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Syllabus( Image processing )
1- Introduction to Computer Vision and

Image Processing
1.1 Computer Imaging .
1.2 Computer Vision
1.3. Image Processing
1.4. Image Processing Applications
1.5 Computer Imaging Systems
1.6. Digitization
1.7 Image Resolution
1.8. Image Representation

1.9. Multispectral images.
1.10. Digital Image File Format
2- Chapter Two: Image Analysis
2.1 Image Analysis
2.2 System Model
2.3 Region Of Interest (ROI)
2.4. Image Algebra
2.5 Image Restoration
2.6 Edge Detection
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3- Chapter Threee: Image Restoration
3.1 Introduction
3.2. Noise
4- Chapter Four: Image Compression
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Compression System Model
4.3. LOSSLESS COMPRESSION
METHODS 5- Chapter Five: Transformation
5.1 Colors Transforms
5.2. Discrete Transforms
5.3 Wavelet Transform
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Introduction to Computer Vision
and Image Processing
What Is Digital Image Processing?
An image may be defined as a two-dimensional function, f(x, y)
,where x and y are spatial (plane) coordinates, and the amplitude of (f)
at any pair of coordinates (x, y) is called the intensity or gray level of
the image at that point.
When x, y, and the intensity values of f are all finite, discrete
quantities, we call the image a digital image.
Note that a digital image is a representation of a two-dimensional
image as a finite set of digital values composed of a finite number of
elements, each of which has a particular location and value. These
elements are called picture elements, image elements, , and pixels.
Pixel is the term used most widely to denote the elements of a digital
image
One picture is worth more than ten thousand words.
The Human Visual System

The Human Visual System (HVS) has two primary components:
• Eye.
• Brian.
The structure that we know the most about is the image receiving
sensors (the human eye).
The brain can be thought as being an information-processing unit
analogous to the computer in our computer imaging system. These
two are connected by the optic nerve, which is really a bundle of
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nerves that contains the pathways for visual information to travel from
the receiving sensor (the eye) to the processor (the brain).
Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an

image, in order to get an enhanced image or to extract some useful
information from it. It is a type of signal processing in which input is
an image and output may be image or characteristics/features
associated with that image. Nowadays, image processing is among
rapidly growing technologies. It forms core research area within
engineering and computer science disciplines too.
FIGURE 1.1 An example of the digital image acquisition process.

(a) Energy (―illumination‖) source. (b) An element of a scene. (c) Imaging system.
(d) Projection of the scene onto the image plane. (e) Digitized image.
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1.1 Computer Imaging
Can be defined an acquisition and processing of visual information
by computer. Computer representation of an image requires the
equivalent of many thousands of words of data, so the massive amount of
data required for image is a primary reason for the development of many
sub areas with field of computer imaging, such as image compression and
segmentation .Another important aspect of computer imaging involves
the ultimate ―receiver‖ of visual information in some case the
human visual system and in some cases the human visual system and
in others the computer itself.
Computer imaging can be separate into two primary categories:
1. Computer Vision. 2. Image Processing.
(In computer vision application the processed images output for use by
a computer, whereas in image processing applications the output
images are for human consumption).
These two categories are not totally separate and distinct. The
boundaries that separate the two are fuzzy, but this definition allows
us to explore the differences between the two and to explore the
difference between the two and to understand how they fit together
(Figure 1.1).
Computer imaging can be separated into two different but
overlapping areas.
Computer Vision Image Processing
Figure (1.1): Computer Imaging.

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Historically, the field of image processing grew from electrical
engineering as an extension of the signal processing branch, whereas
are the computer science discipline was largely responsible for
developments in computer vision.
1.2 Computer Vision
Computer vision emulate human vision, that‘s mean:
understanding the scene based on image data.One of the major topics
within this field of computer vision is image analysis.
Image Analysis: involves the examination of the image data to facilitate
solving vision problem.
The image analysis process involves two other topics:
• Feature Extraction: is the process of acquiring higher level image

information, such as shape or color information.
• Pattern Classification: is the act of taking this higher –level
information and identifying objects within the image.
Computer vision systems are used in many and various types of
environments, such as:
1. Manufacturing Systems: computer vision is often used for quality
control, where the computer vision system will scan manufactured
items for defects, and provide control signals to a robotics manipulator
to remove detective part automatically.
2. Medical Community: current example of medical systems to aid
neurosurgeons ( ‫زاحت‬CC‫اب ج‬CC‫ ) االعص‬during brain surgery, systems to
diagnose skin tumors ( ٌ ‫ ) انجهد سزطا‬automatically.
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3. The field of Law Enforcement (‫ )انقٌَٕا ُحفٍذ‬and security in an active area
for computer vision system development, with application ranging
from automatic identification of fingerprints to DNA analysis.
.Imaging Infrared 4 ( ‫صراشعت ححج انحًزاء‬
ٕ )
.orbiting Satellites 5 (‫يدار انفضاٍئاث‬.)
1.3. Image Processing
Image processing does some transformations on image. That means

may be it does some smoothing, sharpening, contrasting, stretching on
the image for making image more enhancive & readable that is input
and output of a process are images.. In other words the image are to be
examined and a acted upon by people.
The major topics within the field of image processing include:
1. Image restoration.
2. Image enhancement.
3. Image compression.
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1.3.1 Image Restoration
Is the process of taking an image with some known, or

estimated degradation, and restoring it to its original appearance.
Image restoration is often used in the field of photography or
publishing where an image was somehow degraded but needs to be
improved before it can be printed (Figure 1.2).
b. Restored image
a. Image with distortion

Figure (1.2) Image Restoration
1.3.2 Image Enhancement

Involves taking an image and improving it visually, typically by
taking advantages of human Visual Systems responses. One of the
simplest enhancement techniques is to simply stretch the contrast of an
image.
Enhancement methods tend to be problem specific. For example, a
method that is used to enhance satellite images may not suitable for
enhancing medical images.
Although enhancement and restoration are similar in aim, to make an
image look better. Restoration method attempt to model the distortion
to the image and reverse the degradation, where enhancement methods
use knowledge of the human visual systems responses to improve an
image visually.
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a. image with poor contrast b. Image enhancement by contrast
Figure (1.3) Image Enhancement
1.3.3 Image Compression
Involves reducing the typically massive amount of data needed

to represent an image. This done by eliminating data that are visually
unnecessary and by taking advantage of the redundancy that is
inherent in most images. Image data can be reduced 10 to 50 times,
and motion image data (video) can be reduced by factors of 100 or
even 200.
a. Image before compression. b. Image after compression.

92KB 6.59 KB
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1.4. Image Processing Applications
Image processing systems are used in many and various types of
environments, such as:
1. Medical community has many important applications for image
processing involving various type diagnostics imaging , as an example
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)scanning, that allows the medical
professional to look into the human body without the need to cut it
open, CT scanning, X-RAY imaging .
2. Computer – Aided Design (CAD), which uses tools from image
processing and computer graphics, allows the user to design a new
building or spacecraft and explore it from the inside out.
3. Virtual Reality is one application that exemplifies ( ًٌ‫ ) ثم‬future
possibilities
4. Machine/Robot vision: Make robot able to see things , identify them ,
identify the hurdles ) ‫( انعقباث‬
1.5 Computer Imaging Systems

Computer imaging systems are comprised of two primary
components types, hardware and software. The hard ware components
can be divided into image acquiring sub system (computer, scanner,
and camera) and display devices (monitor, printer).The software
allows us to manipulate the image and perform any desired processing
on the image data.
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1.6. Digitization
The process of transforming a standard video signal into
digital image. This transformation is necessary because the standard
video signal in analog (continuous) form and the computer requires a
digitized or sampled version of that continuous signal. The analog
video signal is turned into a digital image by sampling the continuous
signal at affixed rate. In the figure below we see one line of a video
signal being sampled (digitized) by instantaneously measuring the
voltage of the signal
(amplitude) at fixed intervals in time.
The value of the voltage at each instant is converted into a number that
is stored, corresponding to the brightness of the image at that point.
Note that the image brightness of the image at that point depends
on both the intrinsic properties of the object and the lighting
conditions in the scene.
Figure (1.5) Digitizing (Sampling) an Analog Video Signal

The image can now be accessed as a two-dimension array of
data , where each data point is referred to a pixel (picture element).for
digital images we will use the following notation :
I(r,c) = The brightness of image at the point (r,c)
Where r = row and c = column.
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―When we have the data in digital form, we can use the software to
process the data‖. The digital image is 2D- array as:
In above image matrix, the image size is (N×N) [matrix dimension] then:
...............
Ng= 2 m (1)
Where Ng denotes the number of gray levels m, where m is the no. of bits
contains in digital image matrix.
Example :If we have (6 bit) in 128 * 128 image .Find the no. of gray
levels to represent it ,then find the no. of bit in this image?
Solution:
Ng= 26=64 Gray Level
Nb= 128 * 128* 6= 9.8304 * 104 bit
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1.7 Image Resolution
Pixels are the building blocks of every digital image. Clearly
defined squares of light and color data are stacked up (‫) مكدسة‬
next to one another both horizontally and vertically. Each picture
element (pixel for short) has a dark to light value from 0 (solid black)
to 255 (pure white).
That is, there are 256 defined values. A gradient (‫ٍيم‬, ‫ )االَحدار َسبت‬is the
gradual transition from one value to another in sequence.
The resolution has to do with ability to separate two adjacent
pixels as being separate, and then we can say that we can resolve the
two. The concept of resolution is closely tied to the concepts of spatial
frequency. There are three types of image resolution:
1- Vertical resolution: the number of M rows in the image (image
scan line).
2- Horizontal resolution: the number of N columns in the image.
3- Spatial frequency resolution: It is represent by the multiplication
(M x N) and its closely tied to the concept of spatial frequency that
refers to how rapidly the signal is changing in space, and the signal
has two values for brightness 0 and maximum. If we use this signal for
one line (row) of an image and then repeat the line down the entire
image, we get an image of vertical stripes. If we increase this
frequency the strips get closer and closer together, until they finally
blend together as shown in figure below, note that the higher the
resolution the more details (high frequency).
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Figure (1.4) Resolution and Spatial frequency.
In computers, resolution is the number of pixels (individual points of

color) contained on a display monitor, expressed in terms of the
number of pixels on the horizontal axis and the number on the vertical
axis.
The sharpness of the image on a display depends on the resolution
and the size of the monitor. The same pixel resolution will be sharper
on a smaller monitor and gradually lose sharpness on larger monitors
because the same numbers of pixels are being spread out over a larger
number of inches. Display resolution is not measured in dots per inch
as it usually is with printers (We measure resolution in pixels per
inch or more commonly, dots per inch (dpi)).
In computers, resolution is the number of pixels (individual points of
color) contained on a display monitor, expressed in terms of the
number of pixels on the horizontal axis and the number on the vertical
axis.
The sharpness of the image on a display depends on the resolution and
the size of the monitor.
Display resolution is not measured in dots per inch as it usually is with
printers (We measure resolution in pixels per inch or more commonly,
dots per inch (dpi)).
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 A display with 240 pixel columns and 320 pixel rows would
generally be said to have a resolution of 240×320.
 Resolution can also be used to refer to the total number of pixels
in a digital camera image. For example, a camera that can create
images of 1600x1200 pixels will sometimes be referred to as a 2
megapixel resolution camera since 1600 x 1200 = 1,920,000
pixels, or roughly 2 million pixels. Where a megapixel (that is, a
million pixels) is a unit of image sensing capacity in a digital
camera. In general, the more megapixels in a camera, the better
the resolution when printing an image in a given size.
Below is an illustration of how the same image might appear at
different pixel resolutions, if the pixels were poorly rendered as sharp
squares (normally, a smooth image reconstruction from pixels would
be preferred, but for illustration of pixels, the sharp squares make the
point better).
Figure (1.6) : Image Resolution.
An image that is 2048 pixels in width and 1536 pixels in height has a
total of 2048×1536 = 3,145,728 pixels or 3.1 megapixels. One could
refer to it as 2048 by 1536 or a 3.1-megapixel image.
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1.8. Image Representation
We have seen that the Human Visual System (HVS) receives an

input image as a collection of spatially distributed light energy; this
is form is called an optical image. Optical images are the type we
deal with every day –cameras captures them, monitors display them,
and we see them [we know that these optical images are represented
as video information in the form of analog electrical signals and have
seen how these are sampled to generate the digital image I(r , c).
The digital image I (r, c) is represented as a two- dimensional array
of data, where each pixel value corresponds to the brightness of the
image at the point (r, c). in linear algebra terms , a two-dimensional
array like our image model I( r, c ) is referred to as a matrix , and
one row ( or column) is called a vector.
The image types we will consider are:
1.8.1. Binary Image
Binary images are the simplest type of images and can take on two
values, typically black and white, or ‗0‘ and ‗1‘. A binary image is
referred to as a 1 bit/pixel image because it takes only 1 binary digit to
represent each pixel.
These types of images are most frequently in computer vision
application where the only information required for the task is general
shapes, or outlines information. For example, to position a robotics
gripper to grasp (‫ك‬C ‫ )يمس‬an object or in optical character
recognition (OCR).
Binary images are often created from gray-scale images via a threshold
value is, those values above it are turned white (‗1‘), and those below it
are turned black (‗0‘).
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Figure (1.7): Binary Images.
1.8.2. Gray-scale images.

Gray-scale image is a range of monochromatic shades from black
to white. Therefore, a grayscale image contains only shades of gray
(brightness information only ) and no color information. The number
of different brightness level available. (0) value refers to black color,
(255) value refers to white color, and all intermediate values are
different shades of gray varying from black to white. The typical
image contains 8 bit/ pixel (data, which allows us to have (0-255)
different brightness (gray) levels. The 8 bit representation is typically
due to the fact that the byte, which corresponds to 8-bit of data, is the
standard small unit in the world of digital computer.
Figure (1.8) : Gray Scale Image
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1.8.3. Color image.
Color image can be modeled as three band monochrome image data,
where each band of the data corresponds to a different color. The
actual information stored in the digital image data is brightness
information in each spectral band. When the image is displayed, the
corresponding brightness information is displayed on the screen by
picture elements that emit light energy corresponding to that particular
color. Typical color images are represented as red, green, and blue or
RGB images. Using the 8-bit monochrome standard as a model, the
corresponding color image would have 24 bit/pixel – 8 bit for each
color bands (red, green and blue). The following figure we see a
representation of a typical RGB color image.
IR(r,c) IG(r,c) IB(r,c)
The following figure illustrate that in addition to referring to arrow or

column as a vector, we can refer to a single pixel red ,green, and blue
values as a color pixel vector –(R,G,B ).
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Figure (1.8): a color pixel vector consists of the red, green and
blue pixel values (R, G, B) at one given row/column pixel
coordinate ( r , c).
The RGB color model used in color CRT monitor, in this model
,Red,Grren and Blue are added together to get the resultant color
White.
For many applications, RGB color information is transformed into
mathematical space that decouples the brightness information from the
color information.
The lightness is the brightness of the color, and the hue is what we
normally think of as ―color‖ and the hue (ex: green, blue, red,
and orange). The saturation is a measure of how much white is in the
color (ex: Pink is red with more white, so it is less saturated than a
pure red). Most people relate to this method for describing color.
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Example: ―a deep, bright orange‖ would have a large intensity
(―bright‖), a hue of ―orange‖, and a high value of
saturation (―deep‖).we can picture this color in our minds, but if we
defined this color in terms of its RGB components, R=245,
G=110 and B=20, most people have no idea how this color appears.
Modeling the color information creates a more people oriented way of
describing the colors.
1.9. Multispectral images.
Multispectral images typically contain information outside the normal
human perceptual range. This may include infrared ( ‫ححج‬
‫)انحًزاء‬,ultraviolet (‫ٍجت فٕق‬C‫) انُبفس‬, X-ray, acoustic or radar data. These are
not images because the information represented is not directly visible
by the human system. Source of these types of image include satellite
systems, underwater sonar systems and medical diagnostics imaging
systems.
Figure (1.9) Electromagnetic spectrum.
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1.10. Digital Image File Format
Why do we need so many different types of image file format?
• The short answer is that there are many different types of images and
application with varying requirements.
• A more complete answer, also considers market share proprietary
information, and a lack of coordination within the imaging industry.
Many image types can be converted to one of other type by easily
available image conversion software. Field related to computer
imaging is that computer graphics.
1.12.1 Computer Graphics:

Computer graphics is a specialized field within that refers to the
computer science realm that refers to the reproduction of visual data
through the use of computer. In computer graphics, types of image
data are divided into two primarily categories:
1. Bitmap Image (or Raster Image): can represented by our image
model I(r, c), where we have pixel data and corresponding brightness
values stored in file format.
2. Vector Images: refer to the methods of representing lines, curves
shapes by storing only the key points. These key points are sufficient
to define the shapes, and the process of turning theses into an image is
called rendering. After the image has been rendered, it can be thought
of as being in bitmap format where each pixel has specific values
associated with it.
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The differences between vector and raster graphics are:
1- Raster graphics are composed of pixels, while vector graphics are

composed of paths.
2- A raster graphic, such as a gif or jpeg, is an array of pixels of various

colors, which together form an image.
A vector graphic, such as an .eps file or Adobe Illustrator file, is
composed of paths, or lines, that are either straight or curved.
3- Because vector graphics are not made of pixels, the images can be
scaled to be very large without losing quality. Raster graphics, on the
other hand, become "blocky," since each pixel increases in size as the
image is made larger.
Figure (1.10): vector and bitmap image.
Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing

digital images. Image files are composed of digital data in one of these
formats that can be rasterized (َ‫قطت‬
ٍ ) for use on a computer display or
printer. An image file format may store data in uncompressed,
compressed, or vector formats. Once rasterized, an image becomes a
grid of pixels, each of which has a number of bits to designate its
color equal to the color depth of the device displaying it.
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Many image types can be converted to one of other type by easily
available image conversion software. Field related to computer
imaging is that computer graphics.
The most the type of file format falls into category of bitmap images.
In general, these types of images contain both header information and
the raw pixel data. The header information contains information
regarding:
1. The number of rows (height)
2. The number of columns (Width)
3. The number of bands.
4. The number of bit per pixel.
5. The file type.
6. Additionally, with some of the more complex file formats, the
header may contain information about the type of compression used
and other necessary parameters to create the image, I(r, c).
1.12.2. Image File Format:

1. BMP format:
It‘s a compressed format and the data of image are located in the field
of data while there are two fields one for header (54 byte) that
contains the image information such as (height ,width , no. of bits per
pixel, no of bands , the file type). The second field is the color map or
color palette for gray level image, where its length is 0-255).
The BMP file format, also known as bitmap image file or device
independent bitmap (DIB) file format or simply a bitmap, is a
raster graphics image file format used to store bitmap digital images,
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independently of the display device (such as a graphics adapter),
especially on Microsoft Windows and OS/2 operating systems.
The BMP file format is capable of storing 2D digital images of
arbitrary width, height, and resolution, both monochrome and color, in
various color depths, and optionally with data compression, alpha
channels, and color profiles. BMP files are an historic (but still
commonly used) file format for the operating system called
"Windows". BMP images can range from black and white (1 bit per
pixel) up to 24 bit colour (16.7 million colours). While the images can
be compressed, this is rarely used in practice and won't be discussed in
detail here.
Structure
A BMP file consists of either 3 or 4 parts as shown in the following
diagram
The first part is a header, this is followed by an information section, if

the image is indexed color then the palette follows, and last of all is
the pixel data. Information such as the image width and height, the
type of compression, the number of colors is contained in the
information header.
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Header
The header consists of the following fields. Note that we are assuming
short int of 2 bytes, int of 4 bytes, and long int of 8 bytes.
Information
The image info data that follows is 40 bytes in length, structure given
below. The fields of most interest below are the image width and
height, the number of bits per pixel (should be 1, 4, 8 or 24), the
number of planes (assumed to be 1 here), and the compression type
(assumed to be 0 here).
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The compression types supported by BMP are listed below:
0 - no compression
1- 8 bit run length
encoding 2 - 4 bit run length
encoding 3 - RGB bitmap
2. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) and GIF (Graphics
Interchange Format):
It is one of the most popular and flexible of the current public domain
raster file formats. They are used on World Wide Web (WWW). GIF
files are limited to a maximum of 8 bits/pixel and allows for a type of
compression called LZW. The GIF image header is 13 byte long &
contains basic information.
3. JPEG (Joint photo Graphic Experts Group):

This is the right format for those photo images which must be very
small files, for example, for web sites or for email. JPG is often used
on digital camera memory cards. The JPG file is wonderfully small,
often compressed to perhaps only 1/10 of the size of the original data,
which is a good thing when modems are involved. However, this
fantastic compression efficiency comes with a high price. JPG uses
lossy compression (lossy meaning "with losses to quality"). Lossy
means that some image quality is lost when the JPG data is
compressed and saved, and this quality can never be recovered. JPEG
images compression is being used extensively on the WWW. It‘s,
flexible, so it can create large files with excellent image equality.
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Baghdad university Fourth Year
College of education Lecturer: Dr. Hussein L. Hussein
Image processing
4. VIP (visualization in image processing) formats:

It is developed for the CVIP tools software, when performing
temporary images are created that use floating point representation,
which is beyond the standard 8-bit/pixel. To represent this type of data
the remapping is used, which is the process of taking original image
and adding an equation to translate it to the range (0-225).
28
Image processing
Chapter Two: Image Analysis

2.1 Image Analysis
Image analysis involves manipulating the image data to determine
exactly the information necessary to help solve a computer-imaging
problem. This analysis is typically part of a larger process, is iterative
in nature and allows us to answer application specific equations: Do
we need color information? Do we need to transform the image data
into the frequency domain? Do we need to segment the image to find
object information? What are the important features of the image?
Image analysis is primarily data reduction process. As we have seen,
images contain enormous amount of data, typically on the order
hundreds of kilobytes or even megabytes. Often much of this
information is not necessary to solve a specific computer-imaging
problem, so primary part of the image analysis task is to determine
exactly what information is necessary. Image analysis is used both
computer vision and image processing.
For computer vision, the product is typically the extraction of high-level
information for computer analysis or manipulation. This high level
information may include shape parameter to control a robotics
manipulator or color and texture features to help in diagnosis of a skin
tumor.
In image processing application, image analysis methods may be used to
help determine the type of processing required and the specific
parameters needed for that processing. For example, determine the
degradation function for an image restoration procedure, developing
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Image processing
an enhancement algorithm and determining exactly what information

is visually important for image compression methods.
2.2 System Model

The image analysis process can be broken down into three primary
stages:
1. Preprocessing. 2. Data Reduction. 3. Features Analysis.
1. Preprocessing:
Is used to remove noise and eliminate irrelevant, visually unnecessary
information. Preprocessing steps might make the primary data
reduction and analysis task easier. They include operations related to:
 Gray –level or spatial quantization (reducing the number of bits per
pixel or the image size).
 Is used to remove noise and eliminate irrelevant, visually unnecessary
information, (Noise is unwanted information that can result from the
image acquisition process)
 Finding regions of interest for further processing.
 Performing basic algebraic operation on image.
 Enhancing specific image features.
 Reducing data in resolution and brightness.
 Finding regions of interest for further processing.
Preprocessing is a stage where the requirements are typically obvious
and
simple, such as removal of artifacts from images or eliminating of image
information that is not required for the application.
For example, in one application we needed to eliminate borders from the
images that have been digitized from film.
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Image processing
Another example of preprocessing step involves a robotics gripper that

needs
to pick and place an object; for this we reduce a gray-level image to
binary
(two-valued) image that contains all the information necessary to discern
the
object ‗s outlines.
2. Data Reduction:
Involves either reducing the data in the spatial domain or transforming
it into another domain called the frequency domain, and then
extraction features for the analysis process.
3. Features Analysis:
The features extracted by the data reduction process are examine and
evaluated for their use in the application.
After preprocessing we can perform segmentation on the image in the
spatial domain or convert it into the frequency domain via a
mathematical transform. After these processes we may choose to filter
the image. This filtering process further reduces the data and allows us
to extract the feature that we may require for analysis.
31
Image processing
Figure (2.1): System Model of Image

Analysis
32
Image processing
2.3 Region Of Interest (ROI)

For image analysis, we want to investigate more interested area within the
image, called region of interest (ROI). To do this we need operation
that modifies the spatial coordinates of the image, and these are
categorized as image geometry operations. The image geometry
operations discussed here include:
Crop, Zoom, enlarge, shrink, translate and rotate.
The image crop process is the process of selecting a small portion of the
image, a sub image and cutting it away from the rest of the image.
After we have cropped a sub image from the original image we can
zoom in on it by enlarge it.
The zoom process can be implemented by the following techniques:
1. Zero-Order Hold.
2. First _Order Hold.
3. Convolution.
1. Zero-Order hold: is achieved by repeating previous pixel values, thus
creating a blocky effect as in the following figure:
33
Image processing
Figure (2.2): Zero _Order Hold Method

2. First _Order Hold: is performed by finding linear interpolation
between an adjacent pixel, i.e., finding the average value between
two pixels and use that as the pixel value between those two, we can
do this for the rows first as follows:
The first two pixels in the first row are averaged (8+4)/2=6, and this
number is inserted between those two pixels. This is done for every
pixel pair in each row.
𝖥 8 6 4 6 81
6 6 6 6 6
4 6 8 6 4
I 6 5.5 = 6 5 5.5 = 6 6 I
[ 8 5 2 5 8]
Image with rows and columns expanded
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Image processing
This method allows us to enlarge an N×N sized image to a size of (2N-1)

× (2N-1) and be repeated as desired.
Example: Enlarge the following sub image using:
1- First –Order- Hold.
2- Zero-Order _Hold.
Solution:
a. First-Order Hold.
Size of original image is: 3x3
Size of the resultant image is: 5x5
(150+50)/2=100 (50+30)/2=40 (40+100)/2=70
(100+80)/2=90 (120+60)/2=90 (60+60)/2=60
Image with row expanded
(150+40)/2=95 (100+70)/2=85 (50+100)/2=75

(40+90)/2=66 (30 + 80)/2=55 (40 +120)/2=80
(70 + 90)/2=80 (100 + 60)/2=80 (90 + 60)/2=75 (80
+60)/2=70
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Image processing
Image with row and column expanded
b. Zero-Order Hold
The original image size is 3x3.
After enlargement, the size will be 6x6
3- Convolution: This process requires a mathematical process to enlarge

an image.
This method required two steps:
1 Extend the image by adding rows and columns of zeros between the
existing rows and columns.
2 Perform the convolution.
The image is extended as follows:

Original Image Array Image extended with zeros
36
Image processing
Next, we use convolution mask, which is slide a cross the extended

image, and perform simple arithmetic operation at each pixel location
Convolution mask for first-order hold
¼ ½ ¼
½ 1 ½
¼ ½ ¼
The convolution process requires us to overlay the mask on the image,

multiply the coincident (‫ )يخقاّبه‬values and sum all these results. This is
equivalent to finding the vector inner product of the mask with
underlying sub image. The vector inner product is found by overlaying
mask on sub image. Multiplying coincident terms, and summing the
resulting products.
For example, if we put the mask over the upper-left corner of the image,
we obtain (from right to left, and top to bottom):
1/4(0) +1/2(0) +1/4(0) +1/2(0) +1(3) +1/2(0) +1/4(0) +1/2(0) +1/4(0) =3
Note that the existing image values do not change. The next step is to
slide the mask over by on pixel and repeat the process, as follows:
1/4(0) +1/2(0) +1/4(0) +1/2(3) +1(0) +1/2(5) +1/4(0) +1/2(0) +1/4(0) =4
Note this is the average of the two existing neighbors. This process
continues until we get to the end of the row, each time placing the
result of the operation in the location corresponding to center of the
mask. When the end of the row is reached, the mask is moved down
one row, and the process is repeated row by row. This procedure has
been performed on the entire image, the process of sliding,
multiplying and summing is called convolution.
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Image processing
In this process, the output image must be put in a separate image array
called a buffer, so that the existing values are not overwritten during
the convolution process.
If we call the convolution mask M (r, c) and the image I (r, c), the
convolution equation is given by:
The steps of the convolution process can be summarized as

follows:
a. Overlay the convolution mask in the upper-left corner of the image.
Multiply coincident terms, sum, and put the result into the image
buffer at the location that corresponds to the masks current center,
which is (r,c)=(1,1).
b. Move the mask one pixel to the right, multiply coincident terms sum,
and place the new results into the buffer at the location that
corresponds to the new center location of the convolution mask
which is now at (r,c)=(1,2), continue to the end of the row.
c. Move the mask down one row and repeat the process until the mask
is convolved with the entire image. Note that we lose the outer row(s)
and columns(s).
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Image processing
These methods will only allow us to enlarge an image by a factor of (2N-

1), but what if we want to enlarge an image by something other than a
factor of (2N-1)?
To do this we need to apply a more general method. We take two adjacent
values and linearly interpolate more than one value between them.
This is done by define an enlargement number k and then following this
process:
1. Subtract the result by k.
2. Divide the result by k.
3. Add the result to the smaller value, and keep adding the result from
the second step in a running total until all (k-1) intermediate pixel
locations are filled.
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Image processing
Example: Enlarge the following sub image three times its original size
using k method.
Solution:
The size of the result image will be k(N-1) +1, where k=3
So the sub image with size 2x3 will be
3(2-1) +1=4 row and 3(3-1) +1=7 column (4 x 7)
For column:
1: 130-160=30 K=3 then 30/3=10
k-1=3-1=2 no. of column to be inserted
130+10*1=140, 130+10*2=150
2: 160-190=30/3=10 160+10 *1=170, 160+10*2=180
3: 160-190=30/3=10 160+10 *1=170, 160+10*2=180
4: 190-220=30/3=10 190+10 *1=200, 190+10*2=210
The same thing repeated for the row. The resultant image is:
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Image processing
2.3.2 Image Shrinking

The process opposite to enlarge an image is shrinking it. This is not
typically done to examine a ROI more closely but to reduce the
amount of data that needs to be processed.
Image shrinking is accomplished by taking groups of pixels that are
spatially adjacent and mapping them to one pixel. This can be done in
one of three ways:
 Averaging . Median . Decimation.
For averaging method, we take all the pixels in each group (for example
2×2 block of pixels) and find the average gray level by summing the
values select and divided by 4.
For the second method, median, we sort all the pixels‘ values from
lowest to highest and then select the middle value.
The third method decimation, also known as sub sampling, entails
simply eliminating some of the data. For example, to reduce the image
by a factor of two, we simply take every other row and column and
delete them.
Example
Shrink the following sub image using the three shrinking methods
(Averaging, Median, Decimation).
41
Image processing
Example
if you have a sub image of size 2 * 2, zoom the sub image to twice (2)
times
using zero older hold method.
I= [ 1 ]
3 4
1 1 2 2
I‘ = [ 3 3 4 4 ] 𝑅𝑜𝑤 𝑤i𝑠𝑛𝑔 𝑒 𝑧𝑜𝑜𝑚i𝑛𝑔
1 1 2
2
1 1 2 2 ] 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛 𝑤i𝑠𝑛𝑔 𝑒 𝑧𝑜𝑜𝑚i𝑛𝑔
I’’= [
3 3 4 4
3 3 4 4
Example
Enlarge the following sub image to three times its original size using the
15 30 15
general method of zooming techniques. 𝐼 = [ ]
30 15 30 2×3
Sol:
K=3, K-1=2
Row wise zooming:
- Take the first two adjacent pixels. Which are 15 and 30.
- Subtract 15 from 30: 30-15 = 15.
- Divide 15 by k: 15/k = 15/3 = 5------ OP
- Add OP (5) to the lower number: 15 + 5 = 20.
- Add OP (5) to 20 again: 20 + 5 = 25.
We do that 2 times because we have to insert k-1 values.
Now repeat this step for the next two adjacent pixels. It is shown in the
first table.
After inserting the values, you have to sort the inserted values in
ascending order, so there remains a symmetry between them. It is
shown in table 2.
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Image processing
Table 1:
15 20 25 30 20 25 15
30 20 25 15 20 25 30
Table 2
15 20 25 30 25 20 15
30 25 20 15 20 25 30
Column wise zooming:

The same procedure has to be performed column wise. The procedure
includes taking the two adjacent pixel values, and then subtracting the
smaller from the bigger one. Then after that, you have to divide it by
k. Store the result as OP. Add OP to smaller one, and then again add
OP to the value that comes in first addition of OP. Insert the new
values;
The final output is:
Table 3
15 20 25 30 25 20 15
20 21 21 25 21 21 20
25 22 22 20 22 22 25
30 25 20 15 20 25 30
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Image processing
2.4. Image Algebra

There are two primary categories of algebraic operations applied to
image:
1. Arithmetic operations. (Addition, subtraction, division and
multiplications)
2. Logic operations. (AND, OR and NOT)
These operations which require only one image, and are done on a pixel–
by-pixel basis.
To apply the arithmetic operations on two images, we simply operate on
corresponding pixel values, which means that the value of a pixel in
the output image depends only on the values of the corresponding
pixels in the input images. Hence, the images normally have to be of
the same size. For example, to add image I1 and I2 to create I3:
• Addition is used to combine the information in two images as shown

in figure (2.5). Or adding a constant value (scalar) to an image causes
an increase (or decrease if the value is less than zero) in its overall
brightness. Applications include development of image restoration
algorithm for molding additive noise, and special effects, such as
image morphing in motion pictures.
• Subtraction of two images is often used to detect motion, consider
the case where nothing has changed in a sense; the image resulting
from subtraction of two sequential image is filled with zero-a black
image. If something has moved in the scene, subtraction produces a
44
Image processing
nonzero result at the location of movement. Subtraction process also

used to detect the defects in the images. Applications include Object
tracking, Medical imaging. Subtraction can result in a negative value
for certain pixels. When this occurs with unsigned data types, such as
uint8 or uint16, the subtract function truncates the negative value to
zero (0), which displays as black.
• Multiplication and Division are used to adjust the brightness of an
image. (The Brightness adjustment is often used as a processing step
in image enhancement). Multiplication of the pixel values by a
(scalar) smaller than one will darken the image, while
multiplication by scalar greater than on will brightness the image.
Multiplication process often used for masking operations, see figure
(2.7).
a. First Original image b. Second Original c. Addition of two images
45
Image processing
a. Original scene b. Same scene later
c. Subtraction of scene a from scene b

Figure (2.5): Image Addition, Image Subtraction.
Logical operations apply only to binary images, whereas arithmetic

operations apply to multi-valued pixels. Logical operations are basic
tools in binary image processing, where they are used for tasks such as
masking, feature detection, and shape analysis. Logical operations on
entire image are performed pixel–by–pixel. Because the AND
46
Image processing
operation of two binary variablesis1only when both variables are 1,

the result at any location in a resulting AND image is1 only if the
corresponding pixels in the two input images are 1. As logical
operation involves only one-pixel location at a time, they can be done
in place, as in the case of arithmetic operations. The XOR (exclusive
OR) operation yields a 1 when one or other pixel (but not both) is 1,
and it yields a 0 otherwise. The operation is unlike the OR operation,
whichis1, when one or the other pixel is1, or both pixels are 1.
So, masking is a simple method to extract a region of interest (ROI)

from an image.
Example: A white square ANDed with an image will allow only the
portion of the image coincident with the square to appear in the output
image with the background turned black; and a black square ORd with
an image will allow only the part of the image corresponding to the
black square to appear in the output image but will turn the rest of the
47
Image processing
image white. This process is called image masking as shown in figure

(2.8).
In addition to masking, logical operation can be used in feature detection.

Logical operation can be used to compare between two images.
AND ^
This operation can be used to find the similarity white regions of two
different images (it required two images).
g (x, y) = a (x, y) ^ b (x, y)
Example: A logic AND is performed on two images, suppose the two
corresponding pixel values are (111)10is one image and (88)10 in the
second image. The corresponding bit strings are:
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Image processing
 Exclusive OR
This operator can be used to find the differences between white regions
of two different images (it requires two images).
g(x,y) =a (x,y) b(x,y)
 NOT
This operator can be performed on grey-level images, it‘s applied on only
one
image, and the result of this operation is the negative of the original
image.
g(x,y) = 255- f (x,y)
Example: A logic AND is performed on two images, suppose the two

corresponding pixel values are (111)10is one image and (88)10 in the
second image. The corresponding bit strings are:
(111)10 011011112
AND
(88)10 010110002
01001000
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Image processing
Example: Find the output image for the AND logical operation
between the following sub images:
50 10 1110 10 10 6010
𝐴=[ ], 𝐵=[ ]
1810 2210 3310 13010
2.5 Image Restoration: Image restoration methods are used to
improve the appearance of an image by application of a restoration
process that use mathematical model for image degradation.
Example of the type of degradation:

1. Blurring caused by motion or atmospheric disturbance.
2. Geometrics distortion caused by imperfect lenses.
3. Superimposed interface patterns caused by mechanical systems.
4. Noise from electronic source.
2.5.1 Noise Definition

Noise is any undesired information that contaminates an image. Noise
appears in image from a variety of source.
The digital image a acquisition process, which converts an optical image
into a continuous electrical signal that is then sampled is the primary
process by which noise appears in digital images.
At every step in the process there are fluctuations ( ‫ )حذبذب‬caused by
natural phenomena (‫ )ظاْ ِز‬that add a random value to exact brightness
value for a given pixel.
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Image processing
In typical image, the noise can be modeled with one of the following
distribution:
1. Gaussian (―normal‖) distribution.
2. Uniform distribution.
3. Salt _and _pepper distribution.
Image Noise.
2.5.2. Noise Removal using Spatial Filters:
Spatial filtering is typically done for:
1. Remove various types of noise in digital images.
2. Perform some type of image enhancement.
[These filters are called spatial filter to distinguish them from frequency
domain filter].
The three types of filters are:
1. Mean filters.
2. Median filters (order filter).
3. Enhancement filters.
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Image processing
Mean and median filters are used primarily to conceal or remove noise,
although they may also be used for special applications. For instance,
a mean filter adds ―softer‖ look to an image. The enhancement filter
high lights edge and details within the image.
Spatial filters are implemented with convolution masks. Because
convolution mask operation provides a result that is weighted sum of
the values of a pixel and its neighbors, it is called a linear filter.
Overall effects the convolution mask can be predicated based on the
general pattern. For example:
• If the coefficients of the mask sum to one, the average brightness of
the image will be retained.
• If the coefficients of the mask sum to zero, the average brightness will
be lost and will return a dark image.
• If the coefficients of the mask are alternatively positive and negative,
the mask is a filter that returns edge information only.
• If the coefficients of the mask are all positive, it is a filter that will
blur the image.
The mean filters, are essentially averaging filter. They operate on local
groups of pixel called neighborhoods and replace the center pixel with
an average of the pixels in this neighborhood. This replacement is
done with a convolution mask such as the following 3×3 mask
Arithmetic mean filter smoothing or low-pass filter.
1⁄9 1⁄9 1⁄9
1⁄9 1⁄9 1⁄9
1⁄9 1⁄9 1⁄9
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Image processing
Note that the coefficient of this mask sum to one, so the image brightness
will be retained, and the coefficients are all positive, so it will tend to
blur the image. This type of mean filter soothes out local variations
within an image, so it essentially a low pass filter. So a low filter can
be used to attenuate image noise that is composed primarily of
high frequencies components.
a. Original image b. Mean filtered image
Figure (2.11): Mean Filter.
The median filter is a nonlinear filter (order filter). These filters are
based on as specific type of image statistics called order statistics.
Typically, these filters operate on small sub image, ―Window‖, and
replace the center pixel value (similar to the convolution process).
Order statistics is a technique that arranges the entire pixel in
sequential order, given an N×N window (W) the pixel values can be
ordered from smallest to the largest.
I1 ≤ I2 ≤ I3...............................................< IN
Where I1, I2, I3..........., IN are the intensity values of the subset of pixels in
the image.
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Image processing
Example: Given the following 3×3 neighborhood.
5 5 6
3 4 5
3 4 7
Solution:
1. sort the value in order of size (3,3,4,4,5,5,5,6,7);
2. then we select the middle value, in this case it is 5.
3. The middle value 5 is then placed in center location.
 Note: A median filter can use a neighborhood of any size, but

3*3, 5*5 and 7*7. The output image must be written to a separate
image (a buffer); so that the results are not corrupted as, this process is
performed. (The median filtering operation is performed on an image
by applying the sliding window concepts).
 The Procedure of median filter:
- The window is overlaid on the upper left corner of the image, and the
median is determined.
- This value is put into the output image (buffer) corresponding to the
center location of the window.
- The window is then slide one pixel over, and the process is repeated
- When the end of the row is reached, the window is slide back to the
left side of the image and down one row, and the process is repeated.
- This process continues until the entire image has been processed.
Note: the outer rows and columns are not replaced. Moreover, these
―wasted‖ rows and columns are often filled with zeros (or cropped off
54
Image processing
the image). For example, with 3X3 mask, we lose one outer row and
column, a 5X5 mask we lose two rows and columns.
The maximum and minimum filters: are two order filters that can be
used for elimination of salt- and-pepper noise.
 The maximum filter selects the largest value within an ordered
window of pixels‘ values and replaces the central pixel with the
lightest one
 The minimum filter selects the smallest value within an ordered
window of pixels‘ values and replaces the central pixel with the
darkest one in the ordered window
The minimum filters work best for salt- type noise, and the maximum
filters work best for pepper-type noise.
The procedure of minimum and maximum filter:
- Minimum and maximum filter order filters can be defined to select a
specific pixel rank within the ordered set. For example, we may find
for certain type of pepper noise that selecting the second highest
values works better than selecting the maximum value.
2.6. Image Quantization
Image quantization is the process of reducing the image data by removing
some of the detail information by mapping group of data points to a
single point. This can be done by:
1. Gray Level reduction (reduce pixel values I (r, c).
2. Spatial reduction (reduce the spatial coordinate (r, c).
The simplest method of gray-level reduction is Thresholding.
55
Image processing
The Procedure:
- We select a threshold gray _level
- and set everything above that value equal to ―1‖ and everything below
the threshold equal to ―0‖.
NOTE: This effectively turns a gray_level image into a binary (two
level) image
Application: is often used as a preprocessing step in the extraction of
object features, such as shape, area, or perimeter. Also, the gray _level
reduction is the process of taking the data and reducing the number of
bits per pixel. This can be done very efficiency by masking the
lower bits via an AND operation. Within this method, the
numbers of bits that are masked determine the number of gray
levels available.
Example:
We want to reduce 8_bit information containing 256 possible gray level
values down to 32 gray levels possible values.
This can be done by applying the (AND) logical operation for each 8-bit
value with the bit string 1111000. this is equivalent to dividing by
eight (23), corresponding to the lower three bits that we are masking
and then shifting the result left three times. [Gray _level in the image
0-7 are mapped to 0, gray level in the range 8-15 are mapped to 8 and
so on].
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Image processing
We can see that by masking the lower three bits we reduce 256 gray
levels to 32 gray levels: 256 ÷ 8= 32
The general case requires us to mask k bits, where 2 k is divided into the
original gray-level range to get the quantized range desired. Using this
method, we can reduce the number of gray levels to any power of 2:
2,4,6,8, 16, 32, 64 or 128.
• Image quantization by masking to 128 gray levels, this can be done by
ANDing each 8-bit value with bit string 11111110(21).
• Image quantization by masking to 64 gray level. This can be done by

ANDing each 8-bit value with bit string 11111100(22).
As the number of gray levels decreases, we can see increase in a
phenomenon called contouring.
Contouring appears in the image as false edges, or lines as a result of the
gray _level quantization method.
Quantized to 6 bits,64 gray levels

Original 8-bit image, 256 gray levels
Quantized to 3 bits, 8 gray levels Quantized to 1 bit , 2 gray levels

Figure ( 2-17): False Contouring
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Image processing
The false contouring effect can be visually improved upon by using an

IGS (improved gray-scale) quantization method. In this method
(IGS) the improvement will be by adding a small random number to
each pixel before quantization, which results in a more visually
pleasing appearance.
Original Image
IGS quantization to 8 levels (3 bits)

Uniform
quantization to 8
Figure (2-18): IGS quantization
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Image processing
2.6. Edge Detection

Detecting edges is a basic operation in image processing. The edges of
items in an image hold much of the information in the image.
The edges tell you where:
• Items are.
• Their size.
• Shape.
• Something about their texture.
In general, an edge is defined by a discontinuity in gray-level values.
Ideally, an edge separates two distinct objects. In practice, edges are
caused by:
• Change in color or texture or
• Specific lighting conditions present during the image acquisition
process.
The following figure illustrates the difference between an ideal edge and
a real edge.
a. Spatial Coordinate b. Frequency Coordinate
c. Ideal Edge d. Real Edge
Figure (2-19): Ideal vs. Real Edge.
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Image processing
The vertical axis represents brightness, and the horizontal axis shows the
spatial coordinates.
The rapid change in brightness characterizes an ideal edge. In the figure
(b) we see
the representation of real edge, which change gradually. This gradual
change is a minor form
of blurring caused by:
• Imaging devices
• The lenses
• Or the lighting and it is typical for real world (as opposed to
computer-generated) images.
2.7.1. Edge Detection masks
1- Sobel Operator: The Sobel edge detection masks look for edges in
both the horizontal and vertical directions and then combine this
information into a single metric. These two masks are as follows:
Row Mask Column Mask
−1 −2 −1 −1 0 1
[ 0 0 0] [ −2 0 2]
1 2 1 −1 0 1
The Procedure:
 These masks are each convolved with the image.
 At each pixel location we now have two numbers: S1, corresponding
to the result form the row mask and S2 from the column mask.
 Use S1, S2 to compute two matrices,
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Image processing
 the edge magnitude and the edge direction (angle of orientation of

the edge), which are defined as follows:
2 2
Edge Magnitude (EM) = √𝑆1 + 𝑆2
Edge Direction (ED) = Tan -1 𝑆

[ 1]
𝑆2
Example: determine the edges of the following sub image using Sobel
edge detector.
1 2 2 1
[ 1 1 0 3
2 4 1 5 ]
2 1 2 0
−1 −2 −1 −1 0 1
[ 0 0 0] [ −2 0 2]
1 2 1 −1 0 1
Solution:
S1= (2+8+1) – (1+4+2) = 4, S2=(2+0+1) - (1+2+2) = -2,
EM (1,1)=√42 + (−2)2 =4.47 EM(1,2)=
EM(2,1)= EM(2,2)= …….
2- Prewitt Operator: The Prewitt is similar to the Sobel but with

different mask coefficients. The masks are defined as follows:
−1 −1 −1 1 1 1
[ 0 0 0] [
61
Image processing
−1 0 1
−1 0 1]
−1 0 1
62
Image processing
The Procedure:
 These masks are each convolved with the image.
 At each pixel location we find two numbers: P1 corresponding to the
result from the row mask and P2 from the column mask.
 Use P1, P2 to determine two metrics, the edge magnitude and edge
direction (angle of orientation of the edge), which are defined as
follows:
Edge Direction = Tan -1 [ 𝑃1

2 2
Edge Magnitude =√𝑃1 + 𝑃2
𝑃 2]
3- Kirsch Compass Mask: the Kirsch edge detection masks are called
compass mask s because they are defined by taking a single mask and
rotating it to the eight major compass orientations :
North, north-east, east, south-east, south, south-west, and west and
northwest edges in an image. The masks are defined as follows:
−3 −3 5 −3 5 5 5 5 5
−3 0 5 −3 0 5 −3 0 −3
−3 −3 5 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3
K1 K2 K3
5 5 −3 5 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3
5 0 −3 5 0 −3 5 0 −3
−3 −3 −3 5 −3 −3 5 5 −3
K4 K5 K6
−3 −3 −3 −3 −3 −3
−3 0 −3 −3 0 5
5 5 5 −3 5 5
K7 K8
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Image processing
The edge magnitude is defined as the maximum value found by the

convolution of each of the mask, with the image.
[Given a pixel, there are eight directions you can travel to a neighboring
pixel (above, below , left ,right ,upper left, upper right, lower left,
lower right). Therefore there are eight possible directions for an edge.
The directional edge detectors can detect an edge in only one of the
eight directions. If you want to detect only left to right edges, you
would use only one of eight masks. If; however you want to detect all
of the edges, you would need to perform convolution over an image
eight times using each of the eight masks.
4- Robinson Compass Masks: the Robinson compass masks are used in
a manner similar to the Kirsch masks but are easier to implement
because they rely only on coefficient of 0, 1 and 2, and are
symmetrical about their directional axis-the axis with the zeros, we
only need to compute the result on four of the mask, the results. From
the other four can be obtained by negating the results from the first
four. The masks are as follows:
−1 0 5 0 1 2 1 2 1
−2 0 5 −1 0 1 0 0 0
−1 0 5 −2 −1 0 −1 −2 −1
R1 R2 R3
2 1 0 1 0 −1 0 −1 −2
1 0 −1 2 0 −2 1 0 −1
0 −1 −2 1 0 −1 2 1 0
R4 R5 R6
−1 −2 −1 −2 −1 0
0 0 0 −1 0 1
1 2 1 0 1 2
R7 R8
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Image processing
The edge magnitude is defined as the maximum value found by the

convolution of each of the masks with the image. The edge detection is
defined by the mask that produces the maximum magnitude.
It‘s interesting to note that masks R0 and R7are the same as the Sobel
masks. We can see that any of the edge detection masks can be
extended by rotating them in a manner like these compass masks
which allow us to extract explicit information about edge in any
direction.
5- Laplacian Operators: The Laplacian operator described here are

similar to the ones used for pre-processing (as described in
enhancement filter). The three Laplacian masks that follow represent
different approximation of the Laplacian masks are rationally
symmetric, which means edges at all orientation contribute to the
result. They are applied by selecting one mask and convolving it with
the image selecting one mask and convolving it with the image.
Laplacian masks
These masks differ from the Laplacian type previously described in that
the center coefficients have been decreased by one. So, if we are only
interested in edge information, the sum of the coefficients should be
zero. If we want to retain most of the information the coefficient
should sum to a number greater than zero. Consider an extreme
example in which the center coefficient value will depend most
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heavily up on the current value, with only minimal contribution from

surrounding pixel values.
6- Other Edge Detection Methods
Edge detection can also be performed by subtraction. Two methods that

use subtraction to detect the edge are Homogeneity operator and
Difference operator.
The workflow of homogeneity operator is illustrated as follows:
 subtracts each of the pixels next to the center of the n×n area (where n
s usually 3) from the center pixel.
 The result is the maximum of the absolute value of these subtractions.
Subtraction in a homogenous region produces zero and indicates an
absence of edges.
 A high maximum of the subtractions indicates an edge. This is a
quick operator since it performs only subtraction- eight operations per
pixel and no multiplication.
 This operator then requires thresholding.
If there is no thresholding then the resulting image looks like a faded

copy of the original. Generally thresholding at 30 to 50 gives good
result. The thresholding can be varied depending upon the extent of
edge detection desired.
The workflow of difference operator based on differentiation through:

 calculating the differences between the pixels that surround the center
pixel of an n×n area.
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Image processing
 This operator finds the absolute value of the difference between the
opposite pixels, the upper left minus the lower right, upper right minus
the lower left, left minus right, and top minus bottom. The result is the
maximum absolute value. as in the homogeneity case,
 This operator requires thresholding. However, it is quicker than the
homogeneity operator since it uses four integer subtractions as against
eight subtractions in homogeneity operator per pixel.
Example: Shown below is how the two operators detect the
edge: Consider an image block with centre pixel intensity 5,
1 2 3
4 5 6
Output of homogeneity operator is:
7 8 9
Max of {| 5-1 |, | 5-2 |, | 5-3 |, | 5-4 |, | 5-6 |, | 5-7 |, | 5-8 |, | 5-9 | } = 4
Output of difference operator is:
Max of {| 1-9 |, | 7-3 |, | 4-6 |, | 2-8 | } = 8
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Edge detect by Sobel' Edge detect by Sobel

Original Image horizontal mask overall mask
Edge detect by Gaussian mask Edge detect by Prewitt mask
Figure (2-20 ) : Example of Edge Operators
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Image processing
Chapter Threee: Image Restoration

3.1 Introduction
Image restoration methods are used to improve the appearance of an
image by application of a restoration process that use mathematical
model for image degradation.
Example of the type of degradation:

1. Blurring caused by motion or atmospheric disturbance.
2. Geometrics distortion caused by imperfect lenses.
3. Superimposed interface patterns caused by mechanical systems.
4. Noise from electronic source.
It is assumed that the degradation model is known or can be estimated.
The idea is to model the degradation process and then apply the
inverse process to restore the original image.
3.2. Noise
Noise is any undesired information that contaminates an image. Noise
appears in image from a variety of source. The digital image a
acquisition process, which converts an optical image into a continuous
electrical signal that is then sampled is the primary process by which
noise appears in digital images.
At every step in the process there are fluctuations (‫ ) حذبذب‬caused by
natural phenomena (‫ )ظاْ ِز‬that add a random value to exact brightness
value for a given pixel. In typical image the noise can be modeled
with one of the following distribution:
1. Gaussian (―normal‖) distribution.
2. Uniform distribution.
3. Salt _and _pepper distribution.
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Image processing
3.2.1. Noise Removal using Spatial Filters:

Spatial filtering is typically done for:
1. Remove various types of noise in digital images.
2. Perform some type of image enhancement.
These filters are called spatial filter to distinguish them from
frequency domain filter and typically operate on small neighborhood
s, 3x3 to 11x11, and some can be implemented as convolution masks.
The types of filters are:
1. Mean filters.
2. Order filters (Median filer).
3. Enhancement filters.
Figure (3.1) Image noise
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Image processing
Mean and median filters are used primarily to conceal or remove

noise, although they may also be used for special applications. For
instance, a mean filter adds ―softer‖ look to an image.
The enhancement filters high lights edges and details within the
image. Many Spatial filters are implemented with convolution masks.
Because convolution mask operation provides a result that is weighted
sum of the values of a pixel and its neighbors, it is called a linear
filter.
Overall effects the convolution mask can be predicated based on the
general pattern. For example:
 If the coefficients of the mask sum to one, the average brightness of
the image will be retained.
 If the coefficients of the mask sum to zero, the average brightness will
be lost and will return a dark image.
 If the coefficients of the mask are alternatively positive and negative,
the mask is a filter that returns edge information only.
 If the coefficients of the mask are all positive, it is a filter that will blur
the image.
3.2.1.1. mean filters

They are essentially averaging filters. They operate on local groups of
pixels called neighborhoods and replace the centre pixel with an
average of the pixels in this neighborhood. This replacement is done
with a convolution mask such as the following 3X3 mask:
Arithmetic mean filter smoothing or low-pass filter.
Note that the coefficient of this mask sum to one, so the image
brightness will be retained, and the coefficients are all positive, so it
will tend to blur the image . This type of mean filter smooth out local
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Image processing
variations within an image, so it essentially a low pass filter. So a low

filter can be used to attenuate image noise that is composed primarily
of high frequencies components.
Mean filter works well with Gaussian or Uniform noise, and has the
disadvantage of blurring the image edge, or details.
a.
Original image b. Mean filtered image
Figure (3.2): Mean Filter.
3.2.1.2 median filter.

It is a non linear filter (order filter). These filters are based on as
specific type of image statistics called order statistics. Typically, these
filters operate on small sub image, ―Window‖, and replace the center
pixel value (similar to the convolution process). Order statistics is a
technique that arranges the entire pixel in sequential order, given an
NXN window (W) the pixel values can be ordered from smallest to
the largest.
I1 ≤ I2 ≤ I3...............................≤ IN2
Where I1, I2, I3...……, I N2 are the intensity values of the subset of
pixels in the image.
Median filters are quite popular because, for certain types of random
noise, they provide excellent noise reduction capabilities with
considerably less blurring than linear smoothing filters of similar size.
Median filter are particularly effective in the presence of its
appearance as white and black dots super imposed on an image, i.e.
median filter works best with Salt and Pepper noise.
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Figure (3.2) Median filter

Example 3.1
Given the following 3x3 sub image:
We first sort the value in order of size as (3,3,4,4,5,5,5,6,7); the we

select the middle value, in this case it is 5 because there are four
values above it and four values below it . This 5 is then placed in
centre location. A median filter can use a neighborhood of any size,
but 3*3, 5*5 and 7*7 are typical.
The median filtering operation is performed on an image by applying
the sliding window concepts, similar to what is done with convolution.
The outer rows and columns of an image are not replaced. In practice
this is usually not a problem due to the fact that the images are much
larger than the masks. And these ―wasted‖ rows and columns are often
filled with zeros (or cropped off the image) as mentioned before.
3.2.1.3The maximum filter: It is a Nonlinear order filter
and works by selects the largest value within an ordered
window of pixels‘ values and replaces the central pixel
with the lightest one.
The maximum filters work best for pepper-type noise (low values).
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Image processing
3.2.1.4 The minimum filter: It is a Nonlinear order filter and works by

selects the smallest value within an ordered window of pixels‘ values
and replaces the central pixel with the darkest one in the ordered
window.
The minimum filters works best for salt- type noise (high values).
3.2.1.5. The Enhancement filter

The enhancement filters are:
1. Laplacian- type filters.
2. Difference filter.
These filters will tend to bring out, or enhance details in the image.
Example of convolution masks for the Laplacian-type filters are:
The Laplacian- type filters will enhance details in all directions

equally. The difference filters will enhance details in the direction
specific to the mask selected.
There are four different filter convolution masks, corresponding to
lines in the vertical, horizontal and two diagonal directions:
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Image processing
Example: Apply the following on the following sub image:
1- Minimum filter to remove salt-type noise.

Solution:
g(1,1)= 15 20 30 30 40 100 130 200 220.
g(1,2)= 20 30 30 40 40 120 130 200 220
g(1,3)= 15 20 20 30 40 40 40 120 220
g(2,1)= 15 15 20 30 40 50 130 200 220
g(2,2)= 20 30 40 50 60 120 130 200 220
g(2,3)= 20 20 30 40 40 50 60 120 220
The resultant sub image is:
2- Maximum filter to remove pepper-type noise.

Solution:
g(1,1)= 15 20 30 30 40 100 130 200 220.
g(1,2)= 20 30 30 40 40 120 130 200 220
g(1,3)= 15 20 20 30 40 40 40 120 220
g(2,1)= 15 15 20 30 40 50 130 200 220
g(2,2)= 20 30 40 50 60 120 130 200 220
g(2,3)= 20 20 30 40 40 50 60 120 220
The resultant sub image is
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3- Median filter to remove salt and pepper-type noise.

Solution:
g(1,1)= 15 20 30 30 40 100 130 200 220.
g(1,2)= 20 30 30 40 40 120 130 200 220
g(1,3)= 15 20 20 30 40 40 40 120 220
g(2,1)= 15 15 20 30 40 50 130 200 220
g(2,2)= 20 30 40 50 60 120 130 200 220
g(2,3)= 20 20 30 40 40 50 60 120 220
3- Midpoint filter to remove Gaussian or Uniform noise.

Solution:
g(1,1)= 15 20 30 30 40 100 130 200 220.→ (15+220)/2=117.5
g(1,2)= 20 30 30 40 40 120 130 200 220.→(20+220)/2=120
g(1,3)= 15 20 20 30 40 40 40 120 220. →(15+220)/2=117.5
g(2,1)= 15 15 20 30 40 50 130 200 220. →(15+220)/2=117.5
g(2,2)= 20 30 40 50 60 120 130 200 220.→(20+220)/2=120
g(2,3)= 20 20 30 40 40 50 60 120 220. →(20+220)/2=120
4- Mean filter
g(1,1)= 1/9(100+30+20+15+130+220+30+200+40)=87.2 ≅ 87
g(1,2)= 1/9(30+20+40+130+220+30+200+40+120)=92.2 ≅ 92
g(1,3)= 1/9(20+40+15+220+30+40+40+120+20)=60.5≅ 61
g(2,1)= 1/9(15+130+220+30+200+40+15+50+20)=80
g(2,2)= 1/9(130+220+30+200+40+120+50+20+60)=96.6≅ 97
g(2,3)= 1/9(220+30+40+40+120+20+20+60+50)=66.6≅ 67
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5- Laplacian filter with the following mask:
Solution:
g(1,1)= (100*0)+(30*-1)+(20*0)+(15*-1)+(130*5)+(220*-1)+(30*0)+(200*-
1)+(40*0)=185
g(1,2)= (30*0)+(20*-1)+(40*0)+(130*-1)+(220*5)+(30*-1)+(200*0)+(40*-
1)+(120*0)=880
=255
g(1,3)= (20*0)+(40*-1)+(15*0)+(220*-1)+(30*5)+(40*-1)+(40*0)+(120*-
1)+(20*0)=-270 =0
g(2,1)= (15*0)+(130*-1)+(220*0)+(30*-1)+(200*5)+(40*-1)+(15*0)+(50*-
1)+(20*0)=750=255
g(2,2)= (130*0)+(220*-1)+(30*0)+(200*-1)+(40*5)+(120*-1)+(50*0)+(20*-
1)+(60*0)=-360=0
g(2,3)= (220*0)+(30*-1)+(40*0)+(40*-1)+(120*5)+(20*-1)+(20*0)+(60*-
1)+(50*0)=450=255
6- Difference filter that enhance the image in the vertical

direction:
Solution:
The mask will use is
g(1,1)= (100*0)+(30*1)+(20*0)+(15*0)+(130*1)+(220*0)+(30*0)+(200*-
1)+(40*0)=-40=0
g(1,2)= (30*0)+(20*-1)+(40*0)+(130*-1)+(220*5)+(30*-1)+(200*0)+(40*-
1)+(120*0)=880
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=255
g(1,3)= (20*0)+(40*-1)+(15*0)+(220*-1)+(30*5)+(40*-1)+(40*0)+(120*-
1)+(20*0)=-200=0
g(2,1)= (15*0)+(130*-1)+(220*0)+(30*-1)+(200*5)+(40*-1)+(15*0)+(50*-
1)+(20*0)=-380=0
g(2,2)= (130*0)+(220*-1)+(30*0)+(200*-1)+(40*5)+(120*-1)+(50*0)+(20*-
1)+(60*0)=700 =0
g(2,3)= (220*0)+(30*-1)+(40*0)+(40*-1)+(120*5)+(20*-1)+(20*0)+(61*-
1)+(50*0)=499=255
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Chapter Four: Image Compression

4.1 Introduction
Image compression is one of the image processing fields, the growth in
the multimedia market, and the advent of the World Wide Web, which
makes the Internet easily accessible for everyone and the advances in
video technology, including high-definition television, are creating a
demand for new, better, and faster image compression algorithms.
Compression algorithm development starts with applications to two-
dimensional (2-D) still images because video and television signals
consist of consecutive frames of 2-D image data.
What is image compression? Image compression involves reducing the
size of image data files, while retaining necessary information. The
reduced file is called the compressed file and is used to reconstruct the
image, resulting in the decompressed image. The original image, before
any compression is performed, is called the uncom-pressed image file.
The ratio of the original, uncompressed image file and the com-pressed
file is referred to as the compression ratio. The compression ratio is
denoted by:
It is often written as SizeU : SizeC
EXAMPLE (4-1):
The original image is 256 * 256 pixels, single-band (gray-scale), 8 bits
per pixel. This file is 65,536 bytes (64k). After compression, the image
file is 6,554 bytes.
The compression ratio is:
C = 65536/6554 = 9.999 = 10. This can also be written as 10:1.
This is called a "10 to 1 compression" or a "10 times compression," or it
can be stated as "compressing the image to 1/10 its original size."
Another way to state the compression is to use the terminology of bits per
pixel. For an N * N image
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Image processing
EXAMPLE (4-2):
Using the preceding example, with a compression ratio of 65,536/6,554
bytes, we want to express this as bits per pixel. This is done by:
- First: finding the number of pixels in the image: 256 x 256 = 65,536
pixels.
- Second: find the number of bits in the compressed image file:
(6,554 bytes) * (8 bits/byte) = 52,432 bits.
- Third: find the bits per pixel by taking the ratio: 52,432/ 65,536 = 0.8
bits/pixel.
The reduction in file size is necessary to meet:

1- The bandwidth requirements for many transmission
systems. 2- The storage requirements in computer databases.
The amount of data required for digital images is enormous. For example,
a single 512 x 512, 8-bit image requires 2,097,152 bits for storage. If we
wanted to transmit this image over the World Wide Web, it would
probably take minutes for transmission—too long for most people to
wait.
EXAMPLE (4-3)
To transmit an RGB (color) 512 x 512, 24-bit (8 bits/pixel/color) image
via modem at 28.8 kbaud (kilobits/second), it would take about
EXAMPLE (4-4)
To transmit a digitized color 35mm slide scanned at 3,000 * 2,000 pixels,
and 24 bits, at 28.8 kb and would take about:
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Image processing
Couple this result with transmitting multiple images, or motion images,

and the necessity of image compression can be appreciated.
The key to a successful compression scheme comes with the second part
of the definition—retaining necessary information. To understand this we
must differentiate between data and information.
For digital images, data refers to the pixel gray-level values that
correspond to the brightness of a pixel at a point in space. Information is
an interpretation of the data in a meaningful way. Data are used to convey
information, much like the way the alphabet is used to convey
information via words. Information is an elusive concept; it can be
application specific. For example, in a binary image that contains text
only, the necessary information may only involve the text being readable,
whereas for a medical image the necessary information may be every
minute detail in the original image.
There are two primary types of image compression methods—those
that preserve the data and those that allow some loss of data.
1- Lossless methods: because no data are lost, and the original image can
be recreated exactly from the compressed data. For complex images these
methods are limited to compressing the image file to about one half to
one third its original size (2:1 to 3:1); often the achievable compression is
much less. For simple images such as text-only images, lossless methods
may achieve much higher compression.
2- Lossy methods: because they allow a loss in the actual image data, so
the original uncompressed image cannot be created exactly from the
compressed file. For complex images these techniques can achieve
compression ratios of 100 or 200 and still retain high-quality visual
information. For simple images or lower-quality results, compression
ratios as high as 100 to 200 can be attained.
Compression algorithms are developed by taking advantage of the
redundancy that is inherent in image data. Three primary types of
redundancy can be found in images:
1) coding.
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Image processing
2) interpixel,
3) psychovisual redundancy.
Table (6.1) show differences between lossy and loosless compression.
Lossless compression Lossy compression
1. All original data can be 1. Reduces a file by permanently

recovered when the file is eliminating certain information,
uncompressed every single bit of especially redundant information
data that was originally in the 2. When the file is uncompressed,
file remains after the file is only a part of the original
uncompressed. information is still
2. All of the information is there (although the user may not
completely restored notice it)
3. This is generally the technique 3. Lossy compression is generally
of choice for text or spreadsheet used for video and sound where a
files, where losing words or certain amount of information loss
financial data could pose a will not be detected by most users
problem 4. The JPEG image file, commonly
4. The Graphics Interchange File used for photographs and other
(GIF) is an image format used complex still images on the Web, is
on the Web that provides an image that has lossy
lossless compression. compression.
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4.2 Compression System Model

The compression system model consists of two parts: the compressor
and the decompressor.
- The compressor consists of a preprocessing stage and encoding
stage.
- The decompressor consists of a decoding stage followed by a post
processing stage as shown in (Figure 4.1).
Before encoding, preprocessing is performed to prepare the image for

the encoding process, and consists of any number of operations that
are application specific. After the compressed file has been decoded,
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Image processing
post processing can be performed to eliminate some of the potentially

undesirable artifacts brought about by the compression process. Often,
many practical compression algorithms are a combination of a number
of different individual compression techniques.
4.3. LOSSLESS COMPRESSION METHODS

Lossless compression methods are necessary in some imaging
applications. For example, with medical images, the law requires that
any archived medical images are stored without any data loss. Many
of the lossless techniques were developed for non-image data and,
consequently, are not optimal for image compression. In general, the
lossless techniques alone provide marginal compression of complex
image data, often in the range of only a 10% reduction in file size.
However, lossless compression techniques may be used for both
preprocessing and post processing in image compression algorithms.
Additionally, for simple images the lossless techniques can provide
substantial compression.
An important concept here is the idea of measuring the average
information in an image, referred to as the entropy. The entropy for an
N*N image can be calculated by this equation:
Where 𝑝i = the probability of the ith gray level= 𝑛𝑘/𝑁2.

nk = the total number of pixels with gray value k
L = the total number of gray levels (e.g., 256 for 8 bits)

This measure provides us with a theoretical minimum for the average
number of bits per pixel that could be used to encode the image. This
number is theoretically optimal and can be used as a metric for
judging the success of a coding scheme.
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Image processing
EXAMPLE (4-5):
Let L = 8, meaning that there are 3 bits/pixel in the original image.
Now, lets say that the number of pixels at each gray-level value is
equal (they have the same probability), that is:
Po = Pi = … = P7 = 1/8
Now, we can calculate the entropy as follows:
This tells us that the theoretical minimum for lossless coding for this
image is 3 bits/pixel. In other words, there is no code that will provide
better results than the one currently used (called the natural code,
since 0002 = 0, 00 12 = 1, 0102 = 2, ..., 1112 = 7). This example
illustrates that the image with the most random distribution of gray
levels, a uniform distribution, has the highest entropy.
EXAMPLE (4-6):
Let L = 8, thus we have a natural code with 3 bits/pixel in the original
image. Now let's say that the entire image has a gray level of 2, so
𝑝2=1, 𝑝0= 𝑝1= 𝑝3= 𝑝4= 𝑝5= 𝑝6=𝑝7= 0
And the entropy is
This tells us that the theoretical minimum for coding this image is 0
bits/pixel, because the gray-level value is known to be 2. To code the
entire image, we need only one value. This is called the certain event;
it has a probability of 1.
The two preceding examples illustrate the range of the
entropy: 0 ≤ Entropy ≤ log2(L)
The examples also illustrate the information theory perspective on
information and randomness. The more randomness that exists in an
image, the more evenly distributed the gray levels, and the more bits
per pixel are required to represent the data.
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Image processing
The entropy measure also provides us with a metric to evaluate coder

performance. We can measure the average number of bits per pixel
(Length) in a coder by the following:
Where 𝑙i = length in bits of the code for ith gray level

pi = histogram-probability of ith gray level
This can then be compared to the entropy, which provides the
theoretical minimum. The closer Lave is to the entropy, the better the
coder.
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Image processing
4.3.1. Huffman Coding

The Huffman code, developed by D. Huffman in 1952, is a minimum
length code. This means that given the statistical distribution of the
gray levels (the histogram), the Huffman algorithm will generate a
code that is as close as possible to the minimum bound, the entropy.
This method results in a variable length code, where the code words
are of unequal length. For complex images, Huffman coding alone
will typically reduce the file by 10 to 50% (1.1:1 to 1.5:1), but this
ratio can be improved to 2:1 or 3:1 by preprocessing for irrelevant
information removal.
The Huffman algorithm can be described in five steps:
1. Find the gray-level probabilities for the image by finding the
histogram.
2. Order the input probabilities (histogram magnitudes) from smallest
to largest.
3. Combine the smallest two by addition.
4. GOTO step 2, until only two probabilities are left.
5. By working backward along the tree, generate code by alternating
assignment of
0 and 1.
EXAMPLE (4-7):
We have an image with 2 bits/pixel, giving four possible gray levels.
The image is 10 rows by 10 columns.
Step 1: we find the histogram for the image. This is shown in Figure
(5.2-a), where we see that gray level 0 has 20 pixels, gray level 1 has
30 pixels, gray level 2 has 10 pixels, and gray level 3 has 40 pixels
with the value. These are converted into probabilities by normalizing
to the total number of pixels in the image.
Step 2: the probabilities are ordered as in Figure (5.2-b).
Step 3: we combine the smallest two by addition.
Step 4: repeats steps 2 and 3, where we reorder (if necessary) and add
the two smallest probabilities as in Figure (5.2-d). This step is
repeated until only two values remain.
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Image processing
Figure (4.2) Huffman Coding Example

Because we have only two left in our example, we can continue to
step 5 where the actual code assignment is made. The code
assignment is shown in Figure (5.3). We start on the right-hand side of
this tree and assign 0's and 1's, working our way back to the original
probabilities. Figure (5.3-a) shows the first assignment of 0 and 1. A 0
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Image processing
is assigned to the 0.6 branch, and a 1, to the 0.4 branch. In Figure (5.3-
b) the assigned 0 and 1 are brought back along the tree, and wherever
a branch occurs the code is put on both branches. Now (Figure 5.3-c)
we assign the 0 and 1 to the branches labeled 0.3, appending to the
existing code. Finally (Figure 5.3-d), the codes are brought back one
more level, and where the branch splits another assignment of 0 and 1
occurs (at the 0.1 and 0.2 branch). Now we have the Huffman code for
this image as shown in Table (4.2-1).
Figure (4.3) Huffman Coding Example, Step 5

Original (Natur probabili Huffm
Gray al ty an
level Code) Code
0 002 0.2 0102
1 012 0.3 002
2 102 0.1 0112
3 112 0.4 12
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Table (4.2-1) Huffman Code

Note that two of the gray levels now have 3 bits assigned to represent
them, but one gray level only has 1 bit assigned to represent it. The
gray level represented by 1 bit, g3, is the most likely to occur (40% of
the time). The symbols with less information require fewer bits to
represent them. The original image had an average of 2 bits/pixel.
The following example will examine the entropy in bits per pixel and
average bit length for the Huffman coded image file.
EXAMPLE (4-8):
In the example, we observe a 2.0:1.9 compression, which is about a

1.05 compres-sion ratio, providing about 5% compression. From the
example we can see that the Huffman code is highly dependent on the
histogram, so any preprocessing to the histo-gram may help the
compression ratio.
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EXAMPLE (4-9): find the Huffman codes for the following symbols
with the following probability.
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Image processing
4.3.2 Run-length coding

Run-length coding (RLC) is an image compression method that works
by counting the number of adjacent pixels with the same gray-level
value. This count, called the run length, is then coded and stored. The
basic methods are used primarily for binary (two-valued) images and
extended versions for gray-scale images, but can work with complex
images that have been preprocessed by thresholding to reduce the
number of gray levels to two.
 Binary image run-length Code: where the image is in a binary (0,
1). Starting
With 0 level, what is required in coding is only to send the length until
a black pixel and so on.
- The first step is to define the required parameters. We can use either
horizontal RLC, counting along the rows, or vertical RLC, counting
along the columns. In basic horizontal RLC the number of bits used
for the coding depends on the number of pixels in a row. If the row
has 2n pixels, then the required number of bits is n, so that a run that is
the length of the entire row can be coded.
EXAMPLE (4-10)
A 256 x 256 image requires 8 bits, since 28 = 256.
EXAMPLE (4-11)
A 512 x 512 image requires 9 bits, since 29 = 512.
- The next step is to define a convention for the first RLC number in a
row—does it represent a run of 0's or 1's? Defining the convention for
the first RLC number to represent 0's, we can look at the following
example.
EXAMPLE (4-12)
The image is an 8 x 8 binary image, which requires 3 bits for each run-
length coded word. To apply RLC to this image, using horizontal
RLC:
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Image processing
Note that in the second and seventh rows, the first RLC number is 0,
since we are using the convention that the first number corresponds to
the number of zeros in a run.
 Gray level run-length code: In this method, two parameters are used
to characterize the run. The pair (G, L) correspond to the gray-level
value G and the run-length L. It works by starting at the first point in
the upper left corner and looking at the first pixel and its following
neighbors across the line, determines how many following pixels have
the same brightness as the first one. According to that a new code will
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Image processing
be. This technique is only effective with images containing a small

number of gray levels.
The Run-Length method provides around 1.5:1 compression ratio on
gray-scale image, ratios from 4:1 to greater than 10:1 on binary image.
Applying bit plane run length coding to gray –scale images yield up to
2:1.
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Image processing
Chapter Five: Transformation

5.1 Colors Transforms
Any color that can be represented on a computer monitor is specified
by means of the three basic colors- Red, Green and Blue called the
RGB colors. By mixing appropriate percentages of these basic colors,
one can design almost any color one ever imagines.
5.1-1 RGB color space
The model of designing colors based on the intensities of their RGB
components is called the RGB model (as shown in Figure 6.1), and
it‘s a fundamental concept in computer graphics. Each color,
therefore, is represented by a triplet (Red, Green, and Blue), in which
red, green and blue has three bytes that represent the basic color
components. The smallest value, 0, indicates the absence of color. The
largest value, 255, indicates full intensity or saturation. The triplet (0,
0, 0) is black, because all colors are missing, and the triplet (255, 255,
255) is white. Other colors have various combinations:
( 255,0,0 ) is pure red, ( 0,255,255 ) is a pure cyan ( what one gets
when green and blue are mixed ), and ( 0,128,128 ) is a mid-cyan ( a
mix of mid-green and mid-blue tones ). The possible combinations of
the three basic color components are 256 x 256 x 256, or 16,777,216
colors.
The process of generating colors with three basic components is based
on the RGB Color cube (as shown in figure 5.1). The three dimensions
of the color cube correspond to the three basic colors. The cube's
corners are assigned each of the three primary colors, their
complements, and the colors black and white. Complementary colors
are easily calculated by subtracting the Color values from 255. For
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Image processing
example, the color (0, 0,255) is a pure blue tone. Its complementary
color is (255-0,255-0,255-255), or (255, 255, 0), which is a pure
yellow tone. Blue and Yellow are complementary colors, and they are
mapped to opposite corners of the cube. The same is true for red and
cyan, green and magenta, and black and white. Adding a color to its
complement gives white. It is noticed that the components of the
colors at the corners of the cube have either zero or full intensity. As
we move from one corner to another along the same edge of the cube,
only one of its components changes value. For example, as we move
from the Green to the Yellow corner, the Red component changes
from 0 to 255. The other two components remain the same. As we
move between these two corners, we get all the available tones from
Green to Yellow (256 in all). Similarly, as one moves from the Yellow
to the Red corner, the only component that changes are the Green, and
one gets all the available shades from Yellow to Red. This range of
similar colors is called gradient.
Although we can specify more than 16 million colors, we can‘t have
more than 256 shades of Gray. The reason is that a gray tone,
including the two extremes (black and white), is made up of equal
values of all the three primary colors. This is seen from the RGB cube
as well. Gray shades lie on the cube‘s diagonal that goes from black to
white. As we move along this path, all three basic components change
value, but they are always equal. The value (128,128,128) is a mid-
gray tone, but the values (129,128,128) aren‘t gray tones, although
they are too close for the human eye to distinguish. That's why it is
wasteful to store grayscale pictures using 16-million color True Color
file formats. A 256-color file format stores a grayscale just as
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Image processing
accurately and more compactly. Once an image is known in grayscale,

we needn‘t store all three bytes per pixel. One value is adequate (the
other two components have the same value).
Figure (5.1) color specification of RGB color cube

5.1-2 HSV Color Format
HSV color space HSL (Hue-Saturation-Lightness) or HSI (Hue-
Saturation-Intensity) is one color space, which describes colors as
perceived by human beings. HSI (or HSV) stands for Hue (H), (S)
Saturation and Intensity (I) (or value V). For example, a blue car
reflects blue hue. Moreover is also attributing of the human
perception. The hue which is essentially the chromatic component of
our perception may again be considered as weak hue or strong hue.
The colorfulness of a color is described by the saturation component.
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Image processing
For example, the color from a single monochromatic source of light,

which produce colors of a single wavelength only , is highly saturated
, while the colors comprising hues of different wavelengths have little
chroma and have less saturation. The gray colors do not have any hue
and hence they have less saturation or unsaturated. Saturation is thus a
measure of colorfulness or whiteness in the color perceived.
The lightness (L) or intensity (I) or value (V) essentially provides a
measure of the brightness of colors. This gives a measure of how
much light is reflected from the object or how much light is emitted
from a region.
Figure (5.2) HSL and HSV Color Space
The HSV image may be computed from RGB image using different
transformation. Some of them are as follows:
 The simplest form of HSV transformation is:
H= tan [3(G-B)/(R-G) +(R-B)]
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Image processing
S= 1-(min(R, G, B)/V)
V= (R+G+B/3)
However, the hue (H) becomes undefined when saturation S=0.
 The most popular form of HSV transformation is shown next,
where the r,g,b values are first obtained by normalizing each
pixel such that
r=(R/(R+G+B)), g=(G/(R+G+B)), b=(B/(R+G+B))
Accordingly, the H, S and V value can be computed as:
The HSV color space is compatible with human color perception.
5.1.3. YCbCr Color Format

Another color space in which luminance and chrominance are
separately represented is the YCbCr. It is appropriate for digital
coding of standard TV images. The Y component takes values from
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Image processing
16 to 235, while Cb and Cr take values from 16 to 240. This color

space was used in a process of video sequence encoding on
videodisks. Other current applications in image compression (e.g.
JPEG format) often employ YCbCr space as a quantization space.
They are obtained from R, G, B values as follows:
Y= 0.299R + 0.587G + 0.114B
Cb= - 0.169R – 0.331G + 0.500B
Cr= 0.500R – 0.418G – 0.081B
5.2. Discrete Transforms
The transform maps image data into a different mathematical space
mapped data from one color space to another color space with a one-
to-one correspondence between a pixel in the input and the output.
Here, we are mapping the image data from the spatial ‫انًكاٍَت‬
(time) domain spectral ‫ انطٍفت‬domain, where all the pixels in the input
(spatial domain) contribute to each value in the output (frequency
domain) as illustrated in the figure (6.3) and (6.4) below:
Figure (5.3) color transform use a single –pixel to single –pixel

mapping
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Image processing
Figure (5.4) All pixel in the input image contribute to each value in the
output image color transform use a single-pixel to single-pixel
mapping.
The most distinguished information is hidden in the frequency content.

Image transforms are designed to have two properties:
1- Reduce image redundancy by reducing the sizes of most pixels.
2- Identify the less important parts of the image by isolating the
various frequencies of the image.
Question: Why image frequencies are important?
Answer: Because it depends on the fact that low frequencies
correspond to the important image features, whereas high frequencies
correspond to the details of the image, which are less important. Thus,
when a transform isolates the various image frequencies, pixels that
correspond to high frequencies can be quantized ‫ ح ًٍكى‬heavily ‫كٍبز بشكم‬
, whereas pixels that correspond to low frequencies should be
quantized lightly or not at all. This is how a transform can compress
an image very effectively by losing information, but only information
associated with unimportant image details. 5.2-1 Discrete Fourier
Transform (FT)
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Image processing
The Fourier transform is the most well-known, and the most widely
used transform. It was developed by Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-
1830) to explain the distribution of temperature and heat conduction
( ‫صم‬
ٍ ‫) حزاري ٕح‬. Since that time the Fourier transform has found
ْ ) analysis in mechanical
numerous uses, including vibration (‫االخشاس‬
engineering, circuit analysis in electrical engineering, and here in
computer imaging. In mathematics, a Fourier series decomposes
periodic functions or periodic signals into the sum of a (possibly
infinite) set of simple oscillating ‫ حخأرجح‬functions, namely sine
and cosine (or complex exponentials).
This transform allows for decomposition of an image into weighted
sum of 2-d sinusoidal ‫ جٍبت‬terms. Assuming an N×N image, the
equation for the 2-D discrete Fourier
The base of the natural logarithmic function e is about 2.71828; j, the

imaginary coordinate for a complex number, equals √−1. The basic
functions are sinusoidal in nature, as can be seen by Euler's identity:
So we can also write the Fourier transform equation as
In this case, F(u, v) is also complex, with the real part corresponding
to the cosine terms and the imaginary part corresponding to the sine
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Image processing
terms. If we represent a complex spectral component by: F(u, v) =

R(u, v) +j I(u, v)
Where R(u, v) is the real part and I(u, v) is the imaginary part, then we
can define the magnitude and phase of a complex spectral component
as:
The magnitude of a sinusoid is simply its peak value, the phase, data
contain information about where objects are in an image. After we
perform the transform, if we want to get our original image back, we
need to apply the inverse transform. The inverse Fourier transform is
given by:
The F-1[ ] notation represents the inverse transform.
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Image processing
Figure (5.5) : (a) gray image (b) Fourier spectrum

5.2-2 Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)
The cosine transform, like the Fourier transform, uses sinusoidal basis
functions. The difference is that the cosine transform basis functions
are not complex; they use only cosine functions and not sine
functions. Assuming an N x N image, the discrete cosine transform
equation is given by
Where
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Image processing
Because this transform uses only the cosine function, it can be

calculated using only real arithmetic (not complex). This also affects
the implied symmetry of the transform, which is explored in the
filtering section.
The important feature of cosine transform is often used in image
compression, in particular the Joint Photographic Experts Group
(JPEG) image compression method, which has been established as an
international standard. The transform coefficients C(u, v) tell us the
amount of that particular basis image that the original image I(r, c)
contains. The inverse cosine transform is given by
5.3 Wavelet Transform

 Wavelet transforms are based on sub-sampling high and low pass
filters.
 These filters are matched in such a way that they split the data into
high and low pass bands with or without losing any information.
 Wavelet filters have been designed for a wide range of applications
and many different sets.
 Wavelets are functions defined over a finite interval. The purpose
of wavelet transform is to change the data from Time-space domain
to Time-frequency domain which makes better compression
results. The simplest form of wavelets, the Haar wavelet function is
defined as:
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Image processing
Figure (5.6) block diagram of 3-level wavelet transform

The four bands that are formed are referred to as the Low-Low (LL),
Low-High (LH), High-Low (HL) and High-High (HH). The LL band
still has image-like information and so it is possible to apply the set of
wavelet filters, in the same way as applied to the original image. This
process of dividing the image into sub-bands can be continued as far
as desired (to the resolution of the image), but for image compression
it is usually only continued to 4 or 5 levels. A typical final image is
shown in figure below:
Figure (5.7) example of Wavelet Transform
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Image processing
Haar Wavelet:
The Haar transform works mainly on pairs of data items from the
signal begin processed and execute two step of calculation, the first
step is:
Li= 1/ √2 ( X2i+X2i+1)
Which result an approximation (average) of the two data items, the
second is:
Hi= 1/ √2 ( X2i+X2i+1)
Which also results an approximation (difference) of the two data
items Where
X is the signal data with length N
L is the Low sub –band with length N/2
H is the High sub-band with length N/2
i = 0…….N/2
The invers Haar transform formula is:
X2i= 1/ √2 ( Li+Hi)
X2i+1= 1/ √2 ( Li-Hi)
The Haar wavelet transform has a number of advantages:
 It is conceptually simple.
 It is fast.
 It is memory efficient, since it can be calculated in place without
a temporary Array.
 It is exactly reversible without the edge effects that are a problem with
other Wavelet
Figure (6.6) example of applying 3-level of Wavelet Transform
The attracting features of the Haar transform is:
 Fast and simple for implementation.
 Efficient memory because it can be calculated without
temporary array.
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Image processing
 It is exactly reversible without the edge effects which is a problem

with other wavelet transform.
 Ability to analyze the local feature, make it a potential candidate
in modern electrical and computer engineering applications, such
as signal and image compression.
Example (1): Apply 1- Level Harr Wavelet Transform on the
following 4x4 image:
Solution:
‫ ُسأخذ كم َقطٍخ يخجٔارٍح ن ًٕعدٌٍ َٔقٕو ًبج ًٓعأق ًس ًٓخا‬low )L( ‫اٌلجاد جشء ال‬-
2 ‫عهى‬
- ‫انصححًَٔٓم انكسز عُد ٌاجاد ُانخٍجت‬
ٍ ‫ َأخذ فقظ انجشء‬:‫الحظت‬C‫ي‬.
)137+134)/2=135.5=135 (129+131)/2=130
(135+141)/2=138 (133+132)/2=132.5=132
(138+134)/2=136 (134+131)/2=132.5=132
(135+129)/2=132 (133+131)/2=132
‫ُسأخذ كم َقطٍخ يخجٔارٍح ن ًٕع ٌٍد َٕٔقو بطزحًٓ ا‬
( )high H‫الٌجاد جشء ال‬-
2 ‫ٔق ًسخًٓا عهى‬
137-134)/2=1.5=1 (129 -131)/2=1
(135 -141)/2= - 3 (133 - 132)/2=0.5=0
(138 -134)/2= 2 (134 -131)/2=1.5=1
(135 -129)/2= 3 (133 - 131)/2=1
108
‫‪Baghdad university‬‬ ‫‪Fourth Year‬‬
‫‪College of education‬‬ ‫‪Lecturer: Dr. Hussein L. Hussein‬‬
‫‪Image processing‬‬
‫اَ‪ -‬لحع اٌ ا ٕ‬
‫نصرة َاًقسج انى جشٍئ‪- .‬ا‪ًC‬نزحهت‬
‫صرة ُاناحجت نخق ٍٓسًا انى اربعت‬
‫انثٍَات قَ ٕو بخكزار َفس ان ًعٍهت انسابقت عهى ان ٕ‬
‫اجشاء ٔن ٍك‬
‫بأخذ َقطٍخ نصفٍ ٔكانخاًن‪:‬‬
‫)‪(LL‬‬ ‫)‪(HL‬‬
‫‪(135+138)/2=136.5=136‬‬ ‫‪(1+(-3))/2= -1‬‬
‫‪(136+132)/2=134‬‬ ‫‪(2+3)/2= 2.5=2‬‬
‫‪(130+132)/2=131‬‬ ‫‪(-1+0)/2= - 0.5=0‬‬
‫‪(132+133)/2=132‬‬ ‫‪(1+1)/2=1‬‬
‫)‪(LH‬‬ ‫)‪(HH‬‬
‫‪(135 -138)/2= -1.5= -1‬‬ ‫‪(1-(-3))/2= 2‬‬
‫‪(136 -132)/2= 2‬‬ ‫‪(2-3)/2= -0.5=0‬‬
‫‪(130 - 132)/2= -1‬‬ ‫‪(-1- 0)/2= - 0.5=0‬‬
‫‪(132-133)/2= 0‬‬ ‫‪(1-1)/2=-0.5=0‬‬
‫‪109‬‬

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Syllabus( Image processing )

1- Introduction to Computer Vision and

1.4. Image Processing Applications

1.5 Computer Imaging Systems

1.7 Image Resolution

1.8. Image Representation

One picture is worth more than ten thousand words.

The Human Visual System

Image processing is a method to perform some operations on an

FIGURE 1.1 An example of the digital image acquisition process.

1. Computer Vision. 2. Image Processing.

Computer Vision Image Processing

Figure (1.1): Computer Imaging.

• Feature Extraction: is the process of acquiring higher level image

.orbiting Satellites 5 (‫يدار انفضاٍئاث‬.)

1.3. Image Processing

Image processing does some transformations on image. That means

Is the process of taking an image with some known, or

a. Image with distortion

1.3.2 Image Enhancement

Involves reducing the typically massive amount of data needed

a. Image before compression. b. Image after compression.

1.5 Computer Imaging Systems

Figure (1.5) Digitizing (Sampling) an Analog Video Signal

Ng= 26=64 Gray Level

Nb= 128 * 128* 6= 9.8304 * 104 bit

In computers, resolution is the number of pixels (individual points of

Figure (1.6) : Image Resolution.

We have seen that the Human Visual System (HVS) receives an

1.8.2. Gray-scale images.

Figure (1.8) : Gray Scale Image

The following figure illustrate that in addition to referring to arrow or

Figure (1.9) Electromagnetic spectrum.

1.12.1 Computer Graphics:

1- Raster graphics are composed of pixels, while vector graphics are

2- A raster graphic, such as a gif or jpeg, is an array of pixels of various

Figure (1.10): vector and bitmap image.

Image file formats are standardized means of organizing and storing

1.12.2. Image File Format:

The first part is a header, this is followed by an information section, if

3. JPEG (Joint photo Graphic Experts Group):

4. VIP (visualization in image processing) formats:

Chapter Two: Image Analysis

an enhancement algorithm and determining exactly what information

2.2 System Model

Another example of preprocessing step involves a robotics gripper that

Figure (2.1): System Model of Image

2.3 Region Of Interest (ROI)

Figure (2.2): Zero _Order Hold Method

Image with rows and columns expanded

This method allows us to enlarge an N×N sized image to a size of (2N-1)

(150+40)/2=95 (100+70)/2=85 (50+100)/2=75

Image with row and column expanded

3- Convolution: This process requires a mathematical process to enlarge

The image is extended as follows:

Next, we use convolution mask, which is slide a cross the extended

The convolution process requires us to overlay the mask on the image,

The steps of the convolution process can be summarized as

These methods will only allow us to enlarge an image by a factor of (2N-