LECTURE NOTES/ SECOND SEMESTER Prepared by: Mr.

Lawrence Niel A, Ignacio

COVALENT BONDING

ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Carbon atoms that are covalently with hydrogen, oxygen, doesn’t distinguish between butane and isobutane. A
nitrogen, sulfur, or phosphorus to make up compounds structural formula shows all the carbon and hydrogen
that are essential to life. These compounds are generally atoms and the bonds attaching them. Thus, structural
referred to as organic compounds because of their formulas identify the specific isomers by showing the order
carbon composition are either basic structural of attachment of the various atoms.
components of the body cell or needed by the cell for Unfortunately, structural formulas are difficult to type/write
their specific functions. and take up a lot of space. Chemists often use condensed
Many organic compounds are also used in structural formulas to alleviate these problems.
different commercial products such as pharmaceuticals, Even more abbreviated is a line-angle formula, also called
petrochemical, cosmetic, and plastics, among others. a skeletal structure, in which carbon atoms are implied at
These products serve as resources that improve quality of the corners and ends of lines, and each carbon atom is
life. understood to be attached to enough hydrogen atoms to
give each carbon atom four bonds.
ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Organic compounds MOLECULAR FORMULA

were generally low- Description Example
melting solids and were • A chemical formula that gives the
usually more difficult to total number of atoms of each
isolate, purify, and work element in each molecule of a
C4H10 (butane)
with than high-melting substance.
• Often uses element symbols and
inorganic compounds.
subscripts to represent the number
By the mid-1800’s,
of atoms present in the molecule.
however, it was clear
STRUCTURAL FORMULA
that there was no
fundamental difference between organic and inorganic Description Example
compounds. The same principles explain the behavior of
all substance, regardless of origin or complexity. The only • An expanded molecular formula
distinguishing characteristic of organic chemicals is that all showing the arrangement within the
contain the element carbon. molecule of atoms and of bonds.

But why carbon special? Why, of the more than 37

CONDENSED STRUCTURAL FORMULA
million presently known chemical compounds, do more
Description Example
than 99% of them contain carbon? The answer to these
• A system of writing organic
questions lies behind carbon’s electronic structure and its
molecules in shorthand notation
position in the periodic table. As an element belonging to
with more details than the
group 4A, carbon can share four valence electrons and
molecular formula but lesser
form four strong covalent bonds. Furthermore, carbon
extended than the structural
atoms can bond to one another, forming long chains and CH3CH2CH2CH3
formula.
rings. Carbon, alone of all elements can form an immense
• The condensed formula is written in
diversity of compounds, from simple methane, with one just one line of text and lists the
carbon atom, to the staggeringly complex DNA, which atoms in the order that they occupy
can have more than 100 million carbons. in the molecule.

Not all carbon compounds are derived from living SKELETAL FORMULA
organisms. Modern chemist has developed a remarkably Description Example
sophisticated ability to design and synthesize new organic • A graphical representation of the
compounds in the laboratory. arrangement of the atoms and
bonds in a molecule by using mere
CHEMICAL FORMULA lines.
• Carbon atoms are located at the
We use several kinds of formulas to describe vertices/ ends of the lines and are
organic compounds. A molecular formula shows only the always connected with two or three
kinds and numbers of atoms in a molecule. For example, hydrogen atoms (unless a functional
the molecular formula C4H10 tells us there are 4 carbon group or a substituent is present).
atoms and 10 hydrogen atoms in a molecule, but it
 HYDROCARBONS ALKANES

Hydrocarbon are organic molecules consisting entirely of

Alkanes, also called paraffins, are saturated
carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons can be
hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds, with a
saturated or unsaturated. Saturated hydrocarbons are
general formula of CnH2n+2, where n refers to the number
those in which all the carbon-carbon bonds are single
bonds. Unsaturated hydrocarbons are those of carbons. Therefore, for an alkane with 5 carbon atoms,
hydrocarbons containing one or more carbon-carbon the formula is C5H12. The simplest alkane is methane with a
multiple bonds (double bonds, triple bonds, or both). molecular formula of CH4. Straight-chain alkanes are
named according to the number of carbon atoms they
Classification of Hydrocarbons contain. With exception of the first four compounds-
methane, ethane, propane, and butane—whose names
have historical origins, the alkanes are named based on
Greek numbers, according to the number of carbons. The
suffix -ane is added to the end of each name to identify
the molecule as an alkane. Thus, the five-carbon alkane is
pentane, and the six-carbon alkane is hexane and so on.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Prefix meth- eth- prop- but- pent- hex- hept- oct- non- dec-

Naming Branched-Chain Alkanes

Hydrocarbons are further classified as aliphatic All but the most complex branched-chain alkanes
hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons. When can be named by following the four steps.
hydrocarbon consists of carbon links that form a long, Step 1: Find the parent hydrocarbon.
straight, or branched chain (alkanes, alkene, alkynes) and Step 2: Number the atoms in the main chain.
their cyclic forms they belong to aliphatic hydrocarbons. Step 3: Identify and number the substituents.
Step 4: Write the name as a single word. (For cycloalkanes,
On the other hand, the aromatic hydrocarbons contain a
add the word cyclo- before the name of the parent chain)
structural unit called benzene, a six-carbon ring with three
alternating double bonds. Aromatic compounds derive Sample Problems
their names from the fact that many of these compounds
What is the IUPAC name of the following alkane?
in the early days of discovery were grouped because they
were oils with fragrant odors.
Hydrocarbons serve as fuels, lubricants, and raw
materials for synthesis of plastics, fibers, rubbers, solvents,
explosives, and other industrial chemicals.

Names and Formulas of Hydrocarbons Solution:

Name General Example Step 1: Find the parent hydrocarbon.
Hydrocarbon Find the longest continuous carbon chain in the
Suffix Formula Formula Name
molecule and use the name of that chain as the parent
name. If two chains of equal length are present, choose
Alkanes -ane CnH2n+2 Ethane the one with the larger number of branches as the parent.

CH3 CH3

Alkenes -ene CnH2n Ethene CH3 CH3

H3C H3C

H3C H3C
Alkynes -yne CnH2n-2 Ethyne
(A) (B)
Since we have two possible parent
chain, we look for parent chain that
has more substituent or branches.
Aromatic For our compound A has more
none C6H6 Benzene
(Arenes) substituent than B. Our parent chain
would be A which is hexane.
 Naming Branched-Chain Alkenes and Alkynes
Step 2: Number the atoms in the main chain.
Beginning at the end nearer the first branch
point, number each carbon atom in the parent chain.

CH3 CH3
2 4 6 5 3 1
1 3 5 CH3 6 4 2 CH3
H3C H3C
Alkenes and alkynes are named using a series of rules
similar to those for alkanes, with the suffix -ene (alkene) and
H3C H3C
-yne (alkyne) in place of -ane to identify the family.
(A) (B) Step 1: Find the parent hydrocarbon.
Step 2: Number the carbon atoms in the main chain.
If we are to number, the parent chain we have two possible
answer. The answer that we will choose would be the one that
Step 3: Identify and number the substituents.
begin nearer at the first branch point. In B the first branch point Step 4: Write the name as a single word.
is on C4 while on A the first branch point is on C2. Since A was
the one to begin numbering near the first branch point, we Sample Problems
choose A.
What is the IUPAC name of the following alkene?
Step 3: Identify and number the substituents.
Assign a number, called locant, to each of the
substituent to identify the attachment to the parent
chain.
CH3
methyl 2 4 6
1 3 5 CH3
H3C
Solution:
H3C ethyl Step 1: Find the parent hydrocarbon.
Find the longest carbon chain that contains
Step 4: Write the name as a single word. the double bond, and name the compound using the
• Use hyphens (-) to separate various prefixes suffix -ene/-yne in place of -ane.
and commas (,) to separate numbers.
• If two or more different side chains are present,
CH3 CH3
cite them in alphabetical order. DO NOT use
H3C
prefixes in alphabetizing. H3C
CH3

CH3 CH2 CH2

H3C
(A) (B)
H3C
Since we have two possible parent chain, we
3-ethyl-2-methylhexane look longest carbon chain that contains the
double bond. For our compound A has
contain all the double bond than B. Our
ALKENES AND ALKYNES parent chain would be A which is a
heptadiene.
Alkenes and alkynes contain carbon atoms
attached to less than four other atoms and are referred to
as unsaturated hydrocarbons. The general formula of Step 2: Number the atoms in the main chain.
alkenes and alkynes is CnH2n and CnH2n-2, respectively. Begin numbering at the end nearer the
Alkenes contain carbon-carbon double bonds while double bond/triple, or, if the double bond/triple bond
alkynes contain carbon-carbon triple bonds. has the same distance from the ends (equidistant),
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that contain one or begin numbering at the end nearer the first branch
more double bonds (C=C). They are also called olefins. The point.
simplest alkene is ethylene ethene C2H4, a plant hormone If we are to number,
6 7
that plays important roles in seed germination and ripening CH3 the parent chain of
of fruits. Alkynes are hydrocarbons containing one or more 4 5 an alkene/alkyne we
triple bonds (C≡C). The simplest alkyne is acetylene or
H3C begin numbering at
the end nearer to
ethyne C2H2, a highly reactive gas used in oxyacetylene 3 the double/triple
torches. bond.
CH2
2 1
Step 3: Identify and number the substituents.
Assign a number, called locant, to each of the
substituent to identify the attachment to the parent
chain. 7
6
CH3
4 5
H3C
propyl
3
CH2
2 1

Step 4: Write the name as a single word.

• Indicate the position of the double bond/triple
bond by giving the number of the first
alkene/alkyne carbon and placing that
number before the suffix –ene/-yne.
• If more than one double bond/triple bond is
present, give the position of each and use the
appropriate multiplier suffix -diene, -triene, -
tetraene, and so on.
CH3
H3C

CH2
3-propylhepta-1,4-diene

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