arrive at the product rule,
Applying the Product Rule to Constant Functions
For , use the product rule to find if , and

.
Solution
Since , and hence
.
Applying the Product Rule to Binomials
For , find by applying the product rule. Check the result by first
finding the product and then differentiating.
Solution
If we set and , then and . Thus,
.
Simplifying, we have
.
To check, we see that and, consequently, .
Use the product rule to obtain the derivative of .
Solution
.
Hint
Set and and use the preceding example as a guide.
The Quotient Rule

Having developed and practiced the product rule, we now consider differentiating quotients of functions. As we see in
the following theorem, the derivative of the quotient is not the quotient of the derivatives; rather, it is the derivative

of the function in the numerator times the function in the denominator minus the derivative of the function in the
denominator times the function in the numerator, all divided by the square of the function in the denominator. In order
to better grasp why we cannot simply take the quotient of the derivatives, keep in mind that
, which is not the same as .
The Quotient Rule

Let and be differentiable functions. Then
That is,
if , then .
The proof of the quotient rule is very similar to the proof of the product rule, so it is omitted here. Instead, we apply
this new rule for finding derivatives in the next example.
Applying the Quotient Rule
Use the quotient rule to find the derivative of .
Solution
Let and . Thus, and . Substituting into the
quotient rule, we have
.
Simplifying, we obtain
Solution
.
Hint
Apply the quotient rule with and .
It is now possible to use the quotient rule to extend the power rule to find derivatives of functions of the form where
is a negative integer.
Extended Power Rule
If is a negative integer, then
.
Proof
If is a negative integer, we may set , so that is a positive integer with . Since for each positive

integer , we may now apply the quotient rule by setting and . In this case,
and . Thus,
.
Simplifying, we see that

.
Finally, observe that since , by substituting we have
Using the Extended Power Rule
Find .
Solution
By applying the extended power rule with , we obtain
.
Using the Extended Power Rule and the Constant Multiple Rule
Use the extended power rule and the constant multiple rule to find .
Solution
It may seem tempting to use the quotient rule to find this derivative, and it would certainly not be incorrect to do
so. However, it is far easier to differentiate this function by first rewriting it as .
Find the derivative of using the extended power rule.
Solution
.
Hint
Rewrite . Use the extended power rule with .
Combining Differentiation Rules

As we have seen throughout the examples in this section, it seldom happens that we are called on to apply just one
differentiation rule to find the derivative of a given function. At this point, by combining the differentiation rules, we
may find the derivatives of any polynomial or rational function. Later on we will encounter more complex combinations

of differentiation rules. A good rule of thumb to use when applying several rules is to apply the rules in reverse of the
order in which we would evaluate the function.
For , find .
Solution
Finding this derivative requires the sum rule, the constant multiple rule, and the product rule.
Extending the Product Rule
For , express in terms of , and their derivatives.
Solution
We can think of the function as the product of the function and the function . That is,
. Thus,
Combining the Quotient Rule and the Product Rule
For , find .
Solution
This procedure is typical for finding the derivative of a rational function.
Find .
Solution
.
Hint
Apply the difference rule and the constant multiple rule.

Determining Where a Function Has a Horizontal Tangent
Determine the values of for which has a horizontal tangent line.
Solution
To find the values of for which has a horizontal tangent line, we must solve . Since
,
we must solve . Thus we see that the function has horizontal tangent lines at
and as shown in the following graph.
This function has horizontal tangent lines at and .
Finding a Velocity
The position of an object on a coordinate axis at time is given by . What is the initial velocity of
the object?
Solution
Since the initial velocity is , begin by finding by applying the quotient rule:
.
After evaluating, we see that .
Find the value(s) of for which the line tangent to the graph of is parallel to the line
.

Solution
Hint
Solve the equation .
Derivative of the Exponential Function

Just as when we found the derivatives of other functions, we can find the derivatives of exponential and logarithmic
functions using formulas. As we develop these formulas, we need to make certain basic assumptions. The proofs that
these assumptions hold are beyond the scope of this course.
First of all, we begin with the assumption that the function , is defined for every real number and
is continuous. In previous courses, the values of exponential functions for all rational numbers were defined—beginning
with the definition of , where is a positive integer—as the product of multiplied by itself times. Later, we
defined for a positive integer , and for positive integers and . These
definitions leave open the question of the value of where is an arbitrary real number. By assuming the continuity
of , we may interpret as where the values of as we take the limit are rational. For
example, we may view as the number satisfying
As we see in the following table, .
Approximating a Value of
64 77.8802710486
73.5166947198 77.8810268071
77.7084726013 77.9242251944
77.8162741237 78.7932424541
77.8702309526 84.4485062895
77.8799471543 256
We also assume that for , the value of the derivative exists. In this section, we show that
by making this one additional assumption, it is possible to prove that the function is differentiable everywhere.
We make one final assumption: that there is a unique value of for which . We define to be
this unique value, as we did in Introduction to Functions and Graphs. (Figure) provides graphs of the functions
, and . A visual estimate of the slopes of the tangent lines to these functions
at 0 provides evidence that the value of lies somewhere between 2.7 and 2.8. The function is called the
natural exponential function. Its inverse, is called the natural logarithmic function.

Figure 1. The graph of is between and .
For a better estimate of , we may construct a table of estimates of for functions of the form .
Before doing this, recall that
for values of very close to zero. For our estimates, we choose and to obtain the
estimate
.
See the following table.
<table id=”fs-id1169738019199″ summary=”This table has six rows and four columns. The first row is a header row and
it labels each column. The first column header is b, the second column header is (b-0.00001 – 1)/-0.00001 < B’(0) <
(b0.00001 – 1)/0.00001, the third column header is b, and the fourth column header is (b-0.00001 – 1)/-0.00001 < B’(0)
< (b0.00001 – 1)/0.00001. Under the first column are the values 2, 2.7, 2.71, 2.718, and 2.7182. Under the second column

are the values 0.693145<B’(0)<0.69315, 0.993247<B’(0)< 0.993257, 0.996944<B’(0)<0.996954, 0.999891<B’(0)< 0.999901, and
0.999965<B’(0)<0.999975. Under the third column are the values 2.7183, 2.719, 2.72, 2.8, and 3. Under the fourth column
are the values 1.000002<B’(0)< 1.000012, 1.000259<B’(0)< 1.000269, 1.000627<B’(0)<1.000637, 1.029614<B’(0)<1.029625, and
1.098606<B’(00
Estimating a Value of [latex]b[/latex] [latex]b[/latex]
2 2.7183
2.7 2.719
2.71 2.72
2.718 2.8
2.7182 3
The evidence from the table suggests that .
The graph of together with the line are shown in (Figure). This line is tangent to the graph
of at .
Figure 2. The tangent line to at has slope 1.
Now that we have laid out our basic assumptions, we begin our investigation by exploring the derivative of
. Recall that we have assumed that exists. By applying the limit definition to the derivative
we conclude that
.
Turning to , we obtain the following.

We see that on the basis of the assumption that is differentiable at is not only differentiable
everywhere, but its derivative is
.
For . Thus, we have . (The value of for an arbitrary function of the

form , will be derived later.)
Derivative of the Natural Exponential Function
Let be the natural exponential function. Then
.
Solution
Use the derivative of the natural exponential function and the quotient rule.
Solution
Hint
Don’t forget to use the product rule.
Student Project — Formula One Grandstands

Formula One car races can be very exciting to watch and attract a lot of spectators. Formula One track designers
have to ensure sufficient grandstand space is available around the track to accommodate these viewers. However,
car racing can be dangerous, and safety considerations are paramount. The grandstands must be placed where
spectators will not be in danger should a driver lose control of a car ((Figure)).

Figure 1. The grandstand next to a straightaway of the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya race track, located where the spectators are
not in danger.
**********
Safety is especially a concern on turns. If a driver does not slow down enough before entering the turn, the car
may slide off the racetrack. Normally, this just results in a wider turn, which slows the driver down. But if the
driver loses control completely, the car may fly off the track entirely, on a path tangent to the curve of the
racetrack.
Suppose you are designing a new Formula One track. One section of the track can be modeled by the function
((Figure)). The current plan calls for grandstands to be built along the first
straightaway and around a portion of the first curve. The plans call for the front corner of the grandstand to be
located at the point . We want to determine whether this location puts the spectators in danger if a
driver loses control of the car.

Figure 2. (a) One section of the racetrack can be modeled by the function . (b) The front corner of the
grandstand is located at .
1. Physicists have determined that drivers are most likely to lose control of their cars as they are coming into a
turn, at the point where the slope of the tangent line is 1. Find the coordinates of this point near the
turn.
2. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve at this point.
3. To determine whether the spectators are in danger in this scenario, find the -coordinate of the point
where the tangent line crosses the line . Is this point safely to the right of the grandstand? Or are
the spectators in danger?
4. What if a driver loses control earlier than the physicists project? Suppose a driver loses control at the point
. What is the slope of the tangent line at this point?
5. If a driver loses control as described in part 4, are the spectators safe?
6. Should you proceed with the current design for the grandstand, or should the grandstands be moved?
Key Concepts
• The derivative of a constant function is zero.
• The derivative of a power function is a function in which the power on becomes the coefficient of the term
and the power on in the derivative decreases by 1.
• The derivative of a constant multiplied by a function is the same as the constant multiplied by the
derivative.
• The derivative of the sum of a function and a function is the same as the sum of the derivative of and
the derivative of .
• The derivative of the difference of a function and a function is the same as the difference of the
derivative of and the derivative of .
• The derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function

plus the derivative of the second function times the first function.
• The derivative of the quotient of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second
function minus the derivative of the second function times the first function, all divided by the square of the
second function.
• We used the limit definition of the derivative to develop formulas that allow us to find derivatives without
resorting to the definition of the derivative. These formulas can be used singly or in combination with each
other.
For the following exercises, find for each function.
1.
2.
Solution
3.
4.
Solution
5.
6.
Solution
7.
8.
Solution
9.
10.

Solution
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given function at the
indicated point. Use a graphing calculator to graph the function and the tangent line.
15. [T] at
16. [T] at
Solution
17. [T] at
18. [T] at

Solution
For the following exercises, assume that and are both differentiable functions for all . Find the
derivative of each of the functions .
19.
20.
Solution
21.
22.
Solution
For the following exercises, assume that and are both differentiable functions with values as given in the
following table. Use the following table to calculate the following derivatives.
1 2 3 4
3 5 -2 0
2 3 -4 6
-1 7 8 -3
4 1 2 9
23. Find if .
24. Find if .
Solution

25. Find if .
26. Find if .
Solution
Undefined
For the following exercises, use the following figure to find the indicated derivatives, if they exist.
27. Let . Find

a.
b.
c.
28. Let . Find

a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. 2
b. does not exist
c. 2.5
29. Let . Find
a.
b.
c.
For the following exercises,

a. Evaluate , and
b. Graph the function and the tangent line at .
30. [T]

Solution
a. 23
b.
31. [T]
32. [T]
Solution
a. 3
b.
33. [T]
34. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of at .
Solution

Solution
37. Find the point on the graph of such that the tangent line at that point has an intercept of 6.
38. Find the equation of the line passing through the point and tangent to the graph of .
Solution
39. Determine all points on the graph of for which the slope of the tangent line is
a. horizontal
b. -1.
40. Find a quadratic polynomial such that , and .
Solution
41. A car driving along a freeway with traffic has traveled meters in seconds.
a. Determine the time in seconds when the velocity of the car is 0.
b. Determine the acceleration of the car when the velocity is 0.
42. [T] A herring swimming along a straight line has traveled feet in seconds.
Determine the velocity of the herring when it has traveled 3 seconds.
Solution
or 0.0992 ft/s
43. The population in millions of arctic flounder in the Atlantic Ocean is modeled by the function
, where is measured in years.
a. Determine the initial flounder population.

b. Determine and briefly interpret the result.
44. [T] The concentration of antibiotic in the bloodstream hours after being injected is given by the function
, where is measured in milligrams per liter of blood.
a. Find the rate of change of .

b. Determine the rate of change for , and .
c. Briefly describe what seems to be occurring as the number of hours increases.
Solution
a.

b. -0.02395 mg/L-hr, -0.01344 mg/L-hr, -0.003566 mg/L-hr, -0.001579 mg/L-hr
c. The rate at which the concentration of drug in the bloodstream decreases is slowing to 0 as time increases.
45. A book publisher has a cost function given by , where is the number of copies of a
book in thousands and is the cost, per book, measured in dollars. Evaluate and explain its meaning.
46. [T] According to Newton’s law of universal gravitation, the force between two bodies of constant mass
and is given by the formula , where is the gravitational constant and is the distance
between the bodies.
a. Suppose that , and are constants. Find the rate of change of force with respect to distance
.
b. Find the rate of change of force with gravitational constant , on two
bodies 10 meters apart, each with a mass of 1000 kilograms.
Solution
a.
b. N/m
Glossary
constant multiple rule

the derivative of a constant multiplied by a function is the same as the constant multiplied by the
derivative:
constant rule
the derivative of a constant function is zero: , where is a constant
difference rule
the derivative of the difference of a function and a function is the same as the difference of the derivative
of and the derivative of :
power rule
the derivative of a power function is a function in which the power on becomes the coefficient of the term
and the power on in the derivative decreases by 1: If is an integer, then
product rule
the derivative of a product of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function
plus the derivative of the second function times the first function:
quotient rule
the derivative of the quotient of two functions is the derivative of the first function times the second function
minus the derivative of the second function times the first function, all divided by the square of the second
function:
sum rule
the derivative of the sum of a function and a function is the same as the sum of the derivative of and
the derivative of :

3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change
Learning Objectives
• Determine a new value of a quantity from the old value and the amount of change.
• Calculate the average rate of change and explain how it differs from the instantaneous rate of change.
• Apply rates of change to displacement, velocity, and acceleration of an object moving along a straight line.
• Predict the future population from the present value and the population growth rate.
• Use derivatives to calculate marginal cost and revenue in a business situation.
In this section we look at some applications of the derivative by focusing on the interpretation of the derivative as the
rate of change of a function. These applications include acceleration and velocity in physics, population growth rates in
biology, and marginal functions in economics.
Amount of Change Formula

One application for derivatives is to estimate an unknown value of a function at a point by using a known value of a
function at some given point together with its rate of change at the given point. If is a function defined on an
interval , then the amount of change of over the interval is the change in the values of the function
over that interval and is given by
.
The average rate of change of the function over that same interval is the ratio of the amount of change over that
interval to the corresponding change in the values. It is given by
.
As we already know, the instantaneous rate of change of at is its derivative

.
For small enough values of . We can then solve for to get the amount of
change formula:
.
We can use this formula if we know only and and wish to estimate the value of . For example,
we may use the current population of a city and the rate at which it is growing to estimate its population in the near
future. As we can see in (Figure), we are approximating by the coordinate at on the line tangent to
at . Observe that the accuracy of this estimate depends on the value of as well as the value of .
374 | 3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change

Figure 1. The new value of a changed quantity equals the original value plus the rate of change
times the interval of change: .
Here is an interesting demonstration of rate of change.
Estimating the Value of a Function
If and , estimate .
Solution
Begin by finding . We have . Thus,
.
Given and , estimate .
Solution
-4.4
Hint
Use the same process as in the preceding example.
Motion along a Line

Another use for the derivative is to analyze motion along a line. We have described velocity as the rate of change of
3.4 Derivatives as Rates of Change | 375

position. If we take the derivative of the velocity, we can find the acceleration, or the rate of change of velocity. It is
also important to introduce the idea of speed, which is the magnitude of velocity. Thus, we can state the following
mathematical definitions.
Definition
Let be a function giving the position of an object at time .
The velocity of the object at time is given by .
The speed of the object at time is given by .
The acceleration of the object at is given by .
Comparing Instantaneous Velocity and Average Velocity
A ball is dropped from a height of 64 feet. Its height above ground (in feet) seconds later is given by
.
a. What is the instantaneous velocity of the ball when it hits the ground?
b. What is the average velocity during its fall?
Solution
The first thing to do is determine how long it takes the ball to reach the ground. To do this, set .
Solving , we get , so it takes 2 seconds for the ball to reach the ground.
a. The instantaneous velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground is . Since m
we obtain ft/s.
b. The average velocity of the ball during its fall is
ft/s.
Interpreting the Relationship between and
A particle moves along a coordinate axis in the positive direction to the right. Its position at time is given by
. Find and and use these values to answer the following questions.
a. Is the particle moving from left to right or from right to left at time ?
b. Is the particle speeding up or slowing down at time ?
Solution
Begin by finding and .
and .

Evaluating these functions at , we obtain and .
a. Because , the particle is moving from right to left.
b. Because and , velocity and acceleration are acting in opposite directions. In other
words, the particle is being accelerated in the direction opposite the direction in which it is traveling,
causing to decrease. The particle is slowing down.
Position and Velocity
The position of a particle moving along a coordinate axis is given by .

a. Find .
b. At what time(s) is the particle at rest?
c. On what time intervals is the particle moving from left to right? From right to left?
d. Use the information obtained to sketch the path of the particle along a coordinate axis.
Solution
a. The velocity is the derivative of the position function:
.
b. The particle is at rest when , so set . Factoring the left-hand side of the
equation produces . Solving, we find that the particle is at rest at and
.
c. The particle is moving from left to right when and from right to left when . (Figure)
gives the analysis of the sign of for , but it does not represent the axis along which the particle
is moving.
The sign of v(t) determines the direction of the particle.
Since on , the particle is moving from left to right on these

intervals.
Since on , the particle is moving from right to left on this interval.
d. Before we can sketch the graph of the particle, we need to know its position at the time it starts moving
and at the times that it changes direction . We have , and
. This means that the particle begins on the coordinate axis at 4 and changes direction at 0
and 20 on the coordinate axis. The path of the particle is shown on a coordinate axis in (Figure).

The path of the particle can be determined by analyzing .
A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time is given by . Is the particle
moving from right to left or from left to right at time ?
Solution
left to right
Hint
Find and look at the sign.
Population Change
In addition to analyzing velocity, speed, acceleration, and position, we can use derivatives to analyze various types of
populations, including those as diverse as bacteria colonies and cities. We can use a current population, together with
a growth rate, to estimate the size of a population in the future. The population growth rate is the rate of change of a
population and consequently can be represented by the derivative of the size of the population.
Definition
If is the number of entities present in a population, then the population growth rate of is defined to be
.
Estimating a Population
The population of a city is tripling every 5 years. If its current population is 10,000, what will be its approximate
population 2 years from now?
Solution
Let be the population (in thousands) years from now. Thus, we know that and based on the
information, we anticipate . Now estimate , the current growth rate, using
.
By applying (Figure) to , we can estimate the population 2 years from now by writing
;
thus, in 2 years the population will be approximately 18,000.

The current population of a mosquito colony is known to be 3,000; that is, . If ,
estimate the size of the population in 3 days, where is measured in days.
Solution
3,300
Hint
Use .
Changes in Cost and Revenue

In addition to analyzing motion along a line and population growth, derivatives are useful in analyzing changes in cost,
revenue, and profit. The concept of a marginal function is common in the fields of business and economics and implies
the use of derivatives. The marginal cost is the derivative of the cost function. The marginal revenue is the derivative
of the revenue function. The marginal profit is the derivative of the profit function, which is based on the cost function
and the revenue function.
Definition
If is the cost of producing items, then the marginal cost is .
If is the revenue obtained from selling items, then the marginal revenue is
.
If is the profit obtained from selling items, then the marginal profit is
defined to be .
We can roughly approximate
by choosing an appropriate value for . Since represents objects, a reasonable and small value for is 1. Thus, by
substituting , we get the approximation . Consequently,
for a given value of can be thought of as the change in cost associated with producing one additional item. In a similar
way, approximates the revenue obtained by selling one additional item, and
approximates the profit obtained by producing and selling one additional item.
Applying Marginal Revenue
Assume that the number of barbeque dinners that can be sold, , can be related to the price charged, , by the
equation .
In this case, the revenue in dollars obtained by selling barbeque dinners is given by
for .
Use the marginal revenue function to estimate the revenue obtained from selling the 101st barbeque dinner.
Compare this to the actual revenue obtained from the sale of this dinner.
Solution
First, find the marginal revenue function: .

Next, use to approximate , the revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st
dinner. Since , the revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st dinner is approximately $3.
The actual revenue obtained from the sale of the 101st dinner is
, or .
The marginal revenue is a fairly good estimate in this case and has the advantage of being easy to compute.
Suppose that the profit obtained from the sale of fish-fry dinners is given by
. Use the marginal profit function to estimate the profit from the sale of the
101st fish-fry dinner.
Solution
$2
Hint
Use to approximate .
Key Concepts
• Using , it is possible to estimate given and .
• The rate of change of position is velocity, and the rate of change of velocity is acceleration. Speed is the
absolute value, or magnitude, of velocity.
• The population growth rate and the present population can be used to predict the size of a future
population.
• Marginal cost, marginal revenue, and marginal profit functions can be used to predict, respectively, the cost
of producing one more item, the revenue obtained by selling one more item, and the profit obtained by
producing and selling one more item.
For the following exercises, the given functions represent the position of a particle traveling along a horizontal line.
a. Find the velocity and acceleration functions.
b. Determine the time intervals when the object is slowing down or speeding up.
1.
2.
Solution
a.
b. Speeds up: ; Slows down:
3.
4. A rocket is fired vertically upward from the ground. The distance in feet that the rocket travels from the
ground after seconds is given by .
a. Find the velocity of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.
b. Find the acceleration of the rocket 3 seconds after being fired.

Solution
a.
b.
5. A ball is thrown downward with a speed of 8 ft/s from the top of a 64-foot-tall building. After seconds, its
height above the ground is given by .
a. Determine how long it takes for the ball to hit the ground.
b. Determine the velocity of the ball when it hits the ground.
6. The position function represents the position of the back of a car backing out of a
driveway and then driving in a straight line, where is in feet and is in seconds. In this case,
represents the time at which the back of the car is at the garage door, so is the starting position of
the car, 4 feet inside the garage.
a. Determine the velocity of the car when .
b. Determine the velocity of the car when .
a. 5 ft/s b. 9 ft/s
7. The position of a hummingbird flying along a straight line in seconds is given by meters.
a. Determine the velocity of the bird at sec.
b. Determine the acceleration of the bird at sec.
c. Determine the acceleration of the bird when the velocity equals 0.
8. A potato is launched vertically upward with an initial velocity of 100 ft/s from a potato gun at the top of an
85-foot-tall building. The distance in feet that the potato travels from the ground after seconds is given by
.
a. Find the velocity of the potato after 0.5 sec and 5.75 sec.
b. Find the speed of the potato at 0.5 sec and 5.75 sec.
c. Determine when the potato reaches its maximum height.
d. Find the acceleration of the potato at 0.5 s and 1.5 s.
e. Determine how long the potato is in the air.
f. Determine the velocity of the potato upon hitting the ground.
Solution
a. 84 ft/s, -84 ft/s
b. 84 ft/s
c. sec
d. in both cases
e. sec
f. ft/s
9. The position function gives the position in miles of a freight train where east is the positive
direction and is measured in hours.
a. Determine the direction the train is traveling when .

b. Determine the direction the train is traveling when .
c. Determine the time intervals when the train is slowing down or speeding up.
10. The following graph shows the position of an object moving along a straight line.
a. Use the graph of the position function to determine the time intervals when the velocity is positive,
negative, or zero.
b. Sketch the graph of the velocity function.
c. Use the graph of the velocity function to determine the time intervals when the acceleration is positive,
negative, or zero.
d. Determine the time intervals when the object is speeding up or slowing down.
Solution
a. Velocity is positive on , negative on , and zero on .
b.
c. Acceleration is positive on , negative on , and zero on .

d. The object is speeding up on and slowing down on .
11. The cost function, in dollars, of a company that manufactures food processors is given by
, where is the number of food processors manufactured.
a. Find the marginal cost function.
b. Find the marginal cost of manufacturing 12 food processors.
c. Find the actual cost of manufacturing the thirteenth food processor.
12. The price (in dollars) and the demand for a certain digital clock radio is given by the price-demand
function .
a. Find the revenue function .
b. Find the marginal revenue function.
c. Find the marginal revenue at and .

Solution
a.
b.
c. $6 per item, $0 per item
13. [T] A profit is earned when revenue exceeds cost. Suppose the profit function for a skateboard manufacturer
is given by , where is the number of skateboards sold.
a. Find the exact profit from the sale of the thirtieth skateboard.
b. Find the marginal profit function and use it to estimate the profit from the sale of the thirtieth skateboard.
14. [T] In general, the profit function is the difference between the revenue and cost functions:
.
Suppose the price-demand and cost functions for the production of cordless drills is given respectively by
and , where is the number of cordless drills that are sold at
a price of dollars per drill and is the cost of producing cordless drills.
a. Find the marginal cost function.
b. Find the revenue and marginal revenue functions.
c. Find and . Interpret the results.
d. Find the profit and marginal profit functions.
e. Find and . Interpret the results.
Solution
a.
b.
c. . At a production level of 1000 cordless drills, revenue is increasing
at a rate of $83 per drill; at a production level of 4000 cordless drills, revenue is decreasing at a rate of $97 per
drill.
d.
e. . At a production level of 1000 cordless drills, profit is increasing
at a rate of $18 per drill; at a production level of 4000 cordless drills, profit is decreasing at a rate of $162 per drill.
15. A small town in Ohio commissioned an actuarial firm to conduct a study that modeled the rate of change of
the town’s population. The study found that the town’s population (measured in thousands of people) can be
modeled by the function , where is measured in years.
a. Find the rate of change function of the population function.
b. Find , and . Interpret what the results mean for the town.
c. Find , and . Interpret what the results mean for the town’s population.
16. [T] A culture of bacteria grows in number according to the function , where
is measured in hours.
a. Find the rate of change of the number of bacteria.
b. Find , and .
c. Interpret the results in (b).
d. Find , and . Interpret what the answers imply about the bacteria

population growth.
Solution
a.
b.
c. The bacteria population increases from time 0 to 10 hours; afterwards, the bacteria population decreases.
d. . The rate at which the
bacteria is increasing is decreasing during the first 10 hours. Afterwards, the bacteria population is decreasing at
a decreasing rate.
17. The centripetal force of an object of mass is given by , where is the speed of rotation and
is the distance from the center of rotation.
a. Find the rate of change of centripetal force with respect to the distance from the center of rotation.
b. Find the rate of change of centripetal force of an object with mass 1000 kilograms, velocity of 13.89 m/s,
and a distance from the center of rotation of 200 meters.
The following questions concern the population (in millions) of London by decade in the 19th century, which is listed
in the following table.
Population of London
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Demographics_of_London.
Years since 1800 Population (millions)

1 0.8795
11 1.040
21 1.264
31 1.516
41 1.661
51 2.000
61 2.634
71 3.272
81 3.911
91 4.422
18. [T]
a. Using a calculator or a computer program, find the best-fit linear function to measure the population.
b. Find the derivative of the equation in (a) and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the equation and explain its physical meaning.
Solution
a.
b. . The population is increasing.
c. . The rate at which the population is increasing is constant.

19. [T]
a. Using a calculator or a computer program, find the best-fit quadratic curve through the data.
b. Find the derivative of the equation and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the equation and explain its physical meaning.
For the following exercises, consider an astronaut on a large planet in another galaxy. To learn more about the
composition of this planet, the astronaut drops an electronic sensor into a deep trench. The sensor transmits its
vertical position every second in relation to the astronaut’s position. The summary of the falling sensor data is
displayed in the following table.
Time after dropping (s) Position (m)

0 0
1 -1
2 -2
3 -5
4 -7
5 -14
20. [T]
a. Using a calculator or computer program, find the best-fit quadratic curve to the data.
b. Find the derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
Solution
a.
b. . This is the velocity of the sensor.
c. . This is the acceleration of the sensor; it is a constant acceleration downward.
21. [T]
a. Using a calculator or computer program, find the best-fit cubic curve to the data.
b. Find the derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
c. Find the second derivative of the position function and explain its physical meaning.
d. Using the result from (c), explain why a cubic function is not a good choice for this problem.
The following problems deal with the Holling type I, II, and III equations. These equations describe the ecological
event of growth of a predator population given the amount of prey available for consumption.
22. [T] The Holling type I equation is described by , where is the amount of prey available and
is the rate at which the predator meets the prey for consumption.
a. Graph the Holling type I equation, given .
b. Determine the first derivative of the Holling type I equation and explain physically what the derivative
implies.
c. Determine the second derivative of the Holling type I equation and explain physically what the derivative
implies.
d. Using the interpretations from (b) and (c), explain why the Holling type I equation may not be realistic.

Solution
a.
b. . The more increase in prey, the more growth for predators.

c. . As the amount of prey increases, the rate at which the predator population growth increases is
constant.
d. This equation assumes that if there is more prey, the predator is able to increase consumption linearly. This
assumption is unrealistic because we would expect there to be some saturation point at which there is too much
prey for the predator to consume adequately.
23. [T] The Holling type II equation is described by , where is the amount of prey available and
is the maximum consumption rate of the predator.
a. Graph the Holling type II equation given and . What are the differences between the
Holling type I and II equations?
b. Take the first derivative of the Holling type II equation and interpret the physical meaning of the derivative.
c. Show that and interpret the meaning of the parameter .
d. Find and interpret the meaning of the second derivative. What makes the Holling type II function more
realistic than the Holling type I function?
24. [T] The Holling type III equation is described by , where is the amount of prey available
and is the maximum consumption rate of the predator.
a. Graph the Holling type III equation given and . What are the differences between the
Holling type II and III equations?
b. Take the first derivative of the Holling type III equation and interpret the physical meaning of the
derivative.
c. Find and interpret the meaning of the second derivative (it may help to graph the second derivative).
d. What additional ecological phenomena does the Holling type III function describe compared with the
Holling type II function?
Solution
a.
b. . When the amount of prey increases, the predator growth increases.
c. . When the amount of prey is extremely small, the rate at which predator growth is

increasing is increasing, but when the amount of prey reaches above a certain threshold, the rate at which
predator growth is increasing begins to decrease.
d. At lower levels of prey, the prey is more easily able to avoid detection by the predator, so fewer prey individuals
are consumed, resulting in less predator growth.
25. [T] The populations of the snowshoe hare (in thousands) and the lynx (in hundreds) collected over 7 years
from 1937 to 1943 are shown in the following table. The snowshoe hare is the primary prey of the lynx.
Snowshoe Hare and Lynx Populations

Source: http://www.biotopics.co.uk/newgcse/predatorprey.html.
Population of snowshoe hare (thousands) Population of lynx (hundreds)

20 10
55 15
65 55
95 60
a. Graph the data points and determine which Holling-type function fits the data best.
b. Using the meanings of the parameters and , determine values for those parameters by examining a
graph of the data. Recall that measures what prey value results in the half-maximum of the predator
value.
c. Plot the resulting Holling-type I, II, and III functions on top of the data. Was the result from part a. correct?
Glossary
acceleration
is the rate of change of the velocity, that is, the derivative of velocity
amount of change
the amount of a function over an interval is
average rate of change
is a function over an interval is

marginal cost
is the derivative of the cost function, or the approximate cost of producing one more item
marginal revenue
is the derivative of the revenue function, or the approximate revenue obtained by selling one more item
marginal profit
is the derivative of the profit function, or the approximate profit obtained by producing and selling one more
item
population growth rate
is the derivative of the population with respect to time
speed
is the absolute value of velocity, that is, is the speed of an object at time whose velocity is given by

3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
Learning Objectives
• Find the derivatives of the sine and cosine function.
• Find the derivatives of the standard trigonometric functions.
• Calculate the higher-order derivatives of the sine and cosine.
One of the most important types of motion in physics is simple harmonic motion, which is associated with such systems
as an object with mass oscillating on a spring. Simple harmonic motion can be described by using either sine or cosine
functions. In this section we expand our knowledge of derivative formulas to include derivatives of these and other
trigonometric functions. We begin with the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions and then use them to obtain
formulas for the derivatives of the remaining four trigonometric functions. Being able to calculate the derivatives of the
sine and cosine functions will enable us to find the velocity and acceleration of simple harmonic motion.
Derivatives of the Sine and Cosine Functions

We begin our exploration of the derivative for the sine function by using the formula to make a reasonable guess at its
derivative. Recall that for a function
.
Consequently, for values of very close to 0, . We see that by using ,
By setting and using a graphing utility, we can get a graph of an approximation to the
derivative of ( (Figure) ).
388 | 3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Figure 1. The graph of the function looks a lot like a cosine curve.
Upon inspection, the graph of appears to be very close to the graph of the cosine function. Indeed, we will show
that
.
If we were to follow the same steps to approximate the derivative of the cosine function, we would find that
.
The Derivatives of and
The derivative of the sine function is the cosine and the derivative of the cosine function is the negative sine.
Proof
Because the proofs for and use similar techniques, we provide only the
proof for . Before beginning, recall two important trigonometric limits we learned in Introduction
to Limits :
and .
The graphs of and are shown in (Figure) .
3.5 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions | 389

Figure 2. These graphs show two important limits needed to establish the derivative formulas for the sine and cosine functions.
We also recall the following trigonometric identity for the sine of the sum of two angles:
.
Now that we have gathered all the necessary equations and identities, we proceed with the proof.
(Figure) shows the relationship between the graph of and its derivative . Notice
that at the points where has a horizontal tangent, its derivative takes on the value
zero. We also see that where is increasing, and where is
decreasing, .

Figure 3. Where has a maximum or a minimum, . That is,
where has a horizontal tangent. These points are noted with dots on the graphs.
Differentiating a Function Containing
Solution
Using the product rule, we have
After simplifying, we obtain

.
Find the derivative of
Solution
Hint
Finding the Derivative of a Function Containing

Solution
By applying the quotient rule, we have
Solution
Hint
Use the quotient rule.
An Application to Velocity
A particle moves along a coordinate axis in such a way that its position at time is given by
for . At what times is the particle at rest?
Solution
To determine when the particle is at rest, set . Begin by finding . We obtain
,
so we must solve
for .
The solutions to this equation are and . Thus the particle is at rest at times and .
A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time is given by for
. At what times is the particle at rest?
Solution
Hint
Use the previous example as a guide.
Derivatives of Other Trigonometric Functions

Since the remaining four trigonometric functions may be expressed as quotients involving sine, cosine, or both, we can
use the quotient rule to find formulas for their derivatives.

The Derivative of the Tangent Function
Solution
Start by expressing as the quotient of and :
.
Now apply the quotient rule to obtain
.
Recognizing that , by the Pythagorean Identity, we now have
.
Finally, use the identity to obtain
.
Solution
Hint
Rewrite as and use the quotient rule.
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions may be obtained by using similar techniques. We provide these
formulas in the following theorem.
Derivatives of , and
The derivatives of the remaining trigonometric functions are as follows:
Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution
To find the equation of the tangent line, we need a point and a slope at that point. To find the point, compute
.
Thus the tangent line passes through the point . Next, find the slope by finding the derivative of
and evaluating it at :
and .

Using the point-slope equation of the line, we obtain
or equivalently,
.
Finding the Derivative of Trigonometric Functions
Find the derivative of
Solution
To find this derivative, we must use both the sum rule and the product rule. Using the sum rule, we find
.
In the first term, , and by applying the product rule to the second term we obtain
.
Therefore, we have
.
Solution
Hint
Use the rule for differentiating a constant multiple and the rule for differentiating a difference of two functions.
Solution
Hint
Evaluate the derivative at .
Higher-Order Derivatives
The higher-order derivatives of and follow a repeating pattern. By following the pattern, we can find any
higher-order derivative of and .
Finding Higher-Order Derivatives of
Find the first four derivatives of .
Solution
Each step in the chain is straightforward:

Analysis
Once we recognize the pattern of derivatives, we can find any higher-order derivative by determining the step in the
pattern to which it corresponds. For example, every fourth derivative of equals , so
For , find .
Solution
Hint
See the previous example.
Using the Pattern for Higher-Order Derivatives of
Find .
Solution
We can see right away that for the 74th derivative of , so
For , find .
Solution
Hint
An Application to Acceleration
A particle moves along a coordinate axis in such a way that its position at time is given by .
Find and . Compare these values and decide whether the particle is speeding up or slowing
down.
First find : . Thus, . Next, find . Thus,

and we have . Since and , we
see that velocity and acceleration are acting in opposite directions; that is, the object is being accelerated in the
direction opposite to the direction in which it is travelling. Consequently, the particle is slowing down.
A block attached to a spring is moving vertically. Its position at time is given by . Find
and . Compare these values and decide whether the block is speeding up or slowing down.
Solution
and . The block is speeding up.
Hint
Key Concepts
• We can find the derivatives of and by using the definition of derivative and the limit formulas
found earlier. The results are
and .
• With these two formulas, we can determine the derivatives of all six basic trigonometric functions.
Key Equations
• Derivative of sine function
• Derivative of cosine function
• Derivative of tangent function
• Derivative of cotangent function
• Derivative of secant function
• Derivative of cosecant function
For the following exercises, find for the given functions.
1.
Solution

2.
3.
Solution
4.
5.
Solution
6.
7.
Solution
8.
9.
Solution
10.
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to each of the given functions at the indicated values
of . Then use a calculator to graph both the function and the tangent line to ensure the equation for the tangent line
is correct.
11. [T]
Solution

12. [T]
13. [T]
Solution
14. [T]
15. [T]
16. [T]
For the following exercises, find for the given functions.
17.

Solution
18.
19.
Solution
20.
21.
Solution
22.
23. Find all values on the graph of where the tangent line is horizontal.
Solution
, where is an integer
24. Find all values on the graph of for where the tangent line has a
slope of 2.
25. Let . Determine the point(s) on the graph of for where the tangent line is
parallel to the line .
Solution
26. [T] A mass on a spring bounces up and down in simple harmonic motion, modeled by the function
where is measured in inches and is measured in seconds. Find the rate at which the
spring is oscillating at s.
27. Let the position of a swinging pendulum in simple harmonic motion be given by .
Find the constants and such that when the velocity is 3 cm/s, and .
Solution

28. After a diver jumps off a diving board, the edge of the board oscillates with position given by
cm at seconds after the jump.
a. Sketch one period of the position function for .
b. Find the velocity function.
c. Sketch one period of the velocity function for .
d. Determine the times when the velocity is 0 over one period.
e. Find the acceleration function.
f. Sketch one period of the acceleration function for .
29. The number of hamburgers sold at a fast-food restaurant in Pasadena, California, is given by
where is the number of hamburgers sold and represents the number of hours after the
restaurant opened at 11 a.m. until 11 p.m., when the store closes. Find and determine the intervals where the
number of burgers being sold is increasing.
Solution
, increasing on , and
30. [T] The amount of rainfall per month in Phoenix, Arizona, can be approximated by
, where is the number of months since January. Find and use a calculator to
determine the intervals where the amount of rain falling is decreasing.
For the following exercises, use the quotient rule to derive the given equations.
31.
32.
33.
34. Use the definition of derivative and the identity

to prove that .
For the following exercises, find the requested higher-order derivative for the given functions.
35. of
36. of
37. of
Solution

38. of
39. of
Solution

3.6 The Chain Rule
Learning Objectives
• State the chain rule for the composition of two functions.
• Apply the chain rule together with the power rule.
• Apply the chain rule with the product/quotient rules correctly in combination when both are necessary.
• Apply the chain rule with exponential and trigonometric functions correctly in combination when both are
necessary.
• Recognize the chain rule for a composition of three or more functions.
• Describe the proof of the chain rule.
We have seen the techniques for differentiating basic functions ( , etc.) as well as sums, differences,
products, quotients, and constant multiples of these functions. However, these techniques do not allow us to
differentiate compositions of functions, such as or . In this section, we study
the rule for finding the derivative of the composition of two or more functions.
Deriving the Chain Rule

When we have a function that is a composition of two or more functions, we could use all of the techniques we have
already learned to differentiate it. However, using all of those techniques to break down a function into simpler parts
that we are able to differentiate can get cumbersome. Instead, we use the chain rule , which states that the derivative
of a composite function is the derivative of the outer function evaluated at the inner function times the derivative of the
inner function.
To put this rule into context, let’s take a look at an example: . We can think of the derivative of this
function with respect to as the rate of change of relative to the change in . Consequently, we want to know
how changes as changes. We can think of this event as a chain reaction: As changes, changes, which
leads to a change in . This chain reaction gives us hints as to what is involved in computing the derivative of
. First of all, a change in forcing a change in suggests that somehow the derivative of is involved.
In addition, the change in forcing a change in suggests that the derivative of with respect to ,
where , is also part of the final derivative.
We can take a more formal look at the derivative of by setting up the limit that would give us the
derivative at a specific value in the domain of .
.
This expression does not seem particularly helpful; however, we can modify it by multiplying and dividing by the
expression to obtain
.
From the definition of the derivative, we can see that the second factor is the derivative of at . That is,
.
402 | 3.6 The Chain Rule

However, it might be a little more challenging to recognize that the first term is also a derivative. We can see this by
letting and observing that as :
Thus, .
In other words, if , then . Thus, if we think of as

the composition where and , then the derivative of
is the product of the derivative of and the derivative of the function
evaluated at the function . At this point, we anticipate that for , it is quite likely that
. As we determined above, this is the case for .
Now that we have derived a special case of the chain rule, we state the general case and then apply it in a general form
to other composite functions. An informal proof is provided at the end of the section.
Rule: The Chain Rule
Let and be functions. For all in the domain of for which is differentiable at and is differentiable at
, the derivative of the composite function
is given by
.
Alternatively, if is a function of , and is a function of , then
Watch an animation of the chain rule.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Applying the Chain Rule

1. To differentiate , begin by identifying and .
2. Find and evaluate it at to obtain .
3. Find .
4. Write .
Note : When applying the chain rule to the composition of two or more functions, keep in mind that we work our
way from the outside function in. It is also useful to remember that the derivative of the composition of two
functions can be thought of as having two parts; the derivative of the composition of three functions has three
parts; and so on. Also, remember that we never evaluate a derivative at a derivative.
The Chain and Power Rules Combined

We can now apply the chain rule to composite functions, but note that we often need to use it with other rules. For
example, to find derivatives of functions of the form , we need to use the chain rule combined
with the power rule. To do so, we can think of as where . Then
. Thus, . This leads us to the derivative of a power function using the
chain rule,
3.6 The Chain Rule | 403

Rule: Power Rule for Composition of Functions
For all values of for which the derivative is defined, if
.
Then
.
Using the Chain and Power Rules
Solution
First, rewrite .
Applying the power rule with , we have

.
Rewriting back to the original form gives us
.
Solution
Hint
Use (Figure) with
Using the Chain and Power Rules with a Trigonometric Function
Solution
First recall that , so we can rewrite as .
Applying the power rule with , we obtain
.
Find the equation of a line tangent to the graph of at .
Solution
Because we are finding an equation of a line, we need a point. The -coordinate of the point is 2. To find the
-coordinate, substitute 2 into . Since , the point is .
For the slope, we need . To find , first we rewrite and apply the power rule
to obtain
.

By substituting, we have . Therefore, the line has equation
. Rewriting, the equation of the line is .
Solution
Hint
Combining the Chain Rule with Other Rules

Now that we can combine the chain rule and the power rule, we examine how to combine the chain rule with the other
rules we have learned. In particular, we can use it with the formulas for the derivatives of trigonometric functions or
with the product rule.
Using the Chain Rule on a General Cosine Function
Solution
Think of as where . Since we have
. Then we do the following calculation.
Thus, the derivative of is given by .
In the following example we apply the rule that we have just derived.
Using the Chain Rule on a Cosine Function
Let . Then .
Using the result from the previous example,
Using the Chain Rule on Another Trigonometric Function
Solution
Apply the chain rule to to obtain
.
In this problem, , so we have . Therefore, we obtain

Hint
Apply the chain rule to first and then use .
At this point we provide a list of derivative formulas that may be obtained by applying the chain rule in conjunction
with the formulas for derivatives of trigonometric functions. Their derivations are similar to those used in (Figure) and
(Figure) . For convenience, formulas are also given in Leibniz’s notation, which some students find easier to remember.
(We discuss the chain rule using Leibniz’s notation at the end of this section.) It is not absolutely necessary to memorize
these as separate formulas as they are all applications of the chain rule to previously learned formulas.
Using the Chain Rule with Trigonometric Functions
For all values of for which the derivative is defined,
Combining the Chain Rule with the Product Rule
Solution
First apply the product rule, then apply the chain rule to each term of the product.
Solution
Hint
Start out by applying the quotient rule. Remember to use the chain rule to differentiate the denominator.

Using the Chain Rule with Exponential Functions
In general,
.
Derivative of an Exponential Function
Solution
Using the derivative formula and the chain rule,
Solution
Use the derivative of the natural exponential function, the quotient rule, and the chain rule.
Solution
Hint
Composites of Three or More Functions

We can now combine the chain rule with other rules for differentiating functions, but when we are differentiating the
composition of three or more functions, we need to apply the chain rule more than once. If we look at this situation in
general terms, we can generate a formula, but we do not need to remember it, as we can simply apply the chain rule
multiple times.
In general terms, first we let

.
Then, applying the chain rule once we obtain

.
Applying the chain rule again, we obtain

.
Rule: Chain Rule for a Composition of Three Functions
For all values of for which the function is differentiable, if
,
then
.
In other words, we are applying the chain rule twice.
Notice that the derivative of the composition of three functions has three parts. (Similarly, the derivative of the
composition of four functions has four parts, and so on.) Also, remember, we always work from the outside in, taking one
derivative at a time.
Differentiating a Composite of Three Functions
Solution
First, rewrite as
.
Then apply the chain rule several times.
Solution
Hint
Rewrite and use (Figure) as a guide.
Using the Chain Rule in a Velocity Problem
A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time is given by . What is
the velocity of the particle at time ?
Solution
To find , the velocity of the particle at time , we must differentiate . Thus,
.
Substituting into , we obtain .
A particle moves along a coordinate axis. Its position at time is given by . Find its acceleration
at time .

Solution
Hint
Acceleration is the second derivative of position.
Proof of the Chain Rule

At this point, we present a very informal proof of the chain rule. For simplicity’s sake we ignore certain issues: For
example, we assume that for in some open interval containing . We begin by applying the limit
definition of the derivative to the function to obtain :
.
Rewriting, we obtain
.
Although it is clear that

,
it is not obvious that

.
To see that this is true, first recall that since is differentiable at is also continuous at . Thus,
.
Next, make the substitution and and use change of variables in the limit to obtain
.
Finally,
Using the Chain Rule with Functional Values
Let . If , and , find .
Solution
Use the chain rule, then substitute.
Let . If , and , find .

Solution
28
Hint
Follow (Figure) .
The Chain Rule Using Leibniz’s Notation

As with other derivatives that we have seen, we can express the chain rule using Leibniz’s notation. This notation for the
chain rule is used heavily in physics applications.
For , let and . Thus,

, and .
Consequently,
.
Rule: Chain Rule Using Leibniz’s Notation
If is a function of , and is a function of , then
Taking a Derivative Using Leibniz’s Notation, Example 1
Solution
First, let . Thus, . Next, find and . Using the quotient rule,
and
.
Finally, we put it all together.
It is important to remember that, when using the Leibniz form of the chain rule, the final answer must be
expressed entirely in terms of the original variable given in the problem.
Taking a Derivative Using Leibniz’s Notation, Example 2

Solution
First, let . Then . Next, find and :
and .
Finally, we put it all together.
Use Leibniz’s notation to find the derivative of . Make sure that the final answer is expressed
entirely in terms of the variable .
Solution
Hint
Let .
Key Concepts
• The chain rule allows us to differentiate compositions of two or more functions. It states that for
,
.
In Leibniz’s notation this rule takes the form
.
• We can use the chain rule with other rules that we have learned, and we can derive formulas for some of
them.
• The chain rule combines with the power rule to form a new rule:
If , then .
• When applied to the composition of three functions, the chain rule can be expressed as follows: If
, then .
Key Equations
• The chain rule
• The power rule for functions
For the following exercises, given and , find by using Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule:
.
1.

2.
Solution
3.
4.
Solution
5.
6.
Solution
For each of the following exercises,

a. decompose each function in the form and , and
b. find as a function of .
7.
8.
Solution
a. ;
b.
9.
10.
Solution
a. ;
b.
11.
12.

Solution
a. ;
b.
13.
14.
Solution
a. ;
b.
15.
16.
Solution
17.
18.
Solution
19.
20.
Solution
21.
22.
Solution

23.
24.
Solution
25.
26.
Solution
27.
28.
Solution
29. Let and suppose that and for . Find .
30. Let and suppose that and when . Find
Solution
31. Let and . If and when , find .
32. [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to at the origin. Use a calculator to graph the
function and the tangent line together.
Solution
33. [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to at the point . Use a calculator to graph
the function and the tangent line together.
34. Find the -coordinates at which the tangent line to is horizontal.

Solution
35. [T] Find an equation of the line that is normal to at the point . Use a calculator to
graph the function and the normal line together.
For the following exercises, use the information in the following table to find at the given value for .
0 2 5 0 2
1 1 -2 3 0
2 4 4 1 -1
3 3 -3 2 3
36.
Solution
10
37.
38.
Solution
39.
40.
Solution
-4
41.
42.
Solution
-12
43.

44. [T] The position function of a freight train is given by , with in meters and in
seconds. At time s, find the train’s
a. velocity and
b. acceleration.
c. Using a. and b. is the train speeding up or slowing down?
Solution
a. m/s;
b. ;
c. The train is slowing down since velocity and acceleration have opposite signs.
45. [T] A mass hanging from a vertical spring is in simple harmonic motion as given by the following position
function, where is measured in seconds and is in inches:
.
a. Determine the position of the spring at s.
b. Find the velocity of the spring at s.
46. [T] The total cost to produce boxes of Thin Mint Girl Scout cookies is dollars, where
. In weeks production is estimated to be
boxes.
a. Find the marginal cost .
b. Use Leibniz’s notation for the chain rule, , to find the rate with respect to time that the
cost is changing.
c. Use b. to determine how fast costs are increasing when weeks. Include units with the answer.
Solution
a.
b.
c. Approximately $90,300 per week
47. [T] The formula for the area of a circle is , where is the radius of the circle. Suppose a circle is
expanding, meaning that both the area and the radius (in inches) are expanding.
a. Suppose where is time in seconds. Use the chain rule to find the rate
at which the area is expanding.
b. Use a. to find the rate at which the area is expanding at s.
48. [T] The formula for the volume of a sphere is , where (in feet) is the radius of the sphere.
Suppose a spherical snowball is melting in the sun.
a. Suppose where is time in minutes. Use the chain rule to find the
rate at which the snowball is melting.
b. Use a. to find the rate at which the volume is changing at min.

Solution
a.
b. The volume is decreasing at a rate of .
49. [T] The daily temperature in degrees Fahrenheit of Phoenix in the summer can be modeled by the function
, where is hours after midnight. Find the rate at which the temperature
is changing at 4 p.m.
50. [T] The depth (in feet) of water at a dock changes with the rise and fall of tides. The depth is modeled by the
function , where is the number of hours after midnight. Find the rate at
which the depth is changing at 6 a.m.
Solution
ft/hr
Glossary
chain rule
the chain rule defines the derivative of a composite function as the derivative of the outer function evaluated
at the inner function times the derivative of the inner function

3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions
Learning Objectives
• Calculate the derivative of an inverse function.
• Recognize the derivatives of the standard inverse trigonometric functions.
In this section we explore the relationship between the derivative of a function and the derivative of its inverse. For
functions whose derivatives we already know, we can use this relationship to find derivatives of inverses without having
to use the limit definition of the derivative. In particular, we will apply the formula for derivatives of inverse functions to
trigonometric functions. This formula may also be used to extend the power rule to rational exponents.
The Derivative of an Inverse Function

We begin by considering a function and its inverse. If is both invertible and differentiable, it seems reasonable
that the inverse of is also differentiable. (Figure) shows the relationship between a function and its
inverse . Look at the point on the graph of having a tangent line with a slope of
. This point corresponds to a point on the graph of having a tangent line with a
slope of . Thus, if is differentiable at , then it must be the case that
Figure 1. The tangent lines of a function and its inverse are related; so, too, are the derivatives of
these functions.
418 | 3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions

We may also derive the formula for the derivative of the inverse by first recalling that . Then by
differentiating both sides of this equation (using the chain rule on the right), we obtain
.
Solving for , we obtain

.
We summarize this result in the following theorem.

Inverse Function Theorem
Let be a function that is both invertible and differentiable. Let be the inverse of . For
all satisfying ,
.
Alternatively, if is the inverse of , then
.
Applying the Inverse Function Theorem
Use the Inverse Function Theorem to find the derivative of . Compare the resulting derivative to
that obtained by differentiating the function directly.
Solution
The inverse of is . Since , begin by finding . Thus,
and .
Finally,
.
We can verify that this is the correct derivative by applying the quotient rule to to obtain
.
Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of Compare the result obtained by
differentiating directly.
Hint
Applying the Inverse Function Theorem
Use the inverse function theorem to find the derivative of .
Solution
The function is the inverse of the function . Since , begin by
finding . Thus,
and .
3.7 Derivatives of Inverse Functions | 419

Finally,
.
Find the derivative of by applying the inverse function theorem.
Solution
Hint
Use the fact that is the inverse of .
From the previous example, we see that we can use the inverse function theorem to extend the power rule to exponents
of the form , where is a positive integer. This extension will ultimately allow us to differentiate , where is any
rational number.
Extending the Power Rule to Rational Exponents
The power rule may be extended to rational exponents. That is, if is a positive integer, then
.
Also, if is a positive integer and is an arbitrary integer, then
.
Proof
The function is the inverse of the function . Since , begin by finding

. Thus,
and .
Finally,
.
To differentiate we must rewrite it as and apply the chain rule. Thus,

.
Applying the Power Rule to a Rational Power
Solution
First find and evaluate it at . Since
and
the slope of the tangent line to the graph at is .
Substituting into the original function, we obtain . Thus, the tangent line passes through the point
. Substituting into the point-slope formula for a line and solving for , we obtain the tangent line
.

Solution
Hint
Rewrite as and use the chain rule.
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

We now turn our attention to finding derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. These derivatives will prove
invaluable in the study of integration later in this text. The derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions are quite
surprising in that their derivatives are actually algebraic functions. Previously, derivatives of algebraic functions have
proven to be algebraic functions and derivatives of trigonometric functions have been shown to be trigonometric
functions. Here, for the first time, we see that the derivative of a function need not be of the same type as the original
function.
Derivative of the Inverse Sine Function
Solution
Since for in the interval is the inverse of , begin by finding
. Since
and ,
we see that
.
Analysis
To see that , consider the following argument. Set . In this case,
where . We begin by considering the case where . Since is an acute angle,
we may construct a right triangle having acute angle , a hypotenuse of length 1, and the side opposite angle having
length . From the Pythagorean theorem, the side adjacent to angle has length . This triangle is shown
in (Figure) . Using the triangle, we see that .

Figure 2 . Using a right triangle having acute angle , a
hypotenuse of length 1, and the side opposite angle having length
, we can see that
.
In the case where , we make the observation that and hence

.
Now if or or , and since in either case and , we
have
.
Consequently, in all cases, .
Applying the Chain Rule to the Inverse Sine Function
Apply the chain rule to the formula derived in (Figure) to find the derivative of and use
this result to find the derivative of .
Solution
Applying the chain rule to , we have
.
Now let , so . Substituting into the previous result, we obtain
Solution
Hint
The inverse of is . Use (Figure) as a guide.
The derivatives of the remaining inverse trigonometric functions may also be found by using the inverse function
theorem. These formulas are provided in the following theorem.

Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Tangent Function
Solution
Let , so . Substituting into (Figure) , we obtain
.
.
Applying Differentiation Formulas to an Inverse Sine Function
Solution
By applying the product rule, we have
.
Solution
Hint
Use (Figure) . with
Applying the Inverse Tangent Function
The position of a particle at time is given by for . Find the velocity of the particle at
time .
Solution
Begin by differentiating in order to find . Thus,
.
.
Thus, .

Solution
Hint
gives the slope of the tangent line.
Key Concepts
• The inverse function theorem allows us to compute derivatives of inverse functions without using the limit
definition of the derivative.
• We can use the inverse function theorem to develop differentiation formulas for the inverse trigonometric
functions.
Key Equations
• Inverse function theorem
whenever and is differentiable.
• Power rule with rational exponents
.
• Derivative of inverse sine function
• Derivative of inverse cosine function
• Derivative of inverse tangent function
• Derivative of inverse cotangent function
• Derivative of inverse secant function
• Derivative of inverse cosecant function
For the following exercises, use the graph of to

a. sketch the graph of , and
b. use part a. to estimate .
1.

2.
Solution
a.
b.
3.
4.

Solution
a.
b.
For the following exercises, use the functions to find
a. at and
b. .
c. Then use part b. to find at .
5.
6.
Solution
a. 6
b.
c.
7.
8.
Solution
a. 1
b.
c. 1

For each of the following functions, find .
9.
10.
Solution
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution
1
For each of the given functions ,

a. find the slope of the tangent line to its inverse function at the indicated point , and
b. find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of at the indicated point.
15.
16.
Solution
a. 4
b.
17.
18.
Solution
a.
b.
19.

For the following exercises, find for the given function.
20.
Solution
21.
22.
Solution
23.
24.
Solution
25.
26.
Solution
27.
28.
Solution
29.
For the following exercises, use the given values to find .
30.

Solution
-1
31.
32.
Solution
33.
34.
Solution
35.
36. [T] The position of a moving hockey puck after seconds is where is in meters.
a. Find the velocity of the hockey puck at any time .
b. Find the acceleration of the puck at any time .
c. Evaluate a. and b. for , and 6 seconds.
d. What conclusion can be drawn from the results in c.?
Solution
a.
b.
c.
d. The hockey puck is decelerating/slowing down at 2, 4, and 6 seconds.
37. [T] A building that is 225 feet tall casts a shadow of various lengths as the day goes by. An angle of elevation
is formed by lines from the top and bottom of the building to the tip of the shadow, as seen in the following
figure. Find the rate of change of the angle of elevation when feet.

38. [T] A pole stands 75 feet tall. An angle is formed when wires of various lengths of feet are attached from
the ground to the top of the pole, as shown in the following figure. Find the rate of change of the angle when a
wire of length 90 feet is attached.
-0.0168 radians per foot
39. [T] A television camera at ground level is 2000 feet away from the launching pad of a space rocket that is set
to take off vertically, as seen in the following figure. The angle of elevation of the camera can be found by
, where is the height of the rocket. Find the rate of change of the angle of elevation after
launch when the camera and the rocket are 5000 feet apart.
40. [T] A local movie theater with a 30-foot-high screen that is 10 feet above a person’s eye level when seated has
a viewing angle (in radians) given by ,
where is the distance in feet away from the movie screen that the person is sitting, as shown in the following
figure.
a. Find .
b. Evaluate for , and 20.
c. Interpret the results in b.
d. Evaluate for , and 40
e. Interpret the results in d. At what distance should the person sit to maximize his or her viewing angle?
a.

b.
c. As a person moves farther away from the screen, the viewing angle is increasing, which implies that as he or
she moves farther away, his or her screen vision is widening.
d.
e. As the person moves beyond 20 feet from the screen, the viewing angle is decreasing. The optimal distance the
person should sit for maximizing the viewing angle is 20 feet.

3.8 Implicit Differentiation
Learning Objectives
• Find the derivative of a complicated function by using implicit differentiation.
• Use implicit differentiation to determine the equation of a tangent line.
We have already studied how to find equations of tangent lines to functions and the rate of change of a function at
a specific point. In all these cases we had the explicit equation for the function and differentiated these functions
explicitly. Suppose instead that we want to determine the equation of a tangent line to an arbitrary curve or the rate of
change of an arbitrary curve at a point. In this section, we solve these problems by finding the derivatives of functions
that define implicitly in terms of .
Implicit Differentiation
In most discussions of math, if the dependent variable is a function of the independent variable , we express
in terms of . If this is the case, we say that is an explicit function of . For example, when we write the equation
, we are defining explicitly in terms of . On the other hand, if the relationship between the function
and the variable is expressed by an equation where is not expressed entirely in terms of , we say that the
equation defines implicitly in terms of . For example, the equation defines the function
implicitly.
Implicit differentiation allows us to find slopes of tangents to curves that are clearly not functions (they fail the vertical
line test). We are using the idea that portions of are functions that satisfy the given equation, but that is not actually
a function of .
In general, an equation defines a function implicitly if the function satisfies that equation. An equation may define many
different functions implicitly. For example, the functions
, , and , which are illustrated in
(Figure) , are just three of the many functions defined implicitly by the equation .
432 | 3.8 Implicit Differentiation

Figure 1. The equation defines many functions implicitly.
If we want to find the slope of the line tangent to the graph of at the point , we could evaluate
the derivative of the function at . On the other hand, if we want the slope of the tangent line
3.8 Implicit Differentiation | 433

at the point , we could use the derivative of . However, it is not always easy to solve for
a function defined implicitly by an equation. Fortunately, the technique of implicit differentiation allows us to find the
derivative of an implicitly defined function without ever solving for the function explicitly. The process of finding
using implicit differentiation is described in the following problem-solving strategy.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Implicit Differentiation
To perform implicit differentiation on an equation that defines a function implicitly in terms of a variable , use
the following steps:
1. Take the derivative of both sides of the equation. Keep in mind that is a function of . Consequently,
whereas because we must use the Chain Rule to
differentiate with respect to .
2. Rewrite the equation so that all terms containing are on the left and all terms that do not contain are
on the right.
3. Factor out on the left.
4. Solve for by dividing both sides of the equation by an appropriate algebraic expression.
Using Implicit Differentiation
Assuming that is defined implicitly by the equation , find .
Solution
Follow the steps in the problem-solving strategy.
Analysis
Note that the resulting expression for is in terms of both the independent variable and the dependent variable .
Although in some cases it may be possible to express in terms of only, it is generally not possible to do so.
Using Implicit Differentiation and the Product Rule
Assuming that is defined implicitly by the equation , find .

Solution
Using Implicit Differentiation to Find a Second Derivative
Find if .
Solution
In (Figure) , we showed that . We can take the derivative of both sides of this equation to find .
At this point we have found an expression for . If we choose, we can simplify the expression further by
recalling that and making this substitution in the numerator to obtain .
Find for defined implicitly by the equation .
Solution
Hint
Follow the problem solving strategy, remembering to apply the chain rule to differentiate and .

Finding Tangent Lines Implicitly
Now that we have seen the technique of implicit differentiation, we can apply it to the problem of finding equations of
tangent lines to curves described by equations.
Finding a Tangent Line to a Circle
Find the equation of the line tangent to the curve at the point .
Solution
Although we could find this equation without using implicit differentiation, using that method makes it much
easier. In (Figure) , we found .
The slope of the tangent line is found by substituting into this expression. Consequently, the slope of
the tangent line is .
Using the point and the slope in the point-slope equation of the line, we then solve for to obtain the
equation ( (Figure) ).
Figure 2. The line is tangent to at the point .
Finding the Equation of the Tangent Line to a Curve
Find the equation of the line tangent to the graph of at the point ( (Figure) ). This
curve is known as the folium (or leaf) of Descartes.

Figure 3. Finding the tangent line to the folium of Descartes at .
Solution
Begin by finding
Next, substitute into to find the slope of the tangent line:
Finally, substitute into the point-slope equation of the line and solve for to obtain
.
Applying Implicit Differentiation
In a simple video game, a rocket travels in an elliptical orbit whose path is described by the equation

. The rocket can fire missiles along lines tangent to its path. The object of the game is to
destroy an incoming asteroid traveling along the positive -axis toward . If the rocket fires a missile when
it is located at , where will it intersect the -axis?
Solution
To solve this problem, we must determine where the line tangent to the graph of
at intersects the -axis. Begin by finding implicitly.

Differentiating, we have
.
Solving for , we have
The slope of the tangent line is . The equation of the tangent line is . To
determine where the line intersects the -axis, solve . The solution is . The missile
intersects the -axis at the point .
Find the equation of the line tangent to the hyperbola at the point .
Solution
Hint
Using implicit differentiation, you should find that .
Key Concepts
• We use implicit differentiation to find derivatives of implicitly defined functions (functions defined by
equations).
• By using implicit differentiation, we can find the equation of a tangent line to the graph of a curve.
For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to find .
1.
2.
Solution
3.
4.

Solution
5.
6.
Solution
7.
8.
Solution
9.
10.
For the following exercises, find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the given equation at the indicated
point. Use a calculator or computer software to graph the function and the tangent line.
11. [T]
12. [T]
Solution
13. [T]

14. [T]
Solution
15. [T]
16. [T]
Solution
17. [T] The graph of a folium of Descartes with equation is given in the following
graph.
a. Find the equation of the tangent line at the point . Graph the tangent line along with the folium.
b. Find the equation of the normal line to the tangent line in a. at the point .
18. For the equation ,

a. Find the equation of the normal to the tangent line at the point .
b. At what other point does the normal line in a. intersect the graph of the equation?

Solution
a.
b.
19. Find all points on the graph of at which the tangent line is vertical.
20. For the equation ,

a. Find the -intercept(s).
b. Find the slope of the tangent line(s) at the -intercept(s).
c. What does the value(s) in b. indicate about the tangent line(s)?
Solution
a.
b. Slope is -2 at both intercepts
c. They are parallel since the slope is the same at both intercepts.
21. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation at the point
.
22. Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of the equation at the point
.
Solution
23. Find and for .
24. [T] The number of cell phones produced when dollars is spent on labor and dollars is spent on capital
invested by a manufacturer can be modeled by the equation .
a. Find and evaluate at the point .

b. Interpret the result of a.
Solution
a. -0.5926
b. When $81 is spent on labor and $16 is spent on capital, the amount spent on capital is decreasing by $0.5926
per $1 spent on labor.
25. [T] The number of cars produced when dollars is spent on labor and dollars is spent on capital invested
by a manufacturer can be modeled by the equation .
(Both and are measured in thousands of dollars.)
a. Find and evaluate at the point .

b. Interpret the result of a.

26. The volume of a right circular cone of radius and height is given by . Suppose that the
volume of the cone is . Find when and .
Solution
For the following exercises, consider a closed rectangular box with a square base with side and height .
27. Find an equation for the surface area of the rectangular box, .
28. If the surface area of the rectangular box is 78 square feet, find when feet and feet.
Solution
For the following exercises, use implicit differentiation to determine . Does the answer agree with the formulas we
have previously determined?
29.
30.
Solution
31.
Glossary
implicit differentiation
is a technique for computing for a function defined by an equation, accomplished by differentiating both
sides of the equation (remembering to treat the variable as a function) and solving for

3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
Learning Objectives
• Find the derivative of all exponential functions.
• Find the derivative of logarithmic functions.
• Use logarithmic differentiation to determine the derivative of a function.
So far, we have learned how to differentiate a variety of functions, including trigonometric, inverse, and implicit
functions. In this section, we explore derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions. As we discussed in
Introduction to Functions and Graphs , exponential functions play an important role in modeling population growth and
the decay of radioactive materials. Logarithmic functions can help rescale large quantities and are particularly helpful
for rewriting complicated expressions.
Applying the Natural Exponential Function
A colony of mosquitoes has an initial population of 1000. After days, the population is given by
. Show that the ratio of the rate of change of the population, , to the population size,
is constant.
Solution
First find . By using the chain rule, we have . Thus, the ratio of the rate of change of
the population to the population size is given by
.
The ratio of the rate of change of the population to the population size is the constant 0.3.
If describes the mosquito population after days, as in the preceding example, what is the
rate of change of after 4 days?
Solution
996
Hint
Find .
Derivative of the Logarithmic Function

Now that we have the derivative of the natural exponential function, we can use implicit differentiation to find the
derivative of its inverse, the natural logarithmic function.
The Derivative of the Natural Logarithmic Function
If and , then
3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions | 443

More generally, let be a differentiable function. For all values of for which , the derivative of
is given by
.
Proof
If and , then . Differentiating both sides of this equation results in the equation
.
Solving for yields

.
Finally, we substitute to obtain

.
We may also derive this result by applying the inverse function theorem, as follows. Since is the
inverse of , by applying the inverse function theorem we have
.
Using this result and applying the chain rule to yields
The graph of and its derivative are shown in (Figure) .
Figure 3. The function is increasing on . Its derivative is greater

than zero on .
Taking a Derivative of a Natural Logarithm
444 | 3.9 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Solution
Use (Figure) directly.
Using Properties of Logarithms in a Derivative
Solution
At first glance, taking this derivative appears rather complicated. However, by using the properties of logarithms
prior to finding the derivative, we can make the problem much simpler.
Differentiate: .
Solution
Hint
Use a property of logarithms to simplify before taking the derivative.
Now that we can differentiate the natural logarithmic function, we can use this result to find the derivatives of
and for .
Derivatives of General Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Let , and let be a differentiable function.
1. If , then
.
More generally, if , then for all values of for which ,
2. If , then
.
More generally, if , then
Proof
If , then . It follows that . Thus . Solving for , we have

. Differentiating and keeping in mind that is a constant, we see that

.
The derivative in (Figure) now follows from the chain rule.
If , then . Using implicit differentiation, again keeping in mind that is constant, it follows
that Solving for and substituting , we see that
The more general derivative ( (Figure) ) follows from the chain rule.
Applying Derivative Formulas
Solution
Use the quotient rule and (Figure) .
Finding the Slope of a Tangent Line
Solution
To find the slope, we must evaluate at . Using (Figure) , we see that
.
By evaluating the derivative at , we see that the tangent line has slope
.
Find the slope for the line tangent to at .
Solution
Hint
Evaluate the derivative at .
Logarithmic Differentiation
At this point, we can take derivatives of functions of the form for certain values of , as well as functions
of the form , where and . Unfortunately, we still do not know the derivatives of functions such
as or . These functions require a technique called logarithmic differentiation , which allows us to
differentiate any function of the form . It can also be used to convert a very complex differentiation

problem into a simpler one, such as finding the derivative of . We outline this technique in the following
problem-solving strategy.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Using Logarithmic Differentiation
1. To differentiate using logarithmic differentiation, take the natural logarithm of both sides of the
equation to obtain .
2. Use properties of logarithms to expand as much as possible.
3. Differentiate both sides of the equation. On the left we will have .
4. Multiply both sides of the equation by to solve for .

5. Replace by .
Using Logarithmic Differentiation
Solution
Use logarithmic differentiation to find this derivative.
Using Logarithmic Differentiation
Solution
This problem really makes use of the properties of logarithms and the differentiation rules given in this chapter.
Extending the Power Rule
Find the derivative of where is an arbitrary real number.
Solution
The process is the same as in (Figure) , though with fewer complications.

Use logarithmic differentiation to find the derivative of .
Solution
Hint
Follow the problem solving strategy.
Solution
Hint
Use the result from (Figure) .
Key Concepts
• On the basis of the assumption that the exponential function is continuous everywhere
and differentiable at 0, this function is differentiable everywhere and there is a formula for its derivative.
• We can use a formula to find the derivative of , and the relationship allows us to
extend our differentiation formulas to include logarithms with arbitrary bases.
• Logarithmic differentiation allows us to differentiate functions of the form or very complex
functions by taking the natural logarithm of both sides and exploiting the properties of logarithms before
differentiating.
Key Equations
• Derivative of the natural exponential function
• Derivative of the natural logarithmic function
• Derivative of the general exponential function
• Derivative of the general logarithmic function

1.
Solution
2.
3.
Solution
4.
5.
Solution
6.
7.
Solution
8.
9.
Solution
For the following exercises, use logarithmic differentiation to find .
10.
11.
Solution

12.
13.
Solution
14.
15.
Solution
16.
17.
Solution
18. [T] Find an equation of the tangent line to the graph of at the point where
. Graph both the function and the tangent line.
19. [T] Find the equation of the line that is normal to the graph of at the point where .
Graph both the function and the normal line.
Solution
20. [T] Find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of at the point where
. ( Hint : Use implicit differentiation to find .) Graph both the curve and the tangent line.
21. Consider the function for .

a. Determine the points on the graph where the tangent line is horizontal.
b. Determine the intervals where and those where .
Solution
a.
b. on , and on
22. The formula is the formula for a decaying alternating current.

a. Complete the following table with the appropriate values.
0 (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
(ix)
b. Using only the values in the table, determine where the tangent line to the graph of is horizontal.
23. [T] The population of Toledo, Ohio, in 2000 was approximately 500,000. Assume the population is increasing
at a rate of 5% per year.
a. Write the exponential function that relates the total population as a function of .
b. Use a. to determine the rate at which the population is increasing in years.
c. Use b. to determine the rate at which the population is increasing in 10 years.
Solution
a. individuals
b. individuals per year
c. 39,737 individuals per year
24. [T] An isotope of the element erbium has a half-life of approximately 12 hours. Initially there are 9 grams of
the isotope present.
a. Write the exponential function that relates the amount of substance remaining as a function of , measured
in hours.
b. Use a. to determine the rate at which the substance is decaying in hours.
c. Use b. to determine the rate of decay at hours.

25. [T] The number of cases of influenza in New York City from the beginning of 1960 to the beginning of 1961 is
modeled by the function
,
where gives the number of cases (in thousands) and is measured in years, with corresponding to
the beginning of 1960.
a. Show work that evaluates and . Briefly describe what these values indicate about the disease
in New York City.
b. Show work that evaluates and . Briefly describe what these values indicate about the
disease in New York City.
Solution
a. At the beginning of 1960 there were 5.3 thousand cases of the disease in New York City. At the beginning of
1963 there were approximately 723 cases of the disease in New York City.
b. At the beginning of 1960 the number of cases of the disease was decreasing at rate of -4.611 thousand per year;
at the beginning of 1963, the number of cases of the disease was decreasing at a rate of -0.2808 thousand per
year.
26. [T] The relative rate of change of a differentiable function is given by . One model for
population growth is a Gompertz growth function, given by where , and are

constants.
a. Find the relative rate of change formula for the generic Gompertz function.
b. Use a. to find the relative rate of change of a population in months when
and
c. Briefly interpret what the result of b. means.
For the following exercises, use the population of New York City from 1790 to 1860, given in the following table.

N
e
w
Y
o
r
k
C
i
t
y
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
O
v
e
r
T
i
m
e
S
o
u
r
c
e
:
h
t
t
p
:
/
/
e
n
.
w
i
k
i
p
e
d
i
a
.
o
r
g
/
w
i
k
i
/
L
a
r
g
e
s
t

_
c
i
t
i
e
s
_
i
n
_
t
h
e
_
U
n
i
t
e
d
_
S
t
a
t
e
s
_
b
y
_
p
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
_
b
y
_
d
e
c
a
d
e
Years since 1790 Population

0 33,131
10 60,515
20 96,373
30 123,706
40 202,300
50 312,710
60 515,547
70 813,669

27. [T] Using a computer program or a calculator, fit a growth curve to the data of the form .
Solution
28. [T] Using the exponential best fit for the data, write a table containing the derivatives evaluated at each year.
29. [T] Using the exponential best fit for the data, write a table containing the second derivatives evaluated at
each year.
Solution
Years since 1790
0 69.25
10 107.5
20 167.0
30 259.4
40 402.8
50 625.5
60 971.4
70 1508.5
30. [T] Using the tables of first and second derivatives and the best fit, answer the following questions:
a. Will the model be accurate in predicting the future population of New York City? Why or why not?
b. Estimate the population in 2010. Was the prediction correct from a.?
Glossary
logarithmic differentiation
is a technique that allows us to differentiate a function by first taking the natural logarithm of both sides of an
equation, applying properties of logarithms to simplify the equation, and differentiating implicitly

True or False ? Justify the answer with a proof or a counterexample.
1. Every function has a derivative.
Solution
False.
2. A continuous function has a continuous derivative.
3. A continuous function has a derivative.
Solution
False
4. If a function is differentiable, it is continuous.
Use the limit definition of the derivative to exactly evaluate the derivative.
5.
Solution
6.
Find the derivatives of the following functions.
7.
Solution
8.
9.
Solution
10.

11.
Solution
12.
13.
Solution
14.
Find the following derivatives of various orders.
15. First derivative of
Solution
16. Third derivative of
17. Second derivative of
Solution
Find the equation of the tangent line to the following equations at the specified point.
18. at
19. at
Solution
Draw the derivative for the following graphs.

20.
21.
Solution
The following questions concern the water level in Ocean City, New Jersey, in January, which can be approximated by
, where is measured in hours after midnight, and the height is measured in feet.
22. Find and graph the derivative. What is the physical meaning?
23. Find . What is the physical meaning of this value?
Solution
. At 3 a.m. the tide is decreasing at a rate of 1.514 ft/hr.
The following questions consider the wind speeds of Hurricane Katrina, which affected New Orleans, Louisiana, in
August 2005. The data are displayed in a table.

Wind Speeds of Hurricane Katrina
Source: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/
2005/09/0914_050914_katrina_timeline.html.
Hours after Midnight, August 26 Wind Speed (mph)

1 45
5 75
11 100
29 115
49 145
58 175
73 155
81 125
85 95
107 35
24. Using the table, estimate the derivative of the wind speed at hour 39. What is the physical meaning?
25. Estimate the derivative of the wind speed at hour 83. What is the physical meaning?
Solution
-7.5. The wind speed is decreasing at a rate of 7.5 mph/hr

4. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES
460 | 4. Applications of Derivatives

4 Introduction
Figure 1. As a rocket is
being launched, at what
rate should the angle of a
video camera change to
continue viewing the
rocket? (credit:
Steve Jurvetson,
Wikimedia Commons)
A rocket is being launched from the ground and cameras are recording the event. A video camera is located on the
ground a certain distance from the launch pad. At what rate should the angle of inclination (the angle the camera makes
with the ground) change to allow the camera to record the flight of the rocket as it heads upward? (See (Figure).)
A rocket launch involves two related quantities that change over time. Being able to solve this type of problem is just one
application of derivatives introduced in this chapter. We also look at how derivatives are used to find the maximum and
minimum values of a function. As a result, we will be able to solve applied optimization problems, such as maximizing
revenue and minimizing surface area. In addition, we examine how derivatives are used to evaluate complicated limits,
to approximate roots of functions, and to provide accurate graphs of functions.
4 Introduction | 461
4.1 Related Rates
Learning Objectives
• Express changing quantities in terms of derivatives.
• Find relationships among the derivatives in a given problem.
• Use the chain rule to find the rate of change of one quantity that depends on the rate of change of other
quantities.
We have seen that for quantities that are changing over time, the rates at which these quantities change are given by
derivatives. If two related quantities are changing over time, the rates at which the quantities change are related. For
example, if a balloon is being filled with air, both the radius of the balloon and the volume of the balloon are increasing.
In this section, we consider several problems in which two or more related quantities are changing and we study how to
determine the relationship between the rates of change of these quantities.
Setting up Related-Rates Problems

In many real-world applications, related quantities are changing with respect to time. For example, if we consider the
balloon example again, we can say that the rate of change in the volume, , is related to the rate of change in the radius,
. In this case, we say that and are related rates because is related to . Here we study several examples
of related quantities that are changing with respect to time and we look at how to calculate one rate of change given
another rate of change.
Inflating a Balloon
A spherical balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of ((Figure)). How fast is the radius
increasing when the radius is ?
Figure 1. As the balloon is being filled with air, both the radius and the volume are increasing with respect to time.
Solution
The volume of a sphere of radius centimeters is
462 | 4.1 Related Rates

.
Since the balloon is being filled with air, both the volume and the radius are functions of time. Therefore,
seconds after beginning to fill the balloon with air, the volume of air in the balloon is
.
Differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time and applying the chain rule, we see that the rate
of change in the volume is related to the rate of change in the radius by the equation
.
The balloon is being filled with air at the constant rate of 2 cm3/sec, so . Therefore,
,
which implies
.
When the radius ,

.
What is the instantaneous rate of change of the radius when ?
Solution
, or approximately 0.0044 cm/sec
Hint
Before looking at other examples, let’s outline the problem-solving strategy we will be using to solve related-rates
problems.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving a Related-Rates Problem
1. Assign symbols to all variables involved in the problem. Draw a figure if applicable.
2. State, in terms of the variables, the information that is given and the rate to be determined.
3. Find an equation relating the variables introduced in step 1.
4. Using the chain rule, differentiate both sides of the equation found in step 3 with respect to the independent
variable. This new equation will relate the derivatives.
5. Substitute all known values into the equation from step 4, then solve for the unknown rate of change.
Note that when solving a related-rates problem, it is crucial not to substitute known values too soon. For example, if the
value for a changing quantity is substituted into an equation before both sides of the equation are differentiated, then
that quantity will behave as a constant and its derivative will not appear in the new equation found in step 4. We examine
this potential error in the following example.
Examples of the Process

Let’s now implement the strategy just described to solve several related-rates problems. The first example involves a
plane flying overhead. The relationship we are studying is between the speed of the plane and the rate at which the
distance between the plane and a person on the ground is changing.
4.1 Related Rates | 463

An Airplane Flying at a Constant Elevation
An airplane is flying overhead at a constant elevation of ft. A man is viewing the plane from a position
ft from the base of a radio tower. The airplane is flying horizontally away from the man. If the plane is
flying at the rate of ft/sec, at what rate is the distance between the man and the plane increasing when the
plane passes over the radio tower?
Solution
Step 1. Draw a picture, introducing variables to represent the different quantities involved.
An airplane is flying at a constant height of 4000 ft. The distance between the person and the airplane and the person and the place
on the ground directly below the airplane are changing. We denote those quantities with the variables and , respectively.
As shown, denotes the distance between the man and the position on the ground directly below the airplane.
The variable denotes the distance between the man and the plane. Note that both and are functions of
time. We do not introduce a variable for the height of the plane because it remains at a constant elevation of
ft. Since an object’s height above the ground is measured as the shortest distance between the object and
the ground, the line segment of length ft is perpendicular to the line segment of length feet, creating a
right triangle.
Step 2. Since denotes the horizontal distance between the man and the point on the ground below the plane,
represents the speed of the plane. We are told the speed of the plane is 600 ft/sec. Therefore,
ft/sec. Since we are asked to find the rate of change in the distance between the man and the plane
when the plane is directly above the radio tower, we need to find when ft.
Step 3. From the figure, we can use the Pythagorean theorem to write an equation relating and :
.
Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time and using the fact that the derivative of a constant is
zero, we arrive at the equation
.
Step 5. Find the rate at which the distance between the man and the plane is increasing when the plane is directly
over the radio tower. That is, find when ft. Since the speed of the plane is ft/sec, we know

that ft/sec. We are not given an explicit value for ; however, since we are trying to find when
ft, we can use the Pythagorean theorem to determine the distance when and the
height is ft. Solving the equation
for , we have ft at the time of interest. Using these values, we conclude that is a solution of
the equation
.
Therefore,
ft/sec.
Note: When solving related-rates problems, it is important not to substitute values for the variables too soon. For
example, in step 3, we related the variable quantities and by the equation
.
Since the plane remains at a constant height, it is not necessary to introduce a variable for the height, and we are
allowed to use the constant 4000 to denote that quantity. However, the other two quantities are changing. If we
mistakenly substituted into the equation before differentiating, our equation would have been
.
After differentiating, our equation would become
.
As a result, we would incorrectly conclude that .
What is the speed of the plane if the distance between the person and the plane is increasing at the rate of
ft/sec?
Solution
ft/sec
Hint
ft/sec
We now return to the problem involving the rocket launch from the beginning of the chapter.

Chapter Opener: A Rocket Launch
Figure 2. (credit: modification of work by Steve Jurvetson,

Wikimedia Commons)
A rocket is launched so that it rises vertically. A camera is positioned ft from the launch pad. When the rocket is ft
above the launch pad, its velocity is ft/sec. Find the necessary rate of change of the camera’s angle as a function of time so
that it stays focused on the rocket.
Solution
Step 1. Draw a picture introducing the variables.

Figure 3. A camera is positioned 5000 ft from the launch pad of the rocket. The height of the rocket and the angle of the camera are
changing with respect to time. We denote those quantities with the variables and , respectively.
Let denote the height of the rocket above the launch pad and be the angle between the camera lens and the
ground.
Step 2. We are trying to find the rate of change in the angle of the camera with respect to time when the rocket is
ft off the ground. That is, we need to find when ft. At that time, we know the velocity of
the rocket is ft/sec.
Step 3. Now we need to find an equation relating the two quantities that are changing with respect to time: and
. How can we create such an equation? Using the fact that we have drawn a right triangle, it is natural to think
about trigonometric functions. Recall that is the ratio of the length of the opposite side of the triangle to
the length of the adjacent side. Thus, we have
.
This gives us the equation
.
Step 4. Differentiating this equation with respect to time , we obtain
Step 5. We want to find when ft. At this time, we know that ft/sec. We need to

determine . Recall that is the ratio of the length of the hypotenuse to the length of the adjacent
side. We know the length of the adjacent side is ft. To determine the length of the hypotenuse, we use the
Pythagorean theorem, where the length of one leg is ft, the length of the other leg is ft, and
the length of the hypotenuse is feet as shown in the following figure.
We see that
and we conclude that the hypotenuse is

ft.
Therefore, when , we have
.
Recall from step 4 that the equation relating to our known values is
.
When ft, we know that ft/sec and . Substituting these values into the
previous equation, we arrive at the equation
.
Therefore, rad/sec.
What rate of change is necessary for the elevation angle of the camera if the camera is placed on the ground at a
distance of ft from the launch pad and the velocity of the rocket is ft/sec when the rocket is ft
off the ground?
Solution
rad/sec
Hint
Find when ft. At that time, ft/sec.
In the next example, we consider water draining from a cone-shaped funnel. We compare the rate at which the level of
water in the cone is decreasing with the rate at which the volume of water is decreasing.
Water Draining from a Funnel
Water is draining from the bottom of a cone-shaped funnel at the rate of . The height of the
funnel is ft and the radius at the top of the funnel is ft. At what rate is the height of the water in the funnel
changing when the height of the water is ft?
Solution
Step 1: Draw a picture introducing the variables.

Figure 4. Water is draining from a funnel of height 2 ft and radius 1 ft. The height of the water and
the radius of water are changing over time. We denote these quantities with the variables and
respectively.
Let denote the height of the water in the funnel, denote the radius of the water at its surface, and denote
the volume of the water.
Step 2: We need to determine when ft. We know that .

Step 3: The volume of water in the cone is
.
From the figure, we see that we have similar triangles. Therefore, the ratio of the sides in the two triangles is the
same. Therefore, or . Using this fact, the equation for volume can be simplified to
.
Step 4: Applying the chain rule while differentiating both sides of this equation with respect to time , we obtain
Step 5: We want to find when ft. Since water is leaving at the rate of , we know that
. Therefore,
,
which implies

.
It follows that
ft/sec.
At what rate is the height of the water changing when the height of the water is ft?
Solution
ft/sec
Hint
We need to find when .
Key Concepts
• To solve a related rates problem, first draw a picture that illustrates the relationship between the two or
more related quantities that are changing with respect to time.
• In terms of the quantities, state the information given and the rate to be found.
• Find an equation relating the quantities.
• Use differentiation, applying the chain rule as necessary, to find an equation that relates the rates.
• Be sure not to substitute a variable quantity for one of the variables until after finding an equation relating
the rates.
For the following exercises, find the quantities for the given equation.
1. Find at and if .
Solution
8
2. Find at and if .
3. Find at and if and .
Solution
For the following exercises, sketch the situation if necessary and used related rates to solve for the quantities.
4. [T] If two electrical resistors are connected in parallel, the total resistance (measured in ohms, denoted by the
Greek capital letter omega, ) is given by the equation . If is increasing at a rate of
and decreases at a rate of , at what rate does the total resistance change when
and ?
5. A 10 ft ladder is leaning against a wall. If the top of the ladder slides down the wall at a rate of 2 ft/sec, how fast
is the bottom moving along the ground when the bottom of the ladder is 5 ft from the wall?

Solution
ft/sec
6. A 25 ft ladder is leaning against a wall. If we push the ladder toward the wall at a rate of 1 ft/sec, and the
bottom of the ladder is initially ft away from the wall, how fast does the ladder move up the wall sec after
we start pushing?
7. Two airplanes are flying in the air at the same height: airplane is flying east at 250 mi/h and airplane is
flying north at mi/h. If they are both heading to the same airport, located 30 miles east of airplane and
40 miles north of airplane , at what rate is the distance between the airplanes changing?
Solution
The distance is decreasing at mi/h.
8. You and a friend are riding your bikes to a restaurant that you think is east; your friend thinks the restaurant is
north. You both leave from the same point, with you riding at 16 mph east and your friend riding mph north.
After you traveled mi, at what rate is the distance between you changing?
9. Two buses are driving along parallel freeways that are mi apart, one heading east and the other heading west.
Assuming that each bus drives a constant mph, find the rate at which the distance between the buses is
changing when they are mi apart, heading toward each other.
Solution
The distance between them shrinks at a rate of mph.

10. A 6-ft-tall person walks away from a 10 ft lamppost at a constant rate of ft/sec. What is the rate that the tip
of the shadow moves away from the pole when the person is ft away from the pole?
11. Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the tip of the shadow moves away from the person when
the person is 10 ft from the pole?
Solution
ft/sec
12. A 5-ft-tall person walks toward a wall at a rate of 2 ft/sec. A spotlight is located on the ground 40 ft from the
wall. How fast does the height of the person’s shadow on the wall change when the person is 10 ft from the wall?
13. Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the shadow changes when the person is 10 ft from the
wall, if the person is walking away from the wall at a rate of 2 ft/sec?
Solution
It grows at a rate ft/sec
14. A helicopter starting on the ground is rising directly into the air at a rate of 25 ft/sec. You are running on the
ground starting directly under the helicopter at a rate of 10 ft/sec. Find the rate of change of the distance
between the helicopter and yourself after 5 sec.
15. Using the previous problem, what is the rate at which the distance between you and the helicopter is
changing when the helicopter has risen to a height of 60 ft in the air, assuming that, initially, it was 30 ft above
you?
Solution
The distance is increasing at ft/sec
For the following exercises, draw and label diagrams to help solve the related-rates problems.
16. The side of a cube increases at a rate of m/sec. Find the rate at which the volume of the cube increases
when the side of the cube is 4 m.
17. The volume of a cube decreases at a rate of 10 m/sec. Find the rate at which the side of the cube changes
when the side of the cube is 2 m.
Solution
m/sec

18. The radius of a circle increases at a rate of 2 m/sec. Find the rate at which the area of the circle increases
when the radius is 5 m.
19. The radius of a sphere decreases at a rate of 3 m/sec. Find the rate at which the surface area decreases when
the radius is 10 m.
Solution
/sec
20. The radius of a sphere increases at a rate of 1 m/sec. Find the rate at which the volume increases when the
radius is 20 m.
21. The radius of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 9 cm/sec. Find the radius of the sphere when the volume and
the radius of the sphere are increasing at the same numerical rate.
Solution
cm
22. The base of a triangle is shrinking at a rate of 1 cm/min and the height of the triangle is increasing at a rate of
5 cm/min. Find the rate at which the area of the triangle changes when the height is 22 cm and the base is 10 cm.
23. A triangle has two constant sides of length 3 ft and 5 ft. The angle between these two sides is increasing at a
rate of 0.1 rad/sec. Find the rate at which the area of the triangle is changing when the angle between the two
sides is .
Solution
The area is increasing at a rate .
24. A triangle has a height that is increasing at a rate of 2 cm/sec and its area is increasing at a rate of 4
. Find the rate at which the base of the triangle is changing when the height of the triangle is 4 cm and
the area is 20 .
For the following exercises, consider a right cone that is leaking water. The dimensions of the conical tank are a height
of 16 ft and a radius of 5 ft.
25. How fast does the depth of the water change when the water is 10 ft high if the cone leaks water at a rate of 10
/min?
Solution
The depth of the water decreases at ft/min.
26. Find the rate at which the surface area of the water changes when the water is 10 ft high if the cone leaks
water at a rate of 10 /min.

27. If the water level is decreasing at a rate of 3 in./min when the depth of the water is 8 ft, determine the rate at
which water is leaking out of the cone.
Solution
The volume is decreasing at a rate of
28. A vertical cylinder is leaking water at a rate of 1 /sec. If the cylinder has a height of 10 ft and a radius of 1 ft,
at what rate is the height of the water changing when the height is 6 ft?
29. A cylinder is leaking water but you are unable to determine at what rate. The cylinder has a height of 2 m and
a radius of 2 m. Find the rate at which the water is leaking out of the cylinder if the rate at which the height is
decreasing is 10 cm/min when the height is 1 m.
Solution
The water flows out at rate /min.
30. A trough has ends shaped like isosceles triangles, with width 3 m and height 4 m, and the trough is 10 m long.
Water is being pumped into the trough at a rate of /min. At what rate does the height of the water change
when the water is 1 m deep?
31. A tank is shaped like an upside-down square pyramid, with base of 4 m by 4 m and a height of 12 m (see the
following figure). How fast does the height increase when the water is 2 m deep if water is being pumped in at a
rate of /sec?
Solution
m/sec
For the following problems, consider a pool shaped like the bottom half of a sphere, that is being filled at a rate of 25
/min. The radius of the pool is 10 ft.

32. Find the rate at which the depth of the water is changing when the water has a depth of 5 ft.
33. Find the rate at which the depth of the water is changing when the water has a depth of 1 ft.
Solution
ft/min
34. If the height is increasing at a rate of 1 in/sec when the depth of the water is 2 ft, find the rate at which water
is being pumped in.
35. Gravel is being unloaded from a truck and falls into a pile shaped like a cone at a rate of 10 /min. The
radius of the cone base is three times the height of the cone. Find the rate at which the height of the gravel
changes when the pile has a height of 5 ft.
Solution
ft/min
36. Using a similar setup from the preceding problem, find the rate at which the gravel is being unloaded if the
pile is 5 ft high and the height is increasing at a rate of 4 in/min.
For the following exercises, draw the situations and solve the related-rate problems.
37. You are stationary on the ground and are watching a bird fly horizontally at a rate of 10 m/sec. The bird is
located 40 m above your head. How fast does the angle of elevation change when the horizontal distance
between you and the bird is 9 m?
Solution
The angle decreases at rad/sec.
38. You stand 40 ft from a bottle rocket on the ground and watch as it takes off vertically into the air at a rate of
20 ft/sec. Find the rate at which the angle of elevation changes when the rocket is 30 ft in the air.
39. A lighthouse, , is on an island 4 mi away from the closest point, , on the beach (see the following image). If
the lighthouse light rotates clockwise at a constant rate of 10 revolutions/min, how fast does the beam of light
move across the beach 2 mi away from the closest point on the beach?

Solution
mi/min
40. Using the same setup as the previous problem, determine at what rate the beam of light moves across the
beach 1 mi away from the closest point on the beach.
41. You are walking to a bus stop at a right-angle corner. You move north at a rate of 2 m/sec and are 20 m south
of the intersection. The bus travels west at a rate of 10 m/sec away from the intersection – you have missed the
bus! What is the rate at which the angle between you and the bus is changing when you are 20 m south of the
intersection and the bus is 10 m west of the intersection?
Solution
The angle is changing at a rate of rad/sec.
For the following exercises, refer to the figure of baseball diamond, which has sides of 90 ft.
42. [T] A batter hits a ball toward third base at 75 ft/sec and runs toward first base at a rate of 24 ft/sec. At what
rate does the distance between the ball and the batter change when 2 sec have passed?
43. [T] A batter hits a ball toward second base at 80 ft/sec and runs toward first base at a rate of 30 ft/sec. At
what rate does the distance between the ball and the batter change when the runner has covered one-third of
the distance to first base? (Hint: Recall the law of cosines.)
Solution
The distance is increasing at a rate of 62.50 ft/sec.
44. [T] A batter hits the ball and runs toward first base at a speed of 22 ft/sec. At what rate does the distance
between the runner and second base change when the runner has run 30 ft?
45. [T] Runners start at first and second base. When the baseball is hit, the runner at first base runs at a speed of
18 ft/sec toward second base and the runner at second base runs at a speed of 20 ft/sec toward third base. How
fast is the distance between runners changing 1 sec after the ball is hit?
Solution
The distance is decreasing at a rate of 11.99 ft/sec.

Glossary
related rates
are rates of change associated with two or more related quantities that are changing over time

4.2 Linear Approximations and Differentials
Learning Objectives
• Describe the linear approximation to a function at a point.
• Write the linearization of a given function.
• Draw a graph that illustrates the use of differentials to approximate the change in a quantity.
• Calculate the relative error and percentage error in using a differential approximation.
We have just seen how derivatives allow us to compare related quantities that are changing over time. In this section,
we examine another application of derivatives: the ability to approximate functions locally by linear functions. Linear
functions are the easiest functions with which to work, so they provide a useful tool for approximating function values.
In addition, the ideas presented in this section are generalized in the second volume of this text, when we studied how
to approximate functions by higher-degree polynomials in the Introduction to Power Series and Functions .
Linear Approximation of a Function at a Point

Consider a function that is differentiable at a point . Recall that the tangent line to the graph of at is given
by the equation
.
For example, consider the function at . Since is differentiable at and , we

see that . Therefore, the tangent line to the graph of at is given by the equation
.
(Figure) (a) shows a graph of along with the tangent line to at . Note that for near 2, the graph of
the tangent line is close to the graph of . As a result, we can use the equation of the tangent line to approximate
for near 2. For example, if , the value of the corresponding point on the tangent line is
.
The actual value of is given by

.
Therefore, the tangent line gives us a fairly good approximation of ( (Figure) (b)). However, note that for values
of far from 2, the equation of the tangent line does not give us a good approximation. For example, if , the
-value of the corresponding point on the tangent line is
,
whereas the value of the function at is .
478 | 4.2 Linear Approximations and Differentials

Figure 1. (a) The tangent line to at provides a good approximation to for near 2. (b) At , the
value of on the tangent line to is 0.475. The actual value of is , which is approximately 0.47619.
In general, for a differentiable function , the equation of the tangent line to at can be used to approximate
for near . Therefore, we can write
for .
We call the linear function
the linear approximation , or tangent line approximation , of at . This function is also known as the
linearization of at .
To show how useful the linear approximation can be, we look at how to find the linear approximation for
at .
Linear Approximation of
Find the linear approximation of at and use the approximation to estimate .
Solution
Since we are looking for the linear approximation at , using (Figure) we know the linear approximation is
given by
.
We need to find and .
4.2 Linear Approximations and Differentials | 479

Therefore, the linear approximation is given by (Figure) .
Using the linear approximation, we can estimate by writing

.
Figure 2. The local linear approximation to at provides an approximation

to for near 9.
Analysis
Using a calculator, the value of to four decimal places is 3.0166. The value given by the linear approximation,
3.0167, is very close to the value obtained with a calculator, so it appears that using this linear approximation is a good
way to estimate , at least for near 9. At the same time, it may seem odd to use a linear approximation when we
can just push a few buttons on a calculator to evaluate . However, how does the calculator evaluate ? The
calculator uses an approximation! In fact, calculators and computers use approximations all the time to evaluate
mathematical expressions; they just use higher-degree approximations.
Find the local linear approximation to at Use it to approximate to five decimal

places.
Solution
2.00833
Hint
Linear Approximation of
Find the linear approximation of at and use it to approximate

Solution
First we note that since rad is equivalent to using the linear approximation at seems
reasonable. The linear approximation is given by
We see that
Therefore, the linear approximation of at is given by (Figure) .
To estimate using we must first convert 62° to radians. We have radians, so the
estimate for is given by
Figure 3. The linear approximation to at provides an approximation to for near
Find the linear approximation for at
Hint
Linear approximations may be used in estimating roots and powers. In the next example, we find the linear
approximation for at which can be used to estimate roots and powers for real numbers
near 1. The same idea can be extended to a function of the form to estimate roots and powers
near a different number

Approximating Roots and Powers
Find the linear approximation of at Use this approximation to estimate
Solution
The linear approximation at is given by
Because
the linear approximation is given by (Figure) (a).
We can approximate by evaluating when We conclude that
Figure 4. (a) The linear approximation of at is (b) The actual value of is 1.030301. The linear
approximation of at estimates to be 1.03.
Find the linear approximation of at without using the result from the preceding
example.
Solution

Hint
Differentials
We have seen that linear approximations can be used to estimate function values. They can also be used to estimate
the amount a function value changes as a result of a small change in the input. To discuss this more formally, we define
a related concept: differentials. Differentials provide us with a way of estimating the amount a function changes as a
result of a small change in input values.
When we first looked at derivatives, we used the Leibniz notation to represent the derivative of with respect
to Although we used the expressions dy and dx in this notation, they did not have meaning on their own. Here we
see a meaning to the expressions dy and dx . Suppose is a differentiable function. Let dx be an independent
variable that can be assigned any nonzero real number, and define the dependent variable by
It is important to notice that is a function of both and The expressions dy and dx are called differentials . We
can divide both sides of (Figure) by which yields
This is the familiar expression we have used to denote a derivative. (Figure) is known as the differential form of (Figure)
.
Computing differentials
For each of the following functions, find dy and evaluate when and
a.
b.
Solution
The key step is calculating the derivative. When we have that, we can obtain dy directly.
a. Since we know and therefore
When and
b. Since This gives us
When and
For find
Solution

Hint
We now connect differentials to linear approximations. Differentials can be used to estimate the change in the value of
a function resulting from a small change in input values. Consider a function that is differentiable at point Suppose
the input changes by a small amount. We are interested in how much the output changes. If changes from to
then the change in is (also denoted and the change in is given by
Instead of calculating the exact change in however, it is often easier to approximate the change in by using a linear
approximation. For near can be approximated by the linear approximation
Therefore, if is small,
That is,
In other words, the actual change in the function if increases from to is approximately the difference
between and where is the linear approximation of at By definition of this
difference is equal to In summary,
Therefore, we can use the differential to approximate the change in if increases from to
We can see this in the following graph.
Figure 5. The differential is used to approximate the actual change in if increases from to
We now take a look at how to use differentials to approximate the change in the value of the function that results from

a small change in the value of the input. Note the calculation with differentials is much simpler than calculating actual
values of functions and the result is very close to what we would obtain with the more exact calculation.
Approximating Change with Differentials
Let Compute and dy at if
Solution
The actual change in if changes from to is given by
The approximate change in is given by Since we have
For find and at if
Solution
[latex]\Delta y=1.64[/latex]
Hint
[latex]\Delta y=f(3.2)-f(3)[/latex]
Calculating the Amount of Error

Any type of measurement is prone to a certain amount of error. In many applications, certain quantities are calculated
based on measurements. For example, the area of a circle is calculated by measuring the radius of the circle. An error in
the measurement of the radius leads to an error in the computed value of the area. Here we examine this type of error
and study how differentials can be used to estimate the error.
Consider a function with an input that is a measured quantity. Suppose the exact value of the measured quantity is
but the measured value is We say the measurement error is dx (or As a result, an error occurs in the
calculated quantity This type of error is known as a propagated error and is given by
Since all measurements are prone to some degree of error, we do not know the exact value of a measured quantity, so
we cannot calculate the propagated error exactly. However, given an estimate of the accuracy of a measurement, we
can use differentials to approximate the propagated error Specifically, if is a differentiable function at the
propagated error is
Unfortunately, we do not know the exact value However, we can use the measured value and estimate
In the next example, we look at how differentials can be used to estimate the error in calculating the volume of a box if
we assume the measurement of the side length is made with a certain amount of accuracy.

Volume of a Cube
Suppose the side length of a cube is measured to be 5 cm with an accuracy of 0.1 cm.
a. Use differentials to estimate the error in the computed volume of the cube.
b. Compute the volume of the cube if the side length is (i) 4.9 cm and (ii) 5.1 cm to compare the estimated
error with the actual potential error.
Solution
a. The measurement of the side length is accurate to within cm. Therefore,
The volume of a cube is given by which leads to
Using the measured side length of 5 cm, we can estimate that
Therefore,
b. If the side length is actually 4.9 cm, then the volume of the cube is
If the side length is actually 5.1 cm, then the volume of the cube is
Therefore, the actual volume of the cube is between 117.649 and 132.651. Since the side length is measured
to be 5 cm, the computed volume is Therefore, the error in the computed volume is
That is,
We see the estimated error is relatively close to the actual potential error in the computed volume.
Estimate the error in the computed volume of a cube if the side length is measured to be 6 cm with an accuracy
of 0.2 cm.
Solution
The volume measurement is accurate to within
Hint
The measurement error dx and the propagated error are absolute errors. We are typically interested in the
size of an error relative to the size of the quantity being measured or calculated. Given an absolute error for a
particular quantity, we define the relative error as where is the actual value of the quantity. The percentage error
is the relative error expressed as a percentage. For example, if we measure the height of a ladder to be 63 in. when the
actual height is 62 in., the absolute error is 1 in. but the relative error is or By comparison, if we
measure the width of a piece of cardboard to be 8.25 in. when the actual width is 8 in., our absolute error is in., whereas
the relative error is or Therefore, the percentage error in the measurement of the cardboard is
larger, even though 0.25 in. is less than 1 in.

Relative and Percentage Error
An astronaut using a camera measures the radius of Earth as 4000 mi with an error of mi. Let’s use
differentials to estimate the relative and percentage error of using this radius measurement to calculate the
volume of Earth, assuming the planet is a perfect sphere.
Solution
If the measurement of the radius is accurate to within we have
Since the volume of a sphere is given by we have
Using the measured radius of 4000 mi, we can estimate
To estimate the relative error, consider Since we do not know the exact value of the volume use the
measured radius to estimate We obtain Therefore the relative error
satisfies
which simplifies to
The relative error is 0.06 and the percentage error is
Determine the percentage error if the radius of Earth is measured to be 3950 mi with an error of mi.
Solution
7.6%
Hint
Use the fact that to find
Key Concepts
• A differentiable function can be approximated at by the linear function
• For a function if changes from to then
is an approximation for the change in The actual change in is
• A measurement error can lead to an error in a calculated quantity The error in the calculated
quantity is known as the propagated error . The propagated error can be estimated by
• To estimate the relative error of a particular quantity we estimate

Key Equations
• Linear approximation
• A differential
1. What is the linear approximation for any generic linear function
2. Determine the necessary conditions such that the linear approximation function is constant. Use a graph to
prove your result.
Solution
3. Explain why the linear approximation becomes less accurate as you increase the distance between and
Use a graph to prove your argument.
4. When is the linear approximation exact?
Solution
The linear approximation exact when is linear or constant.
For the following exercises, find the linear approximation to near for the function.
5. [T]
6. [T]
Solution
7. [T]
8. [T]
Solution
9. [T]
10. [T]

Solution
For the following exercises, compute the values given within 0.01 by deciding on the appropriate and and
evaluating Check your answer using a calculator.
11. [T]
12. [T]
Solution
0.02
13. [T]
14. [T]
Solution
1.9996875
15. [T]
16. [T]
Solution
0.001593
For the following exercises, determine the appropriate and and evaluate
Calculate the numerical error in the linear approximations that follow.
17.
18.
Solution
error,
19.
20.
Solution
error,

21.
22.
Solution
error,
For the following exercises, find the differential of the function.
23.
24.
Solution
25.
26.
Solution
For the following exercises, find the differential and evaluate for the given and
27. [latex]x=2,[/latex]
Solution
[latex]-\frac{1}{16}[/latex]
Solution
-0.1
31. [latex]x=\pi ,[/latex]

Solution
0.2
For the following exercises, find the change in volume or in surface area
33. if the sides of a cube change from 10 to 10.1.
34. if the sides of a cube change from to
Solution
35. if the radius of a sphere changes from by
36. if the radius of a sphere changes from by
Solution
37. if a circular cylinder with changes height from 3 cm to
38. if a circular cylinder of height 3 changes from to
Solution
For the following exercises, use differentials to estimate the maximum and relative error when computing the surface
area or volume.
39. A spherical golf ball is measured to have a radius of with a possible measurement error of
What is the possible change in volume?
40. A pool has a rectangular base of 10 ft by 20 ft and a depth of 6 ft. What is the change in volume if you only fill
it up to 5.5 ft?
Solution
-100 ft 3
41. An ice cream cone has height 4 in. and radius 1 in. If the cone is 0.1 in. thick, what is the difference between
the volume of the cone, including the shell, and the volume of the ice cream you can fit inside the shell?
For the following exercises, confirm the approximations by using the linear approximation at
42.
43.

44.
Glossary
differential
the differential is an independent variable that can be assigned any nonzero real number; the differential
is defined to be
differential form
given a differentiable function the equation is the differential form of the
derivative of with respect to
linear approximation
the linear function is the linear approximation of at
percentage error
the relative error expressed as a percentage
propagated error
the error that results in a calculated quantity resulting from a measurement error dx
relative error
given an absolute error for a particular quantity, is the relative error.
tangent line approximation (linearization)
since the linear approximation of at is defined using the equation of the tangent line, the linear
approximation of at is also known as the tangent line approximation to at

4.3 Maxima and Minima
Learning Objectives
• Define absolute extrema.
• Define local extrema.
• Explain how to find the critical points of a function over a closed interval.
• Describe how to use critical points to locate absolute extrema over a closed interval.
Given a particular function, we are often interested in determining the largest and smallest values of the function. This
information is important in creating accurate graphs. Finding the maximum and minimum values of a function also
has practical significance because we can use this method to solve optimization problems, such as maximizing profit,
minimizing the amount of material used in manufacturing an aluminum can, or finding the maximum height a rocket
can reach. In this section, we look at how to use derivatives to find the largest and smallest values for a function.
Absolute Extrema
Consider the function over the interval As Therefore, the
function does not have a largest value. However, since for all real numbers and when
the function has a smallest value, 1, when We say that 1 is the absolute minimum of
and it occurs at We say that does not have an absolute maximum (see the following figure).
Figure 1. The given function has an absolute minimum of 1 at The function does not have
an absolute maximum.
Definition
Let be a function defined over an interval and let We say has an absolute maximum on at if
for all We say has an absolute minimum on at if for all If
4.3 Maxima and Minima | 493

has an absolute maximum on at or an absolute minimum on at we say has an absolute extremum on
at
Before proceeding, let’s note two important issues regarding this definition. First, the term absolute here does not refer
to absolute value. An absolute extremum may be positive, negative, or zero. Second, if a function has an absolute
extremum over an interval at the absolute extremum is The real number is a point in the domain at
which the absolute extremum occurs. For example, consider the function over the interval
Since
for all real numbers we say has an absolute maximum over at The absolute maximum is
It occurs at as shown in (Figure) (b).
A function may have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum, just one extremum, or neither. (Figure)
shows several functions and some of the different possibilities regarding absolute extrema. However, the following
theorem, called the Extreme Value Theorem , guarantees that a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval
has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum.
Graphs (d), (e), and (f) show several possibilities for absolute extrema for functions with a domain that is a
bounded interval.” />
Extreme Value Theorem

If is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval then there is a point in at which
has an absolute maximum over and there is a point in at which has an absolute minimum over
The proof of the extreme value theorem is beyond the scope of this text. Typically, it is proved in a course on real
analysis. There are a couple of key points to note about the statement of this theorem. For the extreme value theorem to
apply, the function must be continuous over a closed, bounded interval. If the interval is open or the function has even
one point of discontinuity, the function may not have an absolute maximum or absolute minimum over For example,
consider the functions shown in (Figure) (d), (e), and (f). All three of these functions are defined over bounded intervals.
However, the function in graph (e) is the only one that has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum over
its domain. The extreme value theorem cannot be applied to the functions in graphs (d) and (f) because neither of
these functions is continuous over a closed, bounded interval. Although the function in graph (d) is defined over the
closed interval the function is discontinuous at The function has an absolute maximum over but
does not have an absolute minimum. The function in graph (f) is continuous over the half-open interval but is
not defined at and therefore is not continuous over a closed, bounded interval. The function has an absolute
minimum over but does not have an absolute maximum over These two graphs illustrate why a function
over a bounded interval may fail to have an absolute maximum and/or absolute minimum.
Before looking at how to find absolute extrema, let’s examine the related concept of local extrema. This idea is useful in
determining where absolute extrema occur.
Local Extrema and Critical Points

Consider the function shown in (Figure) . The graph can be described as two mountains with a valley in the middle.
494 | 4.3 Maxima and Minima

The absolute maximum value of the function occurs at the higher peak, at However, is also a point of
interest. Although is not the largest value of the value is larger than for all near 0. We say
has a local maximum at Similarly, the function does not have an absolute minimum, but it does have a local
minimum at because is less than for near 1.
Figure 3. This function has two local maxima and one local
minimum. The local maximum at is also the absolute
maximum.
Definition
A function has a local maximum at if there exists an open interval containing such that is contained in
the domain of and for all A function has a local minimum at if there exists an open
interval containing such that is contained in the domain of and for all A function
has a local extremum at if has a local maximum at or has a local minimum at
Note that if has an absolute extremum at and is defined over an interval containing then is also
considered a local extremum . If an absolute extremum for a function occurs at an endpoint, we do not consider that
to be a local extremum, but instead refer to that as an endpoint extremum.
Given the graph of a function it is sometimes easy to see where a local maximum or local minimum occurs. However,
it is not always easy to see, since the interesting features on the graph of a function may not be visible because they
occur at a very small scale. Also, we may not have a graph of the function. In these cases, how can we use a formula for
a function to determine where these extrema occur?
To answer this question, let’s look at (Figure) again. The local extrema occur at and Notice
that at and the derivative At the derivative does not exist, since the

function has a corner there. In fact, if has a local extremum at a point the derivative must satisfy
one of the following conditions: either or is undefined. Such a value is known as a critical point
and it is important in finding extreme values for functions.
Definition
Let be an interior point in the domain of We say that is a critical point of if or is
undefined.
As mentioned earlier, if has a local extremum at a point then must be a critical point of This fact is
known as Fermat’s theorem.
Fermat’s Theorem
If has a local extremum at and is differentiable at then
Proof
Suppose has a local extremum at and is differentiable at We need to show that To do this, we
will show that and and therefore Since has a local extremum at has a
local maximum or local minimum at Suppose has a local maximum at The case in which has a local minimum
at can be handled similarly. There then exists an open interval such that for all Since is
differentiable at from the definition of the derivative, we know that
Since this limit exists, both one-sided limits also exist and equal Therefore,
and
Since is a local maximum, we see that for near Therefore, for near but
we have From (Figure) we conclude that Similarly, it can be shown that

Therefore,
From Fermat’s theorem, we conclude that if has a local extremum at then either or is undefined.
In other words, local extrema can only occur at critical points.
Note this theorem does not claim that a function must have a local extremum at a critical point. Rather, it states
that critical points are candidates for local extrema. For example, consider the function We have
when Therefore, is a critical point. However, is increasing over
and thus does not have a local extremum at In (Figure) , we see several different possibilities
for critical points. In some of these cases, the functions have local extrema at critical points, whereas in other cases the
functions do not. Note that these graphs do not show all possibilities for the behavior of a function at a critical point.

Figure 4. (a–e) A function has a critical point at if or is undefined. A function may or may not have a local
extremum at a critical point.
Later in this chapter we look at analytical methods for determining whether a function actually has a local extremum at a
critical point. For now, let’s turn our attention to finding critical points. We will use graphical observations to determine
whether a critical point is associated with a local extremum.
Locating Critical Points
For each of the following functions, find all critical points. Use a graphing utility to determine whether the
function has a local extremum at each of the critical points.
a.
b.
c.
Solution
a. The derivative is defined for all real numbers Therefore, we only need to find
the values for where Since the critical
points are and From the graph of in (Figure) , we see that has a local maximum at
and a local minimum at

Figure 5. This function has a local maximum and a local minimum.
b. Using the chain rule, we see the derivative is
Therefore, has critical points when and when We conclude that the critical
points are From the graph of in (Figure) , we see that has a local (and absolute) minimum
at but does not have a local extremum at or
Figure 6. This function has three critical points: and The function
has a local (and absolute) minimum at but does not have extrema at the other two critical
points.
c. By the chain rule, we see that the derivative is
The derivative is defined everywhere. Therefore, we only need to find values for where
Solving we see that which implies Therefore, the critical points
are From the graph of in (Figure) , we see that has an absolute maximum at and an
absolute minimum at Hence, has a local maximum at and a local minimum at
(Note that if has an absolute extremum over an interval at a point that is not an endpoint
of then has a local extremum at )

Figure 7. This function has an absolute maximum and an absolute
minimum.
Find all critical points for
Solution
[latex]x=1[/latex]
Hint
Calculate
Locating Absolute Extrema

The extreme value theorem states that a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval has an absolute maximum
and an absolute minimum. As shown in (Figure) , one or both of these absolute extrema could occur at an endpoint. If
an absolute extremum does not occur at an endpoint, however, it must occur at an interior point, in which case the
absolute extremum is a local extremum. Therefore, by (Figure) , the point at which the local extremum occurs must be
a critical point. We summarize this result in the following theorem.
Location of Absolute Extrema
Let be a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval The absolute maximum of over and the
absolute minimum of over must occur at endpoints of or at critical points of in
With this idea in mind, let’s examine a procedure for locating absolute extrema.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Locating Absolute Extrema over a Closed Interval
Consider a continuous function defined over the closed interval
1. Evaluate at the endpoints and
2. Find all critical points of that lie over the interval and evaluate at those critical points.

3. Compare all values found in (1) and (2). From (Figure) , the absolute extrema must occur at endpoints or
critical points. Therefore, the largest of these values is the absolute maximum of The smallest of these
values is the absolute minimum of
Now let’s look at how to use this strategy to find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum values for continuous
functions.
Locating Absolute Extrema
For each of the following functions, find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum over the specified interval
and state where those values occur.
a. over
b. over
Solution
a. Step 1. Evaluate at the endpoints and
Step 2. Since is defined for all real numbers Therefore, there are no critical
points where the derivative is undefined. It remains to check where Since
at and is in the interval is a candidate for an absolute
extremum of over We evaluate and find
Step 3. We set up the following table to compare the values found in steps 1 and 2.
Conclusion
0 0
Absolute maximum
3 -2 Absolute minimum
From the table, we find that the absolute maximum of over the interval [1, 3] is and it occurs at
The absolute minimum of over the interval [1, 3] is -2, and it occurs at as shown in the
following graph.

Figure 8. This function has both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum.
b. Step 1. Evaluate at the endpoints and
Step 2. The derivative of is given by
for The derivative is zero when which implies The derivative is

undefined at Therefore, the critical points of are The point is an
endpoint, so we already evaluated in step 1. The point is not in the interval of interest, so
we need only evaluate We find that
Step 3. We compare the values found in steps 1 and 2, in the following table.
Conclusion
0 0 Absolute maximum
1 -2 Absolute minimum
2 -0.762
We conclude that the absolute maximum of over the interval [0, 2] is zero, and it occurs at The
absolute minimum is -2, and it occurs at as shown in the following graph.

Figure 9. This function has an absolute maximum at an endpoint of the
interval.
Find the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of over the interval
Solution
The absolute maximum is 3 and it occurs at The absolute minimum is -1 and it occurs at
Hint
Look for critical points. Evaluate at all critical points and at the endpoints.
At this point, we know how to locate absolute extrema for continuous functions over closed intervals. We have also
defined local extrema and determined that if a function has a local extremum at a point then must be a critical
point of However, being a critical point is not a sufficient condition for to have a local extremum at Later
in this chapter, we show how to determine whether a function actually has a local extremum at a critical point. First,
however, we need to introduce the Mean Value Theorem, which will help as we analyze the behavior of the graph of a
function.
Key Concepts
• A function may have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum, have just one absolute
extremum, or have no absolute maximum or absolute minimum.

• If a function has a local extremum, the point at which it occurs must be a critical point. However, a function
need not have a local extremum at a critical point.
• A continuous function over a closed, bounded interval has an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum.
Each extremum occurs at a critical point or an endpoint.
1. In precalculus, you learned a formula for the position of the maximum or minimum of a quadratic equation
which was Prove this formula using calculus.
2. If you are finding an absolute minimum over an interval why do you need to check the endpoints? Draw
a graph that supports your hypothesis.
Solution
Answers may vary
3. If you are examining a function over an interval for and finite, is it possible not to have an absolute
maximum or absolute minimum?
4. When you are checking for critical points, explain why you also need to determine points where is
undefined. Draw a graph to support your explanation.
Solution
Answers will vary
5. Can you have a finite absolute maximum for over Explain why or why not
using graphical arguments.
6. Can you have a finite absolute maximum for over assuming is

non-zero? Explain why or why not using graphical arguments.
Solution
No; answers will vary
7. Let be the number of local minima and be the number of local maxima. Can you create a function where
Draw a graph to support your explanation.
8. Is it possible to have more than one absolute maximum? Use a graphical argument to prove your hypothesis.
Solution
Since the absolute maximum is the function (output) value rather than the value, the answer is no; answers will
vary
9. Is it possible to have no absolute minimum or maximum for a function? If so, construct such a function. If not,
explain why this is not possible.

10. [T] Graph the function For which values of on any infinite domain, will you have an absolute
minimum and absolute maximum?
Solution
When
For the following exercises, determine where the local and absolute maxima and minima occur on the graph given.
Assume domains are closed intervals unless otherwise specified.
11.
12.
Solution
Absolute minimum at 3; Absolute maximum at -2.2; local minima at -2, 1; local maxima at -1, 2
13.

14.
Solution
Absolute minima at -2, 2; absolute maxima at -2.5, 2.5; local minimum at 0; local maxima at -1, 1
For the following problems, draw graphs of which is continuous, over the interval with the following
properties:
15. Absolute maximum at and absolute minima at
16. Absolute minimum at and absolute maximum at
Solution
Answers may vary.
17. Absolute maximum at absolute minimum at local maximum at and a critical

point that is not a maximum or minimum at
18. Absolute maxima at and local minimum at and absolute minimum at
Solution
Answers may vary.
For the following exercises, find the critical points in the domains of the following functions.
19.
20.
Solution
21.
22.
Solution
None

23.
24.
Solution
25.
26.
Solution
None
27.
28.
Solution
For the following exercises, find the local and/or absolute maxima for the functions over the specified domain.
29. over
30. over
Solution
Absolute maximum: absolute minimum:
31. over
32. over
Solution
Absolute minimum:
33. over
34. over
Solution

35. over
36. over
Solution
37. over
38. over
Solution
39. over
For the following exercises, find the local and absolute minima and maxima for the functions over
40.
Solution
Absolute minimum:
41.
42.
Solution
Absolute minimum: local maximum: local minimum:
43.
44.
Solution
Local maximum: local minimum:
45.
For the following functions, use a calculator to graph the function and to estimate the absolute and local maxima and
minima. Then, solve for them explicitly.
46. [T]

Solution
47. [T]
48. [T]
Solution
Local maximum: local minimum:
49. [T]
50. [T]
Solution
51. A company that produces cell phones has a cost function of where is
cost in dollars and is number of cell phones produced (in thousands). How many units of cell phone (in
thousands) minimizes this cost function?
52. A ball is thrown into the air and its position is given by Find the height at
which the ball stops ascending. How long after it is thrown does this happen?
Solution
[latex]t=\frac{300}{49}\text{s}[/latex]
For the following exercises, consider the production of gold during the California gold rush (1848–1888). The
production of gold can be modeled by where is the number of years since the rush began
and is ounces of gold produced (in millions). A summary of the data is shown in the following
figure.

53. Find when the maximum (local and global) gold production occurred, and the amount of gold produced
during that maximum.
54. Find when the minimum (local and global) gold production occurred. What was the amount of gold produced
during this minimum?
Solution
The global minimum was in 1848, when no gold was produced.
Find the critical points, maxima, and minima for the following piecewise functions.
55.
56.
Solution
Absolute minima: local maximum at
For the following exercises, find the critical points of the following generic functions. Are they maxima, minima, or
neither? State the necessary conditions.
57. given that
58. given that
Solution
No maxima/minima if is odd, minimum at if is even

Glossary
absolute extremum
if has an absolute maximum or absolute minimum at we say has an absolute extremum at
absolute maximum
if for all in the domain of we say has an absolute maximum at
absolute minimum
if for all in the domain of we say has an absolute minimum at
critical point
if or is undefined, we say that is a critical point of
extreme value theorem
if is a continuous function over a finite, closed interval, then has an absolute maximum and an absolute
minimum
Fermat’s theorem
if has a local extremum at then is a critical point of
local extremum
if has a local maximum or local minimum at we say has a local extremum at
local maximum
if there exists an interval such that for all we say has a local maximum at
local minimum
if there exists an interval such that for all we say has a local minimum at

4.4 The Mean Value Theorem
Learning Objectives
• Explain the meaning of Rolle’s theorem.
• Describe the significance of the Mean Value Theorem.
• State three important consequences of the Mean Value Theorem.
The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important theorems in calculus. We look at some of its implications at the
end of this section. First, let’s start with a special case of the Mean Value Theorem, called Rolle’s theorem.
Rolle’s Theorem
Informally, Rolle’s theorem states that if the outputs of a differentiable function are equal at the endpoints of an
interval, then there must be an interior point where (Figure) illustrates this theorem.
Figure 1. If a differentiable function f satisfies then its derivative must be zero at some point(s) between and
Rolle’s Theorem
Let be a continuous function over the closed interval and differentiable over the open interval such
that There then exists at least one such that
Proof
Let We consider three cases:
1. for all
2. There exists such that
3. There exists such that
4.4 The Mean Value Theorem | 511

Case 1: If for all then for all
Case 2: Since is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval by the extreme value theorem, it has
an absolute maximum. Also, since there is a point such that the absolute maximum is greater
than Therefore, the absolute maximum does not occur at either endpoint. As a result, the absolute maximum must
occur at an interior point Because has a maximum at an interior point and is differentiable at by
Fermat’s theorem,
Case 3: The case when there exists a point such that is analogous to case 2, with maximum
replaced by minimum.
An important point about Rolle’s theorem is that the differentiability of the function is critical. If is not differentiable,
even at a single point, the result may not hold. For example, the function is continuous over
and but for any as shown in the following figure.
Figure 2. Since is not differentiable at

the conditions of Rolle’s theorem are not satisfied. In fact,
the conclusion does not hold here; there is no
such that
Let’s now consider functions that satisfy the conditions of Rolle’s theorem and calculate explicitly the points where
Using Rolle’s Theorem
For each of the following functions, verify that the function satisfies the criteria stated in Rolle’s theorem and find
all values in the given interval where
a. over
b. over
512 | 4.4 The Mean Value Theorem

Solution
a. Since is a polynomial, it is continuous and differentiable everywhere. In addition,
Therefore, satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. We conclude that there
exists at least one value such that Since
we see that implies as shown in the following graph.
Figure 3. This function is continuous and differentiable over when
b. As in part a. is a polynomial and therefore is continuous and differentiable everywhere. Also,

That said, satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. Differentiating, we find that
Therefore, when Both points are in the interval
and, therefore, both points satisfy the conclusion of Rolle’s theorem as shown in the following graph.

Figure 4 . For this polynomial over at
Verify that the function defined over the interval satisfies the conditions of
Rolle’s theorem. Find all points guaranteed by Rolle’s theorem.
Solution
Hint
Find all values where

The Mean Value Theorem and Its Meaning
Rolle’s theorem is a special case of the Mean Value Theorem. In Rolle’s theorem, we consider differentiable functions
that are zero at the endpoints. The Mean Value Theorem generalizes Rolle’s theorem by considering functions that
are not necessarily zero at the endpoints. Consequently, we can view the Mean Value Theorem as a slanted version of
Rolle’s theorem ( (Figure) ). The Mean Value Theorem states that if is continuous over the closed interval and
differentiable over the open interval then there exists a point such that the tangent line to the graph
of at is parallel to the secant line connecting and
Figure 5. The Mean Value Theorem says that for a function that meets its conditions, at some
point the tangent line has the same slope as the secant line between the ends. For this
function, there are two values and such that the tangent line to at and has
the same slope as the secant line.
Mean Value Theorem

Let be continuous over the closed interval and differentiable over the open interval Then, there
exists at least one point such that
Proof
The proof follows from Rolle’s theorem by introducing an appropriate function that satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s
theorem. Consider the line connecting and Since the slope of that line is
and the line passes through the point the equation of that line can be written as
Let denote the vertical difference between the point and the point on that line. Therefore,

Figure 6. The value is the vertical difference between the
point and the point on the secant line
connecting and
Since the graph of intersects the secant line when and we see that Since is
a differentiable function over is also a differentiable function over Furthermore, since is continuous
over is also continuous over Therefore, satisfies the criteria of Rolle’s theorem. Consequently, there
exists a point such that Since
we see that
Since we conclude that
In the next example, we show how the Mean Value Theorem can be applied to the function over the
interval The method is the same for other functions, although sometimes with more interesting consequences.
Verifying that the Mean Value Theorem Applies
For over the interval show that satisfies the hypothesis of the Mean Value Theorem, and
therefore there exists at least one value such that is equal to the slope of the line connecting
and Find these values guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem.

Solution
We know that is continuous over and differentiable over Therefore, satisfies the
hypotheses of the Mean Value Theorem, and there must exist at least one value such that is
equal to the slope of the line connecting and ( (Figure) ). To determine which value(s) of
are guaranteed, first calculate the derivative of The derivative The slope of the line
connecting and is given by
We want to find such that That is, we want to find such that
Solving this equation for we obtain At this point, the slope of the tangent line equals the slope of the
line joining the endpoints.
Figure 7 . The slope of the tangent line at is the same as the slope of the line segment connecting and
One application that helps illustrate the Mean Value Theorem involves velocity. For example, suppose we drive a car for
1 h down a straight road with an average velocity of 45 mph. Let and denote the position and velocity of the
car, respectively, for h. Assuming that the position function is differentiable, we can apply the Mean
Value Theorem to conclude that, at some time the speed of the car was exactly
Mean Value Theorem and Velocity
If a rock is dropped from a height of 100 ft, its position seconds after it is dropped until it hits the ground is
given by the function

a. Determine how long it takes before the rock hits the ground.
b. Find the average velocity of the rock for when the rock is released and the rock hits the ground.
c. Find the time guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem when the instantaneous velocity of the rock is
Solution
a. When the rock hits the ground, its position is Solving the equation for
we find that Since we are only considering the ball will hit the ground sec after it
is dropped.
b. The average velocity is given by
c. The instantaneous velocity is given by the derivative of the position function. Therefore, we need to find a
time such that Since is continuous over the interval
and differentiable over the interval by the Mean Value Theorem, there is guaranteed to
be a point such that
Taking the derivative of the position function we find that Therefore, the equation
reduces to Solving this equation for we have Therefore, sec after
the rock is dropped, the instantaneous velocity equals the average velocity of the rock during its free fall:
-40 ft/sec.
Figure 8. At time sec, the velocity of the rock is equal to its average velocity from
the time it is dropped until it hits the ground.
Suppose a ball is dropped from a height of 200 ft. Its position at time is Find the
time when the instantaneous velocity of the ball equals its average velocity.
Solution
sec

Hint
First, determine how long it takes for the ball to hit the ground. Then, find the average velocity of the ball from the
time it is dropped until it hits the ground.
Mean Value Theorem and Inequalities
Use the Mean Value Theorem to show that if , then
Solution
If we want to use the Mean Value Theorem, we need a function and an interval. There are a couple options for the
function, but one option is to let and show that . For an interval, we can
choose
Since is the difference of a trigonometric and a polynomial defined for all real numbers, it is continuous for all
real numbers, specifically on . Since which is defined for all real numbers, is
differentiable for all real numbers, specifically . Thus the Mean Value Theorem applies. Hence there exists
some where
Since and we can conclude that
Corollaries of the Mean Value Theorem

Let’s now look at three corollaries of the Mean Value Theorem. These results have important consequences, which we
use in upcoming sections.
At this point, we know the derivative of any constant function is zero. The Mean Value Theorem allows us to conclude
that the converse is also true. In particular, if for all in some interval then is constant over that
interval. This result may seem intuitively obvious, but it has important implications that are not obvious, and we discuss
them shortly.
Corollary 1: Functions with a Derivative of Zero
Let be differentiable over an interval If for all then constant for all
Proof
Since is differentiable over must be continuous over Suppose is not constant for all in Then there
exist where and Choose the notation so that Therefore,
Since is a differentiable function, by the Mean Value Theorem, there exists such that
Therefore, there exists such that which contradicts the assumption that for all

From (Figure) , it follows that if two functions have the same derivative, they differ by, at most, a constant.
Corollary 2: Constant Difference Theorem
If and are differentiable over an interval and for all then
for some constant
Proof
Let Then, for all By Corollary 1, there is a

constant such that for all Therefore, for all
The third corollary of the Mean Value Theorem discusses when a function is increasing and when it is decreasing.
Recall that a function is increasing over if whenever whereas is decreasing over
if whenever Using the Mean Value Theorem, we can show that if the derivative of a
function is positive, then the function is increasing; if the derivative is negative, then the function is decreasing ( (Figure)
). We make use of this fact in the next section, where we show how to use the derivative of a function to locate local
maximum and minimum values of the function, and how to determine the shape of the graph.
This fact is important because it means that for a given function if there exists a function such that
then, the only other functions that have a derivative equal to are for some constant
We discuss this result in more detail later in the chapter.
Corollary 3: Increasing and Decreasing Functions

Let be continuous over the closed interval and differentiable over the open interval
1. If for all then is an increasing function over
2. If for all then is a decreasing function over
Proof
We will prove i.; the proof of ii. is similar. Suppose is not an increasing function on Then there exist and in
such that but Since is a differentiable function over by the Mean Value Theorem
there exists such that

Since we know that Also, tells us that We conclude that
However, for all This is a contradiction, and therefore must be an increasing function over
□
Key Concepts
• If is continuous over and differentiable over and then there exists a
point such that This is Rolle’s theorem.
• If is continuous over and differentiable over then there exists a point such that
This is the Mean Value Theorem.

• If over an interval then is constant over
• If two differentiable functions and satisfy over then for
some constant
• If over an interval then is increasing over If over then is decreasing
over
1. Why do you need continuity to apply the Mean Value Theorem? Construct a counterexample.
2. Why do you need differentiability to apply the Mean Value Theorem? Find a counterexample.
Solution
One example is
3. When are Rolle’s theorem and the Mean Value Theorem equivalent?
4. If you have a function with a discontinuity, is it still possible to have Draw

such an example or prove why not.
Solution
Yes, but the Mean Value Theorem still does not apply
For the following exercises, determine over what intervals (if any) the Mean Value Theorem applies. Justify your
answer.
5.
6.
Solution

7.
8.
Solution
9.
For the following exercises, graph the functions on a calculator and draw the secant line that connects the endpoints.
Estimate the number of points such that
10. [T] over
Solution
2 points
11. [T] over
12. [T] over
Solution
5 points
13. [T] over
For the following exercises, use the Mean Value Theorem and find all points such that
14.
Solution
15.
16.
Solution
17.
18.

Solution
19.
For the following exercises, show there is no such that Explain why the Mean
Value Theorem does not apply over the interval
20.
Solution
Not differentiable
21.
22.
Solution
Not differentiable
23. ( Hint : This is called the floor function and it is defined so that is the largest integer less
than or equal to )
For the following exercises, determine whether the Mean Value Theorem applies for the functions over the given
interval Justify your answer.
24. over
Solution
Yes
25. over
26. over
Solution
The Mean Value Theorem does not apply since the function is discontinuous at
27. over
28. over
Solution
Yes

29. over
30. over
Solution
The Mean Value Theorem does not apply; discontinuous at
31. over
32. over
Solution
Yes
33. over
34. over
Solution
The Mean Value Theorem does not apply; not differentiable at
For the following exercises, consider the roots of the equation.
35. Show that the equation has exactly one real root. What is it?
36. Find the conditions for exactly one root (double root) for the equation
Solution
37. Find the conditions for to have one root. Is it possible to have more than one root?
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the function over the interval and graph the secant line
from to Use the calculator to estimate all values of as guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem. Then, find the
exact value of if possible, or write the final equation and use a calculator to estimate to four digits.
38. [T] over
Solution
[latex]c=\pm 0.1533[/latex]
39. [T] over
40. [T] over

Solution
The Mean Value Theorem does not apply.
41. [T] over
42. [T] over
Solution
[latex]c=3.133,5.867[/latex]
43. At 10:17 a.m., you pass a police car at 55 mph that is stopped on the freeway. You pass a second police car at 55
mph at 10:53 a.m., which is located 39 mi from the first police car. If the speed limit is 60 mph, can the police cite
you for speeding?
44. Two cars drive from one spotlight to the next, leaving at the same time and arriving at the same time. Is there
ever a time when they are going the same speed? Prove or disprove.
Solution
Yes
45. Show that and have the same derivative. What can you say about
46. Show that and have the same derivative. What can you say about
Solution
It is constant.
47. Show that if , then
48. Show that if , then
Glossary
mean value theorem

if is continuous over and differentiable over then there exists such that
rolle’s theorem
if is continuous over and differentiable over and if then there exists
such that

4.5 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph
Learning Objectives
• Explain how the sign of the first derivative affects the shape of a function’s graph.
• State the first derivative test for critical points.
• Use concavity and inflection points to explain how the sign of the second derivative affects the shape of a
function’s graph.
• Explain the concavity test for a function over an open interval.
• Explain the relationship between a function and its first and second derivatives.
• State the second derivative test for local extrema.
Earlier in this chapter we stated that if a function has a local extremum at a point then must be a critical point
of However, a function is not guaranteed to have a local extremum at a critical point. For example, has
a critical point at since is zero at but does not have a local extremum at
Using the results from the previous section, we are now able to determine whether a critical point of a function actually
corresponds to a local extreme value. In this section, we also see how the second derivative provides information about
the shape of a graph by describing whether the graph of a function curves upward or curves downward.
The First Derivative Test

Corollary 3 of the Mean Value Theorem showed that if the derivative of a function is positive over an interval then the
function is increasing over On the other hand, if the derivative of the function is negative over an interval then the
function is decreasing over as shown in the following figure.
526 | 4.5 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph

A continuous function has a local maximum at point if and only if switches from increasing to decreasing at point
Similarly, has a local minimum at if and only if switches from decreasing to increasing at If is a continuous
function over an interval containing and differentiable over except possibly at the only way can switch from
increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) at point is if changes sign as increases through If is differentiable
at the only way that can change sign as increases through is if Therefore, for a function
that is continuous over an interval containing and differentiable over except possibly at the only way can
switch from increasing to decreasing (or vice versa) is if or is undefined. Consequently, to locate
local extrema for a function we look for points in the domain of such that or is undefined.
Recall that such points are called critical points of
Note that need not have a local extrema at a critical point. The critical points are candidates for local extrema only. In
(Figure) , we show that if a continuous function has a local extremum, it must occur at a critical point, but a function
may not have a local extremum at a critical point. We show that if has a local extremum at a critical point, then the
sign of switches as increases through that point.
Using (Figure) , we summarize the main results regarding local extrema.
• If a continuous function has a local extremum, it must occur at a critical point

• The function has a local extremum at the critical point if and only if the derivative switches sign as
increases through
• Therefore, to test whether a function has a local extremum at a critical point we must determine the sign of
to the left and right of
This result is known as the first derivative test .

First Derivative Test
Suppose that is a continuous function over an interval containing a critical point If is differentiable over
except possibly at point then satisfies one of the following descriptions:
1. If changes sign from positive when to negative when then is a local maximum of
2. If changes sign from negative when to positive when then is a local minimum of
4.5 Derivatives and the Shape of a Graph | 527

3. If has the same sign for and then is neither a local maximum nor a local minimum
of
We can summarize the first derivative test as a strategy for locating local extrema.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Using the First Derivative Test
Consider a function that is continuous over an interval
1. Find all critical points of and divide the interval into smaller intervals using the critical points as
endpoints.
2. Analyze the sign of in each of the subintervals. If is continuous over a given subinterval (which is
typically the case), then the sign of in that subinterval does not change and, therefore, can be determined
by choosing an arbitrary test point in that subinterval and by evaluating the sign of at that test point.
Use the sign analysis to determine whether is increasing or decreasing over that interval.
3. Use (Figure) and the results of step 2 to determine whether has a local maximum, a local minimum, or
neither at each of the critical points.
Now let’s look at how to use this strategy to locate all local extrema for particular functions.
Using the First Derivative Test to Find Local Extrema
Use the first derivative test to find the location of all local extrema for Use a
graphing utility to confirm your results.
Solution
Step 1. The derivative is To find the critical points, we need to find where
Factoring the polynomial, we conclude that the critical points must satisfy
Therefore, the critical points are Now divide the interval into the smaller intervals
Step 2. Since is a continuous function, to determine the sign of over each subinterval, it suffices to
choose a point over each of the intervals and determine the sign of at
each of these points. For example, let’s choose as test points.
Interval Test Point Sign of at Test Point Conclusion
is increasing.
is decreasing.
is increasing.
Step 3. Since switches sign from positive to negative as increases through has a local maximum at
Since switches sign from negative to positive as increases through has a local minimum at
These analytical results agree with the following graph.

Figure 3. The function has a maximum at and a minimum at

Use the first derivative test to locate all local extrema for
Solution
has a local minimum at -2 and a local maximum at 3.
Hint
Find all critical points of and determine the signs of over particular intervals determined by the critical
points.
Using the First Derivative Test
Use the first derivative test to find the location of all local extrema for Use a
graphing utility to confirm your results.
Solution
Step 1. The derivative is
The derivative when Therefore, at The derivative

is undefined at Therefore, we have three critical points: and Consequently,
divide the interval into the smaller intervals and
Step 2: Since is continuous over each subinterval, it suffices to choose a test point in each of the intervals
from step 1 and determine the sign of at each of these points. The points
are test points for these intervals.
is decreasing.
is increasing.
is increasing.
is decreasing.
Step 3: Since is decreasing over the interval and increasing over the interval has a
local minimum at Since is increasing over the interval and the interval does not
have a local extremum at Since is increasing over the interval and decreasing over the interval
has a local maximum at The analytical results agree with the following graph.

Figure 4. The function f has a local minimum at and a local
maximum at
Use the first derivative test to find all local extrema for
Solution
has no local extrema because does not change sign at
Hint
The only critical point of is
Concavity and Points of Inflection

We now know how to determine where a function is increasing or decreasing. However, there is another issue to
consider regarding the shape of the graph of a function. If the graph curves, does it curve upward or curve downward?
This notion is called the concavity of the function.
(Figure) (a) shows a function with a graph that curves upward. As increases, the slope of the tangent line increases.
Thus, since the derivative increases as increases, is an increasing function. We say this function is concave up .
(Figure) (b) shows a function that curves downward. As increases, the slope of the tangent line decreases. Since the
derivative decreases as increases, is a decreasing function. We say this function is concave down .
Definition
Let be a function that is differentiable over an open interval If is increasing over we say is concave up
over If is decreasing over we say is concave down over

Figure 5. (a), (c) Since is increasing over the interval we say is concave up over (b), (d) Since is
decreasing over the interval we say is concave down over
In general, without having the graph of a function how can we determine its concavity? By definition, a function
is concave up if is increasing. From Corollary 3, we know that if is a differentiable function, then is increasing
if its derivative Therefore, a function that is twice differentiable is concave up when
Similarly, a function is concave down if is decreasing. We know that a differentiable function is decreasing if
its derivative Therefore, a twice-differentiable function is concave down when Applying
this logic is known as the concavity test.

Test for Concavity
Let be a function that is twice differentiable over an interval
1. If for all then is concave up over
2. If for all then is concave down over
We conclude that we can determine the concavity of a function by looking at the second derivative of In addition,
we observe that a function can switch concavity ( (Figure) ). However, a continuous function can switch concavity
only at a point if or is undefined. Consequently, to determine the intervals where a function
is concave up and concave down, we look for those values of where or is undefined. When
we have determined these points, we divide the domain of into smaller intervals and determine the sign of
over each of these smaller intervals. If changes sign as we pass through a point then changes concavity. It
is important to remember that a function may not change concavity at a point even if or is
undefined. If, however, does change concavity at a point and is continuous at we say the point is
an inflection point of
Definition
If is continuous at and changes concavity at the point is an inflection point of
Figure 6. Since for the function is concave up over the interval

Since for the function is concave down over the interval
The point is an inflection point of
Testing for Concavity
For the function determine all intervals where is concave up and all
intervals where is concave down. List all inflection points for Use a graphing utility to confirm your results.
Solution
To determine concavity, we need to find the second derivative The first derivative is
so the second derivative is If the function changes
concavity, it occurs either when or is undefined. Since is defined for all real

numbers we need only find where Solving the equation we see that is
the only place where could change concavity. We now test points over the intervals and to
determine the concavity of The points and are test points for these intervals.
is concave down
is concave up.
We conclude that is concave down over the interval and concave up over the interval
Since changes concavity at the point is an inflection point. (Figure) confirms
the analytical results.
Figure 7. The given function has a point of inflection at where the

graph changes concavity.
For find all intervals where is concave up and all intervals where is
concave down.
Solution
is concave up over the interval and concave down over the interval

Hint
Find where
We now summarize, in (Figure) , the information that the first and second derivatives of a function provide about the
graph of and illustrate this information in (Figure) .
What Derivatives Tell Us about Graphs
Sign of Sign of Is increasing or decreasing? Concavity
Positive Positive Increasing Concave up

Positive Negative Increasing Concave down
Negative Positive Decreasing Concave up

Negative Negative Decreasing Concave down
Figure 8. Consider a twice-differentiable function over an open interval If for

all the function is increasing over If for all the function is
decreasing over If for all the function is concave up. If
for all the function is concave down on
The Second Derivative Test

The first derivative test provides an analytical tool for finding local extrema, but the second derivative can also be used
to locate extreme values. Using the second derivative can sometimes be a simpler method than using the first derivative.
We know that if a continuous function has a local extrema, it must occur at a critical point. However, a function
need not have a local extrema at a critical point. Here we examine how the second derivative test can be used to
determine whether a function has a local extremum at a critical point. Let be a twice-differentiable function such
that and is continuous over an open interval containing Suppose Since
is continuous over for all . Then, by Corollary 3, is a decreasing function over Since
we conclude that for all if and if Therefore, by the
first derivative test, has a local maximum at On the other hand, suppose there exists a point such that
but Since is continuous over an open interval containing then

for all . Then, by Corollary is an increasing function over Since we conclude that for
all if and if Therefore, by the first derivative test, has a local
minimum at
Figure 9. Consider a twice-differentiable function such that is continuous. Since

and there is an interval containing such that for all in
is increasing if and is decreasing if As a result, has a local maximum at
Since and there is an interval containing such
that for all in is decreasing if and is increasing if As a result, has a
local minimum at
Second Derivative Test

Suppose is continuous over an interval containing
1. If then has a local minimum at
2. If then has a local maximum at
3. If then the test is inconclusive.
Note that for case iii. when then may have a local maximum, local minimum, or neither at For
example, the functions and all have critical points at In each
case, the second derivative is zero at However, the function has a local minimum at
whereas the function has a local maximum at and the function does not have a local
extremum at
Let’s now look at how to use the second derivative test to determine whether has a local maximum or local minimum
at a critical point where
Using the Second Derivative Test
Use the second derivative to find the location of all local extrema for
Solution
To apply the second derivative test, we first need to find critical points where The derivative is

Therefore, when
To determine whether has a local extrema at any of these points, we need to evaluate the sign of at
these points. The second derivative is
In the following table, we evaluate the second derivative at each of the critical points and use the second
derivative test to determine whether has a local maximum or local minimum at any of these points.
Conclusion
Local maximum
0 0 Second derivative test is inconclusive
Local minimum
By the second derivative test, we conclude that has a local maximum at and has a local
minimum at The second derivative test is inconclusive at To determine whether has a local
extrema at we apply the first derivative test. To evaluate the sign of for
and let and be the two test points. Since
and we conclude that is decreasing on both intervals and, therefore, does not have a local
extrema at as shown in the following graph.
Figure 10. The function has a local maximum at and a local minimum at
Consider the function The points satisfy Use the

second derivative test to determine whether has a local maximum or local minimum at those points.

Solution
has a local maximum at -2 and a local minimum at 3.
Hint
We have now developed the tools we need to determine where a function is increasing and decreasing, as well as
acquired an understanding of the basic shape of the graph. In the next section we discuss what happens to a function as
At that point, we have enough tools to provide accurate graphs of a large variety of functions.
Key Concepts
• If is a critical point of and for and for then has a local
maximum at
• If is a critical point of and for and for then has a local
minimum at
• If over an interval then is concave up over
• If over an interval then is concave down over
• If and then has a local minimum at
• If and then has a local maximum at
• If and then evaluate at a test point to the left of and a test point
to the right of to determine whether has a local extremum at
1. If is a critical point of when is there no local maximum or minimum at Explain.
2. For the function is both an inflection point and a local maximum/minimum?
Solution
It is not a local maximum/minimum because does not change sign
3. For the function is an inflection point?
4. Is it possible for a point to be both an inflection point and a local extrema of a twice differentiable function?
Solution
No
5. Why do you need continuity for the first derivative test? Come up with an example.
6. Explain whether a concave-down function has to cross for some value of
Solution
False; for example,
7. Explain whether a polynomial of degree 2 can have an inflection point.
For the following exercises, analyze the graphs of then list all intervals where is increasing or decreasing.

8.
Solution
Increasing for and decreasing for and
9.
10.
Solution
Decreasing for increasing for
11.

12.
Solution
Decreasing for and increasing for and and
For the following exercises, analyze the graphs of then list all intervals where
a. is increasing and decreasing and
b. the minima and maxima are located.
13.
14.
Solution
a. Increasing over decreasing over
b. maxima at and minima at and and
15.

16.
Solution
a. Increasing over decreasing over b. Minimum at
17.
For the following exercises, analyze the graphs of then list all inflection points and intervals that are concave up
and concave down.
18.
Solution
Concave up on all no inflection points

19.
20.
Solution
Concave up on all no inflection points
21.
22.
Solution
Concave up for and concave down for inflection points at and

For the following exercises, draw a graph that satisfies the given specifications for the domain The
function does not have to be continuous or differentiable.
23. over over
24. over over for all
Solution
Answers will vary
25. over local maximum at

local minima at
26. There is a local maximum at local minimum at and the graph is neither concave up nor
concave down.
Solution
Answers will vary
27. There are local maxima at the function is concave up for all and the function remains positive
for all
For the following exercises, determine

a. intervals where is increasing or decreasing and
b. local minima and maxima of
28. over
Solution
a. Increasing over decreasing over b. Local maximum at local
minimum at
29.
For the following exercises, determine a. intervals where is concave up or concave down, and b. the inflection
points of
30.
Solution
a. Concave up for concave down for b. Inflection point at

a. intervals where is increasing or decreasing,
c. intervals where is concave up and concave down, and
d. the inflection points of

31.
32.
Solution
a. Increasing over and decreasing over b. Maximum at minimum at
c. Concave up for concave down for d. Infection point at
33.
34.
Solution
a. Increasing over and decreasing over b. Minimum at c. Concave
down for concave up for d. Inflection point at
35.
36.
Solution
a. Increasing over decreasing over b. Minimum at c. Concave up for all d. No
inflection points
37.

a. intervals where is increasing or decreasing,
c. intervals where is concave up and concave down, and
d. the inflection points of Sketch the curve, then use a calculator to compare your answer. If you cannot
determine the exact answer analytically, use a calculator.
38. [T] over
Solution
a. Increases over decreases over and b. Minimum at maximum at
c. Concave up for concave down for and d. Inflection points at
39. [T] over
40. [T] over

Solution
a. Increasing for all b. No local minimum or maximum c. Concave up for concave down for d.
Inflection point at
41. [T]
42. [T]
Solution
a. Increasing for all where defined b. No local minima or maxima c. Concave up for concave down for
d. No inflection points in domain
43. [T] over
44. over
Solution
a. Increasing over decreasing over b. Minimum at maximum
at c. Concave up for concave down for d. Infection points at
45.
46.
Solution
a. Increasing over decreasing over b. Minimum at c. Concave up for
concave down for d. Inflection point at
47.
For the following exercises, interpret the sentences in terms of
48. The population is growing more slowly. Here is the population.
Solution
49. A bike accelerates faster, but a car goes faster. Here Bike’s position minus Car’s position.
50. The airplane lands smoothly. Here is the plane’s altitude.
Solution

51. Stock prices are at their peak. Here is the stock price.
52. The economy is picking up speed. Here is a measure of the economy, such as GDP.
Solution
For the following exercises, consider a third-degree polynomial which has the properties
Determine whether the following statements are true or false . Justify your answer.
53. for some
54. for some
Solution
True, by the Mean Value Theorem
55. There is no absolute maximum at
56. If has three roots, then it has 1 inflection point.
Solution
True, examine derivative
57. If has one inflection point, then it has three real roots.
Glossary
concave down
if is differentiable over an interval and is decreasing over then is concave down over
concave up
if is differentiable over an interval and is increasing over then is concave up over
concavity
the upward or downward curve of the graph of a function
concavity test
suppose is twice differentiable over an interval if over then is concave up over if
over then is concave down over
first derivative test
let be a continuous function over an interval containing a critical point such that is differentiable
over except possibly at if changes sign from positive to negative as increases through then has
a local maximum at if changes sign from negative to positive as increases through then has a
local minimum at if does not change sign as increases through then does not have a local
extremum at
inflection point
if is continuous at and changes concavity at the point is an inflection point of

second derivative test
suppose and is continuous over an interval containing if then has a
local minimum at if then has a local maximum at if then the test is
inconclusive

4.6 Curve Sketching
Learning Objectives
• Analyze a function and its derivatives to draw its graph.
We have shown how to use the first and second derivatives of a function to describe the shape of a graph. Now we put
everything together with other features to graph a function .
Guidelines for Drawing the Graph of a Function

We now have enough analytical tools to draw graphs of a wide variety of algebraic and transcendental functions. Before
showing how to graph specific functions, let’s look at a general strategy to use when graphing any function.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Drawing the Graph of a Function
Given a function use the following steps to sketch a graph of
1. Determine the domain of the function.
2. Locate the – and -intercepts.
3. Evaluate and to determine horizontal or oblique asymptote.
4. Determine whether has any vertical asymptotes.

5. Calculate Find all critical points and determine the intervals where is increasing and where is
decreasing. Determine whether has any local extrema.
6. Calculate Determine the intervals where is concave up and where is concave down. Use this
information to determine whether has any inflection points. The second derivative can also be used as an
alternate means to determine or verify that has a local extremum at a critical point.
Now let’s use this strategy to graph several different functions. We start by graphing a polynomial function.
Sketching a Graph of a Polynomial
Sketch a graph of
Solution
Step 1. Since is a polynomial, the domain is the set of all real numbers.
Step 2. When Therefore, the -intercept is To find the -intercepts, we need to
solve the equation gives us the -intercepts and
Step 3. We need to evaluate the end behavior of As and

Therefore, As and Therefore,
Step 4. Since is a polynomial function, it does not have any vertical asymptotes.
Step 5. The first derivative of is
Therefore, has two critical points: Divide the interval into the three smaller
548 | 4.6 Curve Sketching

intervals: and Then, choose test points and from
these intervals and evaluate the sign of at each of these test points, as shown in the following table.
Interval Test Point Sign of Derivative Conclusion
is increasing.
is decreasing.
is increasing.
From the table, we see that has a local maximum at and a local minimum at Evaluating
at those two points, we find that the local maximum value is and the local minimum value is
Step 6. The second derivative of is
The second derivative is zero at Therefore, to determine the concavity of divide the interval
into the smaller intervals and and choose test points and to
determine the concavity of on each of these smaller intervals as shown in the following table.
Interval Test Point Sign of Conclusion
is concave down.
is concave up.
We note that the information in the preceding table confirms the fact, found in step 5, that has a local
maximum at and a local minimum at In addition, the information found in step 5—namely,
has a local maximum at and a local minimum at and at those points—combined
with the fact that changes sign only at confirms the results found in step 6 on the concavity of
Combining this information, we arrive at the graph of shown in the following

graph.
Sketch a graph of
4.6 Curve Sketching | 549

Solution
Sketching a Rational Function
Sketch the graph of
Solution
Step 1. The function is defined as long as the denominator is not zero. Therefore, the domain is the set of all
real numbers except
Step 2. Find the intercepts. If then so 0 is an intercept. If then

which implies Therefore, is the only intercept.
Step 3. Evaluate the limits at infinity. Since is a rational function, divide the numerator and denominator by the
highest power in the denominator: We obtain
Therefore, has a horizontal asymptote of as and

Step 4. To determine whether has any vertical asymptotes, first check to see whether the denominator has any
zeroes. We find the denominator is zero when To determine whether the lines or
are vertical asymptotes of evaluate and By looking at each one-sided limit as
we see that
In addition, by looking at each one-sided limit as we find that

Step 5. Calculate the first derivative:
Critical points occur at points where or is undefined. We see that when

The derivative is not undefined at any point in the domain of However, are not in the
domain of Therefore, to determine where is increasing and where is decreasing, divide the interval
into four smaller intervals: and and choose a test point in
each interval to determine the sign of in each of these intervals. The values
and are good choices for test points as shown in the following table.
is decreasing.
is decreasing.
is increasing.
is increasing.
From this analysis, we conclude that has a local minimum at but no local maximum.
Step 6. Calculate the second derivative:
To determine the intervals where is concave up and where is concave down, we first need to find all points
where or is undefined. Since the numerator for any is never
zero. Furthermore, is not undefined for any in the domain of However, as discussed earlier,
are not in the domain of Therefore, to determine the concavity of we divide the interval
into the three smaller intervals and and choose a test point in
each of these intervals to evaluate the sign of in each of these intervals. The values
and are possible test points as shown in the following table.
is concave down.
is concave up.
is concave down.
Combining all this information, we arrive at the graph of shown below. Note that, although changes

concavity at and there are no inflection points at either of these places because is not
continuous at or
Sketch a graph of
Solution
Hint
A line is a horizontal asymptote of if the limit as or the limit as of is A line
is a vertical asymptote if at least one of the one-sided limits of as is or
Sketching a Rational Function with an Oblique Asymptote
Sketch the graph of
Solution
Step 1. The domain of is the set of all real numbers except
Step 2. Find the intercepts. We can see that when so is the only intercept.
Step 3. Evaluate the limits at infinity. Since the degree of the numerator is one more than the degree of the

denominator, must have an oblique asymptote. To find the oblique asymptote, use long division of polynomials
to write
Since as approaches the line as The line

is an oblique asymptote for
Step 4. To check for vertical asymptotes, look at where the denominator is zero. Here the denominator is zero at
Looking at both one-sided limits as we find
Therefore, is a vertical asymptote, and we have determined the behavior of as approaches 1 from the
right and the left.
Step 5. Calculate the first derivative:
We have when Therefore, and are critical points.

Since is undefined at we need to divide the interval into the smaller intervals
and and choose a test point from each interval to evaluate the sign of in each of
these smaller intervals. For example, let and be the test points as shown in
the following table.
is increasing.
is decreasing.
is decreasing.
is increasing.
From this table, we see that has a local maximum at and a local minimum at The value of at
the local maximum is and the value of at the local minimum is Therefore, and
are important points on the graph.
Step 6. Calculate the second derivative:
We see that is never zero or undefined for in the domain of Since is undefined at to
check concavity we just divide the interval into the two smaller intervals and
and choose a test point from each interval to evaluate the sign of in each of these intervals. The values
and are possible test points as shown in the following table.

is concave down.
is concave up.
From the information gathered, we arrive at the following graph for
Find the oblique asymptote for
Solution
Hint
Use long division of polynomials.
Sketching the Graph of a Function with a Cusp
Sketch a graph of
Solution
Step 1. Since the cube-root function is defined for all real numbers and the
domain of is all real numbers.
Step 2: To find the -intercept, evaluate Since the -intercept is To find the
-intercept, solve The solution of this equation is so the -intercept is
Step 3: Since the function continues to grow without bound as and
Step 4: The function has no vertical asymptotes.

Step 5: To determine where is increasing or decreasing, calculate We find
This function is not zero anywhere, but it is undefined when Therefore, the only critical point is

Divide the interval into the smaller intervals and and choose test points in each
of these intervals to determine the sign of in each of these smaller intervals. Let and be
the test points as shown in the following table.
is decreasing.
is increasing.
We conclude that has a local minimum at Evaluating at we find that the value of at the
local minimum is zero. Note that is undefined, so to determine the behavior of the function at this critical
point, we need to examine Looking at the one-sided limits, we have
Therefore, has a cusp at

Step 6: To determine concavity, we calculate the second derivative of
We find that is defined for all but is undefined when Therefore, divide the interval
into the smaller intervals and and choose test points to evaluate the sign of
in each of these intervals. As we did earlier, let and be test points as shown in the
following table.
is concave down.
is concave down.
From this table, we conclude that is concave down everywhere. Combining all of this information, we arrive at
the following graph for
Consider the function Determine the point on the graph where a cusp is located.
Determine the end behavior of

Solution
The function has a cusp at For end behavior,
Hint
A function has a cusp at a point if exists, is undefined, one of the one-sided limits as of
is and the other one-sided limit is
For the following exercises, draw a graph of the functions without using a calculator. Be sure to notice all important
features of the graph: local maxima and minima, inflection points, and asymptotic behavior.
1.
2.
Solution
3.
4.
Solution
5.
6.

Solution
7.
8. on
Solution
9.
10.
Solution
11.
12.

Solution
13. If has asymptotes at and then has what asymptotes?

4.7 Applied Optimization Problems
Learning Objectives
• Set up and solve optimization problems in several applied fields.
One common application of calculus is calculating the minimum or maximum value of a function. For example,
companies often want to minimize production costs or maximize revenue. In manufacturing, it is often desirable to
minimize the amount of material used to package a product with a certain volume. In this section, we show how to set
up these types of minimization and maximization problems and solve them by using the tools developed in this chapter.
Solving Optimization Problems over a Closed, Bounded Interval

The basic idea of the optimization problems that follow is the same. We have a particular quantity that we are interested
in maximizing or minimizing. However, we also have some auxiliary condition that needs to be satisfied. For example, in
(Figure) , we are interested in maximizing the area of a rectangular garden. Certainly, if we keep making the side lengths
of the garden larger, the area will continue to become larger. However, what if we have some restriction on how much
fencing we can use for the perimeter? In this case, we cannot make the garden as large as we like. Let’s look at how we
can maximize the area of a rectangle subject to some constraint on the perimeter.
Maximizing the Area of a Garden
A rectangular garden is to be constructed using a rock wall as one side of the garden and wire fencing for the
other three sides ( (Figure) ). Given 100 ft of wire fencing, determine the dimensions that would create a garden of
maximum area. What is the maximum area?
4.7 Applied Optimization Problems | 559

Figure 1. We want to determine the measurements and that will create a garden with a
maximum area using 100 ft of fencing.
Solution
Let denote the length of the side of the garden perpendicular to the rock wall and denote the length of the
side parallel to the rock wall. Then the area of the garden is
We want to find the maximum possible area subject to the constraint that the total fencing is From
(Figure) , the total amount of fencing used will be Therefore, the constraint equation is
Solving this equation for we have Thus, we can write the area as
Before trying to maximize the area function we need to determine the domain under
consideration. To construct a rectangular garden, we certainly need the lengths of both sides to be positive.
Therefore, we need and Since if then Therefore, we are
trying to determine the maximum value of for over the open interval We do not know that a
function necessarily has a maximum value over an open interval. However, we do know that a continuous
function has an absolute maximum (and absolute minimum) over a closed interval. Therefore, let’s consider the
function over the closed interval If the maximum value occurs at an interior
point, then we have found the value in the open interval that maximizes the area of the garden.
Therefore, we consider the following problem:
Maximize over the interval
As mentioned earlier, since is a continuous function on a closed, bounded interval, by the extreme value
560 | 4.7 Applied Optimization Problems

theorem, it has a maximum and a minimum. These extreme values occur either at endpoints or critical points. At
the endpoints, Since the area is positive for all in the open interval the maximum must
occur at a critical point. Differentiating the function we obtain
Therefore, the only critical point is ( (Figure) ). We conclude that the maximum area must occur when
Then we have To maximize the area of the garden, let
ft and The area of this garden is
Figure 2. To maximize the area of the garden, we need to find the maximum value of the function
Determine the maximum area if we want to make the same rectangular garden as in (Figure) , but we have 200 ft
of fencing.
Solution
The maximum area is
Hint
We need to maximize the function over the interval
Now let’s look at a general strategy for solving optimization problems similar to (Figure) .
Problem-Solving Strategy: Solving Optimization Problems
1. Introduce all variables. If applicable, draw a figure and label all variables.
2. Determine which quantity is to be maximized or minimized, and for what range of values of the other
variables (if this can be determined at this time).

3. Write a formula for the quantity to be maximized or minimized in terms of the variables. This formula may
involve more than one variable.
4. Write any equations relating the independent variables in the formula from step 3. Use these equations to
write the quantity to be maximized or minimized as a function of one variable.
5. Identify the domain of consideration for the function in step 4 based on the physical problem to be solved.
6. Locate the maximum or minimum value of the function from step 4. This step typically involves looking for
critical points.Justify the answer using the closed interval method or another method if the interval is not
closed.
7. Give the final answer as a sentence with units.
Now let’s apply this strategy to maximize the volume of an open-top box given a constraint on the amount of material
to be used.
Maximizing the Volume of a Box
An open-top box is to be made from a 24 in. by 36 in. piece of cardboard by removing a square from each corner
of the box and folding up the flaps on each side. What size square should be cut out of each corner to get a box
with the maximum volume?
Solution
Step 1: Let be the side length of the square to be removed from each corner ( (Figure) ). Then, the remaining
four flaps can be folded up to form an open-top box. Let be the volume of the resulting box.
Figure 3. A square with side length inches is removed from each corner of the piece of cardboard. The remaining flaps are
folded to form an open-top box.
Step 2: We are trying to maximize the volume of a box. Therefore, the problem is to maximize
Step 3: As mentioned in step 2, are trying to maximize the volume of a box. The volume of a box is
where are the length, width, and height, respectively.

Step 4: From (Figure) , we see that the height of the box is inches, the length is inches, and the width
is inches. Therefore, the volume of the box is
Step 5: To determine the domain of consideration, let’s examine (Figure) . Certainly, we need
Furthermore, the side length of the square cannot be greater than or equal to half the length of the shorter side,
24 in.; otherwise, one of the flaps would be completely cut off. Therefore, we are trying to determine whether
there is a maximum volume of the box for over the open interval Since is a continuous function
over the closed interval we know will have an absolute maximum over the closed interval. Therefore,
we consider over the closed interval and check whether the absolute maximum occurs at an interior
point.
Step 6: Since is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval must have an
absolute maximum (and an absolute minimum). Since at the endpoints and for
the maximum must occur at a critical point. The derivative is
To find the critical points, we need to solve the equation
Dividing both sides of this equation by 12, the problem simplifies to solving the equation
Using the quadratic formula, we find that the critical points are
Since is not in the domain of consideration, the only critical point we need to consider is
Therefore, the volume is maximized if we let The maximum volume is
as shown in the following graph.
Figure 4. Maximizing the volume of the box leads to finding the maximum value of a cubic polynomial.

Watch a video about optimizing the volume of a box.
Suppose the dimensions of the cardboard in (Figure) are 20 in. by 30 in. Let be the side length of each square
and write the volume of the open-top box as a function of Determine the domain of consideration for
Solution
The domain is
Hint
The volume of the box is
Minimizing Travel Time
An island is due north of its closest point along a straight shoreline. A visitor is staying at a cabin on the
shore that is west of that point. The visitor is planning to go from the cabin to the island. Suppose the
visitor runs at a rate of and swims at a rate of How far should the visitor run before swimming to
minimize the time it takes to reach the island?
Solution
Step 1: Let be the distance running and let be the distance swimming ( (Figure) ). Let be the time it takes to
get from the cabin to the island.
Figure 5. How can we choose and to minimize the travel time from the cabin to the island?
Step 2: The problem is to minimize

Step 3: To find the time spent traveling from the cabin to the island, add the time spent running and the time
spent swimming. Since Distance Rate Time the time spent running is
and the time spent swimming is
Therefore, the total time spent traveling is
Step 4: From (Figure) , the line segment of miles forms the hypotenuse of a right triangle with legs of length
and Therefore, by the Pythagorean theorem, and we obtain
Thus, the total time spent traveling is given by the function
Step 5: From (Figure) , we see that Therefore, is the domain of consideration.

Step 6: Since is a continuous function over a closed, bounded interval, it has a maximum and a minimum.
Let’s begin by looking for any critical points of over the interval The derivative is
If then
Therefore,
Squaring both sides of this equation, we see that if satisfies this equation, then must satisfy
which implies
We conclude that if is a critical point, then satisfies
Therefore, the possibilities for critical points are
Since is not in the domain, it is not a possibility for a critical point. On the other hand,
is in the domain. Since we squared both sides of (Figure) to arrive at the possible critical
points, it remains to verify that satisfies (Figure) . Since does satisfy
that equation, we conclude that is a critical point, and it is the only one. To justify that the
time is minimized for this value of we just need to check the values of at the endpoints and
and compare them with the value of at the critical point We find that
and whereas Therefore, we conclude
that has a local minimum at mi.
Suppose the island is 1 mi from shore, and the distance from the cabin to the point on the shore closest to the
island is Suppose a visitor swims at the rate of and runs at a rate of Let denote the

distance the visitor will run before swimming, and find a function for the time it takes the visitor to get from the
cabin to the island.
Solution
Hint
The time
In business, companies are interested in maximizing revenue . In the following example, we consider a scenario in which
a company has collected data on how many cars it is able to lease, depending on the price it charges its customers to
rent a car. Let’s use these data to determine the price the company should charge to maximize the amount of money it
brings in.
Maximizing Revenue
Owners of a car rental company have determined that if they charge customers dollars per day to rent a car,
where the number of cars they rent per day can be modeled by the linear function
If they charge per day or less, they will rent all their cars. If they charge per day
or more, they will not rent any cars. Assuming the owners plan to charge customers between $50 per day and
per day to rent a car, how much should they charge to maximize their revenue?
Solution
Step 1: Let be the price charged per car per day and let be the number of cars rented per day. Let be the
revenue per day.
Step 2: The problem is to maximize
Step 3: The revenue (per day) is equal to the number of cars rented per day times the price charged per car per
day—that is,
Step 4: Since the number of cars rented per day is modeled by the linear function the
revenue can be represented by the function
Step 5: Since the owners plan to charge between per car per day and per car per day, the problem is
to find the maximum revenue for in the closed interval
Step 6: Since is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval it has an absolute
maximum (and an absolute minimum) in that interval. To find the maximum value, look for critical points. The
derivative is Therefore, the critical point is When
When When Therefore,
the absolute maximum occurs at The car rental company should charge per day per car to
maximize revenue as shown in the following figure.

Figure 6. To maximize revenue, a car rental company has to balance the price of a rental against the
number of cars people will rent at that price.
A car rental company charges its customers dollars per day, where It has found that the
number of cars rented per day can be modeled by the linear function How much should
the company charge each customer to maximize revenue?
Solution
The company should charge per car per day.
Hint
where is the number of cars rented and is the price charged per car.
Maximizing the Area of an Inscribed Rectangle
A rectangle is to be inscribed in the ellipse
What should the dimensions of the rectangle be to maximize its area? What is the maximum area?
Solution
Step 1: For a rectangle to be inscribed in the ellipse, the sides of the rectangle must be parallel to the axes. Let
be the length of the rectangle and be its width. Let be the area of the rectangle.

Figure 7. We want to maximize the area of a rectangle inscribed in an ellipse.
Step 2: The problem is to maximize

Step 3: The area of the rectangle is
Step 4: Let be the corner of the rectangle that lies in the first quadrant, as shown in (Figure) . We can
write length and width Since and we have Therefore,
the area is
Step 5: From (Figure) , we see that to inscribe a rectangle in the ellipse, the -coordinate of the corner in the first
quadrant must satisfy Therefore, the problem reduces to looking for the maximum value of
over the open interval Since will have an absolute maximum (and absolute minimum) over the
closed interval we consider over the interval If the absolute maximum
occurs at an interior point, then we have found an absolute maximum in the open interval.
Step 6: As mentioned earlier, is a continuous function over the closed, bounded interval Therefore,
it has an absolute maximum (and absolute minimum). At the endpoints and For
Therefore, the maximum must occur at a critical point. Taking the derivative of
we obtain
To find critical points, we need to find where We can see that if is a solution of

then must satisfy
Therefore, Thus, are the possible solutions of (Figure) . Since we are considering over
the interval is a possibility for a critical point, but is not. Therefore, we check
whether is a solution of (Figure) . Since is a solution of (Figure) , we conclude that is the only
critical point of in the interval Therefore, must have an absolute maximum at the critical
point To determine the dimensions of the rectangle, we need to find the length and the width
If then
Therefore, the dimensions of the rectangle are and The area of
this rectangle is
Modify the area function if the rectangle is to be inscribed in the unit circle What is the
domain of consideration?
Solution
The domain of consideration is
Hint
If is the vertex of the square that lies in the first quadrant, then the area of the square is
Solving Optimization Problems when the Interval Is Not Closed or Is

Unbounded
In the previous examples, we considered functions on closed, bounded domains. Consequently, by the extreme value
theorem, we were guaranteed that the functions had absolute extrema. Let’s now consider functions for which the
domain is neither closed nor bounded.
Many functions still have at least one absolute extrema, even if the domain is not closed or the domain is unbounded.
For example, the function over has an absolute minimum of 4 at Therefore, we
can still consider functions over unbounded domains or open intervals and determine whether they have any absolute
extrema. In the next example, we try to minimize a function over an unbounded domain. We will see that, although the
domain of consideration is the function has an absolute minimum. Below are the options to justify an absolute
maximum or minimum of a continuous function on an open interval.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Justify a Maximum or Minimum on an Open Interval
1. Instead of testing the endpoints, take the limit as the variable approaches the endpoint. If both those
answers are less than a critical number, then the largest function value at the critical numbers is the absolute
maximum. Similar for minimum. If at least one of the limits is larger than all function values at the critical
numbers (or is infinity), then there is no maximum. Similar for minimum.
2. If the function is increasing over the entire interval to the left of the critical number and decreasing for the
entire interval after the critical number, then there is the absolute maximum at the critical number. Similar

for minimum.
3. If there is only one critical number on the interval and there is a local maximum at that value, then there is
an absolute maximum at that value. Similar for minimum.
In the following example, we look at constructing a box of least surface area with a prescribed volume. It is not difficult
to show that for a closed-top box, by symmetry, among all boxes with a specified volume, a cube will have the smallest
surface area. Consequently, we consider the modified problem of determining which open-topped box with a specified
volume has the smallest surface area.
Minimizing Surface Area
A rectangular box with a square base, an open top, and a volume of 216 in. 3 is to be constructed. What should the
dimensions of the box be to minimize the surface area of the box? What is the minimum surface area?
Solution
Step 1: Draw a rectangular box and introduce the variable to represent the length of each side of the square
base; let represent the height of the box. Let denote the surface area of the open-top box.
Figure 8. We want to minimize the

surface area of a square-based box
with a given volume.
Step 2: We need to minimize the surface area. Therefore, we need to minimize

Step 3: Since the box has an open top, we need only determine the area of the four vertical sides and the base.
The area of each of the four vertical sides is The area of the base is Therefore, the surface area of the box
is
Step 4: Since the volume of this box is and the volume is given as the constraint equation is
Solving the constraint equation for we have Therefore, we can write the surface area as a function
of only:
Therefore,
Step 5: Since we are requiring that we cannot have Therefore, we need On the
other hand, is allowed to have any positive value. Note that as becomes large, the height of the box
becomes correspondingly small so that Similarly, as becomes small, the height of the box

becomes correspondingly large. We conclude that the domain is the open, unbounded interval Note
that, unlike the previous examples, we cannot reduce our problem to looking for an absolute maximum or
absolute minimum over a closed, bounded interval. However, in the next step, we discover why this function must
have an absolute minimum over the interval
Step 6: Note that as Also, as Since is a continuous
function that approaches infinity at the ends, it must have an absolute minimum at some This
minimum must occur at a critical point of The derivative is
Therefore, when Solving this equation for we obtain so

Since this is the only critical point of the absolute minimum must occur at
(see (Figure) ). When Therefore, the dimensions of the box
should be and With these dimensions, the surface area is
Figure 9. We can use a graph to determine the dimensions of a box of given the volume and the
minimum surface area.
Alternative to Step 6: As we saw before, is the only critical number of the function on our interval.
Hence we can use the first or second derivative test to determine whether we have an absolute minimum. Taking
the second derivative we get which is positive at our critical number. Therefore we get a
local minimum at our critical number. Since it’s the only critical number on our interval, it’s an absolute minimum.
Therefore the minimum surface area is
Consider the same open-top box, which is to have volume Suppose the cost of the material for the
base is and the cost of the material for the sides is and we are trying to minimize the cost of

this box. Write the cost as a function of the side lengths of the base. (Let be the side length of the base and
be the height of the box.)
Solution
dollars
Hint
If the cost of one of the sides is the cost of that side is
Key Concepts
• To solve an optimization problem, begin by drawing a picture and introducing variables.
• Find an equation relating the variables.
• Find a function of one variable to describe the quantity that is to be minimized or maximized.
• Look for critical points to locate local extrema.
For the following exercises, answer by proof, counterexample, or explanation.
1. When you find the maximum for an optimization problem, why do you need to check the sign of the derivative
around the critical points?
Solution
The critical points can be the minima, maxima, or neither.
2. Why do you need to check the endpoints for optimization problems?
3. True or False . For every continuous nonlinear function, you can find the value that maximizes the function.
Solution
False; has a minimum only
4. True or False . For every continuous nonconstant function on a closed, finite domain, there exists at least one
that minimizes or maximizes the function.
For the following exercises, set up and evaluate each optimization problem.
5. To carry a suitcase on an airplane, the length height of the box must be less than or equal to
Assuming the height is fixed, show that the maximum volume is What height
allows you to have the largest volume?
Solution
in.
6. You are constructing a cardboard box with the dimensions You then cut equal-size squares
from each corner so you may fold the edges. What are the dimensions of the box with the largest volume?

7. Find the positive integer that minimizes the sum of the number and its reciprocal.
Solution
1
8. Find two positive integers such that their sum is 10, and minimize and maximize the sum of their squares.
For the following exercises, consider the construction of a pen to enclose an area.
9. You have of fencing to construct a rectangular pen for cattle. What are the dimensions of the pen that
maximize the area?
Solution
10. You have of fencing to make a pen for hogs. If you have a river on one side of your property, what is the
dimension of the rectangular pen that maximizes the area?
11. You need to construct a fence around an area of What are the dimensions of the rectangular pen to
minimize the amount of material needed?
Solution
12. Two poles are connected by a wire that is also connected to the ground. The first pole is tall and the
second pole is tall. There is a distance of between the two poles. Where should the wire be anchored
to the ground to minimize the amount of wire needed?
13. [T] You are moving into a new apartment and notice there is a corner where the hallway narrows from
What is the length of the longest item that can be carried horizontally around the corner?

Solution
14. A patient’s pulse measures To determine an accurate

measurement of pulse, the doctor wants to know what value minimizes the expression
What value minimizes it?
15. In the previous problem, assume the patient was nervous during the third measurement, so we only weight
that value half as much as the others. What is the value that minimizes
Solution
16. You can run at a speed of 6 mph and swim at a speed of 3 mph and are located on the shore, 4 miles east of an
island that is 1 mile north of the shoreline. How far should you run west to minimize the time needed to reach the
island?
For the following problems, consider a lifeguard at a circular pool with diameter He must reach someone who
is drowning on the exact opposite side of the pool, at position The lifeguard swims with a speed and runs around
the pool at speed
17. Find a function that measures the total amount of time it takes to reach the drowning person as a function of
the swim angle,

Solution
18. Find at what angle the lifeguard should swim to reach the drowning person in the least amount of time.
19. A truck uses gas as where represents the speed of the truck and represents the
gallons of fuel per mile. At what speed is fuel consumption minimized?
Solution
For the following exercises, consider a limousine that gets at speed the chauffeur
costs and gas is
20. Find the cost per mile at speed
21. Find the cheapest driving speed.
Solution
approximately
For the following exercises, consider a pizzeria that sell pizzas for a revenue of and costs
where represents the number of pizzas.
22. Find the profit function for the number of pizzas. How many pizzas gives the largest profit per pizza?
23. Assume that and How many pizzas sold maximizes the profit?
Solution
4
24. Assume that and How many pizzas sold maximizes the
profit?
For the following exercises, consider a wire long cut into two pieces. One piece forms a circle with radius and
the other forms a square of side
25. Choose to maximize the sum of their areas.
Solution
0
26. Choose to minimize the sum of their areas.
For the following exercises, consider two nonnegative numbers and such that Maximize and
minimize the quantities.

27.
Solution
Maximal: minimal: and
28.
29.
Solution
Maximal: minimal: none
30.
For the following exercises, draw the given optimization problem and solve.
31. Find the volume of the largest right circular cylinder that fits in a sphere of radius 1.
Solution
32. Find the volume of the largest right cone that fits in a sphere of radius 1.
33. Find the area of the largest rectangle that fits into the triangle with sides and
Solution
6
34. Find the largest volume of a cylinder that fits into a cone that has base radius and height
35. Find the dimensions of the closed cylinder volume that has the least amount of surface area.
Solution
36. Find the dimensions of a right cone with surface area that has the largest volume.
For the following exercises, consider the points on the given graphs. Use a calculator to graph the functions.
37. [T] Where is the line closest to the origin?
Solution
38. [T] Where is the line closest to point

39. [T] Where is the parabola closest to point
Solution
40. [T] Where is the parabola closest to point
For the following exercises, set up, but do not evaluate, each optimization problem.
41. A window is composed of a semicircle placed on top of a rectangle. If you have of window-framing
materials for the outer frame, what is the maximum size of the window you can create? Use to represent the
radius of the semicircle.
Solution
42. You have a garden row of 20 watermelon plants that produce an average of 30 watermelons apiece. For any
additional watermelon plants planted, the output per watermelon plant drops by one watermelon. How many
extra watermelon plants should you plant?
43. You are constructing a box for your cat to sleep in. The plush material for the square bottom of the box costs
and the material for the sides costs You need a box with volume Find the dimensions of the
box that minimize cost. Use to represent the length of the side of the box.
Solution

44. You are building five identical pens adjacent to each other with a total area of as shown in the
following figure. What dimensions should you use to minimize the amount of fencing?
45. You are the manager of an apartment complex with 50 units. When you set rent at all
apartments are rented. As you increase rent by one fewer apartment is rented. Maintenance costs
run for each occupied unit. What is the rent that maximizes the total amount of profit?
Solution
Glossary
optimization problems
problems that are solved by finding the maximum or minimum value of a function

4.8 L’Hôpital’s Rule
Learning Objectives
• Recognize when to apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
• Identify indeterminate forms produced by quotients, products, subtractions, and powers, and apply L’Hôpital’s
rule in each case.
• Describe the relative growth rates of functions.
In this section, we examine a powerful tool for evaluating limits. This tool, known as L’Hôpital’s rule , uses derivatives to
calculate limits. With this rule, we will be able to evaluate many limits we have not yet been able to determine. Instead
of relying on numerical evidence to conjecture that a limit exists, we will be able to show definitively that a limit exists
and to determine its exact value.
Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule

L’Hôpital’s rule can be used to evaluate limits involving the quotient of two functions. Consider
If then
However, what happens if and We call this one of the indeterminate forms , of
type This is considered an indeterminate form because we cannot determine the exact behavior of as
without further analysis. We have seen examples of this earlier in the text. For example, consider
For the first of these examples, we can evaluate the limit by factoring the numerator and writing
For we were able to show, using a geometric argument, that
Here we use a different technique for evaluating limits such as these. Not only does this technique provide an easier way
to evaluate these limits, but also, and more important, it provides us with a way to evaluate many other limits that we
could not calculate previously.
The idea behind L’Hôpital’s rule can be explained using local linear approximations. Consider two differentiable
functions and such that and such that For near we can write
and
4.8 L’Hôpital’s Rule | 579

Therefore,
Figure 1. If then the ratio is approximately equal to the ratio of their linear
approximations near
Since is differentiable at then is continuous at and therefore Similarly,
If we also assume that and are continuous at then
and Using these ideas, we conclude that
Note that the assumption that and are continuous at and can be loosened. We state L’Hôpital’s rule
formally for the indeterminate form Also note that the notation does not mean we are actually dividing zero by
zero. Rather, we are using the notation to represent a quotient of limits, each of which is zero.
L’Hôpital’s Rule (0/0 Case)
Suppose and are differentiable functions over an open interval containing except possibly at If
and then
assuming the limit on the right exists or is or This result also holds if we are considering one-sided
limits, or if
580 | 4.8 L’Hôpital’s Rule

Proof
We provide a proof of this theorem in the special case when and are all continuous over an open interval
containing In that case, since and and are continuous at it follows that
Therefore,
Note that L’Hôpital’s rule states we can calculate the limit of a quotient by considering the limit of the quotient of the
derivatives It is important to realize that we are not calculating the derivative of the quotient
□
Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule (0/0 Case)
Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.

a.
b.
c.
d.
Solution
a. Since the numerator and the denominator we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule to
evaluate this limit. We have
b. As the numerator and the denominator Therefore, we can apply

L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain

c. As the numerator and the denominator Therefore, we can apply
L’Hôpital’s rule. We obtain
d. As both the numerator and denominator approach zero. Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
We obtain
Since the numerator and denominator of this new quotient both approach zero as we apply
L’Hôpital’s rule again. In doing so, we see that
Therefore, we conclude that
Evaluate
Solution
1
Hint
We can also use L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate limits of quotients in which and
Limits of this form are classified as indeterminate forms of type Again, note that we are not actually dividing
by Since is not a real number, that is impossible; rather, is used to represent a quotient of limits, each
of which is or
L’Hôpital’s Rule Case)
Suppose and are differentiable functions over an open interval containing except possibly at Suppose
(or and (or Then,
assuming the limit on the right exists or is or This result also holds if the limit is infinite, if or
or the limit is one-sided.
Applying L’Hôpital’s Rule Case)
Evaluate each of the following limits by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.

a.
b.

Solution
a. Since and are first-degree polynomials with positive leading coefficients,
and Therefore, we apply L’Hôpital’s rule and obtain
Note that this limit can also be calculated without invoking L’Hôpital’s rule. Earlier in the chapter we
showed how to evaluate such a limit by dividing the numerator and denominator by the highest power of
in the denominator. In doing so, we saw that
L’Hôpital’s rule provides us with an alternative means of evaluating this type of limit.
b. Here, and Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and obtain
Now as Therefore, the first term in the denominator is approaching zero and
the second term is getting really large. In such a case, anything can happen with the product. Therefore, we
cannot make any conclusion yet. To evaluate the limit, we use the definition of to write
Now and so we apply L’Hôpital’s rule again. We find
We conclude that
Evaluate
Solution
0
Hint
As mentioned, L’Hôpital’s rule is an extremely useful tool for evaluating limits. It is important to remember, however, that
to apply L’Hôpital’s rule to a quotient it is essential that the limit of be of the form or Consider the
following example.
When L’Hôpital’s Rule Does Not Apply
Consider Show that the limit cannot be evaluated by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.
Solution
Because the limits of the numerator and denominator are not both zero and are not both infinite, we cannot
apply L’Hôpital’s rule. If we try to do so, we get

and
At which point we would conclude erroneously that
However, since and we actually have
We can conclude that
When L’Hôpital’s Rule Does Not Apply
Consider Show that the limit cannot be evaluated by applying L’Hôpital’s rule.
Solution
The limits of the numerator and denominator are both zero. Thus it appears that we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
However, when we try to do so, we get
and
At which point we would conclude erroneously that
However, since neither exists, nor is infinite, L’Hôpital’s rule does not apply.
However, this does not mean the limit fails to exist. Using the squeeze theorem, we get that the function
is bounded between and , both of whose limits are
We can conclude that the by squeeze theorem
Explain why we cannot apply L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate Evaluate by other means.
Solution
Therefore, we cannot apply L’Hôpital’s rule. The limit of the quotient is
Hint
Determine the limits of the numerator and denominator separately.

Other Indeterminate Forms
L’Hôpital’s rule is very useful for evaluating limits involving the indeterminate forms and However, we can
also use L’Hôpital’s rule to help evaluate limits involving other indeterminate forms that arise when evaluating limits. The
expressions and are all considered indeterminate forms. These expressions are not
real numbers. Rather, they represent forms that arise when trying to evaluate certain limits. Next we realize why these
are indeterminate forms and then understand how to use L’Hôpital’s rule in these cases. The key idea is that we must
rewrite the indeterminate forms in such a way that we arrive at the indeterminate form or
Indeterminate Form of Type

Suppose we want to evaluate where and (or as Since
one term in the product is approaching zero but the other term is becoming arbitrarily large (in magnitude), anything
can happen to the product. We use the notation to denote the form that arises in this situation. The expression
is considered indeterminate because we cannot determine without further analysis the exact behavior of the
product as For example, let be a positive integer and consider
As and However, the limit as of varies,

depending on If then If then If then
Here we consider another limit involving the indeterminate form and show how to
rewrite the function as a quotient to use L’Hôpital’s rule.

Evaluate
Solution
First, rewrite the function as a quotient to apply L’Hôpital’s rule. If we write
we see that as and as Therefore, we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule and

obtain
We conclude that

Figure 2. Finding the limit at of the function
Evaluate
Solution
1
Hint
Write

Another type of indeterminate form is Consider the following example. Let be a positive integer and
let and As and We are interested in
Depending on whether grows faster, grows faster, or they grow at the same rate,
as we see next, anything can happen in this limit. Since and we write to denote
the form of this limit. As with our other indeterminate forms, has no meaning on its own and we must do
more analysis to determine the value of the limit. For example, suppose the exponent in the function
is then
On the other hand, if then

However, if then
Therefore, the limit cannot be determined by considering only Next we see how to rewrite an expression
involving the indeterminate form as a fraction to apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
Evaluate
Solution
By combining the fractions, we can write the function as a quotient. Since the least common denominator is
we have
As the numerator and the denominator Therefore, we can

apply L’Hôpital’s rule. Taking the derivatives of the numerator and the denominator, we have
As and Since the denominator is positive as

approaches zero from the right, we conclude that
Therefore,
Evaluate
Solution
0
Hint
Rewrite the difference of fractions as a single fraction.
Another type of indeterminate form that arises when evaluating limits involves exponents. The expressions
and are all indeterminate forms. On their own, these expressions are meaningless because we cannot actually
evaluate these expressions as we would evaluate an expression involving real numbers. Rather, these expressions
represent forms that arise when finding limits. Now we examine how L’Hôpital’s rule can be used to evaluate limits
involving these indeterminate forms.
Since L’Hôpital’s rule applies to quotients, we use the natural logarithm function and its properties to reduce a problem
evaluating a limit involving exponents to a related problem involving a limit of a quotient. For example, suppose we want
to evaluate and we arrive at the indeterminate form (The indeterminate forms and can be
handled similarly.) We proceed as follows. Let
Then,

Therefore,
Since we know that Therefore, is of the
indeterminate form and we can use the techniques discussed earlier to rewrite the expression
in a form so that we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule. Suppose where may be or
Then
Since the natural logarithm function is continuous, we conclude that
which gives us
Evaluate
Solution
Let Then,
We need to evaluate Applying L’Hôpital’s rule, we obtain
Therefore, Since the natural logarithm function is continuous, we conclude that
which leads to
Hence,
Evaluate
Solution
Hint
Let and apply the natural logarithm to both sides of the equation.

Evaluate
Solution
Let
Therefore,
We now evaluate Since and we have the
indeterminate form To apply L’Hôpital’s rule, we need to rewrite as a fraction. We could write
or
Let’s consider the first option. In this case, applying L’Hôpital’s rule, we would obtain
Unfortunately, we not only have another expression involving the indeterminate form but the new limit is
even more complicated to evaluate than the one with which we started. Instead, we try the second option. By
writing
and applying L’Hôpital’s rule, we obtain
Using the fact that and we can rewrite the expression on the right-hand side
as
We conclude that Therefore, and we have
Hence,
Evaluate
Solution
1
Hint
Let and take the natural logarithm of both sides of the equation.

Growth Rates of Functions
Suppose the functions and both approach infinity as Although the values of both functions become
arbitrarily large as the values of become sufficiently large, sometimes one function is growing more quickly than
the other. For example, and both approach infinity as However, as shown in the
following table, the values of are growing much faster than the values of
Comparing the Growth Rates of and
10 100 1000 10,000
100 10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000
1000 1,000,000 1,000,000,000
In fact,
As a result, we say is growing more rapidly than as On the other hand, for and
although the values of are always greater than the values of for each
value of is roughly three times the corresponding value of as as shown in the following table. In
fact,
10 100 1000 10,000
100 10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000
341 30,401 3,004,001 300,040,001
In this case, we say that and are growing at the same rate as
More generally, suppose and are two functions that approach infinity as We say grows more rapidly
than as if
On the other hand, if there exists a constant such that
we say and grow at the same rate as
Next we see how to use L’Hôpital’s rule to compare the growth rates of power, exponential, and logarithmic functions.
For each of the following pairs of functions, use L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate
a.

b.
Solution
a. Since and we can use L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate We obtain
Since and we can apply L’Hôpital’s rule again. Since
we conclude that
Therefore, grows more rapidly than as (See (Figure) and (Figure) ).
Figure 3. An exponential function grows at a faster rate

than a power function.
Growth rates of a power function and an

exponential function.
5 10 15 20
25 100 225 400
148 22,026 3,269,017 485,165,195
b. Since and we can use L’Hôpital’s rule to evaluate We obtain
Thus, grows more rapidly than as (see (Figure) and (Figure) ).

Figure 4. A power function grows at a faster rate than a logarithmic function.
Growth rates of a power function and a

logarithmic function
10 100 1000 10,000
2.303 4.605 6.908 9.210
100 10,000 1,000,000 100,000,000
Compare the growth rates of and
Solution
The function grows faster than
Hint
Apply L’Hôpital’s rule to
Using the same ideas as in (Figure) a. it is not difficult to show that grows more rapidly than for any In
(Figure) and (Figure) , we compare with and as

Figure 5. The exponential function grows faster than for any (a) A comparison of with (b) A comparison of
with
An exponential function grows at a faster

rate than any power function
5 10 15 20
125 1000 3375 8000
625 10,000 50,625 160,000
148 22,026 3,269,017 485,165,195
Similarly, it is not difficult to show that grows more rapidly than for any In (Figure) and (Figure) , we
compare with and
Figure 6. The function grows more slowly than for

any as

A logarithmic function grows at a
slower rate than any root function
10 100 1000 10,000
2.303 4.605 6.908 9.210
2.154 4.642 10 21.544
3.162 10 31.623 100
Key Concepts
• L’Hôpital’s rule can be used to evaluate the limit of a quotient when the indeterminate form or
arises.
• L’Hôpital’s rule can also be applied to other indeterminate forms if they can be rewritten in terms of a limit
involving a quotient that has the indeterminate form or
• The exponential function grows faster than any power function
• The logarithmic function grows more slowly than any power function
For the following exercises, evaluate the limit.
1. Evaluate the limit
Solution
Solution
Solution
For the following exercises, determine whether you can apply L’Hôpital’s rule directly. Explain why or why not. Then,
indicate if there is some way you can alter the limit so you can apply L’Hôpital’s rule.
7.

8.
Solution
Cannot apply directly; use logarithms
9.
10.
Solution
Cannot apply directly; rewrite as
11.
For the following exercises, evaluate the limits with either L’Hôpital’s rule or previously learned methods.
12.
Solution
6
13.
14.
Solution
-2
15.
16.
Solution
-1
17.
18.

Solution
19.
20.
Solution
21.
22.
Solution
23.
24.
Solution
1
25.
26.
Solution
27.
28.
Solution
1

29.
30.
Solution
0
31.
32.
33.
34.
Solution
-1
35.
36.
Solution
37.
38.
Solution
1
39.
40.

Solution
For the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the function and estimate the value of the limit, then use
L’Hôpital’s rule to find the limit directly.
41. [T]
42. [T]
Solution
0
43. [T]
44. [T]
45. [T]
46. [T]
Solution
0
47. [T]
48. [T]
Solution
49. [T]
50. [T]
Solution
2

Glossary
indeterminate forms
when evaluating a limit, the forms and are considered
indeterminate because further analysis is required to determine whether the limit exists and, if so, what its
value is
L’Hôpital’s rule
if and are differentiable functions over an interval except possibly at and
or and are infinite, then
assuming the limit on the right exists or is or

4.9 Newton’s Method
Learning Objectives
• Describe the steps of Newton’s method.
• Explain what an iterative process means.
• Recognize when Newton’s method does not work.
• Apply iterative processes to various situations.
In many areas of pure and applied mathematics, we are interested in finding solutions to an equation of the form
For most functions, however, it is difficult—if not impossible—to calculate their zeroes explicitly. In this
section, we take a look at a technique that provides a very efficient way of approximating the zeroes of functions. This
technique makes use of tangent line approximations and is behind the method used often by calculators and computers
to find zeroes.
Describing Newton’s Method

Consider the task of finding the solutions of If is the first-degree polynomial
then the solution of is given by the formula If is the second-degree polynomial
the solutions of can be found by using the quadratic formula. However, for
polynomials of degree 3 or more, finding roots of becomes more complicated. Although formulas exist for third- and
fourth-degree polynomials, they are quite complicated. Also, if is a polynomial of degree 5 or greater, it is known that
no such formulas exist. For example, consider the function
No formula exists that allows us to find the solutions of Similar difficulties exist for nonpolynomial
functions. For example, consider the task of finding solutions of No simple formula exists for the
solutions of this equation. In cases such as these, we can use Newton’s method to approximate the roots.
Newton’s method makes use of the following idea to approximate the solutions of By sketching a graph
of we can estimate a root of Let’s call this estimate We then draw the tangent line to at If
this tangent line intersects the -axis at some point Now let be the next approximation
to the actual root. Typically, is closer than to an actual root. Next we draw the tangent line to at If
this tangent line also intersects the -axis, producing another approximation, We continue in this
way, deriving a list of approximations: Typically, the numbers quickly approach an
actual root as shown in the following figure.
600 | 4.9 Newton’s Method

Figure 1. The approximations approach the actual root The approximations are derived by looking at tangent
lines to the graph of
Now let’s look at how to calculate the approximations If is our first approximation, the
approximation is defined by letting be the -intercept of the tangent line to at The equation of this
tangent line is given by
Therefore, must satisfy
Solving this equation for we conclude that
Similarly, the point is the -intercept of the tangent line to at Therefore, satisfies the equation
In general, for satisfies
4.9 Newton’s Method | 601

Next we see how to make use of this technique to approximate the root of the polynomial
Finding a Root of a Polynomial
Use Newton’s method to approximate a root of in the interval Let and

find and
[reveal-answer q=”99095″]Show Answer[/reveal-answer]

[hidden-answer a=”99095″]From (Figure), we see that has one root over the interval Therefore
seems like a reasonable first approximation. To find the next approximation, we use (Figure). Since
the derivative is Using (Figure) with (and a calculator
that displays 10 digits), we obtain
To find the next approximation, we use (Figure) with and the value of stored on the calculator. We
find that
Continuing in this way, we obtain the following results:

We note that we obtained the same value for and Therefore, any subsequent application of Newton’s
method will most likely give the same value for
Figure 2. The function has one root over the interval
Letting let’s use Newton’s method to approximate the root of over the
interval by calculating and
Solution
Hint
Use (Figure).
Newton’s method can also be used to approximate square roots. Here we show how to approximate This method
can be modified to approximate the square root of any positive number.
Finding a Square Root
Use Newton’s method to approximate ((Figure)). Let let and calculate

(We note that since has a zero at the initial value is a
reasonable choice to approximate )

Solution
For From (Figure), we know that
Therefore,
Continuing in this way, we find that
Since we obtained the same value for and it is unlikely that the value will change on any subsequent
application of Newton’s method. We conclude that

Figure 3. We can use Newton’s method to find
Use Newton’s method to approximate by letting and Find and
Solution
Hint
For (Figure) reduces to
When using Newton’s method, each approximation after the initial guess is defined in terms of the previous
approximation by using the same formula. In particular, by defining the function we can
rewrite (Figure) as This type of process, where each is defined in terms of by repeating
the same function, is an example of an iterative process. Shortly, we examine other iterative processes. First, let’s look
at the reasons why Newton’s method could fail to find a root.

Failures of Newton’s Method
Typically, Newton’s method is used to find roots fairly quickly. However, things can go wrong. Some reasons why
Newton’s method might fail include the following:
1. At one of the approximations the derivative is zero at but As a result, the tangent line of
at does not intersect the -axis. Therefore, we cannot continue the iterative process.
2. The approximations may approach a different root. If the function has more than one root, it is
possible that our approximations do not approach the one for which we are looking, but approach a different root
(see (Figure)). This event most often occurs when we do not choose the approximation close enough to the
desired root.
3. The approximations may fail to approach a root entirely. In (Figure), we provide an example of a function and an
initial guess such that the successive approximations never approach a root because the successive
approximations continue to alternate back and forth between two values.
Figure 4. If the initial guess is too far from the root sought, it may lead to approximations that approach a different root.
When Newton’s Method Fails
Consider the function Let Show that the sequence fails to

approach a root of
Solution
For the derivative is Therefore,

In the next step,
Consequently, the numbers continue to bounce back and forth between 0 and 1 and never get
closer to the root of which is over the interval (see (Figure)). Fortunately, if we choose an initial
approximation closer to the actual root, we can avoid this situation.
Figure 5. The approximations continue to alternate between and never

approach the root of
For let and find and
Solution
Hint
Use (Figure).
From (Figure), we see that Newton’s method does not always work. However, when it does work, the sequence of
approximations approaches the root very quickly. Discussions of how quickly the sequence of approximations approach
a root found using Newton’s method are included in texts on numerical analysis.
Other Iterative Processes

As mentioned earlier, Newton’s method is a type of iterative process. We now look at an example of a different type of
iterative process.

Consider a function and an initial number Define the subsequent numbers by the formula
This process is an iterative process that creates a list of numbers This
list of numbers may approach a finite number as gets larger, or it may not. In (Figure), we see an example of a
function and an initial guess such that the resulting list of numbers approaches a finite value.
Finding a Limit for an Iterative Process
Let and let For all let Find the values

Make a conjecture about what happens to this list of numbers
as If the list of numbers approaches a finite number then satisfies
and is called a fixed point of
Solution
If then
From this list, we conjecture that the values approach 8.

(Figure) provides a graphical argument that the values approach 8 as Starting at the point
we draw a vertical line to the point The next number in our list is We use to
calculate Therefore, we draw a horizontal line connecting to the point on the line
and then draw a vertical line connecting to the point The output
becomes Continuing in this way, we could create an infinite number of line segments. These line segments
are trapped between the lines and The line segments get closer to the intersection
point of these two lines, which occurs when Solving the equation we conclude they
intersect at Therefore, our graphical evidence agrees with our numerical evidence that the list of
numbers approaches as

Figure 6. This iterative process approaches the value
Consider the function Let and let for Find

Make a conjecture about what happens to the list of numbers as
Solution
Hint
Consider the point where the lines and intersect.
Iterative Processes and Chaos

Iterative processes can yield some very interesting behavior. In this section, we have seen several examples of
iterative processes that converge to a fixed point. We also saw in (Figure) that the iterative process bounced back
and forth between two values. We call this kind of behavior a 2-cycle. Iterative processes can converge to cycles
with various periodicities, such as (where the iterative process repeats a sequence of
four values), 8-cycles, and so on.
Some iterative processes yield what mathematicians call chaos. In this case, the iterative process jumps from value
to value in a seemingly random fashion and never converges or settles into a cycle. Although a complete
exploration of chaos is beyond the scope of this text, in this project we look at one of the key properties of a
chaotic iterative process: sensitive dependence on initial conditions. This property refers to the concept that small
changes in initial conditions can generate drastically different behavior in the iterative process.

Probably the best-known example of chaos is the Mandelbrot set (see (Figure)), named after Benoit Mandelbrot
(1924–2010), who investigated its properties and helped popularize the field of chaos theory. The Mandelbrot set is
usually generated by computer and shows fascinating details on enlargement, including self-replication of the set.
Several colorized versions of the set have been shown in museums and can be found online and in popular books
on the subject.
Figure 7. The Mandelbrot set is a well-known example of a set of points generated by the iterative chaotic behavior of a relatively
simple function.
In this project we use the logistic map
as the function in our iterative process. The logistic map is a deceptively simple function; but, depending on the
value of the resulting iterative process displays some very interesting behavior. It can lead to fixed points,
cycles, and even chaos.
To visualize the long-term behavior of the iterative process associated with the logistic map, we will use a tool
called a cobweb diagram. As we did with the iterative process we examined earlier in this section, we first draw a
vertical line from the point to the point We then draw a horizontal line
from that point to the point then draw a vertical line to and continue the
process until the long-term behavior of the system becomes apparent. (Figure) shows the long-term behavior of

the logistic map when and (The first 100 iterations are not plotted.) The long-term
behavior of this iterative process is an 8-cycle.
Figure 8. A cobweb diagram for is presented here.

The sequence of values results in an 8-cycle.
1. Let and choose Either by hand or by using a computer, calculate the first 10 values in
the sequence. Does the sequence appear to converge? If so, to what value? Does it result in a cycle? If so,
what kind of cycle (for example,
2. What happens when
3. For and calculate the first 100 sequence values. Generate a cobweb diagram for each
iterative process. (Several free applets are available online that generate cobweb diagrams for the logistic
map.) What is the long-term behavior in each of these cases?
4. Now let Calculate the first 100 sequence values and generate a cobweb diagram. What is the long-
term behavior in this case?
5. Repeat the process for but let How does this behavior compare with the behavior
for
Key Concepts
• Newton’s method approximates roots of by starting with an initial approximation then uses
tangent lines to the graph of to create a sequence of approximations
• Typically, Newton’s method is an efficient method for finding a particular root. In certain cases, Newton’s
method fails to work because the list of numbers does not approach a finite value or it
approaches a value other than the root sought.

• Any process in which a list of numbers is generated by defining an initial number and
defining the subsequent numbers by the equation for some function is an iterative
process. Newton’s method is an example of an iterative process, where the function
for a given function
For the following exercises, write Newton’s formula as for solving
1.
2.
Solution
3.
4.

[hidden-answer a=”210817″]
5.
For the following exercises, solve using the iteration which differs slightly
from Newton’s method. Find a that works and a that fails to converge, with the exception of
6. with
Solution
fails, works
7. with
8. What is the value of for Newton’s method?
Solution
For the following exercises, start at

a. and
b.
Compute and using the specified iterative method.
9.

10.
Solution
a. b.
11.
12.
Solution
a. b.
13.
14.
Solution
a. b.
15.
16.
Solution
a. b.
For the following exercises, solve to four decimal places using Newton’s method and a computer or calculator. Choose
any initial guess that is not the exact root.
17.
18.
Solution
19.
20.
Solution

21.
22. choose
Solution
0
23.
24.

25.
26.
Solution
0
For the following exercises, use Newton’s method to find the fixed points of the function where round to
three decimals.
27.
28. on
Solution
4.493
29.
30.
Solution
0.159,3.146
Newton’s method can be used to find maxima and minima of functions in addition to the roots. In this case apply
Newton’s method to the derivative function to find its roots, instead of the original function. For the following
exercises, consider the formulation of the method.
31. To find candidates for maxima and minima, we need to find the critical points Show that to
solve for the critical points of a function Newton’s method is given by

32. What additional restrictions are necessary on the function
Solution
We need to be twice continuously differentiable.
For the following exercises, use Newton’s method to find the location of the local minima and/or maxima of the
following functions; round to three decimals.
33. Minimum of
34. Minimum of
[reveal-answer q=”949157″]Show Solution[/reveal-answer]

35. Minimum of
36. Maximum of
Solution
37. Maximum of
38. Maximum of
Solution
39. Minimum of closest non-zero minimum to
40. Minimum of
Solution
For the following exercises, use the specified method to solve the equation. If it does not work, explain why it does not
work.
41. Newton’s method,
42. Newton’s method,
Solution
There is no solution to the equation.

43. Newton’s method, starting at
44. Solving starting at
Solution
It enters a cycle.
For the following exercises, use the secant method, an alternative iterative method to Newton’s method. The formula
is given by
45. Find a root to accurate to three decimal places.
46. Find a root to accurate to four decimal places.
Solution
0
Solution
-0.3513
49. Why would you use the secant method over Newton’s method? What are the necessary restrictions on
For the following exercises, use both Newton’s method and the secant method to calculate a root for the following
equations. Use a calculator or computer to calculate how many iterations of each are needed to reach within three
decimal places of the exact answer. For the secant method, use the first guess from Newton’s method.
50.
Solution
Newton: 11 iterations, secant: 16 iterations
51.
52.
Solution
Newton: three iterations, secant: six iterations
53.

54.
Solution
Newton: five iterations, secant: eight iterations
In the following exercises, consider Kepler’s equation regarding planetary orbits, where
is the mean anomaly, is eccentric anomaly, and measures eccentricity.
55. Use Newton’s method to solve for the eccentric anomaly when the mean anomaly and the
eccentricity of the orbit round to three decimals.
56. Use Newton’s method to solve for the eccentric anomaly when the mean anomaly and the
eccentricity of the orbit round to three decimals.
[reveal-answer q=”871749″]Show Solution[/reveal-answer]

The following two exercises consider a bank investment. The initial investment is After 25 years, the
investment has tripled to
57. Use Newton’s method to determine the interest rate if the interest was compounded annually.
58. Use Newton’s method to determine the interest rate if the interest was compounded continuously.
Solution
4.394%
59. The cost for printing a book can be given by the equation Use
Newton’s method to find the break-even point if the printer sells each book for
Glossary
iterative process
process in which a list of numbers is generated by starting with a number and
defining for
Newton’s method
method for approximating roots of using an initial guess each subsequent approximation is
defined by the equation

4.10 Antiderivatives
Learning Objectives
• Find the general antiderivative of a given function.
• Explain the terms and notation used for an indefinite integral.
• State the power rule for integrals.
• Use antidifferentiation to solve simple initial-value problems.
At this point, we have seen how to calculate derivatives of many functions and have been introduced to a variety of their
applications. We now ask a question that turns this process around: Given a function how do we find a function with
the derivative and why would we be interested in such a function?
We answer the first part of this question by defining antiderivatives. The antiderivative of a function is a function
with a derivative Why are we interested in antiderivatives? The need for antiderivatives arises in many situations, and
we look at various examples throughout the remainder of the text. Here we examine one specific example that involves
rectilinear motion. In our examination in Derivatives of rectilinear motion, we showed that given a position function
of an object, then its velocity function is the derivative of —that is, Furthermore, the
acceleration is the derivative of the velocity —that is, Now suppose we are given an
acceleration function but not the velocity function or the position function Since determining
the velocity function requires us to find an antiderivative of the acceleration function. Then, since
determining the position function requires us to find an antiderivative of the velocity function. Rectilinear motion is just
one case in which the need for antiderivatives arises. We will see many more examples throughout the remainder of
the text. For now, let’s look at the terminology and notation for antiderivatives, and determine the antiderivatives for
several types of functions. We examine various techniques for finding antiderivatives of more complicated functions in
the second volume of this text ( Introduction to Techniques of Integration ).
The Reverse of Differentiation

At this point, we know how to find derivatives of various functions. We now ask the opposite question. Given a function
how can we find a function with derivative If we can find a function derivative we call an antiderivative
of
Definition
A function is an antiderivative of the function if
for all in the domain of
Consider the function Knowing the power rule of differentiation, we conclude that
is an antiderivative of since Are there any other antiderivatives of Yes; since the derivative
of any constant is zero, is also an antiderivative of Therefore, and are also
antiderivatives. Are there any others that are not of the form for some constant The answer is no.
From Corollary 2 of the Mean Value Theorem, we know that if and are differentiable functions such that
then for some constant This fact leads to the following important
theorem.
618 | 4.10 Antiderivatives

General Form of an Antiderivative
Let be an antiderivative of over an interval Then,
1. for each constant the function is also an antiderivative of over
2. if is an antiderivative of over there is a constant for which over
In other words, the most general form of the antiderivative of over is
We use this fact and our knowledge of derivatives to find all the antiderivatives for several functions.
Finding Antiderivatives
For each of the following functions, find all antiderivatives.

a.
b.
c.
d.
a. Because
then is an antiderivative of Therefore, every antiderivative of is of the form

for some constant and every function of the form is an antiderivative of
b. Let For and
For and
Therefore,
Thus, is an antiderivative of Therefore, every antiderivative of is of the form

c. We have
so is an antiderivative of Therefore, every antiderivative of is of the form

d. Since
then is an antiderivative of Therefore, every antiderivative of is of the form for

some constant and every function of the form is an antiderivative of
Find all antiderivatives of
4.10 Antiderivatives | 619

Hint
What function has a derivative of
Indefinite Integrals
We now look at the formal notation used to represent antiderivatives and examine some of their properties. These
properties allow us to find antiderivatives of more complicated functions. Given a function we use the notation
or to denote the derivative of Here we introduce notation for antiderivatives. If is an antiderivative of
we say that is the most general antiderivative of and write
The symbol is called an integral sign , and is called the indefinite integral of
Definition
Given a function the indefinite integral of denoted
is the most general antiderivative of If is an antiderivative of then
The expression is called the integrand and the variable is the variable of integration .
Given the terminology introduced in this definition, the act of finding the antiderivatives of a function is usually
referred to as integrating
For a function and an antiderivative the functions where is any real number, is often referred to
as the family of antiderivatives of For example, since is an antiderivative of and any antiderivative of is of
the form we write
The collection of all functions of the form where is any real number, is known as the family of
antiderivatives of (Figure) shows a graph of this family of antiderivatives.

Figure 1. The family of antiderivatives of consists of all functions of the form where is any real number.
For some functions, evaluating indefinite integrals follows directly from properties of derivatives. For example, for
which comes directly from
This fact is known as the power rule for integrals .

Power Rule for Integrals
For

Evaluating indefinite integrals for some other functions is also a straightforward calculation. The following table lists the
indefinite integrals for several common functions. A more complete list appears in Appendix B .
Integration Formulas
Differentiation Formula Indefinite Integral
for
From the definition of indefinite integral of we know
if and only if is an antiderivative of Therefore, when claiming that
it is important to check whether this statement is correct by verifying that

Verifying an Indefinite Integral
Each of the following statements is of the form Verify that each statement is
correct by showing that
a.
b.
Solution
a. Since
the statement

is correct.
Note that we are verifying an indefinite integral for a sum. Furthermore, and are antiderivatives of
and respectively, and the sum of the antiderivatives is an antiderivative of the sum. We discuss this fact
again later in this section.
b. Using the product rule, we see that
Therefore, the statement
is correct.
Note that we are verifying an indefinite integral for a product. The antiderivative is not a
product of the antiderivatives. Furthermore, the product of antiderivatives, is not an
antiderivative of since
In general, the product of antiderivatives is not an antiderivative of a product.
Verify that
Solution
Hint
Calculate
In (Figure) , we listed the indefinite integrals for many elementary functions. Let’s now turn our attention to evaluating
indefinite integrals for more complicated functions. For example, consider finding an antiderivative of a sum
In (Figure) a. we showed that an antiderivative of the sum is given by the sum —that is, an
antiderivative of a sum is given by a sum of antiderivatives. This result was not specific to this example. In general, if
and are antiderivatives of any functions and respectively, then
Therefore, is an antiderivative of and we have
Similarly,
In addition, consider the task of finding an antiderivative of where is any real number. Since
for any real number we conclude that
These properties are summarized next.

Properties of Indefinite Integrals
Let and be antiderivatives of and respectively, and let be any real number.
Sums and Differences
Constant Multiples
From this theorem, we can evaluate any integral involving a sum, difference, or constant multiple of functions with
antiderivatives that are known. Evaluating integrals involving products, quotients, or compositions is more complicated
(see (Figure) b. for an example involving an antiderivative of a product.) We look at and address integrals involving these
more complicated functions in Introduction to Integration . In the next example, we examine how to use this theorem
to calculate the indefinite integrals of several functions.
Evaluating Indefinite Integrals
Evaluate each of the following indefinite integrals:

a.
b.
c.
d.
Solution
a. Using (Figure) , we can integrate each of the four terms in the integrand separately. We obtain
From the second part of (Figure) , each coefficient can be written in front of the integral sign, which gives
Using the power rule for integrals, we conclude that
b. Rewrite the integrand as
Then, to evaluate the integral, integrate each of these terms separately. Using the power rule, we have
c. Using (Figure) , write the integral as
Then, use the fact that is an antiderivative of to conclude that
d. Rewrite the integrand as
Therefore,

Evaluate
Solution
Hint
Integrate each term in the integrand separately, making use of the power rule.
Initial-Value Problems
We look at techniques for integrating a large variety of functions involving products, quotients, and compositions later in
the text. Here we turn to one common use for antiderivatives that arises often in many applications: solving differential
equations.
A differential equation is an equation that relates an unknown function and one or more of its derivatives. The equation
is a simple example of a differential equation. Solving this equation means finding a function with a derivative
Therefore, the solutions of (Figure) are the antiderivatives of If is one antiderivative of every function of the
form is a solution of that differential equation. For example, the solutions of
are given by
Sometimes we are interested in determining whether a particular solution curve passes through a certain point
—that is, The problem of finding a function that satisfies a differential equation
with the additional condition
is an example of an initial-value problem . The condition is known as an initial condition . For example,
looking for a function that satisfies the differential equation
and the initial condition
is an example of an initial-value problem. Since the solutions of the differential equation are to find
a function that also satisfies the initial condition, we need to find such that From
this equation, we see that and we conclude that is the solution of this initial-value problem as
shown in the following graph.

Figure 2. Some of the solution curves of the differential equation are displayed. The function
satisfies the differential equation and the initial condition
Solving an Initial-Value Problem
Solve the initial-value problem
Solution
First we need to solve the differential equation. If then
Next we need to look for a solution that satisfies the initial condition. The initial condition means
we need a constant such that Therefore,
The solution of the initial-value problem is

Solve the initial value problem
Solution
Hint
Find all antiderivatives of
Initial-value problems arise in many applications. Next we consider a problem in which a driver applies the brakes in a
car. We are interested in how long it takes for the car to stop. Recall that the velocity function is the derivative of
a position function and the acceleration is the derivative of the velocity function. In earlier examples in the
text, we could calculate the velocity from the position and then compute the acceleration from the velocity. In the next
example we work the other way around. Given an acceleration function, we calculate the velocity function. We then use
the velocity function to determine the position function.
Decelerating Car
A car is traveling at the rate of 88 ft/sec mph) when the brakes are applied. The car begins decelerating at a
2
constant rate of 15 ft/sec .
a. How many seconds elapse before the car stops?
b. How far does the car travel during that time?
Solution
a. First we introduce variables for this problem. Let be the time (in seconds) after the brakes are first
applied. Let be the acceleration of the car (in feet per seconds squared) at time Let be the
velocity of the car (in feet per second) at time Let be the car’s position (in feet) beyond the point
where the brakes are applied at time
The car is traveling at a rate of Therefore, the initial velocity is ft/sec. Since the
car is decelerating, the acceleration is
The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity,
Therefore, we have an initial-value problem to solve:
Integrating, we find that
Since Thus, the velocity function is
To find how long it takes for the car to stop, we need to find the time such that the velocity is zero.
Solving we obtain sec.
b. To find how far the car travels during this time, we need to find the position of the car after sec. We
know the velocity is the derivative of the position Consider the initial position to be
Therefore, we need to solve the initial-value problem
Integrating, we have

Since the constant is Therefore, the position function is
After sec, the position is ft.
Suppose the car is traveling at the rate of 44 ft/sec. How long does it take for the car to stop? How far will the car
travel?
Hint
Gravity
A rock is dropped from the top of a building 10 metres above the ground on earth.
a. How long until the rock hits the ground?
b. With what velocity does the ball hit the ground?
Solution
a. First we introduce variables for this problem. Let be the time (in seconds) after the rock is dropped.
be the acceleration of the rock (in metres per seconds squared) at time Let be the velocity of the
rock (in metres per second) at time Let be the rock’s position (in metres) at time
The rock is dropped. Therefore, the initial velocity is m/sec. Since the rock is accelerating
downward, the acceleration is
The acceleration is the derivative of the velocity,
Since Thus, the velocity function is
The velocity is the derivative of the position,
Since Thus, the position function is

To find how long it takes for the rock to hit the ground, we need to find the time such that the height is 0.
Solving we obtain sec.
b. To find the velocity of the rock right before it hits the ground, we need to find the velocity at
which is m/sec.
Key Concepts
• If is an antiderivative of then every antiderivative of is of the form for some constant
• Solving the initial-value problem
requires us first to find the set of antiderivatives of and then to look for the particular antiderivative that
also satisfies the initial condition.
For the following exercises, show that are antiderivatives of
1.
Solution
2.
3.
Solution
4.
5.
Solution
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative of the function.
6.
7.
Solution
8.

9.
Solution
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative of each function
10.
11.
Solution
12.
13.
Solution
14.
15.
Solution
16.
17.
Solution
18.
19.
Solution

20.
21.
Solution
22.
23.
24.
25.
Solution
For the following exercises, evaluate the integral.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Solution
30.
31.
Solution
32.

33.
Solution
34.
For the following exercises, solve the initial value problem.
35.
Solution
36.
37.
Solution
38.
39.
Solution
For the following exercises, find two possible functions given the second- or third-order derivatives.
40.
41.
Solution
Answers may vary; one possible answer is
42.
43.
Answers may vary; one possible answer is
44.

45. A car is being driven at a rate of 40 mph when the brakes are applied. The car decelerates at a constant rate
of 10 ft/sec 2 . How long before the car stops?
Solution
5.867 sec
46. In the preceding problem, calculate how far the car travels in the time it takes to stop.
47. You are merging onto the freeway, accelerating at a constant rate of 12 ft/sec 2 . How long does it take you to
reach merging speed at 60 mph?
Solution
7.333 sec
48. Based on the previous problem, how far does the car travel to reach merging speed?
49. A car company wants to ensure its newest model can stop in 8 sec when traveling at 75 mph. If we assume
constant deceleration, find the value of deceleration that accomplishes this.
Solution
13.75 ft/sec 2
50. A car company wants to ensure its newest model can stop in less than 450 ft when traveling at 60 mph. If we
assume constant deceleration, find the value of deceleration that accomplishes this.
For the following exercises, find the antiderivative of the function, assuming
51. [T]
Solution
52. [T]
53. [T]
54. [T]
55. [T]
Solution

56. [T]
For the following exercises, determine whether the statement is true or false. Either prove it is true or find a
counterexample if it is false.
57. If is the antiderivative of then is the antiderivative of
Solution
True
Solution
False
61. On a fictional planet, the acceleration due to gravity is 20 metres per second squared towards the surface. A
rock is thrown from a height of 40 metres above the surface with an initial upward speed of 30 metres per
second. Assume no other forces acting on the rock except for gravity. Determine how long it takes for the rock to
hit the surface and with what velocity.
Solution
It takes 4 seconds to hit the surface with velocity 50 m/sec towards the surface.
Glossary
antiderivative
a function such that for all in the domain of is an antiderivative of
indefinite integral
the most general antiderivative of is the indefinite integral of we use the notation to
denote the indefinite integral of
initial value problem
a problem that requires finding a function that satisfies the differential equation together
with the initial condition

True or False ? Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample. Assume that is continuous and differentiable
unless stated otherwise.
1. If and then there exists at least one point such that
Solution
True, by Mean Value Theorem
2. If there is a maximum or minimum at
3. There is a function such that and (A graphical “proof” is acceptable

for this answer.)
Solution
True
4. There is a function such that there is both an inflection point and a critical point for some value
5. Given the graph of determine where is increasing or decreasing.
Solution
Increasing: decreasing:
6. The graph of is given below. Draw

7. Find the linear approximation to near
Solution
8. Find the differential of and evaluate for with
Find the critical points and the local and absolute extrema of the following functions on the given interval.
9. over
Solution
Critical point: absolute minimum: absolute maximum:
10. over
Determine over which intervals the following functions are increasing, decreasing, concave up, and concave down.
11.
Solution
Increasing: decreasing: concave up:
concave down:
12.
13.
Solution
Increasing: decreasing: concave up: concave down: nowhere
14.
15.
Solution
16.
Use Newton’s method to find the first two iterations, given the starting point.
17.

Solution
18.
Find the antiderivatives of the following functions.
19.
Solution
20.
Graph the following functions by hand. Make sure to label the inflection points, critical points, zeros, and asymptotes.
21.
Solution
Inflection points: none; critical points: zeros: none; vertical asymptotes:

horizontal asymptote:
22.
23. A car is being compacted into a rectangular solid. The volume is decreasing at a rate of 2 m 3 /sec. The length
and width of the compactor are square, but the height is not the same length as the length and width. If the length
and width walls move toward each other at a rate of 0.25 m/sec, find the rate at which the height is changing
when the length and width are 2 m and the height is 1.5 m.
Solution
The height is decreasing at a rate of 0.125 m/sec
24. A rocket is launched into space; its kinetic energy is given by where is the
kinetic energy in joules, is the mass of the rocket in kilograms, and is the velocity of the rocket in meters/
second. Assume the velocity is increasing at a rate of 15 m/sec 2 and the mass is decreasing at a rate of 10 kg/sec

because the fuel is being burned. At what rate is the rocket’s kinetic energy changing when the mass is 2000 kg
and the velocity is 5000 m/sec? Give your answer in mega-Joules (MJ), which is equivalent to J.
25. The famous Regiomontanus’ problem for angle maximization was proposed during the 15 th century. A
painting hangs on a wall with the bottom of the painting a distance feet above eye level, and the top feet above
eye level. What distance (in feet) from the wall should the viewer stand to maximize the angle subtended by the
painting,
Solution
feet
26. An airline sells tickets from Tokyo to Detroit for There are 500 seats available and a typical flight books
350 seats. For every decrease in price, the airline observes an additional five seats sold. What should the fare
be to maximize profit? How many passengers would be onboard?

5. INTEGRATION
5. Integration | 639
5 Introduction
Iceboating is a popular winter sport in parts of the northern United States and Europe. (credit: modification of work by Carter Brown,
Flickr)
Iceboats are a common sight on the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota on winter weekends. Iceboats are similar to
sailboats, but they are fitted with runners, or “skates,” and are designed to run over the ice, rather than on water.
Iceboats can move very quickly, and many ice boating enthusiasts are drawn to the sport because of the speed. Top
iceboat racers can attain speeds up to five times the wind speed. If we know how fast an iceboat is moving, we can use
integration to determine how far it travels. We revisit this question later in the chapter (see (Figure) ).
Determining distance from velocity is just one of many applications of integration. In fact, integrals are used in a wide
variety of mechanical and physical applications. In this chapter, we first introduce the theory behind integration and use
integrals to calculate areas. From there, we develop the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, which relates differentiation
and integration. We then study some basic integration techniques and briefly examine some applications.
5.1 Approximating Areas
Learning Objectives
• Use sigma (summation) notation to calculate sums and powers of integers.
• Use the sum of rectangular areas to approximate the area under a curve.
• Use Riemann sums to approximate area.
Archimedes was fascinated with calculating the areas of various shapes—in other words, the amount of space enclosed
by the shape. He used a process that has come to be known as the method of exhaustion , which used smaller and smaller
shapes, the areas of which could be calculated exactly, to fill an irregular region and thereby obtain closer and closer
approximations to the total area. In this process, an area bounded by curves is filled with rectangles, triangles, and
shapes with exact area formulas. These areas are then summed to approximate the area of the curved region.
In this section, we develop techniques to approximate the area between a curve, defined by a function and the
-axis on a closed interval Like Archimedes, we first approximate the area under the curve using shapes of known
area (namely, rectangles). By using smaller and smaller rectangles, we get closer and closer approximations to the area.
Taking a limit allows us to calculate the exact area under the curve.
Let’s start by introducing some notation to make the calculations easier. We then consider the case when is
continuous and nonnegative. Later in the chapter, we relax some of these restrictions and develop techniques that apply
in more general cases.
Sigma (Summation) Notation

As mentioned, we will use shapes of known area to approximate the area of an irregular region bounded by curves.
This process often requires adding up long strings of numbers. To make it easier to write down these lengthy sums, we
look at some new notation here, called sigma notation (also known as summation notation). The Greek capital letter
sigma, is used to express long sums of values in a compact form. For example, if we want to add all the integers from 1
to 20 without sigma notation, we have to write
We could probably skip writing a couple of terms and write
which is better, but still cumbersome. With sigma notation, we write this sum as
which is much more compact.
Typically, sigma notation is presented in the form
where describes the terms to be added, and the i is called the index . Each term is evaluated, then we sum all the
values, beginning with the value when and ending with the value when For example, an expression like
is interpreted as Note that the index is used only to keep track of the
5.1 Approximating Areas | 641

terms to be added; it does not factor into the calculation of the sum itself. The index is therefore called a dummy variable
. We can use any letter we like for the index. Typically, mathematicians use i , , , , and for indices.
Let’s try a couple of examples of using sigma notation.

Using Sigma Notation
a. Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms for

b. Write the sum in sigma notation:
Solution
a. Write
b. The denominator of each term is a perfect square. Using sigma notation, this sum can be written as
Write in sigma notation and evaluate the sum of terms 2 i for
Solution
Hint
Use the solving steps in (Figure) as a guide.
The properties associated with the summation process are given in the following rule.
Rule: Properties of Sigma Notation
Let and represent two sequences of terms and let be a constant. The following
properties hold for all positive integers and for integers , with
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Proof
We prove properties 2. and 3. here, and leave proof of the other properties to the Exercises.
2. We have
642 | 5.1 Approximating Areas

3. We have
A few more formulas for frequently found functions simplify the summation process further. These are shown in the
next rule, for sums and powers of integers, and we use them in the next set of examples.
Rule: Sums and Powers of Integers
1. The sum of integers is given by
2. The sum of consecutive integers squared is given by
3. The sum of consecutive integers cubed is given by
Evaluation Using Sigma Notation
Write using sigma notation and evaluate:

a. The sum of the terms for
b. The sum of the terms for
Solution
a. Multiplying out we can break the expression into three terms.

b. Use sigma notation property iv. and the rules for the sum of squared terms and the sum of cubed terms.
Find the sum of the values of for
Solution
15,550
Hint
Use the properties of sigma notation to solve the problem.
Finding the Sum of the Function Values
Find the sum of the values of over the integers
Solution
Using the formula, we have
Evaluate the sum indicated by the notation
Solution
440

Hint
Use the rule on sum and powers of integers.
Approximating Area
Now that we have the necessary notation, we return to the problem at hand: approximating the area under a curve. Let
be a continuous, nonnegative function defined on the closed interval We want to approximate the area A
bounded by above, the -axis below, the line on the left, and the line on the right ( (Figure) ).
Figure 1. An area (shaded region) bounded by the curve at top, the x-axis at bottom,
the line to the left, and the line at right.
How do we approximate the area under this curve? The approach is a geometric one. By dividing a region into many
small shapes that have known area formulas, we can sum these areas and obtain a reasonable estimate of the true area.
We begin by dividing the interval into subintervals of equal width, We do this by selecting equally spaced
points with and
for
We denote the width of each subinterval with the notation Δ , so and

for This notion of dividing an interval into subintervals by selecting points from within the
interval is used quite often in approximating the area under a curve, so let’s define some relevant terminology.
Definition
A set of points for with which
divides the interval into subintervals of the form is called a
partition of If the subintervals all have the same width, the set of points forms a regular partition of the
interval
We can use this regular partition as the basis of a method for estimating the area under the curve. We next examine two
methods: the left-endpoint approximation and the right-endpoint approximation .
Rule: Left-Endpoint Approximation
On each subinterval (for construct a rectangle with width Δ and height equal
to which is the function value at the left endpoint of the subinterval. Then the area of this rectangle is
Adding the areas of all these rectangles, we get an approximate value for A ( (Figure) ). We use the
notation L n to denote that this is a left-endpoint approximation of A using subintervals.
Figure 2. In the left-endpoint approximation of area under a curve, the height of each rectangle is
determined by the function value at the left of each subinterval.
The second method for approximating area under a curve is the right-endpoint approximation. It is almost the same
as the left-endpoint approximation, but now the heights of the rectangles are determined by the function values at the
right of each subinterval.
Rule: Right-Endpoint Approximation
Construct a rectangle on each subinterval only this time the height of the rectangle is determined by
the function value at the right endpoint of the subinterval. Then, the area of each rectangle is
and the approximation for A is given by

The notation indicates this is a right-endpoint approximation for A ( (Figure) ).
Figure 3. In the right-endpoint approximation of area under a curve, the height of each rectangle is
determined by the function value at the right of each subinterval. Note that the right-endpoint
approximation differs from the left-endpoint approximation in (Figure).
The graphs in (Figure) represent the curve In graph (a) we divide the region represented by the interval
into six subintervals, each of width 0.5. Thus, We then form six rectangles by drawing vertical lines
perpendicular to the left endpoint of each subinterval. We determine the height of each rectangle by calculating
for The intervals are
We find the area of each rectangle by multiplying the height by the width. Then, the sum of the rectangular areas
approximates the area between and the -axis. When the left endpoints are used to calculate height, we have a
left-endpoint approximation. Thus,

Figure 4. Methods of approximating the area under a curve by using (a) the left endpoints and (b) the right endpoints.
In (Figure) (b), we draw vertical lines perpendicular to such that is the right endpoint of each subinterval, and
calculate for We multiply each by Δ to find the rectangular areas, and then add
them. This is a right-endpoint approximation of the area under Thus,
Approximating the Area Under a Curve
Use both left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations to approximate the area under the curve of
on the interval use
Solution
First, divide the interval into equal subintervals. Using This is the
width of each rectangle. The intervals are shown in (Figure) . Using a
left-endpoint approximation, the heights are
Then,

Figure 5. The graph shows the left-endpoint approximation of the area under from 0
to 2.
The right-endpoint approximation is shown in (Figure) . The intervals are the same, but now use
the right endpoint to calculate the height of the rectangles. We have
Figure 6. The graph shows the right-endpoint approximation of the area under from
0 to 2.
The left-endpoint approximation is 1.75; the right-endpoint approximation is 3.75.
Sketch left-endpoint and right-endpoint approximations for on use Approximate

the area using both methods.

Solution
The left-endpoint approximation is 0.7595. The right-endpoint approximation is 0.6345. See the below (Figure) .
Hint
Follow the solving strategy in (Figure) step-by-step.
Looking at (Figure) and the graphs in (Figure) , we can see that when we use a small number of intervals, neither the left-
endpoint approximation nor the right-endpoint approximation is a particularly accurate estimate of the area under the
curve. However, it seems logical that if we increase the number of points in our partition, our estimate of A will improve.
We will have more rectangles, but each rectangle will be thinner, so we will be able to fit the rectangles to the curve
more precisely.
We can demonstrate the improved approximation obtained through smaller intervals with an example. Let’s explore the
idea of increasing , first in a left-endpoint approximation with four rectangles, then eight rectangles, and finally 32
rectangles. Then, let’s do the same thing in a right-endpoint approximation, using the same sets of intervals, of the same
curved region. (Figure) shows the area of the region under the curve on the interval
using a left-endpoint approximation where The width of each rectangle is
The area is approximated by the summed areas of the rectangles, or

Figure 7. With a left-endpoint approximation and dividing the region from a to b into four equal
intervals, the area under the curve is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the rectangles.
(Figure) shows the same curve divided into eight subintervals. Comparing the graph with four rectangles in (Figure) with
this graph with eight rectangles, we can see there appears to be less white space under the curve when This
white space is area under the curve we are unable to include using our approximation. The area of the rectangles is
Figure 8. The region under the curve is divided into rectangular areas of equal width for a
left-endpoint approximation.
The graph in (Figure) shows the same function with 32 rectangles inscribed under the curve. There appears to be little
white space left. The area occupied by the rectangles is

Figure 9. Here, 32 rectangles are inscribed under the curve for a left-endpoint approximation.
We can carry out a similar process for the right-endpoint approximation method. A right-endpoint approximation of
the same curve, using four rectangles ( (Figure) ), yields an area
Figure 10. Now we divide the area under the curve into four equal subintervals for a right-endpoint
approximation.
Dividing the region over the interval into eight rectangles results in The graph is shown
in (Figure) . The area is

Figure 11. Here we use right-endpoint approximation for a region divided into eight equal
subintervals.
Last, the right-endpoint approximation with is close to the actual area ( (Figure) ). The area is approximately
Figure 12. The region is divided into 32 equal subintervals for a right-endpoint approximation.
Based on these figures and calculations, it appears we are on the right track; the rectangles appear to approximate the
area under the curve better as gets larger. Furthermore, as increases, both the left-endpoint and right-endpoint
approximations appear to approach an area of 8 square units. (Figure) shows a numerical comparison of the left- and
right-endpoint methods. The idea that the approximations of the area under the curve get better and better as gets
larger and larger is very important, and we now explore this idea in more detail.

Converging Values of Left- and Right-Endpoint
Approximations as Increases
Values of Approximate Area L n Approximate Area R n
7.5 8.5
7.75 8.25
7.94 8.06
Forming Riemann Sums

So far we have been using rectangles to approximate the area under a curve. The heights of these rectangles have been
determined by evaluating the function at either the right or left endpoints of the subinterval In reality,
there is no reason to restrict evaluation of the function to one of these two points only. We could evaluate the function
at any point c i in the subinterval and use as the height of our rectangle. This gives us an estimate
for the area of the form
A sum of this form is called a Riemann sum , named for the 19th-century mathematician Bernhard Riemann, who
developed the idea.
Definition
Let be defined on a closed interval and let P be a regular partition of Let Δ be the width of
each subinterval and for each i , let be any point in A Riemann sum is defined for
as
Recall that with the left- and right-endpoint approximations, the estimates seem to get better and better as get larger
and larger. The same thing happens with Riemann sums. Riemann sums give better approximations for larger values of
. We are now ready to define the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums.
Definition
Let be a continuous, nonnegative function on an interval and let be a Riemann sum
for Then, the area under the curve on is given by
See a graphical demonstration of the construction of a Riemann sum.
Some subtleties here are worth discussing. First, note that taking the limit of a sum is a little different from taking the
limit of a function as goes to infinity. Limits of sums are discussed in detail in the chapter on Sequences and
Series in the second volume of this text; however, for now we can assume that the computational techniques we used
to compute limits of functions can also be used to calculate limits of sums.
Second, we must consider what to do if the expression converges to different limits for different choices of
Fortunately, this does not happen. Although the proof is beyond the scope of this text, it can be shown that if is

continuous on the closed interval then exists and is unique (in other words, it does not
depend on the choice of
We look at some examples shortly. But, before we do, let’s take a moment and talk about some specific choices for
Although any choice for gives us an estimate of the area under the curve, we don’t necessarily know
whether that estimate is too high (overestimate) or too low (underestimate). If it is important to know whether our
estimate is high or low, we can select our value for to guarantee one result or the other.
If we want an overestimate, for example, we can choose such that for

for all In other words, we choose so that for is the maximum
function value on the interval If we select in this way, then the Riemann sum
is called an upper sum . Similarly, if we want an underestimate, we can choose so that for
is the minimum function value on the interval In this case, the associated
Riemann sum is called a lower sum . Note that if is either increasing or decreasing throughout the interval
then the maximum and minimum values of the function occur at the endpoints of the subintervals, so the upper and
lower sums are just the same as the left- and right-endpoint approximations.
Finding Lower and Upper Sums
Find a lower sum for on let subintervals.
With over the interval We can list the intervals as

Because the function is decreasing over the interval
(Figure) shows that a lower sum is obtained by using the right endpoints.
Figure 13. The graph of is set up for a right-endpoint approximation of the

area bounded by the curve and the x-axis on and it shows a lower sum.
The Riemann sum is

The area of 7.28 is a lower sum and an underestimate.
a. Find an upper sum for on let

b. Sketch the approximation.
Solution
a.
b.
Hint
is decreasing on so the maximum function values occur at the left endpoints of the subintervals.
Finding Lower and Upper Sums for
Find a lower sum for over the interval let
Solution
Let’s first look at the graph in (Figure) to get a better idea of the area of interest.
Figure 14. The graph of is divided into six regions:
The intervals are and Note that

is increasing on the interval so a left-endpoint approximation gives us the lower sum. A left-endpoint
approximation is the Riemann sum We have
Using the function over the interval find an upper sum; let
Solution
Hint
Follow the steps from (Figure) .
Key Concepts
• The use of sigma (summation) notation of the form is useful for expressing long sums of values in
compact form.
• For a continuous function defined over an interval the process of dividing the interval into equal
parts, extending a rectangle to the graph of the function, calculating the areas of the series of rectangles,
and then summing the areas yields an approximation of the area of that region.
• The width of each rectangle is
• Riemann sums are expressions of the form and can be used to estimate the area under the
curve Left- and right-endpoint approximations are special kinds of Riemann sums where the
values of are chosen to be the left or right endpoints of the subintervals, respectively.
• Riemann sums allow for much flexibility in choosing the set of points at which the function is
evaluated, often with an eye to obtaining a lower sum or an upper sum.
Key Equations
• Properties of Sigma Notation
• Sums and Powers of Integers

• Left-Endpoint Approximation
• Right-Endpoint Approximation
1. State whether the given sums are equal or unequal.
a. and
b. and
c. and
d. and
Solution
a. They are equal; both represent the sum of the first 10 whole numbers. b. They are equal; both represent the
sum of the first 10 whole numbers. c. They are equal by substituting d. They are equal; the first sum
factors the terms of the second.
In the following exercises, use the rules for sums of powers of integers to compute the sums.
2.
3.
Solution
Suppose that and In the following exercises, compute the sums.
4.
5.
Solution
6.
7.
Solution
In the following exercises, use summation properties and formulas to rewrite and evaluate the sums.
8.

9.
Solution
10.
11.
Solution
Let denote the left-endpoint sum using subintervals and let denote the corresponding right-endpoint sum.
In the following exercises, compute the indicated left and right sums for the given functions on the indicated interval.
12 . L 4 for on
13. R 4 for on
Solution
14. L 6 for on
15. R 6 for on
Solution
16. R 4 for on
17. L 4 for on
Solution
18. R 4 for on
19. L 8 for on
Solution

20. Compute the left and right Riemann sums— L 4 and R 4 , respectively—for on
Compute their average value and compare it with the area under the graph of .
Compute their average value and compare it with the area under the graph of .
Solution
The graph of is a triangle with area 9.
and compare their values.
and compare their values.
Solution
They are equal.
Express the following endpoint sums in sigma notation but do not evaluate them.
24. L 30 for on
25. L 10 for on
Solution
26. R 20 for on
27. R 100 for on
Solution
In the following exercises, graph the function then use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the following
left and right endpoint sums. Is the area under the curve between the left and right endpoint sums?
28. [T] L 100 and R 100 for on the interval

Solution
The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate

because the function is increasing. Similarly, the right Riemann sum is an overestimate. The area lies between the
left and right Riemann sums. Ten rectangles are shown for visual clarity. This behavior persists for more
rectangles.
Solution
The left endpoint sum is an underestimate because the function is

increasing. Similarly, a right endpoint approximation is an overestimate. The area lies between the left and right
endpoint estimates.
Solution
The plot shows that the left Riemann sum is an underestimate because the
function is increasing. Ten rectangles are shown for visual clarity. This behavior persists for more rectangles.

34. Let t j denote the time that it took Tejay van Garteren to ride the th stage of the Tour de France in 2014. If
there were a total of 21 stages, interpret
35. Let denote the total rainfall in Portland on the th day of the year in 2009. Interpret
Solution
The sum represents the cumulative rainfall in January 2009.
36. Let denote the hours of daylight and denote the increase in the hours of daylight from day to
day in Fargo, North Dakota, on the th day of the year. Interpret
37. To help get in shape, Joe gets a new pair of running shoes. If Joe runs 1 mi each day in week 1 and adds mi
to his daily routine each week, what is the total mileage on Joe’s shoes after 25 weeks?
Solution
The total mileage is
38. The following table gives approximate values of the average annual atmospheric rate of increase in carbon
dioxide (CO 2 ) each decade since 1960, in parts per million (ppm). Estimate the total increase in atmospheric CO 2
between 1964 and 2013.
Average Annual
Atmospheric CO 2
Increase, 1964–2013
Source :
http://www.esrl.noa
a.gov/gmd/ccgg/
trends/.
Decade Ppm/y
1964–1973 1.07
1974–1983 1.34
1984–1993 1.40
1994–2003 1.87
2004–2013 2.07
39. The following table gives the approximate increase in sea level in inches over 20 years starting in the given
year. Estimate the net change in mean sea level from 1870 to 2010.

Approximate 20-Year Sea Level
Increases, 1870–1990 Source :
http://link.springer.com/
article/
10.1007%2Fs10712-011-9119-1
Starting Year 20-Year Change

1870 0.3
1890 1.5
1910 0.2
1930 2.8
1950 0.7
1970 1.1
1990 1.5
Solution
Add the numbers to get 8.1-in. net increase.
40. The following table gives the approximate increase in dollars in the average price of a gallon of gas per
decade since 1950. If the average price of a gallon of gas in 2010 was $2.60, what was the average price of a gallon
of gas in 1950?
Approximate 10-Year Gas Price

Increases, 1950–2000 Source :
http://epb.lbl.gov/homepages/
Rick_Diamond/docs/
lbnl55011-trends.pdf.
Starting Year 10-Year Change

1950 0.03
1960 0.05
1970 0.86
1980 -0.03
1990 0.29
2000 1.12
41. The following table gives the percent growth of the U.S. population beginning in July of the year indicated. If
the U.S. population was 281,421,906 in July 2000, estimate the U.S. population in July 2010.

Annual Percentage
Growth of U.S.
Population, 2000–2009
Source :
http://www.census.gov
/popest/data.
Year % Change/Year
2000 1.12
2001 0.99
2002 0.93
2003 0.86
2004 0.93
2005 0.93
2006 0.97
2007 0.96
2008 0.95
2009 0.88
( Hint: To obtain the population in July 2001, multiply the population in July 2000 by 1.0112 to get 284,573,831.)
Solution
309,389,957
In the following exercises, estimate the areas under the curves by computing the left Riemann sums, L 8 .
42.
43.
Solution

44.
45.
Solution
46. [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, for for
on
47. [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L N , for for
on
Solution
48. [T] Use a computer algebra system to compute the Riemann sum, L N , for for
on Compare these estimates with π .
In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R N and L N for
How do these estimates compare with the exact answers, which you can find via geometry?
49. [T] on the interval
Solution
and By symmetry of
the graph, the exact area is zero.
50. [T] on the interval
In the following exercises, use a calculator or a computer program to evaluate the endpoint sums R N and L N for

51. [T] on the interval which has an exact area of
Solution
52. [T] on the interval which has an exact area of
53. Explain why, if and is increasing on that the left endpoint estimate is a lower bound for
the area below the graph of on
Solution
If is a subinterval of under one of the left-endpoint sum rectangles, then the area of the rectangle
contributing to the left-endpoint estimate is But, for so the area
under the graph of between and is plus the area below the graph of but above the
horizontal line segment at height which is positive. As this is true for each left-endpoint sum interval, it
follows that the left Riemann sum is less than or equal to the area below the graph of on
54. Explain why, if and is decreasing on that the left endpoint estimate is an upper bound
for the area below the graph of on
55. Show that, in general,
Solution
and
The left sum has a term corresponding to and the right sum has
a term corresponding to In any term corresponding to occurs

once with a plus sign and once with a minus sign, so each such term cancels and one is left with
56. Explain why, if is increasing on the error between either L N or R N and the area A below the graph
of is at most
57. For each of the three graphs:

a. Obtain a lower bound for the area enclosed by the curve by adding the areas of the squares enclosed
completely by the curve.
b. Obtain an upper bound for the area by adding to the areas of the squares enclosed
partially by the curve.

Solution
Graph 1: a. b. Graph 2: a. b.
Graph 3: a. b.
58. In the previous exercise, explain why gets no smaller while gets no larger as the squares are
subdivided into four boxes of equal area.
59. A unit circle is made up of wedges equivalent to the inner wedge in the figure. The base of the inner
triangle is 1 unit and its height is The base of the outer triangle is
and the height is Use this information to argue that the area of a unit circle is equal to π .

Solution
Let A be the area of the unit circle. The circle encloses congruent triangles each of area so
Similarly, the circle is contained inside congruent triangles each of area
so
As so we conclude Also, as
so we also have By the squeeze theorem for limits,

we conclude that
Glossary
left-endpoint approximation
an approximation of the area under a curve computed by using the left endpoint of each subinterval to
calculate the height of the vertical sides of each rectangle
lower sum
a sum obtained by using the minimum value of on each subinterval
partition
a set of points that divides an interval into subintervals
regular partition
a partition in which the subintervals all have the same width
riemann sum
an estimate of the area under the curve of the form
right-endpoint approximation
the right-endpoint approximation is an approximation of the area of the rectangles under a curve using the
right endpoint of each subinterval to construct the vertical sides of each rectangle
sigma notation
(also, summation notation ) the Greek letter sigma (Σ) indicates addition of the values; the values of the index
above and below the sigma indicate where to begin the summation and where to end it
upper sum
a sum obtained by using the maximum value of on each subinterval

5.2 The Definite Integral
Learning Objectives
• State the definition of the definite integral.
• Explain the terms integrand, limits of integration, and variable of integration.
• Explain when a function is integrable.
• Describe the relationship between the definite integral and net area.
• Use geometry and the properties of definite integrals to evaluate them.
• Calculate the average value of a function.
In the preceding section we defined the area under a curve in terms of Riemann sums:
However, this definition came with restrictions. We required to be continuous and nonnegative. Unfortunately,
real-world problems don’t always meet these restrictions. In this section, we look at how to apply the concept of the
area under the curve to a broader set of functions through the use of the definite integral.
Definition and Notation

The definite integral generalizes the concept of the area under a curve. We lift the requirements that be
continuous and nonnegative, and define the definite integral as follows.
Definition
If is a function defined on an interval the definite integral of from to is given by
provided the limit exists. If this limit exists, the function is said to be integrable on or is an integrable
function.
The integral symbol in the previous definition should look familiar. We have seen similar notation in the chapter on
Applications of Derivatives , where we used the indefinite integral symbol (without the and above and below) to
represent an antiderivative. Although the notation for indefinite integrals may look similar to the notation for a definite
integral, they are not the same. A definite integral is a number. An indefinite integral is a family of functions. Later in this
chapter we examine how these concepts are related. However, close attention should always be paid to notation so we
know whether we’re working with a definite integral or an indefinite integral.
Integral notation goes back to the late seventeenth century and is one of the contributions of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
, who is often considered to be the codiscoverer of calculus, along with Isaac Newton. The integration symbol ∫ is
an elongated S, suggesting sigma or summation. On a definite integral, above and below the summation symbol are
the boundaries of the interval, The numbers and are -values and are called the limits of integration;
specifically, is the lower limit and is the upper limit. To clarify, we are using the word limit in two different ways in
the context of the definite integral. First, we talk about the limit of a sum as Second, the boundaries of the
region are called the limits of integration .
We call the function the integrand , and the dx indicates that is a function with respect to , called the
5.2 The Definite Integral | 669

variable of integration . Note that, like the index in a sum, the variable of integration is a dummy variable , and has no
impact on the computation of the integral. We could use any variable we like as the variable of integration:
Previously, we discussed the fact that if is continuous on then the limit exists
and is unique. This leads to the following theorem, which we state without proof.
Continuous Functions Are Integrable
If is continuous on then is integrable on
Functions that are not continuous on may still be integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities. For
example, functions with a finite number of jump discontinuities on a closed interval are integrable.
It is also worth noting here that we have retained the use of a regular partition in the Riemann sums. This restriction is
not strictly necessary. Any partition can be used to form a Riemann sum. However, if a nonregular partition is used to
define the definite integral, it is not sufficient to take the limit as the number of subintervals goes to infinity. Instead, we
must take the limit as the width of the largest subinterval goes to zero. This introduces a little more complex notation
in our limits and makes the calculations more difficult without really gaining much additional insight, so we stick with
regular partitions for the Riemann sums.
Evaluating an Integral Using the Definition
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate Use a right-endpoint approximation to generate
the Riemann sum.
We first want to set up a Riemann sum. Based on the limits of integration, we have and For
let be a regular partition of Then
Since we are using a right-endpoint approximation to generate Riemann sums, for each i , we need to calculate the
function value at the right endpoint of the interval The right endpoint of the interval is and since P is
a regular partition,
Thus, the function value at the right endpoint of the interval is
Then the Riemann sum takes the form
Using the summation formula for we have
670 | 5.2 The Definite Integral

Now, to calculate the definite integral, we need to take the limit as We get
Use the definition of the definite integral to evaluate Use a right-endpoint approximation to
generate the Riemann sum.
Solution
6
Hint
Use the solving strategy from (Figure) .
Evaluating Definite Integrals

Evaluating definite integrals this way can be quite tedious because of the complexity of the calculations. Later in this
chapter we develop techniques for evaluating definite integrals without taking limits of Riemann sums. However, for
now, we can rely on the fact that definite integrals represent the area under the curve, and we can evaluate definite
integrals by using geometric formulas to calculate that area. We do this to confirm that definite integrals do, indeed,
represent areas, so we can then discuss what to do in the case of a curve of a function dropping below the -axis.
Using Geometric Formulas to Calculate Definite Integrals
Use the formula for the area of a circle to evaluate
Solution
The function describes a semicircle with radius 3. To find
we want to find the area under the curve over the interval The formula for the area of a circle is
The area of a semicircle is just one-half the area of a circle, or The shaded area in
(Figure) covers one-half of the semicircle, or Thus,

Figure 1. The value of the integral of the function over the
interval is the area of the shaded region.
Use the formula for the area of a trapezoid to evaluate
Solution
18 square units
Hint
Graph the function and calculate the area under the function on the interval
Area and the Definite Integral

When we defined the definite integral, we lifted the requirement that be nonnegative. But how do we interpret
“the area under the curve” when is negative?
Net Signed Area
Let us return to the Riemann sum. Consider, for example, the function (shown in (Figure) ) on
the interval Use and choose as the left endpoint of each interval. Construct a rectangle on each
subinterval of height and width Δ . When is positive, the product represents the area of
the rectangle, as before. When is negative, however, the product represents the negative of the area
of the rectangle. The Riemann sum then becomes

Figure 2. For a function that is partly negative, the Riemann sum is
the area of the rectangles above the x-axis less the area of the
rectangles below the x-axis.
Taking the limit as the Riemann sum approaches the area between the curve above the -axis and the
-axis, less the area between the curve below the -axis and the -axis, as shown in (Figure) . Then,
The quantity is called the net signed area .

Figure 3. In the limit, the definite integral equals area A1 less area
A2, or the net signed area.
Notice that net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero. If the area above the -axis is larger, the net signed area
is positive. If the area below the -axis is larger, the net signed area is negative. If the areas above and below the -axis
are equal, the net signed area is zero.
Finding the Net Signed Area
Find the net signed area between the curve of the function and the -axis over the interval
Solution
The function produces a straight line that forms two triangles: one from to and the other from
to ( (Figure) ). Using the geometric formula for the area of a triangle, the area of
triangle A 1 , above the axis, is
where 3 is the base and is the height. The area of triangle A 2 , below the axis, is
where 3 is the base and 6 is the height. Thus, the net area is

Figure 4. The area above the curve and below the x-axis equals the
area below the curve and above the x-axis.
Analysis
If A 1 is the area above the -axis and A 2 is the area below the -axis, then the net area is Since the
areas of the two triangles are equal, the net area is zero.
Find the net signed area of over the interval illustrated in the following image.
Solution
6
Hint
Use the solving method described in (Figure) .
Total Area
One application of the definite integral is finding displacement when given a velocity function. If represents the
velocity of an object as a function of time, then the area under the curve tells us how far the object is from its original
position. This is a very important application of the definite integral, and we examine it in more detail later in the
chapter. For now, we’re just going to look at some basics to get a feel for how this works by studying constant velocities.

When velocity is a constant, the area under the curve is just velocity times time. This idea is already very familiar. If a
car travels away from its starting position in a straight line at a speed of 75 mph for 2 hours, then it is 150 mi away from
its original position ( (Figure) ). Using integral notation, we have
Figure 5. The area under the curve tells us how far the car is from its starting point at a given time.
In the context of displacement, net signed area allows us to take direction into account. If a car travels straight north at
a speed of 60 mph for 2 hours, it is 120 mi north of its starting position. If the car then turns around and travels south at
a speed of 40 mph for 3 hours, it will be back at it starting position ( (Figure) ). Again, using integral notation, we have
In this case the displacement is zero.

Figure 6. The area above the axis and the area below the axis are equal, so the net signed area is zero.
Suppose we want to know how far the car travels overall, regardless of direction. In this case, we want to know the area
between the curve and the -axis, regardless of whether that area is above or below the axis. This is called the total
area .
Graphically, it is easiest to think of calculating total area by adding the areas above the axis and the areas below the axis
(rather than subtracting the areas below the axis, as we did with net signed area). To accomplish this mathematically, we
use the absolute value function. Thus, the total distance traveled by the car is
Bringing these ideas together formally, we state the following definitions.

Definition
Let be an integrable function defined on an interval Let A 1 represent the area between and
the -axis that lies above the axis and let A 2 represent the area between and the -axis that lies below the
axis. Then, the net signed area between and the -axis is given by

The total area between and the -axis is given by
Finding the Total Area
Find the total area between and the -axis over the interval
Solution
Calculate the -intercept as (set solve for ). To find the total area, take the area below the
-axis over the subinterval and add it to the area above the -axis on the subinterval ( (Figure) ).
Figure 7. The total area between the line and the x-axis over
is A2 plus A1.
We have
Then, using the formula for the area of a triangle, we obtain
The total area, then, is
Find the total area between the function and the -axis over the interval
Solution
18
Hint
Review the solving strategy in (Figure) .

Properties of the Definite Integral
The properties of indefinite integrals apply to definite integrals as well. Definite integrals also have properties that relate
to the limits of integration. These properties, along with the rules of integration that we examine later in this chapter,
help us manipulate expressions to evaluate definite integrals.
Rule: Properties of the Definite Integral
1.
If the limits of integration are the same, the integral is just a line and contains no area.
2.
If the limits are reversed, then place a negative sign in front of the integral.
3.
The integral of a sum is the sum of the integrals.
4.
The integral of a difference is the difference of the integrals.
5.
for constant . The integral of the product of a constant and a function is equal to the constant multiplied by
the integral of the function.
6.
Although this formula normally applies when is between and , the formula holds for all values of , ,
and , provided is integrable on the largest interval.
Using the Properties of the Definite Integral
Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of over
the interval as the sum of three definite integrals.
Solution
Using integral notation, we have We apply properties 3. and 5. to get
Use the properties of the definite integral to express the definite integral of
over the interval as the sum of four definite integrals.
Solution
Hint
Use the solving strategy from (Figure) and the properties of definite integrals.
Using the Properties of the Definite Integral
If it is known that and find the value of

Solution
By property 6.,
Thus,
If it is known that and find the value of
Solution
-7
Hint
Use the solving strategy from (Figure) and the rule on properties of definite integrals.
Comparison Properties of Integrals

A picture can sometimes tell us more about a function than the results of computations. Comparing functions by their
graphs as well as by their algebraic expressions can often give new insight into the process of integration. Intuitively,
we might say that if a function is above another function then the area between and the -axis is
greater than the area between and the -axis. This is true depending on the interval over which the comparison
is made. The properties of definite integrals are valid whether or The following properties,
however, concern only the case and are used when we want to compare the sizes of integrals.
Comparison Theorem
1. If for then
2. If for then
3. If and M are constants such that for then
Comparing Two Functions over a Given Interval
Compare and over the interval
Solution
Graphing these functions is necessary to understand how they compare over the interval Initially, when
graphed on a graphing calculator, appears to be above everywhere. However, on the interval
the graphs appear to be on top of each other. We need to zoom in to see that, on the interval is
above The two functions intersect at and ( (Figure) ).

Figure 8. (a) The function appears above the function except over the interval (b) Viewing the
same graph with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
We can see from the graph that over the interval Comparing the integrals over the
specified interval we also see that ( (Figure) ). The thin, red-shaded area
shows just how much difference there is between these two integrals over the interval
Figure 9. (a) The graph shows that over the interval where equality holds only at the
endpoints of the interval. (b) Viewing the same graph with a greater zoom shows this more clearly.
Average Value of a Function

We often need to find the average of a set of numbers, such as an average test grade. Suppose you received the following
test scores in your algebra class: 89, 90, 56, 78, 100, and 69. Your semester grade is your average of test scores and you

want to know what grade to expect. We can find the average by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of
scores. In this case, there are six test scores. Thus,
Therefore, your average test grade is approximately 80.33, which translates to a B- at most schools.
Suppose, however, that we have a function that gives us the speed of an object at any time , and we want to find
the object’s average speed. The function takes on an infinite number of values, so we can’t use the process just
described. Fortunately, we can use a definite integral to find the average value of a function such as this.
Let be continuous over the interval and let be divided into subintervals of width
Choose a representative in each subinterval and calculate for In
other words, consider each as a sampling of the function over each subinterval. The average value of the function
may then be approximated as
which is basically the same expression used to calculate the average of discrete values.
But we know so and we get
Following through with the algebra, the numerator is a sum that is represented as and we are dividing
by a fraction. To divide by a fraction, invert the denominator and multiply. Thus, an approximate value for the average
value of the function is given by
This is a Riemann sum. Then, to get the exact average value, take the limit as goes to infinity. Thus, the average value
of a function is given by
Definition
Let be continuous over the interval Then, the average value of the function (or ave ) on
is given by
Finding the Average Value of a Linear Function

Find the average value of over the interval
Solution
First, graph the function on the stated interval, as shown in (Figure) .

Figure 10. The graph shows the area under the function over
The region is a trapezoid lying on its side, so we can use the area formula for a trapezoid
where represents height, and and represent the two parallel sides. Then,
Thus the average value of the function is
Find the average value of over the interval
Solution
3
Hint
Use the average value formula, and use geometry to evaluate the integral.
Key Concepts
• The definite integral can be used to calculate net signed area, which is the area above the -axis less the
area below the -axis. Net signed area can be positive, negative, or zero.
• The component parts of the definite integral are the integrand, the variable of integration, and the limits of
integration.
• Continuous functions on a closed interval are integrable. Functions that are not continuous may still be
integrable, depending on the nature of the discontinuities.
• The properties of definite integrals can be used to evaluate integrals.
• The area under the curve of many functions can be calculated using geometric formulas.
• The average value of a function can be calculated using definite integrals.

Key Equations
• Definite Integral
• Properties of the Definite Integral
for constant
In the following exercises, express the limits as integrals.
1. over
2. over
Solution
3. over
4. over
Solution
In the following exercises, given L n or R n as indicated, express their limits as as definite integrals,
identifying the correct intervals.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Solution
9.
10.
Solution
In the following exercises, evaluate the integrals of the functions graphed using the formulas for areas of triangles and
circles, and subtracting the areas below the -axis.
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution

15.
16.
Solution
In the following exercises, evaluate the integral using area formulas.
17.
18.
Solution
The integral is the area of the triangle,
19.
20.
Solution
The integral is the area of the triangle, 9.
21.
22.
Solution
The integral is the area
23.
24.

Solution
The integral is the area of the “big” triangle less the “missing” triangle,
In the following exercises, use averages of values at the left ( L ) and right ( R ) endpoints to compute the integrals of
the piecewise linear functions with graphs that pass through the given list of points over the indicated intervals.
25. over
26. over
Solution
27. over
28. over
Solution
Suppose that and and and In the

following exercises, compute the integrals.
29.
30.
Solution
31.
32.
33.
34.
Solution

In the following exercises, use the identity to compute the
integrals.
35. (Hint: )
36.
Solution
The integrand is odd; the integral is zero.
37. ( Hint: Look at the graph of .)
38. ( Hint: Look at the graph of .)
Solution
The integrand is antisymmetric with respect to The integral is zero.
In the following exercises, given that and compute the integrals.
39.
40.
Solution
41.
42.
Solution
43.
44.
Solution
In the following exercises, use the comparison theorem .
45. Show that

46. Show that
Solution
The integrand is negative over
47. Show that
48. Show that
Solution
over so over
49. Show that ( over )
50. Show that
Solution
Multiply by the length of the interval to get the inequality.
In the following exercises, find the average value ave of between and , and find a point , where
51.
52.
Solution
53.
54.
Solution
when
55.
56.
Solution

In the following exercises, approximate the average value using Riemann sums L 100 and R 100 . How does your answer
compare with the exact given answer?
57. [T] over the interval the exact solution is
Solution
the exact average is between these values.
Solution
In the following exercises, compute the average value using the left Riemann sums L N for How
does the accuracy compare with the given exact value?
Solution
The exact answer so L 100 is not
accurate.
Solution
The exact answer so L
100 is not accurate to first decimal.
65. Suppose that and Show that and
66. Suppose that and Show that
Solution
Use Then,

67. Show that the average value of over is equal to 1/2 Without further calculation, determine
whether the average value of over is also equal to 1/2.
68. Show that the average value of over is equal to Without further calculation, determine
whether the average value of over is also equal to
Solution
so divide by the length 2 π of the interval. has period π , so yes, it is true.
69. Explain why the graphs of a quadratic function (parabola) and a linear function can intersect in at
most two points. Suppose that and and that Explain
why whenever
70. Suppose that parabola opens downward and has a vertex of

For which interval is as large as possible?
Solution
The integral is maximized when one uses the largest interval on which is nonnegative. Thus,
and
71. Suppose can be subdivided into subintervals such that

either over or over Set
a. Explain why
b. Then, explain why
72. Suppose and are continuous functions such that for every subinterval
of Explain why for all values of .
Solution
If for some then since is continuous, there is an interval containing 0
such that over the interval and then over this interval.
73. Suppose the average value of over is 1 and the average value of over is 1 where
Show that the average value of over is also 1.
74. Suppose that can be partitioned. taking such that the average
value of over each subinterval is equal to 1 for each Explain why the average
value of over is also equal to 1.
Solution
The integral of over an interval is the same as the integral of the average of over that interval. Thus,

Dividing through by gives the desired identity.
75. Suppose that for each i such that one has Show that
76. Suppose that for each i such that one has Show that
Solution
77. [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums L 10 and R 10 and their average for over
Given that to how many decimal places is accurate?
78. [T] Compute the left and right Riemann sums, L 10 and R 10 , and their average for
over Given that to how many decimal places is

accurate?
Solution
so the estimate is accurate to two decimal places.
79. If what is
80. Estimate using the left and right endpoint sums, each with a single rectangle. How does the average
of these left and right endpoint sums compare with the actual value
Solution
The average is which is equal to the integral in this case.
81. Estimate by comparison with the area of a single rectangle with height equal to the value of at the
midpoint How does this midpoint estimate compare with the actual value
82. From the graph of shown:
a. Explain why
b. Explain why, in general, for any value of .

Solution
a. The graph is antisymmetric with respect to over so the average value is zero. b. For any value of
, the graph between is a shift of the graph over so the net areas above and below the axis do
not change and the average remains zero.
83. If is 1-periodic odd, and integrable over is it always true that
84. If is 1-periodic and is it necessarily true that for all A ?
Solution
Yes, the integral over any interval of length 1 is the same.
Glossary
average value of a function

(or ave ) the average value of a function on an interval can be found by calculating the definite integral of the
function and dividing that value by the length of the interval
definite integral
a primary operation of calculus; the area between the curve and the -axis over a given interval is a definite
integral
integrable function
a function is integrable if the limit defining the integral exists; in other words, if the limit of the Riemann sums
as goes to infinity exists
integrand
the function to the right of the integration symbol; the integrand includes the function being integrated
limits of integration
these values appear near the top and bottom of the integral sign and define the interval over which the
function should be integrated
net signed area
the area between a function and the -axis such that the area below the -axis is subtracted from the area
above the -axis; the result is the same as the definite integral of the function
total area
total area between a function and the -axis is calculated by adding the area above the -axis and the area
below the -axis; the result is the same as the definite integral of the absolute value of the function

variable of integration
indicates which variable you are integrating with respect to; if it is , then the function in the integrand is
followed by dx

5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Learning Objectives
• Describe the meaning of the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
• State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1.
• Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to evaluate derivatives of integrals.
• State the meaning of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
• Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, to evaluate definite integrals.
• Explain the relationship between differentiation and integration.
• Compute the total area between a function and the -axis.
In the previous two sections, we looked at the definite integral and its relationship to the area under the curve of a
function. Unfortunately, so far, the only tools we have available to calculate the value of a definite integral are geometric
area formulas and limits of Riemann sums, and both approaches are extremely cumbersome. In this section we look at
some more powerful and useful techniques for evaluating definite integrals.
These new techniques rely on the relationship between differentiation and integration. This relationship was discovered
and explored by both Sir Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (among others) during the late 1600s and early
1700s, and it is codified in what we now call the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus , which has two parts that we
examine in this section. Its very name indicates how central this theorem is to the entire development of calculus.
Isaac Newton ’s contributions to mathematics and physics changed the way we look at the world. The
relationships he discovered, codified as Newton’s laws and the law of universal gravitation, are still taught as
foundational material in physics today, and his calculus has spawned entire fields of mathematics. To learn more,
read a brief biography of Newton with multimedia clips.
Before we get to this crucial theorem, however, let’s examine another important theorem, the Mean Value Theorem for
Integrals, which is needed to prove the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals

The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that a continuous function on a closed interval takes on its average value
at the same point in that interval. The theorem guarantees that if is continuous, a point exists in an interval
such that the value of the function at is equal to the average value of over We state this theorem
mathematically with the help of the formula for the average value of a function that we presented at the end of the
preceding section.
The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
If is continuous over an interval then there is at least one point such that
This formula can also be stated as
5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus | 695

Proof
Since is continuous on by the extreme value theorem (see Maxima and Minima ), it assumes minimum and
maximum values— and M , respectively—on Then, for all in we have Therefore,
by the comparison theorem (see The Definite Integral ), we have
Dividing by gives us
Since is a number between and M , and since is continuous and assumes the values and
M over by the Intermediate Value Theorem (see Continuity ), there is a number over such that
and the proof is complete.
□
Finding the Average Value of a Function
Find the average value of the function over the interval and find such that
equals the average value of the function over
Solution
The formula states the mean value of is given by
We can see in (Figure) that the function represents a straight line and forms a right triangle bounded by the –
and -axes. The area of the triangle is We have
The average value is found by multiplying the area by Thus, the average value of the function is
Set the average value equal to and solve for .
At
696 | 5.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Figure 1. By the Mean Value Theorem, the continuous function
takes on its average value at c at least once over a closed
interval.
Find the average value of the function over the interval and find such that equals the
average value of the function over
Hint
Use the procedures from (Figure) to solve the problem
Finding the Point where the Function takes on its Average Value
Given find such that equals the average value of over
Solution
We are looking for the value of such that
2
Replacing with , we have

Since is outside the interval, take only the positive value. Thus, ( (Figure) ).
Figure 2. Over the interval the function

takes on its average value at
Given find such that equals the average value of over
Solution
Hint
Use the procedures from (Figure) to solve the problem.

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1: Integrals and Antiderivatives
As mentioned earlier, the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus is an extremely powerful theorem that establishes the
relationship between differentiation and integration, and gives us a way to evaluate definite integrals without using
Riemann sums or calculating areas. The theorem is comprised of two parts, the first of which, the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 , is stated here. Part 1 establishes the relationship between differentiation and integration.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1
If is continuous over an interval and the function is defined by
then over
Before we delve into the proof, a couple of subtleties are worth mentioning here. First, a comment on the notation. Note
that we have defined a function, as the definite integral of another function, from the point to the point
. At first glance, this is confusing, because we have said several times that a definite integral is a number, and here it
looks like it’s a function. The key here is to notice that for any particular value of , the definite integral is a number. So
the function returns a number (the value of the definite integral) for each value of .
Second, it is worth commenting on some of the key implications of this theorem. There is a reason it is called the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus. Not only does it establish a relationship between integration and differentiation,
but also it guarantees that any integrable function has an antiderivative. Specifically, it guarantees that any continuous
function has an antiderivative.
Proof
Applying the definition of the derivative, we have
Looking carefully at this last expression, we see is just the average value of the function over the
interval Therefore, by (Figure) , there is some number in such that
In addition, since is between and , approaches as approaches zero. Also, since is continuous, we have
Putting all these pieces together, we have
and the proof is complete.

□
Finding a Derivative with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Use the (Figure) to find the derivative of
Solution
According to the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, the derivative is given by
Use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 to find the derivative of
Solution
Hint
Follow the procedures from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Using the Fundamental Theorem and the Chain Rule to Calculate Derivatives
Let Find
Solution
Letting we have Thus, by the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and
the chain rule,
Let Find
Solution
Hint
Use the chain rule to solve the problem.
Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with Two Variable Limits of Integration
Let Find

Solution
We have Both limits of integration are variable, so we need to split this into two integrals.
We get
Differentiating the first term, we obtain
Differentiating the second term, we first let Then,
Thus,
Let Find
Solution
Hint
Use the procedures from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2: The Evaluation Theorem

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 , is perhaps the most important theorem in calculus. After tireless efforts
by mathematicians for approximately 500 years, new techniques emerged that provided scientists with the necessary
tools to explain many phenomena. Using calculus, astronomers could finally determine distances in space and map
planetary orbits. Everyday financial problems such as calculating marginal costs or predicting total profit could now
be handled with simplicity and accuracy. Engineers could calculate the bending strength of materials or the three-
dimensional motion of objects. Our view of the world was forever changed with calculus.
After finding approximate areas by adding the areas of rectangles, the application of this theorem is straightforward
by comparison. It almost seems too simple that the area of an entire curved region can be calculated by just evaluating
an antiderivative at the first and last endpoints of an interval.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2
If is continuous over the interval and is any antiderivative of then

We often see the notation to denote the expression We use this vertical bar and associated
limits and to indicate that we should evaluate the function at the upper limit (in this case, ), and subtract
the value of the function evaluated at the lower limit (in this case, ).
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 (also known as the evaluation theorem) states that if we can find an
antiderivative for the integrand, then we can evaluate the definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative at the
endpoints of the interval and subtracting.
Proof
Let be a regular partition of Then, we can write
Now, we know F is an antiderivative of over so by the Mean Value Theorem (see The Mean Value Theorem ) for
we can find in such that
Then, substituting into the previous equation, we have
Taking the limit of both sides as we obtain
□
Evaluating an Integral with the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus
Use (Figure) to evaluate
Solution
Recall the power rule for Antiderivatives :
Use this rule to find the antiderivative of the function and then apply the theorem. We have

Analysis
Notice that we did not include the “+ C ” term when we wrote the antiderivative. The reason is that, according to
the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2, any antiderivative works. So, for convenience, we chose the
antiderivative with If we had chosen another antiderivative, the constant term would have canceled out.
This always happens when evaluating a definite integral.
The region of the area we just calculated is depicted in (Figure) . Note that the region between the curve and the
-axis is all below the -axis. Area is always positive, but a definite integral can still produce a negative number
(a net signed area). For example, if this were a profit function, a negative number indicates the company is
operating at a loss over the given interval.
Figure 3. The evaluation of a definite integral can produce a

negative value, even though area is always positive.
Evaluating a Definite Integral Using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

Evaluate the following integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2:

Solution
First, eliminate the radical by rewriting the integral using rational exponents. Then, separate the numerator
terms by writing each one over the denominator:
Use the properties of exponents to simplify:
Now, integrate using the power rule:
See (Figure) .
Figure 4. The area under the curve from to can

be calculated by evaluating a definite integral.
Use (Figure) to evaluate
Solution
Hint
Use the power rule.

A Roller-Skating Race
James and Kathy are racing on roller skates. They race along a long, straight track, and whoever has gone the
farthest after 5 sec wins a prize. If James can skate at a velocity of ft/sec and Kathy can skate
at a velocity of ft/sec, who is going to win the race?
Solution
We need to integrate both functions over the interval and see which value is bigger. For James, we want to
calculate
Using the power rule, we have
Thus, James has skated 50 ft after 5 sec. Turning now to Kathy, we want to calculate
We know is an antiderivative of so it is reasonable to expect that an antiderivative of

would involve However, when we differentiate we get as a result of the chain
rule, so we have to account for this additional coefficient when we integrate. We obtain
Kathy has skated approximately 50.6 ft after 5 sec. Kathy wins, but not by much!
Suppose James and Kathy have a rematch, but this time the official stops the contest after only 3 sec. Does this
change the outcome?
Solution
Kathy still wins, but by a much larger margin: James skates 24 ft in 3 sec, but Kathy skates 29.3634 ft in 3 sec.
Hint
Change the limits of integration from those in (Figure) .
Finding Total Area

Now that we can compute some definite integrals, we can re-visit the relationship between the area and the definite
integral. Recall that the definite integral is the net area. Therefore if the function is positive, the definite integral gives
the area between the function and the -axis. If the function is negative, then the definite integral is the negative
of the area between the function and the -axis. Equivalently, the area is the negative of the definite integral. Hence
determining where the function is positive or negative is an important part of solving the question.
Problem-Solving Strategy: Finding Total Area
1. Determine the zeroes of the function.
2. Determine the intervals where the function is positive or negative. A sketch may be helpful.
3. Compute the total area on each interval: If the function is positive, the area is the definite integral. If the

function is negative, the area is the negative of the definite integral.
4. Add the areas together.
Computing the Total Area between Two Values

Compute the area between the function and the -axis on the interval
Solution
The zeroes of are . Hence we must split up the interval into
and . The function is positive on and negative on . Therefore the total area is:
Therefore the total area is square units.
Compute the total area between and the -axis on the interval .
Solution
square units.
Computing the Total Bounded Area

Compute the area bounded between the function and the -axis.
Solution
The zeroes of are . Hence the total bounded area
is the area between -2 and 0, and the area between 0 and 2. Hence we must split up the interval into and
. The function is positive on and negative on . Therefore the total area is:
Therefore the total area is square units.
Suppose Consider the region bounded

between the graph of the function and the -axis. Draw a rough sketch of the region and compute its area.

Solution
square units.
A Parachutist in Free Fall
Figure 5. Skydivers can adjust the velocity of their dive by changing the position of their body during the free fall. (credit: Jeremy T.
Lock)
Julie is an avid skydiver . She has more than 300 jumps under her belt and has mastered the art of making
adjustments to her body position in the air to control how fast she falls. If she arches her back and points her belly
toward the ground, she reaches a terminal velocity of approximately 120 mph (176 ft/sec). If, instead, she orients
her body with her head straight down, she falls faster, reaching a terminal velocity of 150 mph (220 ft/sec).
Since Julie will be moving (falling) in a downward direction, we assume the downward direction is positive to
simplify our calculations. Julie executes her jumps from an altitude of 12,500 ft. After she exits the aircraft, she
immediately starts falling at a velocity given by She continues to accelerate according to this
velocity function until she reaches terminal velocity. After she reaches terminal velocity, her speed remains
constant until she pulls her ripcord and slows down to land.
On her first jump of the day, Julie orients herself in the slower “belly down” position (terminal velocity is 176 ft/
sec). Using this information, answer the following questions.
1. How long after she exits the aircraft does Julie reach terminal velocity?
2. Based on your answer to question 1, set up an expression involving one or more integrals that represents the
distance Julie falls after 30 sec.
3. If Julie pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft, how long does she spend in a free fall?

4. Julie pulls her ripcord at 3000 ft. It takes 5 sec for her parachute to open completely and for her to slow
down, during which time she falls another 400 ft. After her canopy is fully open, her speed is reduced to 16
ft/sec. Find the total time Julie spends in the air, from the time she leaves the airplane until the time her feet
touch the ground.
On Julie’s second jump of the day, she decides she wants to fall a little faster and orients herself in the “head
down” position. Her terminal velocity in this position is 220 ft/sec. Answer these questions based on this
velocity:
5. How long does it take Julie to reach terminal velocity in this case?
6. Before pulling her ripcord, Julie reorients her body in the “belly down” position so she is not moving quite as
fast when her parachute opens. If she begins this maneuver at an altitude of 4000 ft, how long does she
spend in a free fall before beginning the reorientation?
Some jumpers wear “ wingsuits ” (see (Figure) ). These suits have fabric panels between the arms and legs and
allow the wearer to glide around in a free fall, much like a flying squirrel. (Indeed, the suits are sometimes
called “flying squirrel suits.”) When wearing these suits, terminal velocity can be reduced to about 30 mph
(44 ft/sec), allowing the wearers a much longer time in the air. Wingsuit flyers still use parachutes to land;
although the vertical velocities are within the margin of safety, horizontal velocities can exceed 70 mph,
much too fast to land safely.
Figure 6. The fabric panels on the arms and legs of a wingsuit work to reduce the vertical velocity of a skydiver’s fall. (credit: Richard
Schneider)
Answer the following question based on the velocity in a wingsuit.

7. If Julie dons a wingsuit before her third jump of the day, and she pulls her ripcord at an altitude of 3000 ft,
how long does she get to spend gliding around in the air?
Key Concepts
• The Mean Value Theorem for Integrals states that for a continuous function over a closed interval, there is a

value such that equals the average value of the function. See (Figure) .
• The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1 shows the relationship between the derivative and the integral.
See (Figure) .
• The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2 is a formula for evaluating a definite integral in terms of an
antiderivative of its integrand. The total area under a curve can be found using this formula. See (Figure) .
Key Equations
• Mean Value Theorem for Integrals
If is continuous over an interval then there is at least one point such that
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 1

If is continuous over an interval and the function is defined by then
• Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part 2

If is continuous over the interval and is any antiderivative of then
1. Consider two athletes running at variable speeds and The runners start and finish a race at
exactly the same time. Explain why the two runners must be going the same speed at some point.
2. Two mountain climbers start their climb at base camp, taking two different routes, one steeper than the other,
and arrive at the peak at exactly the same time. Is it necessarily true that, at some point, both climbers increased
in altitude at the same rate?
Solution
Yes. It is implied by the Mean Value Theorem for Integrals.
3. To get on a certain toll road a driver has to take a card that lists the mile entrance point. The card also has a
timestamp. When going to pay the toll at the exit, the driver is surprised to receive a speeding ticket along with
the toll. Explain how this can happen.
4. Set Find and the average value of over
Solution
average value of over is
In the following exercises, use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1, to find each derivative.
5.
6.

Solution
7.
8.
Solution
9.
10.
Solution
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution
15.
16.
Solution
17. The graph of where is a piecewise constant function, is shown here.

a. Over which intervals is positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which intervals, if any, is it
equal to zero?
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of ?
c. What is the average value of ?
18. The graph of where is a piecewise constant function, is shown here.
a. Over which intervals is positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which intervals, if any, is it
equal to zero?
b. What are the maximum and minimum values of ?
c. What is the average value of ?
Solution
a. is positive over and negative over and and zero over and b. The
maximum value is 2 and the minimum is -3. c. The average value is 0.
19. The graph of where ℓ is a piecewise linear function, is shown here.
a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it zero?
b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which, if any, is it constant?
c. What is the average value of ℓ ?
20. The graph of where ℓ is a piecewise linear function, is shown here.
a. Over which intervals is ℓ positive? Over which intervals is it negative? Over which, if any, is it zero?

b. Over which intervals is ℓ increasing? Over which is it decreasing? Over which intervals, if any, is it
constant?
c. What is the average value of ℓ ?
Solution
a. ℓ is positive over and and negative over b. It is increasing over and and it is
constant over and c. Its average value is
In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve by computing T 10 , the average of the
left- and right-endpoint Riemann sums using rectangles. Then, using the Fundamental Theorem of
Calculus, Part 2, determine the exact area.
21. [T] over
22. [T] over
Solution
23. [T] over
24. [T] over
Solution
25. [T] over
26. [T] over
Solution
In the following exercises, evaluate each definite integral using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
27.
28.
Solution
29.

30.
Solution
31.
32.
Solution
33.
34.
Solution
35.
36.
37.
38.
Solution
39.
40.
Solution
41.

42.
Solution
43.
44.
45.
46.
Solution
In the following exercises, use the evaluation theorem to express the integral as a function
47.
48.
Solution
49.
50.
Solution
In the following exercises, identify the roots of the integrand to remove absolute values, then evaluate using the
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2.
51.
52.
Solution

53.
54.
Solution
55. Suppose that the number of hours of daylight on a given day in Seattle is modeled by the function
with given in months and corresponding to the winter solstice.
a. What is the average number of daylight hours in a year?
b. At which times 1 and 2 , where do the number of daylight hours equal the
average number?
c. Write an integral that expresses the total number of daylight hours in Seattle between and
d. Compute the mean hours of daylight in Seattle between and where and then
between and and show that the average of the two is equal to the average day length.
56. Suppose the rate of gasoline consumption in the United States can be modeled by a sinusoidal function of the
form gal/mo.
a. What is the average monthly consumption, and for which values of is the rate at time equal to the
average rate?
b. What is the number of gallons of gasoline consumed in the United States in a year?
c. Write an integral that expresses the average monthly U.S. gas consumption during the part of the year
between the beginning of April and the end of September
Solution
a. The average is since has period 12 and integral 0 over any period. Consumption is equal
to the average when when and when b. Total consumption is the average rate
times duration: c.
57. Explain why, if is continuous over there is at least one point such that
58. Explain why, if is continuous over and is not equal to a constant, there is at least one point
such that and at least one point such that
Solution
If is not constant, then its average is strictly smaller than the maximum and larger than the minimum, which
are attained over by the extreme value theorem.
59. Kepler’s first law states that the planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun at one focus. The closest point

of a planetary orbit to the Sun is called the perihelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around January 3) and the
farthest point is called the aphelion (for Earth, it currently occurs around July 4). Kepler’s second law states that
planets sweep out equal areas of their elliptical orbits in equal times. Thus, the two arcs indicated in the following
figure are swept out in equal times. At what time of year is Earth moving fastest in its orbit? When is it moving
slowest?
60. A point on an ellipse with major axis length 2 and minor axis length 2 has the coordinates
a. Show that the distance from this point to the focus at is where
b. Use these coordinates to show that the average distance from a point on the ellipse to the focus at
with respect to angle θ , is .
Solution
a. b.
61. As implied earlier, according to Kepler’s laws, Earth’s orbit is an ellipse with the Sun at one focus. The
perihelion for Earth’s orbit around the Sun is 147,098,290 km and the aphelion is 152,098,232 km.
a. By placing the major axis along the -axis, find the average distance from Earth to the Sun.
b. The classic definition of an astronomical unit (AU) is the distance from Earth to the Sun, and its value was
computed as the average of the perihelion and aphelion distances. Is this definition justified?
62. The force of gravitational attraction between the Sun and a planet is where is the mass
of the planet, M is the mass of the Sun, G is a universal constant, and is the distance between the Sun and
the planet when the planet is at an angle θ with the major axis of its orbit. Assuming that M , , and the ellipse
parameters and (half-lengths of the major and minor axes) are given, set up—but do not evaluate—an integral
that expresses in terms of the average gravitational force between the Sun and the planet.
Solution
Mean gravitational force =
63. The displacement from rest of a mass attached to a spring satisfies the simple harmonic motion equation
where is a phase constant, ω is the angular frequency, and A is the amplitude.
Find the average velocity, the average speed (magnitude of velocity), the average displacement, and the average
distance from rest (magnitude of displacement) of the mass.

64. Compute the area under the curve on the interval .
Solution
square units.
65. Compute the area between the curve and the -axis on the interval .
66. Compute the area between the curve and the -axis on the interval .
Solution
square units
67. Compute the area bounded between the curve and the -axis.
68. Compute the area bounded between the curve and the -axis.
Solution
square units.
Glossary
fundamental theorem of calculus

the theorem, central to the entire development of calculus, that establishes the relationship between
differentiation and integration
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 1
uses a definite integral to define an antiderivative of a function
fundamental theorem of calculus, part 2
(also, evaluation theorem ) we can evaluate a definite integral by evaluating the antiderivative of the integrand
at the endpoints of the interval and subtracting
mean value theorem for integrals
guarantees that a point exists such that is equal to the average value of the function

5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change
Theorem
Learning Objectives
• Apply the basic integration formulas.
• Explain the significance of the net change theorem.
• Use the net change theorem to solve applied problems.
• Apply the integrals of odd and even functions.
In this section, we use some basic integration formulas studied previously to solve some key applied problems. It is
important to note that these formulas are presented in terms of indefinite integrals. Although definite and indefinite
integrals are closely related, there are some key differences to keep in mind. A definite integral is either a number (when
the limits of integration are constants) or a single function (when one or both of the limits of integration are variables).
An indefinite integral represents a family of functions, all of which differ by a constant. As you become more familiar with
integration, you will get a feel for when to use definite integrals and when to use indefinite integrals. You will naturally
select the correct approach for a given problem without thinking too much about it. However, until these concepts are
cemented in your mind, think carefully about whether you need a definite integral or an indefinite integral and make
sure you are using the proper notation based on your choice.
Basic Integration Formulas

Recall the integration formulas given in (Figure) and the rule on properties of definite integrals. Let’s look at a few
examples of how to apply these rules.
Integrating a Function Using the Power Rule
Use the power rule to integrate the function
Solution
The first step is to rewrite the function and simplify it so we can apply the power rule:
Now apply the power rule:
Find the definite integral of over the interval
718 | 5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem

Solution
Hint
Follow the process from (Figure) to solve the problem.
The Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem considers the integral of a rate of change . It says that when a quantity changes, the new value
equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change of that quantity. The formula can be expressed in two ways.
The second is more familiar; it is simply the definite integral.
Net Change Theorem
The new value of a changing quantity equals the initial value plus the integral of the rate of change:
Subtracting from both sides of the first equation yields the second equation. Since they are equivalent formulas,
which one we use depends on the application.
The significance of the net change theorem lies in the results. Net change can be applied to area, distance, and volume,
to name only a few applications. Net change accounts for negative quantities automatically without having to write
more than one integral. To illustrate, let’s apply the net change theorem to a velocity function in which the result is
displacement .
We looked at a simple example of this in The Definite Integral . Suppose a car is moving due north (the positive direction)
at 40 mph between 2 p.m. and 4 p.m., then the car moves south at 30 mph between 4 p.m. and 5 p.m. We can graph this
motion as shown in (Figure) .
5.4 Integration Formulas and the Net Change Theorem | 719

Figure 1. The graph shows speed versus time for the given
motion of a car.
Just as we did before, we can use definite integrals to calculate the net displacement as well as the total distance
traveled. The net displacement is given by
Thus, at 5 p.m. the car is 50 mi north of its starting position. The total distance traveled is given by
Therefore, between 2 p.m. and 5 p.m., the car traveled a total of 110 mi.
To summarize, net displacement may include both positive and negative values. In other words, the velocity function
accounts for both forward distance and backward distance. To find net displacement, integrate the velocity function
over the interval. Total distance traveled, on the other hand, is always positive. To find the total distance traveled by an
object, regardless of direction, we need to integrate the absolute value of the velocity function.
Finding Net Displacement
Given a velocity function (in meters per second) for a particle in motion from time to
time find the net displacement of the particle.
Solution
Applying the net change theorem, we have

The net displacement is m ( (Figure) ).
Figure 2. The graph shows velocity versus time for a particle

moving with a linear velocity function.
Finding the Total Distance Traveled
Use (Figure) to find the total distance traveled by a particle according to the velocity function
m/sec over a time interval
Solution
The total distance traveled includes both the positive and the negative values. Therefore, we must integrate the
absolute value of the velocity function to find the total distance traveled.
To continue with the example, use two integrals to find the total distance. First, find the -intercept of the

function, since that is where the division of the interval occurs. Set the equation equal to zero and solve for .
Thus,
The two subintervals are and To find the total distance traveled, integrate the absolute value of
the function. Since the function is negative over the interval we have over that
interval. Over the function is positive, so Thus, we have
So, the total distance traveled is m.
Find the net displacement and total distance traveled in meters given the velocity function
over the interval
Solution
Net displacement: total distance traveled: m
Hint
Follow the procedures from (Figure) and (Figure) . Note that for and for
Applying the Net Change Theorem

The net change theorem can be applied to the flow and consumption of fluids, as shown in (Figure) .
How Many Gallons of Gasoline Are Consumed?
If the motor on a motorboat is started at and the boat consumes gasoline at the rate of gal/hr,
how much gasoline is used in the first 2 hours?
Solution
Express the problem as a definite integral, integrate, and evaluate using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus.
The limits of integration are the endpoints of the interval We have

Thus, the motorboat uses 6 gal of gas in 2 hours.
Chapter Opener: Iceboats
Figure 3. (credit: modification of work by Carter Brown, Flickr)
As we saw at the beginning of the chapter, top iceboat racers ( (Figure) ) can attain speeds of up to five times the
wind speed. Andrew is an intermediate iceboater, though, so he attains speeds equal to only twice the wind
speed. Suppose Andrew takes his iceboat out one morning when a light 5-mph breeze has been blowing all
morning. As Andrew gets his iceboat set up, though, the wind begins to pick up. During his first half hour of
iceboating, the wind speed increases according to the function For the second half hour of
Andrew’s outing, the wind remains steady at 15 mph. In other words, the wind speed is given by
Recalling that Andrew’s iceboat travels at twice the wind speed, and assuming he moves in a straight line away
from his starting point, how far is Andrew from his starting point after 1 hour?

Solution
To figure out how far Andrew has traveled, we need to integrate his velocity, which is twice the wind speed. Then
Distance
Substituting the expressions we were given for we get
Andrew is 25 mi from his starting point after 1 hour.
Suppose that, instead of remaining steady during the second half hour of Andrew’s outing, the wind starts to die
down according to the function In other words, the wind speed is given by
Under these conditions, how far from his starting point is Andrew after 1 hour?
Solution
17.5 mi
Hint
Don’t forget that Andrew’s iceboat moves twice as fast as the wind.
Integrating Even and Odd Functions

We saw in Functions and Graphs that an even function is a function in which for all in the
domain—that is, the graph of the curve is unchanged when is replaced with – . The graphs of even functions are
symmetric about the -axis. An odd function is one in which for all in the domain, and the graph
of the function is symmetric about the origin.
Integrals of even functions, when the limits of integration are from – to , involve two equal areas, because they are
symmetric about the -axis. Integrals of odd functions, when the limits of integration are similarly evaluate
to zero because the areas above and below the -axis are equal.
Rule: Integrals of Even and Odd Functions
For continuous even functions such that
For continuous odd functions such that

Integrating an Even Function
Integrate the even function and verify that the integration formula for even functions
holds.
Solution
The symmetry appears in the graphs in (Figure) . Graph (a) shows the region below the curve and above the
-axis. We have to zoom in to this graph by a huge amount to see the region. Graph (b) shows the region above the
curve and below the -axis. The signed area of this region is negative. Both views illustrate the symmetry about
the -axis of an even function. We have
To verify the integration formula for even functions, we can calculate the integral from 0 to 2 and double it, then
check to make sure we get the same answer.
Since we have verified the formula for even functions in this particular example.
Figure 4. Graph (a) shows the positive area between the curve and the x-axis, whereas graph (b) shows the negative area between
the curve and the x-axis. Both views show the symmetry about the y-axis.
Integrating an Odd Function
Evaluate the definite integral of the odd function over the interval

The graph is shown in (Figure) . We can see the symmetry about the origin by the positive area above the -axis over
and the negative area below the -axis over We have
Figure 5. The graph shows areas between a curve and the x-axis for
an odd function.
Integrate the function
Solution
Hint
Integrate an even function.

Key Concepts
• The net change theorem states that when a quantity changes, the final value equals the initial value plus the
integral of the rate of change. Net change can be a positive number, a negative number, or zero.
• The area under an even function over a symmetric interval can be calculated by doubling the area over the
positive -axis. For an odd function, the integral over a symmetric interval equals zero, because half the area
is negative.
Key Equations
• Net Change Theorem
or
Use basic integration formulas to compute the following antiderivatives.
1.
Solution
2.
3.
Solution
4.
5.
Solution
6.
7. Write an integral that expresses the increase in the perimeter of a square when its side length
increases from 2 units to 4 units and evaluate the integral.

Solution
so and
8. Write an integral that quantifies the change in the area of a square when the side length doubles
from S units to 2 S units and evaluate the integral.
9. A regular N -gon (an N -sided polygon with sides that have equal length , such as a pentagon or hexagon) has
perimeter Ns . Write an integral that expresses the increase in perimeter of a regular N -gon when the length of
each side increases from 1 unit to 2 units and evaluate the integral.
Solution
10. The area of a regular pentagon with side length is pa 2 with The
Pentagon in Washington, DC, has inner sides of length 360 ft and outer sides of length 920 ft. Write an integral to
express the area of the roof of the Pentagon according to these dimensions and evaluate this area.
11. A dodecahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that consists of 12 pentagons, each of equal area. By how
much does the surface area of a dodecahedron increase as the side length of each pentagon doubles from 1 unit
to 2 units?
Solution
With as in the previous exercise, each of the 12 pentagons increases in area from 2 to 4 units so the net
increase in the area of the dodecahedron is 36 units.
12. An icosahedron is a Platonic solid with a surface that consists of 20 equilateral triangles. By how much does
the surface area of an icosahedron increase as the side length of each triangle doubles from unit to 2 units?
13. Write an integral that quantifies the change in the area of the surface of a cube when its side length doubles
from unit to 2 units and evaluate the integral.
Solution
14. Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the volume of a cube when the side length doubles from
unit to 2 units and evaluate the integral.
15. Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the surface area of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit
to 2 R units and evaluate the integral.
Solution

16. Write an integral that quantifies the increase in the volume of a sphere as its radius doubles from R unit to 2 R
units and evaluate the integral.
17. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity where (in
meters per second). Find the displacement at time and the total distance traveled up to
Solution
The total distance is
18. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by where
(in meters per second). Find the displacement at time and the total distance traveled up to
19. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with velocity defined by where
(in meters per second). Find the displacement at time and the total distance traveled up to
For For
The total distance is
20. Suppose that a particle moves along a straight line with acceleration defined by where
(in meters per second). Find the velocity and displacement at time and the total distance traveled
up to if and
21. A ball is thrown upward from a height of 1.5 m at an initial speed of 40 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from
gravity is -9.8 m/sec 2 . Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity and the height of the ball
seconds after it is thrown and before it returns to the ground.
Solution
m/s
22. A ball is thrown upward from a height of 3 m at an initial speed of 60 m/sec. Acceleration resulting from
gravity is -9.8 m/sec 2 . Neglecting air resistance, solve for the velocity and the height of the ball
seconds after it is thrown and before it returns to the ground.
23. The area of a circular shape is growing at a constant rate. If the area increases from 4 π units to 9 π
units between times and find the net change in the radius during that time.
Solution
The net increase is 1 unit.
24. A spherical balloon is being inflated at a constant rate. If the volume of the balloon changes from 36 π in. 3 to
288 π in. 3 between time and seconds, find the net change in the radius of the balloon during
that time.
25. Water flows into a conical tank with cross-sectional area πx 2 at height and volume up to height . If

water flows into the tank at a rate of 1 m 3 /min, find the height of water in the tank after 5 min. Find the change
in height between 5 min and 10 min.
Solution
At the height of water is The net change in height from to is
m.
26. A horizontal cylindrical tank has cross-sectional area at height meters above
the bottom when
a. The volume V between heights and is Find the volume at heights between 2 m and 3 m.
b. Suppose that oil is being pumped into the tank at a rate of 50 L/min. Using the chain rule,
at how many meters per minute is the height of oil in the tank changing, expressed in terms of , when the
height is at meters?
c. How long does it take to fill the tank to 3 m starting from a fill level of 2 m?
27. The following table lists the electrical power in gigawatts—the rate at which energy is consumed—used in a
certain city for different hours of the day, in a typical 24-hour period, with hour 1 corresponding to midnight to 1
a.m.
Hour Power Hour Power

1 28 13 48
2 25 14 49
3 24 15 49
4 23 16 50
5 24 17 50
6 27 18 50
7 29 19 46
8 32 20 43
9 34 21 42
10 39 22 40
11 42 23 37
12 46 24 34
Find the total amount of power in gigawatt-hours (gW-h) consumed by the city in a typical 24-hour period.
Solution
The total daily power consumption is estimated as the sum of the hourly power rates, or 911 gW-h.
28. The average residential electrical power use (in hundreds of watts) per hour is given in the following table.

Hour Power Hour Power
1 8 13 12
2 6 14 13
3 5 15 14
4 4 16 15
5 5 17 17
6 6 18 19
7 7 19 18
8 8 20 17
9 9 21 16
10 10 22 16
11 10 23 13
12 11 24 11
a. Compute the average total energy used in a day in kilowatt-hours (kWh).

b. If a ton of coal generates 1842 kWh, how long does it take for an average residence to burn a ton of coal?
c. Explain why the data might fit a plot of the form
29. The data in the following table are used to estimate the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for
each of the last 18 sec of Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France .
Average Power Output Source :

sportsexercisengineering.com
Second Watts Second Watts

1 600 10 1200
2 500 11 1170
3 575 12 1125
4 1050 13 1100
5 925 14 1075
6 950 15 1000
7 1050 16 950
8 950 17 900
9 1100 18 780
Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules (kJ), noting that 1W = 1 J/s, and the average power output by Sagan
during this time interval.
Solution
17 kJ
30. The data in the following table are used to estimate the average power output produced by Peter Sagan for
each 15-min interval of Stage 1 of the 2012 Tour de France.

Average Power Output Source :
sportsexercisengineering.com
Minutes Watts Minutes Watts

15 200 165 170
30 180 180 220
45 190 195 140

60 230 210 225
75 240 225 170
90 210 240 210

105 210 255 200
120 220 270 220

135 210 285 250
150 150 300 400
Estimate the net energy used in kilojoules, noting that 1W = 1 J/s.
31. The distribution of incomes as of 2012 in the United States in $5000 increments is given in the following table.
The th row denotes the percentage of households with incomes between and
The row contains all households with income between $200,000 and $250,000 and accounts
for all households with income exceeding $250,000.

Income
Distributions
Source :
http://www.censu
s.gov/prod/
2013pubs/
p60-245.pdf
0 3.5 21 1.5
1 4.1 22 1.4
2 5.9 23 1.3
3 5.7 24 1.3
4 5.9 25 1.1
5 5.4 26 1.0
6 5.5 27 0.75
7 5.1 28 0.8
8 4.8 29 1.0
9 4.1 30 0.6
10 4.3 31 0.6
11 3.5 32 0.5
12 3.7 33 0.5
13 3.2 34 0.4
14 3.0 35 0.3
15 2.8 36 0.3
16 2.5 37 0.3
17 2.2 38 0.2
18 2.2 39 1.8
19 1.8 40 2.3
20 2.1 41
a. Estimate the percentage of U.S. households in 2012 with incomes less than $55,000.
b. What percentage of households had incomes exceeding $85,000?
c. Plot the data and try to fit its shape to that of a graph of the form for suitable
Solution
a. 54.3%; b. 27.00%; c. The curve in the following plot is
32. Newton’s law of gravity states that the gravitational force exerted by an object of mass M and one of mass

with centers that are separated by a distance is with G an empirical constant
The work done by a variable force over an interval is defined as
If Earth has mass and radius 6371 km, compute the amount of work to
elevate a polar weather satellite of mass 1400 kg to its orbiting altitude of 850 km above Earth.
33. For a given motor vehicle, the maximum achievable deceleration from braking is approximately 7 m/sec 2 on
dry concrete. On wet asphalt, it is approximately 2.5 m/sec 2 . Given that 1 mph corresponds to 0.447 m/sec, find
the total distance that a car travels in meters on dry concrete after the brakes are applied until it comes to a
complete stop if the initial velocity is 67 mph (30 m/sec) or if the initial braking velocity is 56 mph (25 m/sec).
Find the corresponding distances if the surface is slippery wet asphalt.
Solution
In dry conditions, with initial velocity m/s, and, if In wet
conditions, if and and if
34. John is a 25-year old man who weighs 160 lb. He burns calories/hr while riding his bike for
hours. If an oatmeal cookie has 55 cal and John eats 4 cookies during the th hour, how many net calories has he
lost after 3 hours riding his bike?
35. Sandra is a 25-year old woman who weighs 120 lb. She burns cal/hr while walking on her
treadmill. Her caloric intake from drinking Gatorade is 100 calories during the th hour. What is her net
decrease in calories after walking for 3 hours?
Solution
225 cal
36. A motor vehicle has a maximum efficiency of 33 mpg at a cruising speed of 40 mph. The efficiency drops at a
rate of 0.1 mpg/mph between 40 mph and 50 mph, and at a rate of 0.4 mpg/mph between 50 mph and 80 mph.
What is the efficiency in miles per gallon if the car is cruising at 50 mph? What is the efficiency in miles per
gallon if the car is cruising at 80 mph? If gasoline costs $3.50/gal, what is the cost of fuel to drive 50 mi at 40
mph, at 50 mph, and at 80 mph?
37. Although some engines are more efficient at given a horsepower than others, on average, fuel efficiency
decreases with horsepower at a rate of mpg/horsepower. If a typical 50-horsepower engine has an
average fuel efficiency of 32 mpg, what is the average fuel efficiency of an engine with the following horsepower:
150, 300, 450?
Solution
38. [T] The following table lists the 2013 schedule of federal income tax versus taxable income.

Federal Income Tax Versus Taxable Income Source :
http://www.irs.gov/pub/irs-prior/i1040tt–2013.pdf.
Taxable Income Range The Tax Is … … Of the Amount Over

$0–$8925 10% $0
$8925–$36,250 $892.50 + 15% $8925
$36,250–$87,850 $4,991.25 + 25% $36,250

$87,850–$183,250 $17,891.25 + 28% $87,850
$183,250–$398,350 $44,603.25 + 33% $183,250
$398,350–$400,000 $115,586.25 + 35% $398,350

> $400,000 $116,163.75 + 39.6% $400,000
Suppose that Steve just received a $10,000 raise. How much of this raise is left after federal taxes if Steve’s salary
before receiving the raise was $40,000? If it was $90,000? If it was $385,000?
39. [T] The following table provides hypothetical data regarding the level of service for a certain highway.
Highway Speed Range (mph) Vehicles per Hour per Lane Density Range (vehicles/mi)
> 60 < 600 < 10
60–57 600–1000 10–20
57–54 1000–1500 20–30

54–46 1500–1900 30–45
46–30 1900 – 2100 45–70
<30 Unstable 70–200
a. Plot vehicles per hour per lane on the -axis and highway speed on the -axis.
b. Compute the average decrease in speed (in miles per hour) per unit increase in congestion (vehicles per
hour per lane) as the latter increases from 600 to 1000, from 1000 to 1500, and from 1500 to 2100. Does the
decrease in miles per hour depend linearly on the increase in vehicles per hour per lane?
c. Plot minutes per mile (60 times the reciprocal of miles per hour) as a function of vehicles per hour per lane.
Is this function linear?
Solution
a.
b. Between 600 and 1000 the average decrease in vehicles per hour per lane is -0.0075. Between 1000 and 1500 it
is -0.006 per vehicles per hour per lane, and between 1500 and 2100 it is -0.04 vehicles per hour per lane. c.

The graph is nonlinear, with minutes per mile increasing dramatically as vehicles per hour per lane reach 2000.
For the next two exercises use the data in the following table, which displays bald eagle populations from 1963 to
2000 in the continental United States.
Population of Breeding Bald Eagle Pairs Source :

http://www.fws.gov/Midwest/eagle/population/
chtofprs.html.
Year Population of Breeding Pairs of Bald Eagles

1963 487
1974 791
1981 1188
1986 1875
1992 3749
1996 5094
2000 6471
40. [T] The graph below plots the quadratic against the data in
preceding table, normalized so that corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles per
year present for the 37 years by computing the average value of over
41. [T] The graph below plots the cubic against the data in
the preceding table, normalized so that corresponds to 1963. Estimate the average number of bald eagles
per year present for the 37 years by computing the average value of over

Solution
42. [T] Suppose you go on a road trip and record your speed at every half hour, as compiled in the following table.
The best quadratic fit to the data is shown in the accompanying graph. Integrate
to estimate the total distance driven over the 3 hours.
Time (hr) Speed (mph)

0 (start) 50
1 40
2 50
3 60
As a car accelerates, it does not accelerate at a constant rate; rather, the acceleration is variable. For the following
exercises, use the following table, which contains the acceleration measured at every second as a driver merges onto
a freeway.
Time (sec) Acceleration (mph/sec)

1 11.2
2 10.6
3 8.1
4 5.4
5 0
43. [T] The accompanying graph plots the best quadratic fit, to the

data from the preceding table. Compute the average value of to estimate the average acceleration between
and
Average acceleration is mph/s
44. [T] Using your acceleration equation from the previous exercise, find the corresponding velocity equation.
Assuming the final velocity is 0 mph, find the velocity at time
45. [T] Using your velocity equation from the previous exercise, find the corresponding distance equation,
assuming your initial distance is 0 mi. How far did you travel while you accelerated your car? ( Hint: You will need
to convert time units.)
Solution
Then,
mph feet.
46. [T] The number of hamburgers sold at a restaurant throughout the day is given in the following table, with
the accompanying graph plotting the best cubic fit to the data,
with corresponding to 9 a.m. and
corresponding to 9 p.m. Compute the average value of to estimate the average number of hamburgers sold
per hour.
Hours Past Midnight No. of Burgers Sold

9 3
12 28
15 20
18 30
21 45

47. [T] An athlete runs by a motion detector, which records her speed, as displayed in the following table. The
best linear fit to this data, is shown in the accompanying graph. Use the average
value of between and to estimate the runner’s average speed.
Minutes Speed (m/sec)

0 5
10 4.8
20 3.6
30 3.0
40 2.5
Solution
Glossary
net change theorem

if we know the rate of change of a quantity, the net change theorem says the future quantity is equal to the
initial quantity plus the integral of the rate of change of the quantity

5.5 Substitution
Learning Objectives
• Use substitution to evaluate indefinite integrals.
• Use substitution to evaluate definite integrals.
The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus gave us a method to evaluate integrals without using Riemann sums. The
drawback of this method, though, is that we must be able to find an antiderivative, and this is not always easy. In this
section we examine a technique, called integration by substitution , to help us find antiderivatives. Specifically, this
method helps us find antiderivatives when the integrand is the result of a chain-rule derivative.
At first, the approach to the substitution procedure may not appear very obvious. However, it is primarily a visual
task—that is, the integrand shows you what to do; it is a matter of recognizing the form of the function. So, what are
we supposed to see? We are looking for an integrand of the form For example, in the integral
we have and Then,
and we see that our integrand is in the correct form.
The method is called substitution because we substitute part of the integrand with the variable and part of the
integrand with du . It is also referred to as change of variables because we are changing variables to obtain an expression
that is easier to work with for applying the integration rules.
Substitution with Indefinite Integrals
Let where is continuous over an interval, let be continuous over the corresponding
range of , and let be an antiderivative of Then,
Proof
Let , , , and F be as specified in the theorem. Then
Integrating both sides with respect to , we see that
If we now substitute and we get
740 | 5.5 Substitution

Returning to the problem we looked at originally, we let and then Rewrite the integral in
terms of :
Using the power rule for integrals, we have
Substitute the original expression for back into the solution:
We can generalize the procedure in the following Problem-Solving Strategy.

Problem-Solving Strategy: Integration by Substitution
1. Look carefully at the integrand and select an expression within the integrand to set equal to . Let’s
select such that is also part of the integrand.
2. Substitute and into the integral.
3. We should now be able to evaluate the integral with respect to . If the integral can’t be evaluated we need
to go back and select a different expression to use as .
4. Evaluate the integral in terms of .
5. Write the result in terms of and the expression
Using Substitution to Find an Antiderivative
Use substitution to find the antiderivative of
Solution
The first step is to choose an expression for . We choose because then and
we already have du in the integrand. Write the integral in terms of :
Remember that du is the derivative of the expression chosen for , regardless of what is inside the integrand.
Now we can evaluate the integral with respect to :
Analysis
We can check our answer by taking the derivative of the result of integration. We should obtain the integrand.
Picking a value for C of 1, we let We have
so
This is exactly the expression we started with inside the integrand.
5.5 Substitution | 741

Hint
Let
Sometimes we need to adjust the constants in our integral if they don’t match up exactly with the expressions we are
substituting.
Using Substitution with Alteration
Solution
Rewrite the integral as Let and Now we have a problem
because and the original expression has only We have to alter our expression for du or the
integral in will be twice as large as it should be. If we multiply both sides of the du equation by we can solve
this problem. Thus,
Write the integral in terms of , but pull the outside the integration symbol:
Integrate the expression in :
Solution

Hint
Multiply the du equation by
Using Substitution with Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
Use substitution to evaluate the integral
Solution
We know the derivative of is so we set Then Substituting into
the integral, we have
Evaluating the integral, we get
Putting the answer back in terms of , we get
Use substitution to evaluate the integral
Solution
Hint
Use the process from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Sometimes we need to manipulate an integral in ways that are more complicated than just multiplying or dividing by a
constant. We need to eliminate all the expressions within the integrand that are in terms of the original variable. When
we are done, should be the only variable in the integrand. In some cases, this means solving for the original variable
in terms of . This technique should become clear in the next example.
Finding an Antiderivative Using -Substitution
Solution
If we let then But this does not account for the in the numerator of the integrand.
We need to express in terms of . If then Now we can rewrite the integral in
terms of :

Then we integrate in the usual way, replace with the original expression, and factor and simplify the result.
Thus,
Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral
Solution
Hint
Substitution for Definite Integrals

Substitution can be used with definite integrals, too. However, using substitution to evaluate a definite integral requires
a change to the limits of integration. If we change variables in the integrand, the limits of integration change as well.
Substitution with Definite Integrals
Let and let be continuous over an interval and let be continuous over the range of
Then,
Although we will not formally prove this theorem, we justify it with some calculations here. From the substitution rule
for indefinite integrals, if is an antiderivative of we have
Then

and we have the desired result.
Using Substitution to Evaluate a Definite Integral
Use substitution to evaluate
Solution
2
Let so Since the original function includes one factor of and
multiply both sides of the du equation by Then,
To adjust the limits of integration, note that when and when

Then
Evaluating this expression, we get
Use substitution to evaluate the definite integral
Solution
Hint
Use the steps from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Using Substitution with an Exponential Function
Solution
Let Then, To adjust the limits of integration, we note that when
and when So our substitution gives

Solution
Hint
Substitution may be only one of the techniques needed to evaluate a definite integral. All of the properties and rules of
integration apply independently, and trigonometric functions may need to be rewritten using a trigonometric identity
before we can apply substitution. Also, we have the option of replacing the original expression for after we find the
antiderivative, which means that we do not have to change the limits of integration. These two approaches are shown in
(Figure) .
Using Substitution to Evaluate a Trigonometric Integral
Solution
Let us first use a trigonometric identity to rewrite the integral. The trig identity allows us to
rewrite the integral as
Then,
We can evaluate the first integral as it is, but we need to make a substitution to evaluate the second integral. Let
Then, or Also, when and when
Expressing the second integral in terms of , we have
Key Concepts
• Substitution is a technique that simplifies the integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule
derivative. The term ‘substitution’ refers to changing variables or substituting the variable and du for

appropriate expressions in the integrand.
• When using substitution for a definite integral, we also have to change the limits of integration.
Key Equations
• Substitution with Indefinite Integrals
• Substitution with Definite Integrals
1. Why is -substitution referred to as change of variable ?
2. If when reversing the chain rule, should you take

or
Solution
In the following exercises, verify each identity using differentiation. Then, using the indicated -substitution, identify
such that the integral takes the form
3.
4.
Solution
5.
6.
Solution
7.
In the following exercises, find the antiderivative using the indicated substitution.
8.

Solution
9.
10.
Solution
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution
15.
16. ( )
Solution
17. [latex](Hint\text{:}{ \sin }^{2}\theta =1-{ \cos }^{2}\theta)[/latex]
In the following exercises, use a suitable change of variables to determine the indefinite integral.
18.
Solution
19.

20.
Solution
21.
22.
Solution
23.
24.
Solution
25. [latex](Hint\text{:}{ \sin }^{2}x+{ \cos }^{2}x=1)[/latex]
26.
Solution
27.
28.
Solution
29.
30.
Solution

31.
32.
Solution
33.
34.
Solution
In the following exercises, use a calculator to estimate the area under the curve using left Riemann sums with 50
terms, then use substitution to solve for the exact answer.
35. [T] over
36. [T] over
Solution
The exact area is
37. [T] over
38. [T] over
Solution
… The exact area is 0.
In the following exercises, use a change of variables to evaluate the definite integral.
39.
40.
Solution
41.

42.
Solution
43.
44.
Solution
In the following exercises, evaluate the indefinite integral with constant using -substitution.
Then, graph the function and the antiderivative over the indicated interval. If possible, estimate a value of C that
would need to be added to the antiderivative to make it equal to the definite integral with
the left endpoint of the given interval.
45. [T] over
46. [T] on
Solution
The antiderivative is Since the antiderivative is not continuous at one cannot find
a value of C that would make work as a definite integral.
47. [T] over
48. [T] over

Solution
The antiderivative is You should take so that
49. [T] over
50. [T] over
Solution
The antiderivative is One should take
51. If in what can you say about the value of the integral?
52. Is the substitution in the definite integral okay? If not, why not?

Solution
No, because the integrand is discontinuous at
In the following exercises, use a change of variables to show that each definite integral is equal to zero.
53.
54.
Solution
the integral becomes
55.
56.
Solution
57.
58.
Solution
since the integrand is odd.
59.
60. Show that the average value of over an interval is the same as the average value of over
the interval for
Solution
Setting and gets you

61. Find the area under the graph of between and where and is
fixed, and evaluate the limit as
62. Find the area under the graph of between and where and
is fixed. Evaluate the limit as
Solution
As
the limit is if and the limit diverges to +∞ if
63. The area of a semicircle of radius 1 can be expressed as Use the substitution
to express the area of a semicircle as the integral of a trigonometric function. You do not need to compute the
integral.
64. The area of the top half of an ellipse with a major axis that is the -axis from to and with a minor
axis that is the -axis from to can be written as Use the substitution
to express this area in terms of an integral of a trigonometric function. You do not need to
compute the integral.
Solution
65. [T] The following graph is of a function of the form Estimate the
coefficients and , and the frequency parameters and . Use these estimates to approximate
66. [T] The following graph is of a function of the form Estimate the
coefficients and and the frequency parameters and . Use these estimates to approximate

Solution
Glossary
change of variables
the substitution of a variable, such as , for an expression in the integrand
integration by substitution
a technique for integration that allows integration of functions that are the result of a chain-rule derivative

5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic
Functions
Learning Objectives
• Integrate functions involving exponential functions.
• Integrate functions involving logarithmic functions.
Exponential and logarithmic functions are used to model population growth, cell growth, and financial growth, as well as
depreciation, radioactive decay, and resource consumption, to name only a few applications. In this section, we explore
integration involving exponential and logarithmic functions.
Integrals of Exponential Functions

The exponential function is perhaps the most efficient function in terms of the operations of calculus. The exponential
function, is its own derivative and its own integral.
Rule: Integrals of Exponential Functions
Exponential functions can be integrated using the following formulas.
Finding an Antiderivative of an Exponential Function
–
Find the antiderivative of the exponential function .
Solution
Use substitution, setting and then Multiply the du equation by -1, so you now have
Then,
Find the antiderivative of the function using substitution:
Solution
Hint
Let equal the exponent on .
A common mistake when dealing with exponential expressions is treating the exponent on the same way we treat
exponents in polynomial expressions. We cannot use the power rule for the exponent on . This can be especially
756 | 5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions
confusing when we have both exponentials and polynomials in the same expression, as in the previous checkpoint. In
these cases, we should always double-check to make sure we’re using the right rules for the functions we’re integrating.
Square Root of an Exponential Function
Find the antiderivative of the exponential function
Solution
First rewrite the problem using a rational exponent:
Using substitution, choose Then, We have ( (Figure) )
Then
Figure 1. The graph shows an exponential function times the square

root of an exponential function.
Find the antiderivative of
Hint
Let
Using Substitution with an Exponential Function
Use substitution to evaluate the indefinite integral
Solution
Here we choose to let equal the expression in the exponent on . Let and Again,
2 2
du is off by a constant multiplier; the original function contains a factor of 3 , not 6 . Multiply both sides of
the equation by so that the integrand in equals the integrand in . Thus,
5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions | 757

Integrate the expression in and then substitute the original expression in back into the integral:
Evaluate the indefinite integral
Solution
Hint
Let
As mentioned at the beginning of this section, exponential functions are used in many real-life applications. The number
is often associated with compounded or accelerating growth, as we have seen in earlier sections about the derivative.
Although the derivative represents a rate of change or a growth rate, the integral represents the total change or the total
growth. Let’s look at an example in which integration of an exponential function solves a common business application.
A price–demand function tells us the relationship between the quantity of a product demanded and the price of
the product. In general, price decreases as quantity demanded increases. The marginal price–demand function is the
derivative of the price–demand function and it tells us how fast the price changes at a given level of production. These
functions are used in business to determine the price–elasticity of demand, and to help companies determine whether
changing production levels would be profitable.
Finding a Price–Demand Equation
Find the price–demand equation for a particular brand of toothpaste at a supermarket chain when the demand is
50 tubes per week at $2.35 per tube, given that the marginal price—demand function, for number of
tubes per week, is given as
If the supermarket chain sells 100 tubes per week, what price should it set?
Solution
To find the price–demand equation, integrate the marginal price–demand function. First find the antiderivative,
then look at the particulars. Thus,
Using substitution, let and Then, divide both sides of the du equation by
-0.01. This gives
The next step is to solve for C . We know that when the price is $2.35 per tube, the demand is 50 tubes per week.
This means
758 | 5.6 Integrals Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Now, just solve for C :
Thus,
If the supermarket sells 100 tubes of toothpaste per week, the price would be
The supermarket should charge $1.99 per tube if it is selling 100 tubes per week.
Evaluating a Definite Integral Involving an Exponential Function
Evaluate the definite integral
Solution
Again, substitution is the method to use. Let so or Then
Next, change the limits of integration. Using the equation we have
The integral then becomes
See (Figure) .
Figure 2. The indicated area can be calculated by evaluating a

definite integral using substitution.

Evaluate
Solution
Hint
Let
Growth of Bacteria in a Culture
Suppose the rate of growth of bacteria in a Petri dish is given by where is given in hours and
is given in thousands of bacteria per hour. If a culture starts with 10,000 bacteria, find a function that gives
the number of bacteria in the Petri dish at any time . How many bacteria are in the dish after 2 hours?
Solution
We have
Then, at we have so and we get
At time we have
After 2 hours, there are 17,282 bacteria in the dish.
From (Figure) , suppose the bacteria grow at a rate of Assume the culture still starts with 10,000
bacteria. Find How many bacteria are in the dish after 3 hours?
Solution
There are 20,099 bacteria in the dish after 3 hours.
Hint
Use the procedure from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Fruit Fly Population Growth
Suppose a population of fruit flies increases at a rate of in flies per day. If the initial population
of fruit flies is 100 flies, how many flies are in the population after 10 days?
Solution
Let represent the number of flies in the population at time . Applying the net change theorem, we have

There are 122 flies in the population after 10 days.
Suppose the rate of growth of the fly population is given by and the initial fly population is 100
flies. How many flies are in the population after 15 days?
Solution
There are 116 flies.
Hint
Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Substitution
Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:
Solution
This problem requires some rewriting to simplify applying the properties. First, rewrite the exponent on as a
2
power of , then bring the in the denominator up to the numerator using a negative exponent. We have
Let the exponent on . Then
Bringing the negative sign outside the integral sign, the problem now reads
Next, change the limits of integration:
Notice that now the limits begin with the larger number, meaning we must multiply by -1 and interchange the
limits. Thus,
Evaluate the definite integral using substitution:

Solution
Hint
Let
Integrals Involving Logarithmic Functions

Integrating functions of the form result in the absolute value of the natural log function, as shown in the
following rule. Integral formulas for other logarithmic functions, such as and are also
included in the rule.
Rule: Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions
The following formulas can be used to evaluate integrals involving logarithmic functions.
Finding an Antiderivative Involving
Find the antiderivative of the function
Solution
-1
First factor the 3 outside the integral symbol. Then use the rule. Thus,
See (Figure) .

Figure 3. The domain of this function is
Solution
Hint
Follow the pattern from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Finding an Antiderivative of a Rational Function
This can be rewritten as Use substitution. Let then

Alter du by factoring out the 2. Thus,
Rewrite the integrand in :
Then we have

Finding an Antiderivative of a Logarithmic Function
Find the antiderivative of the log function
Solution
Follow the format in the formula listed in the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions. Based
on this format, we have
Solution
Hint
Follow (Figure) and refer to the rule on integration formulas involving logarithmic functions.
(Figure) is a definite integral of a trigonometric function. With trigonometric functions, we often have to apply a
trigonometric property or an identity before we can move forward. Finding the right form of the integrand is usually the
key to a smooth integration.
Evaluating a Definite Integral
Find the definite integral of
Solution
We need substitution to evaluate this problem. Let so Rewrite the
integral in terms of , changing the limits of integration as well. Thus,
Then
Key Concepts
• Exponential and logarithmic functions arise in many real-world applications, especially those involving
growth and decay.
• Substitution is often used to evaluate integrals involving exponential functions or logarithms.

Key Equations
• Integrals of Exponential Functions
• Integration Formulas Involving Logarithmic Functions
In the following exercises, compute each indefinite integral.
1.
2.
Solution
3.
4.
Solution
5.
6.
Solution
7.
8.
Solution
In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral by using appropriate substitutions.
9.

10.
Solution
11.
12.
Solution
13.
14.
Solution
15.
16.
17.
18.
Solution
19.
20.
Solution
21.

22.
Solution
In the following exercises, verify by differentiation that then use appropriate

changes of variables to compute the integral.
23. [latex](Hint\text{:}\int \text{ln}xdx=\frac{1}{2}\int x\text{ln}({x}^{2})dx)[/latex]
24.
Solution
25. [latex](Hint\text{:}\text{Set}u=\frac{1}{x}\text{.})[/latex]
26. [latex](Hint\text{:}\text{Set}u=\sqrt{x}\text{.})[/latex]
Solution
27. Write an integral to express the area under the graph of from to e x and evaluate the integral.
28. Write an integral to express the area under the graph of between and and
evaluate the integral.
Solution
In the following exercises, use appropriate substitutions to express the trigonometric integrals in terms of
compositions with logarithms.
29.
30.
Solution
31.
32.

Solution
33.
34.
Solution
35.
In the following exercises, evaluate the definite integral.
36.
Solution
37.
38.
Solution
39.
40.
Solution
In the following exercises, integrate using the indicated substitution.
41.
42.
Solution

43.
44.
Solution
45.
46.
Solution
In the following exercises, does the right-endpoint approximation overestimate or underestimate the exact area?
Calculate the right endpoint estimate R 50 and solve for the exact area.
47. [T] over
48. [T] over
Solution
Exact solution: Since is decreasing, the right endpoint estimate underestimates the
area.
49. [T] over
50. [T] over
Solution
Exact solution: Since is increasing, the right endpoint estimate
overestimates the area.
51. [T] over
52. [T] over
Solution
Exact solution: Since is increasing, the right endpoint estimate overestimates
the area (the actual area is a larger negative number).
In the following exercises, for Find the area under the graph of between the given
values and by integrating.

53.
54.
Solution
55.
56.
Solution
57. Find the area under the graph of the function between and
58. Compute the integral of and find the smallest value of N such that the area under the
graph between and is, at most, 0.01.
Solution
The quantity is less than 0.01 when
59. Find the limit, as N tends to infinity, of the area under the graph of between and
60. Show that when
Solution
61. Suppose that for all and that and are differentiable. Use the identity and the
chain rule to find the derivative of
62. Use the previous exercise to find the antiderivative of and evaluate

Solution
23
63. Show that if then the integral of from ac to bc is the same as the integral of
from to .
The following exercises are intended to derive the fundamental properties of the natural log starting from the
Definition using properties of the definite integral and making no further assumptions.
64. Use the identity to derive the identity
Solution
We may assume that Then, Now make the substitution so
and and change endpoints:
65. Use a change of variable in the integral to show that
66. Use the identity to show that is an increasing function of on and use the
previous exercises to show that the range of is Without any further assumptions, conclude
that has an inverse function defined on
67. Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that is the inverse function of but keep in mind
that has an inverse function defined on Call it E . Use the identity to
deduce that for any real numbers , .
68. Pretend, for the moment, that we do not know that is the inverse function of but keep in mind that
has an inverse function defined on Call it E . Show that
Solution
Then, Since any number can be written for
some , and for such we have it follows that for any
69. The sine integral, defined as is an important quantity in engineering. Although it does
not have a simple closed formula, it is possible to estimate its behavior for large . Show that for
(Hint: )
70. [T] The normal distribution in probability is given by where σ is the
standard deviation and μ is the average. The standard normal distribution in probability, corresponds to
Compute the left endpoint estimates of
Solution

71. [T] Compute the right endpoint estimates of

5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Learning Objectives
• Integrate functions resulting in inverse trigonometric functions
In this section we focus on integrals that result in inverse trigonometric functions. We have worked with these
functions before. Recall from Functions and Graphs that trigonometric functions are not one-to-one unless the domains
are restricted. When working with inverses of trigonometric functions, we always need to be careful to take these
restrictions into account. Also in Derivatives , we developed formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions.
The formulas developed there give rise directly to integration formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions.
Integrals that Result in Inverse Sine Functions

Let us begin this last section of the chapter with the three formulas. Along with these formulas, we use substitution to
evaluate the integrals. We prove the formula for the inverse sine integral.
Rule: Integration Formulas Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The following integration formulas yield inverse trigonometric functions:
1.
2.
3.
Proof
Let Then Now let’s use implicit differentiation. We obtain
For Thus, applying the Pythagorean identity we have

This gives
Then for we have
5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions | 773

□
Evaluating a Definite Integral Using Inverse Trigonometric Functions
We can go directly to the formula for the antiderivative in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse
trigonometric functions, and then evaluate the definite integral. We have
Solution
Hint
Substitute
Finding an Antiderivative Involving an Inverse Trigonometric Function
Evaluate the integral
Substitute Then and we have
Applying the formula with we obtain
Find the indefinite integral using an inverse trigonometric function and substitution for
Solution
Hint
Use the formula in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions.
774 | 5.7 Integrals Resulting in Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Solution
The format of the problem matches the inverse sine formula. Thus,
Integrals Resulting in Other Inverse Trigonometric Functions

There are six inverse trigonometric functions. However, only three integration formulas are noted in the rule on
integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions because the remaining three are negative versions of
the ones we use. The only difference is whether the integrand is positive or negative. Rather than memorizing three
more formulas, if the integrand is negative, simply factor out -1 and evaluate the integral using one of the formulas
already provided. To close this section, we examine one more formula: the integral resulting in the inverse tangent
function.
Finding an Antiderivative Involving the Inverse Tangent Function
Find an antiderivative of
Solution
Comparing this problem with the formulas stated in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse
trigonometric functions, the integrand looks similar to the formula for So we use substitution,
letting then and Then, we have
Solution
Hint
Use the solving strategy from (Figure) and the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric
functions.
Applying the Integration Formulas
Apply the formula with Then,

Solution
Hint
Follow the steps in (Figure) .
Solution
Use the formula for the inverse tangent. We have
Solution
Hint
Follow the procedures from (Figure) to solve the problem.
Key Concepts
• Formulas for derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions developed in Derivatives of Exponential and
Logarithmic Functions lead directly to integration formulas involving inverse trigonometric functions.
• Use the formulas listed in the rule on integration formulas resulting in inverse trigonometric functions to
match up the correct format and make alterations as necessary to solve the problem.
• Substitution is often required to put the integrand in the correct form.
Key Equations
• Integrals That Produce Inverse Trigonometric Functions

In the following exercises, evaluate each integral in terms of an inverse trigonometric function.
1.
Solution
2.
3.
Solution
4.
5.
Solution
6.
In the following exercises, find each indefinite integral, using appropriate substitutions.
7.
8.
9.
Solution
10.
11.

Solution
12.
13. Explain the relationship Is it true, in general, that
Solution
So, They differ by a constant.
14. Explain the relationship Is it true, in general, that
15. Explain what is wrong with the following integral:
Solution
is not defined as a real number when
16. Explain what is wrong with the following integral:
In the following exercises, solve for the antiderivative of with then use a calculator to graph and
the antiderivative over the given interval Identify a value of C such that adding C to the antiderivative recovers
the definite integral
17. [T] over
Solution
The antiderivative is Taking recovers the definite integral.

18. [T] over
19. [T] over
Solution
The antiderivative is Taking recovers the definite integral.
20. [T] over
In the following exercises, compute the antiderivative using appropriate substitutions.
21.
Solution
22.
23.
Solution
24.
25.
Solution

26.
In the following exercises, use a calculator to graph the antiderivative with over the given interval
Approximate a value of C , if possible, such that adding C to the antiderivative gives the same value as the
definite integral
27. [T] over
Solution
The antiderivative is Taking recovers the definite integral over
28. [T] over
29. [T] over
The general antiderivative is Taking recovers the definite

integral.
30. [T] over
31. [T] over

The general antiderivative is Taking recovers the definite integral.
32. [T] over
In the following exercises, compute each integral using appropriate substitutions.
33.
Solution
34.
35.
Solution
36.
37.
Solution
38.
In the following exercises, compute each definite integral.
39.

40.
41.
Solution
42.
43. For compute and evaluate the area under the graph of on
Solution
as
44. For compute and evaluate the area under the graph
of over
45. Use the substitution and the identity to evaluate (

Hint: Multiply the top and bottom of the integrand by )
Solution
Using the hint, one has Set Then,
and the integral is

If one uses the identity
then this can also be written
46. [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of and

intersect, and approximate the area between their graphs accurate to three decimal places.
47. [T] Approximate the points at which the graphs of and intersect, and
approximate the area between their graphs accurate to three decimal places.
Solution
The left endpoint estimate with is 2.796 and these decimals persist for
48. Use the following graph to prove that

True or False. Justify your answer with a proof or a counterexample. Assume all functions and are continuous over
their domains.
1. If for all then the right-hand rule underestimates the integral Use a
graph to justify your answer.
Solution
False
2.
3. If for all then
Solution
True
4. All continuous functions have an antiderivative.
Evaluate the Riemann sums for the following functions over the specified interval. Compare your answer
with the exact answer, when possible, or use a calculator to determine the answer.
5. over
Solution
exact answer: 4
6. over
7. over
Solution
exact answer: 5.870
8. over
Evaluate the following integrals.
9.
Solution

10.
11.
Solution
1
12.
Find the antiderivative.
13.
Solution
14.
15.
Solution
16.
Find the derivative.
17.
Solution
18.
19.
Solution
20.

The following problems consider the historic average cost per gigabyte of RAM on a computer.
Year 5-Year Change ($)

1980 0
1985 -5,468,750
1990 – 755,495
1995 -73,005
2000 -29,768
2005 -918
2010 -177
21. If the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 2010 is $12, find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM in 1980.
Solution
$6,328,113
22. The average cost per gigabyte of RAM can be approximated by the function
where is measured in years since 1980, and is cost in US$. Find the average cost per gigabyte of RAM for 1980
to 2010.
23. Find the average cost of 1GB RAM for 2005 to 2010.
Solution
$73.36
24. The velocity of a bullet from a rifle can be approximated by where

is seconds after the shot and is the velocity measured in feet per second. This equation only models the velocity
for the first half-second after the shot: What is the total distance the bullet travels in 0.5 sec?
25. What is the average velocity of the bullet for the first half-second?
Solution

Table of Integrals
Basic Integrals
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Trigonometric Integrals
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Table of Integrals | 787

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
Exponential and Logarithmic Integrals

42.
43.
44.
45.
788 | Table of Integrals

46.
47.
48.
Hyperbolic Integrals
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
Inverse Trigonometric Integrals

59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.

Integrals Involving 2+ 2,
68.
69.
70.
71.
72.
73.
74.
75.
76.
Integrals Involving 2– 2,
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.
82.
83.
84.
Integrals Involving 2– 2,
85.
86.

87.
88.
89.
90.
91.
92.
93.
Integrals Involving 2 au – 2,
94.
95.
96.
97.
Integrals Involving + bu , ≠ 0
98.
99.
100.
101.
102.
103.
104.
105.
106.

107.
108.
109.
110.
111.
112.
113.

Table of Derivatives
General Formulas
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Trigonometric Functions
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
15.
16.
17.
18.
Table of Derivatives | 793

19.
20.
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
21.
22.
23.
24.
Hyperbolic Functions
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
794 | Table of Derivatives

Review of Pre-Calculus
Formulas from Geometry
[latex]V=\text{Volume},\text{ and }[/latex]
Formulas from Algebra
Laws of Exponents
Special Factorizations
Review of Pre-Calculus | 795

Quadratic Formula
If then
Binomial Theorem
where
Formulas from Trigonometry
Right-Angle Trigonometry
Trigonometric Functions of Important Angles
0° 0 0 1 0
30°
45° 1
60°
90° 1 0 —
796 | Review of Pre-Calculus

Fundamental Identities
Law of Sines
Law of Cosines
Addition and Subtraction Formulas
Review of Pre-Calculus | 797

Double-Angle Formulas
Half-Angle Formulas
798 | Review of Pre-Calculus

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Calculus Volume 1 01 04 2020

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Calculus Volume 1

GILBERT STRANG AND EDWIN "JED" HERMAN

1. Functions and Graphs

Table of Integrals 787

Table of Derivatives 793

Review of Pre-Calculus 795

About OpenStax Resources

Coverage and Scope

Assessments That Reinforce Key Concepts

Early or Late Transcendentals

Comprehensive Art Program

Student and Instructor Resources

About the Authors

Senior Contributing Authors

Gilbert Strang, Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Edwin “Jed” Herman, University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point

Nicoleta Virginia Bila, Fayetteville State University

Sheri J. Boyd, Rollins College

Joyati Debnath, Winona State University

Valeree Falduto, Palm Beach State College

Joseph Lakey, New Mexico State University

Julie Levandosky, Framingham State University

David McCune, William Jewell College

Michelle Merriweather, Bronxville High School

Kirsten R. Messer, Colorado State University – Pueblo

Alfred K. Mulzet, Florida State College at Jacksonville

William Radulovich (retired), Florida State College at Jacksonville

Erica M. Rutter, Arizona State University

David Smith, University of the Virgin Islands

Elaine A. Terry, Saint Joseph’s University

David Torain, Hampton University

John Beyers, University of Maryland

Charles Buehrle, Franklin & Marshall College

Matthew Cathey, Wofford College

Michael Cohen, Hofstra University

William DeSalazar, Broward County School System

Murray Eisenberg, University of Massachusetts Amherst

Kristyanna Erickson, Cecil College

Tiernan Fogarty, Oregon Institute of Technology

David French, Tidewater Community College

Marilyn Gloyer, Virginia Commonwealth University

Shawna Haider, Salt Lake Community College

Lance Hemlow, Raritan Valley Community College

Jerry Jared, The Blue Ridge School

Peter Jipsen, Chapman University

David Johnson, Lehigh University

M.R. Khadivi, Jackson State University

Robert J. Krueger, Concordia University

Tor A. Kwembe, Jackson State University

Jean-Marie Magnier, Springfield Technical Community College

Cheryl Chute Miller, SUNY Potsdam

Bagisa Mukherjee, Penn State University, Worthington Scranton Campus

Kasso Okoudjou, University of Maryland College Park

Peter Olszewski, Penn State Erie, The Behrend College

Alice Ramos, Bethel College

Doug Shaw, University of Northern Iowa

Hussain Elalaoui-Talibi, Tuskegee University

Jeffrey Taub, Maine Maritime Academy

William Thistleton, SUNY Polytechnic Institute