Distributed Computing

Introduction: Define the problem of synchronization in distributed computing and briefly
explain the three algorithms.

Synchronization is a critical issue in distributed computing, which refers to the coordination of
activities among multiple processes that share resources, communicate with each other, and
execute concurrently in a distributed system. The main challenge of synchronization in
distributed computing is to ensure that processes can access shared resources in a mutually
exclusive and consistent manner, without interfering with each other.
There are three primary synchronization algorithms used in distributed computing:
1. Lamport's Logical Clocks: It is a timestamp-based algorithm that assigns a unique timestamp to

each event in the system, including the message exchange between processes. This algorithm
allows processes to determine the relative ordering of events and synchronize their actions based
on the logical order of events.
2. Vector Clocks: Vector clocks are a variant of logical clocks that capture causality between events
by associating a vector timestamp with each process. This algorithm enables each process to
maintain a vector clock that reflects its causal relationship with other processes and detect
concurrent events.
3. Mutual Exclusion Algorithms: These algorithms are used to ensure that only one process can
access a shared resource at a time. Examples of mutual exclusion algorithms include the Ricart-
Agrawala algorithm, which uses message passing to grant permission to access the critical
section, and the Lamport's bakery algorithm, which uses a token-based approach to ensure
mutual exclusion.
Birman-Schiper-Stephenson Algorithm (BSS): Describe the BSS algorithm and discuss its
advantages and disadvantages. Include a discussion of its computational complexity,
message complexity, and any other relevant factors
The Birman-Schiper-Stephenson Algorithm (BSS) is a distributed algorithm that provides a total
ordering of messages in a distributed system. The algorithm was developed to address the
limitations of other message ordering algorithms, such as Lamport's logical clocks, which do not
guarantee a total ordering of messages.
The BSS algorithm works by assigning a unique identifier to each message and propagating this
identifier across the system. The algorithm consists of three phases:
1. Timestamp assignment: Each process assigns a unique timestamp to each message it sends. The
timestamp includes the process identifier and a sequence number.
2. Timestamp propagation: Each process sends the timestamp along with the message to all other
processes. The messages are not delivered until all processes have received the timestamp.
3. Ordering: Each process uses the received timestamps to order the messages it receives. If two
messages have the same timestamp, the process uses the sender's identifier to break the tie.
Advantages:
 Provides a total ordering of messages, which is useful in some distributed applications such as
distributed databases.
 Can handle out-of-order messages and messages with duplicate timestamps.
Disadvantages:
 The algorithm has a high message complexity, as each message must be sent to all processes in
the system.
 The algorithm is vulnerable to message losses and delays, which can affect the performance and
correctness of the ordering.
Computational complexity:
 The computational complexity of the BSS algorithm is relatively low, as it only requires simple
arithmetic operations to assign and propagate timestamps.
Message complexity:
 The message complexity of the BSS algorithm is high, as each message must be sent to all
processes in the system. This can result in a large number of messages in systems with many
processes.
Other relevant factors:
 The BSS algorithm assumes a reliable message delivery system, as it relies on the delivery of
timestamps to order messages correctly. If messages are lost or delayed, the algorithm may
produce incorrect results.
 The BSS algorithm can be extended to handle causal ordering, which is useful in applications
where causal relationships between events are important. However, this extension can increase
the message complexity of the algorithm.
Schiper-Eggli-Sandoz Algorithm (SES): Describe the SES algorithm and discuss its
advantages and disadvantages. Include a discussion of its computational complexity,
message complexity, and any other relevant factors.
The Schiper-Eggli-Sandoz Algorithm (SES) is a distributed algorithm that provides a causal
ordering of messages in a distributed system. The algorithm was developed to address the
limitations of other causal ordering algorithms, such as vector clocks, which can result in a large
amount of message overhead.
The SES algorithm works by associating a dependency relation with each message and
propagating this relation across the system. The algorithm consists of three phases:
1. Dependency relation assignment: Each process assigns a dependency relation to each message it
sends. The dependency relation specifies the set of messages that the sender of the message
depends on.
2. Dependency relation propagation: Each process sends the dependency relation along with the
message to all other processes. The messages are not delivered until all processes have received
the dependency relation.
3. Ordering: Each process uses the received dependency relations to order the messages it receives.
If two messages have the same dependency relation, the process uses the sender's identifier to
break the tie.
Advantages:
 Provides a causal ordering of messages, which is useful in applications where causal

relationships between events are important.
 Has a lower message overhead than vector clocks, as only the dependency relations need to be
propagated.
Disadvantages:
 The algorithm is vulnerable to message losses and delays, which can affect the performance and
correctness of the ordering.
 The algorithm can result in a higher computational complexity than other message ordering
algorithms, as the assignment of dependency relations requires more computation than simple
timestamp assignment.
Computational complexity:
 The computational complexity of the SES algorithm is higher than some other message ordering
algorithms, as it requires more computation to assign dependency relations.
Message complexity:
 The message complexity of the SES algorithm is lower than some other message ordering
algorithms, as only the dependency relations need to be propagated.
Other relevant factors:
 The SES algorithm assumes a reliable message delivery system, as it relies on the delivery of
dependency relations to order messages correctly. If messages are lost or delayed, the algorithm
may produce incorrect results.
 The SES algorithm can be extended to handle total ordering, which is useful in some distributed
applications. However, this extension can increase the message overhead of the algorithm.

Distributed Computing

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Introduction: Define the problem of synchronization in distributed computing and briefly

explain the three algorithms.

There are three primary synchronization algorithms used in distributed computing:

1. Lamport's Logical Clocks: It is a timestamp-based algorithm that assigns a unique timestamp to

Other relevant factors:

 Provides a causal ordering of messages, which is useful in applications where causal

Other relevant factors:

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