Ma 2020

Waste Management 118 (2020) 610–625
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman
Challenges in current construction and demolition waste recycling:

A China study
Mingxue Ma a, Vivian W.Y. Tam a,⇑, Khoa N. Le b, Wengui Li c
a
School of Built Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
b
School of Engineering, Western Sydney University, Penrith, NSW 2751, Australia
c
School of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: China produced a large amount of construction and demolition (C&D) waste, owing to the rapid develop-
Received 15 April 2020 ment of construction industry. Although a set of policies and regulations are being drafted in China for
Revised 16 September 2020 promoting C&D waste recycling, execution of these policies in practice seems to be far from effective.
Accepted 17 September 2020
Currently, approximately 75% of Chinese cities are still surrounded by large volumes of C&D waste.
Available online 1 October 2020
Therefore, identification of challenges in the development of C&D waste management, specially recycling,
is essential. This paper employs site visits to 10 recycling plants in 10 Chinese cities (Shanghai, Hangzhou,
Keywords:
Suzhou, Chongqing, Chengdu, Xi’an, Changsha, Shenzhen, Nanjing, and Zhoukou) and interviews with 25
Waste management
C&D waste
industry practitioners for examining the challenges. Eight challenges are identified: (1) unstable source of
China case C&D waste for recycling, (2) absence of subsidies for recycling activities and high cost for land use, (3)
Site visits insufficient attention paid to design for waste minimisation, (4) absence of regulations on on-site sorting,
Policy (5) unregulated landfill activities, (6) a lack of coordination among different government administration
departments, (7) a lack of accurate estimation of waste quantity and distribution, and (8) a lack of an
effective waste tracing system. Recommendations to address these challenges are presented. The results
of this study are expected to aid policy makers in formulation of proper C&D waste management in China
and provide a useful reference for researchers who are interested in C&D waste recycling industry.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction sustainable future (Huang et al., 2018). C&D waste recycling could
reduce dependence on landfill (Yu et al., 2020). In addition, approx-
The global construction industry continues to grow, because imately 80% of C&D waste in China could be processed into sec-
construction activities could contribute to economic growth, cre- ondary construction materials, which could contribute to
ation of wealth, and improvement of life quality (Razak Bin resource conservation (Ding and Xiao, 2014, Liu et al., 2020). In
Ibrahim et al., 2010). However, massive construction and demoli- recent couple of years, a set of policies and regulations are being
tion (C&D) waste is generated owing to the rapid development of drafted in China to promote C&D waste management, especially
construction industry (Nagapan et al., 2012). Of all the countries C&D waste recycling, to address the environmental concerns of
in the world, China produces the largest amount of C&D waste, authorities and the public.
with 2.4 billion tonnes generated in 2015 (Duan et al., 2019). With- Despite these efforts, the C&D waste has not been efficiently
out proper waste management, massive C&D waste has inevitably utilised, because many clauses are not detail enough and the exe-
occupied land resources and destroyed natural habitats (Nagapan cution in practice is difficult (Yuan, 2017). Currently, approxi-
et al., 2012), as a large amount of C&D waste is dumped or land- mately 75% of Chinese cities are surrounded by large volumes of
filled (Bravo et al., 2015). Since large-scale C&D activities are C&D waste (Huang et al., 2018). Some municipal governments have
undergoing in China, production of C&D waste is unavoidable. Con- detailed the national polices and regulations, based on the circum-
sidering the negative effects on environment, effective and proper stances of their administrative region (Yuan, 2017). Therefore,
treatment of C&D waste is imperative. It is generally agreed that municipal regulations and performance of C&D waste management
the principle of ‘‘reduce, reuse, and recycle” can contribute to a vary among Chinese cities. The recovery rate of C&D waste in most
Chinese cities is between 3% and 10% (Huang et al., 2018). The best-
performing cities, such as Shanghai and Shenzhen, have achieved
⇑ Corresponding author.
recovery rates of greater than 15% (Ghisellini et al., 2018). How-
E-mail address: vivianwytam@gmail.com (V.W.Y. Tam).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2020.09.030
0956-053X/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Ma et al. Waste Management 118 (2020) 610–625
ever, this number is still significantly lower than that in some cities to mandatorily initiate their C&D waste recycling plans,
developed countries, such as 96% in Japan (Ministry of Land because these cities are at the forefront of development and eco-
Infrastructure Transport and Tourism (Japan), 2018), 88% in Ger- nomic level. Additionally, as construction activities are the major
many (Deloitte, 2015) and 70% of the United States (Duan et al., economic activities, these cities have a more urgent need to man-
2019). Implementation of these municipal policies and regulations age waste compared with other Chinese cities. It is expected that
in practice seems to be far from effective. Therefore, identification successful implementation of C&D waste management in these
of challenges in the development of C&D management is essential cities could provide useful references to other non-pilot cities
to the execution of relevant policies and regulations in practice. when promoting the C&D waste management across whole China.
Currently, recycling of C&D waste in China is still in the primary Because of uneven development in economy and construction,
stage (Huang et al., 2018). Studies on C&D waste management in there exists significant variety in current status of municipal C&D
China increase rapidly. A comprehensive collection of past studies waste management. For instance, recycling C&D waste into recycled
conducted empirical investigation of C&D waste management in aggregates or bricks has gradually become a major approach to deal
specific Chinese cities, including Shenzhen (Yuan, 2017, Yu et al., with the waste in some developed cities (such as Shenzhen), but
2018, Lu et al., 2011, Wu and Yuan, 2016), Hong Kong (Tam and most C&D waste in underdeveloped cities (such as Guiyang) ends
Tam, 2008, Au et al., 2018, Hao et al., 2011, Hao et al., 2008), Beijing up in landfill sites (Yuan, 2017). In this study, 10 Chinese cities were
(Shi et al., 2019), Shanghai (Jin et al., 2017), Tianjin (Zhao et al., chosen (Fig. 1), because relevant regulations have been introduced
2009) and Chongqing (Xu et al., 2012, Wang et al., 2013, Yong and recycling has been promoted in practice. Eight of 10 cities were
et al., 2016, Zhao et al., 2010). In addition, potential challenges hin- among the 35 pilot cities: Shanghai (Direct-administered municipal-
dering implementation of C&D waste management in different ities), Hangzhou (Zhejiang Province), Suzhou (Jiangsu Province),
countries or regions were investigated. Major challenges include Chongqing (Direct-administered municipalities), Chengdu (Sichuan
insufficient regulations (Yuan et al., 2011, Huang et al., 2018, Province), Xi’an (Shaanxi Province), Changsha (Hunan Province),
Fatta et al., 2003, Agamuthu, 2008), involvement of multiple gov- and Shenzhen (Guangdong Province). Shanghai and Chongqing are
ernment departments (Yuan, 2017), uncertainty in quantity esti- under the direct administration of central government, whose polit-
mation (Akhtar and Sarmah, 2018), unorganized collection (Zhao ical status is higher than that of provinces. The other six cities are of
et al., 2011), immature recycling technology (Huang et al., 2018), the fast-growing regions in their provinces, with higher GDP. These
underdeveloped market for products recycled from C&D waste eight cities are of the most populous and developed regions in China,
(Yuan et al., 2011, Huang et al., 2018, Yuan, 2017), insufficient which could be the representative sample in the current and future
attention from industry (Yuan, 2017, Huang et al., 2018), extra cost urbanization trend in this country. In addition to these eight cities,
for recycling (Tam et al., 2009), and a lack of higher value use of Nanjing (Jiangsu Province) and Zhoukou (Henan Province) were
recycled aggregates (Lockrey et al., 2016). Although C&D waste selected. Local governments in these two cities are targeting to follow
management in China has received increasing attention from central government’s guidance on waste recycling. There are several
researchers and a few empirical studies were conducted, most of scaled recycling industries, which could provide information related
past studies focused on C&D waste management in one specific to the current status of the waste management in these cities.
city. Previous studies were limitedly conducting investigation in
the scope of different Chinese cities. In addition, many researchers
concentrated on a single challenge and analysed its in-depth solu- 2.1.1. Eastern China
tion. Overall review of potential challenges in C&D waste manage- Shanghai, as a commercial, financial, and political centre, is one
ment, particularly in promotion of recycling in China, is still of the most advanced cities in China with regard to C&D waste
limited and it has significant rooms for analysis. management, with a recycling rate of 20% (Huang et al., 2018). In
Site visits to recycling centres in 10 different Chinese cities (i.e., the past decades, Shanghai Municipal People’s Government
Shanghai, Hangzhou, Suzhou, Chongqing, Chengdu, Xi’an, Changsha, (2017) enacted and updated recycling regulations, but further
Shenzhen, Nanjing and Zhoukou) and interviews with project man- improvement is still needed (Ding and Xiao, 2014). The operation
agers and on-site workers are employed in this research. This paper of case recycling project in Shanghai starts from 2016 and is run
aims to identify the challenges in the current C&D waste manage- by a private company. This recycling plant is one of the largest
ment in these 10 selected cities and provide recommendations to recycling plants in Shanghai which occupies an area of
improve recycling rate. The results of this study are expected to aid 1,000,000 m2. Approximately 4000 tonnes of C&D waste are trea-
policy makers in formulation of proper C&D waste management. ted per day and the annual recycling capacity is estimated to be
1 million tonnes.
Hangzhou and Suzhou have two of the largest economies in the
2. Methodology
Yangtze river delta. Municipal governments in the two cities con-
tinuously improve their C&D waste regulations and supervision
For the purpose of this study, a mixed-method approach which
systems (Tianjin Housing and Urban-Rural Construction
combines site visits, and semi-structured interviews is adopted. 10
Commission, 2019). The annual generation of C&D waste in Hang-
Chinese cities from different provinces were chosen. These ten
zhou amounts to 12 million tonnes (Xu and Du, 2019). In recent
cities are Shanghai (Direct-administered municipalities), Hang-
years, as environment degradation has attracted increased atten-
zhou (Zhejiang Province), Suzhou (Jiangsu Province), Nanjing
tion, C&D waste management has been a top priority in China
(Jiangsu Province), Chongqing (Direct-administered municipali-
(Wang et al., 2016). The case project in Hangzhou is taken by a
ties), Chengdu (Sichuan Province), Xi’an (Shaanxi Province), Chang-
state-owned company and starts from 2018. This recycling plant
sha (Hunan Province), Shenzhen (Guangdong Province) and
occupies an area of 1,066,667 m2 and could recycle 2,000 tonnes
Zhoukou (Henan Province) (Fig. 1). The framework of analysis pro-
of C&D waste per day. In addition, C&D waste management to
cess is presented in Fig. 2.
respond to the rapid economic urbanisation and extensive C&D
activities in Suzhou are among the top concerns of the local gov-
2.1. Case description ernment (Bao et al., 2019). The case project in Suzhou is operated
under a BOT initiative which occupies an area of 78,000 m2. This
In 2018, the Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development recycling plant could recycle 4,000 tonnes per day and is operated
of the People’s Republic of China (2018) selected 35 cities as pilot by a private company, whose business scope include C&D waste
611
Fig. 1. 10 selected cities.
transportation. In 2019, two BOT contracts, including C&D waste per day. This recycling plant is located in rural areas which cause
transportation and recycling were issued to this company. difficulty to find a stable source of C&D waste for recycling.
With continuous urbanisation, Nanjing is at the peak of their With a mature disposal approval system and a few recycling com-
construction activities. The amount of C&D waste has continued panies in the industry, Xi’an has developed an integrated C&D waste
to increase. The quantity of C&D waste generated in 2020 is recycling system (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018). Three legal
expected to be 16.68 million tonnes, including 3.75 million tonnes documents, i.e., Management on C&D Waste in Xi’an (2003), Regula-
for infrastructure construction and 12.29 million tonnes for build- tions on C&D Waste Management in Xi’an (2012), and Strengthening
ing construction (Liu, 2019). The present state of C&D waste recy- the Utilization of C&D Waste in Xi’an (2018) were issued in succes-
cling in Nanjing exhibits a serious mismatch, as the legislation lags sion, along with rigorous regulations on C&D waste transportation,
behind the market demand (Nanjing Municipal Commission of government supervision, and disposal methods (AECOM Asia
Housing and Urban-Rural Development, 2019). Management on Company Limited, 2018). There are 27 recycling companies in Xi’an,
C&D Waste in Nanjing was issued to adjust relevant regulations which are capable of recycling approximately 77,730 tonnes of C&D
in Nanjing. Some pilot projects were developed to help govern- waste per day (Shu and Zhang, 2019). The operation of the case pro-
ment accumulate experiences in C&D waste recycling (Nanjing ject in Xi’an starts from 2017, with an initial investment of 50 million
Municipal Commission of Housing and Urban-Rural CNY (or US $7,223,554). Its recycling capacity of C&D waste could
Development, 2019). The case project in Nanjing is one pilot pro- reach 3,000 tonnes/day.
ject which was introduced by municipal government and operated Governmental policies and regulations are being developed in
by a local state-owned company. It is a small-scale recycling plant Chengdu to encourage the development of recycling industry.
which takes up an area of 2,991 m2 with recycling capacity of 30 Chengdu Municipal People’s Congress (2014) issued Management
tonnes/day. The year of opening is 2019. However, the operation on C&D Waste in Chengdu in 1998 and continuously upgraded the
period of this project was expected to be only 2 years, as the city C&D waste management system in the subsequent ten years. In addi-
renewal in this district was close to completion and other large- tion, target recycled-material contents of greater than 15% and 5%
scales recycling plants would take in place. were set for infrastructure and building projects, respectively (Jin
et al., 2017, Chengdu Municipal Government, 2016). The case project
2.1.2. Western China in Chengdu is operated by a private company and funded by local
Chongqing, Chengdu, and Xi’an are the three most populous government. This company was responsible for demolition and recy-
cities in western China, forming the west triangle economic zone cling work of city renewal areas scaled for 2,500 m2. As demolition is
and accounting for 40% of western China’s GDP (Zhang, 2009). also included in the business scope, recycling of C&D waste was con-
The average quantity of C&D waste collected in urban areas of ducted simultaneously at the demolition site. Approximately 1,500
Chongqing is estimated to reach 4.03 million tonnes (Lin et al., tonnes of C&D waste could be treated per day.
2020). However, landfilling is still a broadly-used method to dis-
pose of C&D waste, because it is impractical to eliminate all the 2.1.3. Southern-Central China
C&D waste through recycling. The case project in Chongqing occu- Current C&D waste management in Changsha might fail to fol-
pies an area of 65,333 m2, processing 2,000 tonnes of C&D waste low the increasing pace of construction activities, as there were
612
Fig. 2. Framework of analysis process of this study.
only two recycling enterprises in 2014 (Huang et al., 2018). The C&D waste could be recycled per day. In 2018, approximately
Bureau of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of Changsha 1,230,000 tonnes of recycled aggregates were produced, and this
(2019) formulated polices related to C&D waste recycling, repre- company achieved total revenues more than 60 million CNY (or
senting an urgent need to address the issue of waste generation. US $8,667,889).
Besides, Changsha Municipal Government (2017) introduced a Zhoukou is located in Henan province. High-speed construction
subsidy scheme to recycling companies of approximately 3 CNY forces Zhoukou governing bodies to take responsibility for waste
(or US $0.43) for per cubic meter C&D waste recycled. The case pro- management. In order to establish a recycling-oriented society,
ject in Changsha is a pilot project, which was initiated by local gov- Zhoukou government spent a great effort learning C&D waste man-
ernment and operated by a state-owned company. This project is agement from Xuchang, whose recycling rate is ahead in China
featured for on-site recycling, with 420–480 tonnes C&D waste (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018). In 2017, a BOT contact for
directly recycled at demolition site. C&D waste recycling was issued to the private company who oper-
Shenzhen—one of the economically developed cities in southern ated the case project in Zhoukou. This recycling plant is one of the
China—has begun to recycle C&D waste into recycled aggregates largest-scale plants in Zhoukou, with an initial investment of 260
and bricks, whereas some underdeveloped cities have not taken million CNY (or US $37,560,855). The recycling capacity was esti-
measures to treat the waste (Yuan, 2017). Management on C&D mated to be 10,000 tonnes/day.
Waste in Shenzhen (2007) forms the foundation for C&D waste The existing documents related to C&D waste management in
recycling. Over the past few years, Shenzhen has played a leading the 10 cities are listed in Appendix 1.
role toward achieving sustainable C&D waste management in
China, partly owing to its many recycling enterprises (AECOM 2.2. Site visits
Asia Company Limited, 2018). The case project in Shenzhen starts
with an initial investment of 65 million CNY (or US $9,390,213). It Despite the introduction of municipal policies in the 10 selected
occupies an area of 5,000 m2 and two crushing lines to divert C&D cities, the industry practices of C&D waste management have not
waste into recycled aggregates. Approximately 7,000 tonnes of been documented officially. There exists a policy-practice gap
613
between government regulations and industry practices (Wafula

et al., 2014). Therefore, site visits to recycling plants and interviews
1,066,667 m2
Government
with industry practitioners appear to be appropriate methods to
tonnes/day
aggregate
Recycled
contract
explore industry practice of C&D waste management in its real-
Private
3,000
Fixed
Xi’an
life context. Site visits were conducted to C&D waste recycling
No.
plants in the ten selected cities to explore the current practices
of C&D recycling to the real context. These 10 recycling plants were
bricks; and recycled

Recycled aggregate;
aggregate concrete
investigated from December 2019 to January 2020. Before site vis-
(C20 and below).

its and interviews, ethical approval for this project was granted by
Government
Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC). Approval Number is
tonnes/day
2,500 m2
Chengdu
contract
H13470. Researchers firstly obtained permission from C&D recy-
Private
Mobile
2,000 tonnes/day 1,500
cling companies for site visits and interviews and specified selec-
Yes.
tion criteria for interviewees. The whole process for site visit
took about 1 h on average. At least one project manager and 1–2
Western China
on-site workers participated in site visits and interviews at each
and recycled
State-owned
Chongqing
aggregate;
65,333 m2
aggregate
site. Throughout the site visit process, direct observation of recy-
Purchase
Recycled
concrete
(C5-8)
cling process, production environment, area of recycling plants,
Fixed
No.
professional equipment, and major products was involved. A series
questions related to recycling process and products were asked
(C15 and below)

during the visits, and answers would be obtained directly from
Government
bricks; and
accompanying professionals.
tonnes/day
aggregate;
30,000 m2
aggregate
Recycled
Zhoukou
concrete
recycled
contract
Private
Mobile
10,000
Yes.
2.3. Interviews
with contractors
2,000–2,667 m2
In order to obtain a thorough understanding of current chal-
State-owned
lenges in C&D waste management in different Chinese cities,
tonnes/day
and bricks.
aggregate;
Changsha
semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face with a
420–480
Recycled
Contract
Mobile
total of 25 professionals, including 11 project managers and 14
No.
on-site workers. The selection of interviewees is based on three cri-
Southern-Central China
teria: (1) project managers should have adequate industry experi-
light panel wall; and

Recycled aggregate; Recycled aggregate;
ence, i.e. at least one project; (2) project managers should have a
recycled aggregate
concrete (C25 and concrete (C30 and
comprehensive understanding of regulatory environment, local
Contract with
regulations and market; (3) on-site workers should have adequate
contractors
tonnes/day
Shenzhen
industry practice, i.e. at least three-year experience in related

5,000 m2
below).
Private
fields, who could supplement additional information of recycling
7,000
Fixed
No.
technologies, facilities, production process, and products. The

whole process for interviews lasts for 1–2 h. Interview questions
4,000 tonnes/day
were sent to interviewees before the site visit. The list of interview
and/or purchase
questions is presented in Appendix 2. Interview questions are

1,000,000 m2
and recycled
Government
focused on four aspects: (1) characteristics of recycling plants,

aggregate
Shanghai
contract;
below).
Private
(2) government incentives, (3) local regulations, and (4) supervi-

Fixed
sion and penalties. All the responses were recorded as written for-
No.
mat. The original data collected at the 10 recycling plants were

30 tonnes/day
further organised and managed into Table 1-4. Based on these

State-owned
Government
aggregate.
tables, another round of analysis is conducted to explain and assess

2,991 m2
purchase
contract;
Nanjing
Coarse
and/or
challenges hindering current C&D waste management in the 10

Fixed
No.
selected cities.
and/or purchase
3. Results and discussions

1,066,667 m2
State-owned
Government
tonnes/day
Hangzhou
contract;
3.1. Characteristics of the 10 recycling plants

Bricks.
Basic information collected from recycling plants.
2,000
Fixed
No.
Table 1 describes characteristics of the 10 recycling plants.

These 10 recycling plants are characterized by its area, ownership,
Eastern China
Contract with
business scope, source for recycling, recycling capability, plant type

contractors
bricks; and
tonnes/day
aggregate;
78,000 m2
and major products. The details of these characteristics are dis-

red brick
Recycled
powder.
Suzhou
Private
cussed below.
4,000
Fixed
No.
private company
3.1.1. Types of recycling plants

Quantity of waste
Source of C&D for
Fixed and mobile are two types of recycling plants, which adopt
recycled/day
State-owned or
Mobile or fixed
in business
Is demolition
different levels of technology and produce recycled aggregates of

recycling
included
different grades (Blengini and Garbarino, 2010). Fixed plants are

Products
permanently placed in a recycling centre and can produce recycled

Table 1
Area
products of high quality (Ulubeyli et al., 2017), but they are forbid-
den to be built in urban areas in some Chinese cities, because of the
614
M. Ma et al.
Table 2
Information of incentives provided by local governments.
Eastern China Southern-Central China Western China

Suzhou Hangzhou Nanjing Shanghai Shenzhen Changsha Zhoukou Chongqing Chengdu Xi’an
VAT deduction 70% VAT deduction 100% VAT 70% VAT 50% VAT 100% VAT 70% VAT 70% VAT deduction 70% VAT 100% VAT 50% VAT
exemption deduction deduction exemption deduction deduction exemption deduction
Subsidy for waste recycling Yes. Approximately 120 No. No. Yes. Yes. No. No. No. No. No.
CNY/tonne (or US $17).
BOT right Yes. Two BOT rights were No. Yes. No. No. No. Yes. A BOT right was No. No. No.
obtained in 2019. obtained in 2017.
Cheaper price for electric No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No.
and water use
Cheaper land use Yes. Yes. Yes. No. Yes. No. No. No. Yes. No.
Mandatory use of recycled No. No. Yes. Yes. Yes. No. No. No. Yes. No.
products
615
Table 3
Local regulations in China.
Eastern China Southern-Central China Western China

Waste reduction at plan No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No. No No.
stage
Forbidden waste export No, but governmental approval is Yes. No, but governmental approval is Yes. No, but governmental approval is No. No. No. No. Yes.
required. required. required.
Waste Management 118 (2020) 610–625

Regulations on on-site Yes. No. No. Yes. No. No. No. No. Yes. Yes.
sorting
Separate collection Yes. No. No Yes. No. Yes. No. No. Yes. Yes.
Strict landfill ban Yes. Yes. Yes. No. Yes. No. Yes. No. Yes. Yes.
emission of noise and dust (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018).
It is based on
$1,430) fine.
the disposal
The high initial cost and significantly increased cost of waste trans-
CNY/truck
A 10,000
portation from demolition site to a fixed recycling plant avoid the
Yes, by
phone.
(or US
Fig. 4.
Xi’an
plan.
popularity of this type of recycling plants (Zhao et al., 2011).
Yes.
Yes.
Mobile recycling plants are portable, and process of recycling could
be completed at demolition worksites (Ulubeyli et al., 2017). For
30,000 CNY 100,000
CNY (or US $1433 -
instance, C&D waste can be directly separated and recycled at
It is based on the
Fines from 10 to
the mobile plants in Chengdu and Changsha. In contrast to the
Yes, by online
disposal plan.
Chengdu industry, in which demolition is included in the business
application.
Chengdu
$14333).
scope, production in the Changsha industry is significantly influ-
Fig. 5.
enced by the demolition speed. With the capability to deal with
Yes.
Yes.
150–200 tonnes of C&D waste per hour, the Changsha industry

can only recycle 70–80 tonnes of the waste, because of the down-
CNY (or US $716 -
It is based on the
time in demolition. Despite the lowest transportation cost from

Western China
Yes, by phone.
disposal plan.
5,000–50,000
mobile plants by decreasing distances from recycling plants and

Chongqing
Fines from
construction sites (Zhao et al., 2011), complaints from surrounding

$7,166).
Fig. 5.
residents regarding noise and dust limit the growth of mobile

Yes.
Yes.
No.
plants in some cities, such as Chongqing. Along with decrease in
the scale of urban renewal, surrounding residents might be
CNY (or US $716 -
It is based on the
affected by recycling activities. As large-scale construction activi-

Yes, by phone.
disposal plan.
5,000–50,000
ties are still undergoing in Changsha, surrounding residents have

Fines from
Zhoukou
relocated and are not affected by recycling activities. Interviewees

$7,166).
Fig. 3.
from Changsha mentioned that without a city plan regarding land

Yes.
Yes.
No.
use for C&D waste recycling, a mobile plant appears to be a better

choice than a fixed plant.
CNY (or US $716 -
It is based on the
Yes, by phone.
disposal plan.
5,000–50,000
3.1.2. Private or state-owned company

Fines from
Changsha
$7,166).
In Hangzhou and Nanjing, only state-owned companies are

Fig. 5.
qualified to recycle C&D waste. Hangzhou is divided into 10 dis-

Yes.
Yes.
No.
tricts by the authorities. Multiple state-owned C&D waste recy-

Southern-Central China
cling companies were nominated to recycle waste in each

50,000 CNY (or US $716
district. Interviewees from Nanjing industry stated that recycling

Fines from 5,000–
It is based on the
- $7,166); or/and
plants run by private companies were faced with risks of forced

Yes, by phone.
disposal plan.
closure. At present, environmental assessment approval for fixed

recycling plants is extremely rigorous (AECOM Asia Company
Shenzhen
sentence.
Limited, 2018). Fixed recycling plants should be equipped with

Fig. 4.
Yes.
Yes.
wastewater recycling systems, dust suppression spray systems,

and sealed workshops, to decrease emission of dust and noise to
CNY (or US $716 -
It is based on the
Yes, by phone, e-
an acceptable level. The initial investment of establishing such a

disposal plan.
5,000–50,000
mail, or mail.
C&D waste recycling plant can be substantial (Zhao et al., 2010).

Fines from
It is difficult for private companies to establish a standard produc-

Shanghai
$7,166).
tion environment and obtain the environmental assessment

Fig. 3.
Yes.
Yes.
approval.
CNY (or US
It is based
3.1.3. Source of C&D waste for recycling

A 10,000
disposal
Nanjing
$1,430)
Yes, by
phone.
on the
Stability of source of C&D waste for recycling is an important

Fig. 5.
plan.
fine.
Yes.
Yes.
prerequisite to maintain long-term operation. The unstable source

of C&D waste for recycling might result in problems in product
CNY (or US $716 -
It is based on the
supply and further cause absence of stability of revenue and mar-

Yes, by phone.
disposal plan.
5,000–50,000
ket sustainability (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018). According

Fines from
Hangzhou
to responses from interviewees, there are three primary ways to

$7,166).
Fig. 4.
obtain the source of C&D waste for recycling. (1) A few companies
Yes.
Yes.
signed contracts with the local government and are nominated to

recycle C&D waste in specific districts, including Chengdu, Xi’an,
A 10,000 CNY (or
It is based on the
or/and sentence.
US $1,430) fine;
Nanjing, Hangzhou, and Zhoukou. For instance, the C&D waste pro-
Yes, by phone.
Eastern China
disposal plan.
duced in the Fengxi district of Xi’an must be transported to the

nominated plant for recycling. (2) Companies in Shanghai, Shen-
Suzhou
Fig. 5.
zhen, Changsha, and Suzhou have established a stable cooperation

Yes.
Yes.
with local contractors. Contractors would deliver C&D waste pro-

Supervision and penalty.
duced at their demolition sites to these recycling plants and pay

Report from public
calculate waste
Planned route for
Penalty on illegal
transportation
the transportation and recycling fees. (3) The industry in Chongq-

stakeholders’
departments
government
cooperation
Waste tracing
ing has to purchase C&D waste from contractors to maintain oper-

dumping
violation
quantity
Penalty on
Method to
Consistent
system
among
ation. The remote location of this industry has significantly

waste
increased the transportation costs. To reduce the disposal cost,

Table 4
contractors prefer to transport the waste to landfill sites. Intervie-

wees from Xi’an and Changsha also showed concerns about the
616
source of C&D waste. According to interviewees in Xi’an industry, has introduced a 3 CNY (or US $0.43) subsidy for every cubic meter
urban renewal of their nominated districts is close to completion C&D waste recycled, interviewees from Changsha claimed that this
and the location of their plants are far away from urban area. It policy was not executed in practice. In addition, various incentive
is difficult for them to find stable source for future recycling activ- policies in Shenzhen support production of different kinds of recy-
ities. As described before, production of Changsha industry is cled products (Bao and Lu, 2020). For instance, 1 CNY (or US $0.14)
dependent on demolition speed and the source of waste for recy- is awarded to recycling company for every piece of recycled brick
cling cannot be ensured. produced (Bao and Lu, 2020).
3.1.4. Products 3.2.2. Build-operate-transfer (BOT) contract

Converting C&D waste into recycled aggregates for non- Private sector who obtains a BOT right is given responsibility to
structural applications is the most common method for recycling finance, build, operate infrastructure projects until the projects are
the waste (Tam et al., 2009). As indicated by Table 1, a primary pro- transferred back to public sector (Song et al., 2017, Shen, 2007).
duct from C&D waste is recycled aggregate. Recycled aggregates BOT contracts can efficiently link the benefits or welfare of the pri-
from C&D waste are expected to replace part or all of the natural vate sector with the local government, ensure sufficient fund, com-
aggregates in concrete (Guo et al., 2018). With appropriate mix bine strength of different sectors and optimize risk allocation
design and construction, recycled-aggregate concrete can be safely (Wang et al., 2018). C&D waste recycling in Nanjing, Zhoukou,
used as a structural material in civil engineering (Xiao et al., 2012, and Suzhou is developed on a BOT basis. Specifically, a BOT con-
Dimitriou et al., 2018). In Chengdu, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Zhou- tract was awarded to the Zhoukou company in 2017 and lasts for
kou, recycled aggregates can replace part of the natural aggregates 30 years. Additionally, the Suzhou company obtained two BOT con-
in low-strength concrete for non-structural applications. Addition- tracts in 2019, which last for 20 years. One contract is related to
ally, bricks including water permeable bricks, grass bricks, and C&D waste transportation, and the other is related to C&D waste
bricks for tactile paving, are industry-leading products. Specifically, recycling. Companies in Hangzhou, Shanghai, and Xi’an signed con-
the Hangzhou industry only produces bricks, because the stan- tracts with the local governments to ensure the source of C&D
dards for recycled aggregates vary among the different districts waste for recycling. Although a BOT contract provides recycling
of Hangzhou. Recycled aggregates produced in this industry are companies with a monopoly status and prevent them from compe-
difficult to be accepted by customers from other districts. Red brick tition for a set period (Qiu and Wang, 2011), it creates substantial
powder is a special product produced in Suzhou factory. As red entry barriers for new recyclers. In Shenzhen, the BOT was can-
brick slags are detrimental to the quality of recycled products celled to avoid a monopoly and to enhance the overall recycling
(Yang et al., 2017), crushing red bricks is an ideal recycling solu- capability.
tion. The red brick powder is sold back to the market.
3.2.3. Land use
3.2. Government incentives C&D waste management is a complex system involving waste
generation, transportation, recycling, disposal, and land use
Introduction of preference policies, including financial subsi- (Yuan, 2017). Land use is linked to enough space for waste storage,
dies, tax reduction, and low rent of land, could help recycling com- production, and product preservation, while appropriate location is
panies to achieve economic feasibility and business profitability, closely related to cost of waste transportation. However, land use
and therefore foster recycling industry (Jin et al., 2017). However, for C&D waste recycling is not guaranteed, because it is not
economic support is not attractive enough to recycling companies, included in urban construction plan in many cities and hinders
because market for products recycled from C&D waste is underde- the development of recycling (AECOM Asia Company Limited,
veloped (Huang et al., 2018). Promotion of market is in urgent need 2018). Land acquisition imposes an economic burden on investors
(Huang et al., 2018). Table 2 represents government incentives in for fixed plants. Many investors rent a piece of land to operate
the 10 selected cities, with a focus on Value-added tax (VAT) recycling plants. The Hangzhou, Nanjing, and Suzhou local govern-
deduction, subsidies, BOT contract, electricity and water use, land ments have allocated land to recycling companies and reduced the
use and mandatory use of products recycled from C&D waste in prices for land rentals. Specifically, interviewees from Shenzhen
construction. recycling plant stated that Shenzhen government charged only 1
CNY/m2 (or US $0.14) per year for land use, to encourage the par-
3.2.1. Tax deduction and subsidies ticipation of new recyclers.
VAT, as one consumption tax levied on a product, accounts for
approximately 36% of the total tax revenue (Liu and Lu, 2015). In 3.2.4. Mandatory use of building materials recycled from C&D waste
the beginning of 2009, a VAT reform was implemented at national Mandatory use of recycled materials from C&D waste can
wide, which allows tax deduction in the purchase of fixed assets increase recycling, improve social acceptance, and contribute to
and provide tax incentives to investors (Zhang et al., 2017). State long-term operation. In some cities, certain percentage of recycled
Taxation Administration (2015) has applied VAT deduction to products from C&D waste should be used in construction or build-
encourage recycling activities. C&D recycling companies, whose ing materials. Specifically, interviewees from Shenzhen industry
recycled aggregates are made from more than 90% C&D waste mentioned that 20% materials recycled from C&D waste should
and satisfy technical requirements, are exempt from 50% VAT. be employed in government-funded projects. In Shanghai, concrete
Application of VAT deduction is slightly different in practice. Inter- below C25 should consist of 15% recycled aggregates (since
viewees in Xi’an and Shanghai stated that 50% VAT could be 2018). In Suzhou, Hangzhou, Xi’an, Chengdu and Zhoukou, recycled
rebated, while interviewees in other cities could claim more than building materials are the first consideration in government-
50% VAT deductions. It is difficult for recycling companies to main- funded projects.
tain long-term operation without governmental subsidies (Bao and
Lu, 2020). However, subsidies for C&D waste recycling have not 3.3. Local regulations
been implemented in more than half of the 10 cities (exceptions
include Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Suzhou). Suzhou local govern- It is important to investigate regulatory environment and cur-
ment subsidises C&D waste recycling companies by 120 CNY/tonne rent treatment of C&D waste. For instance, because landfilling is
(or US $16.9) recycled. Although Changsha municipal government not a desirable approach to treat C&D waste (Yuan and Shen,
617
2011), recycling strategies were formulated to reduce landfilling in 90% of steel and 50% of wood could be sold or collected on-site
some cities. As production of C&D waste is unavoidable, the vol- (Zhao et al., 2010). Although C&D waste cannot legally be mixed
ume of the waste might exceed the recycling capability of the city. with municipal waste before landfilling or recycling, it is difficult
Waste export to surrounding cities might be allowed. In addition, to separate clean concrete waste from other class of waste. For
waste minimisation at design stage is considered as one of the instance, concrete waste from road renovation is mixed with
most effective method to control the waste generation and is asphalt, which would reduce the strength of recycled aggregates.
encouraged by local governments (Yuan, 2017), but the execution The second category comprises municipal waste, which will end
is difficult. Table 3 describes information related to local regula- up in incineration plants. Proper methods to handle waste that is
tions, with a focus on waste reduction at plan stage, waste export, unrecyclable or incombustible (such as aerated blocks) need to
on-site sorting, and landfill policy. be further investigated and developed. However, interviewees
from other cities stated that there was absence of relevant
3.3.1. Design for waste reduction guidance.
It is generally agreed that 3R principle (reduce, reuse and recy-
cle) is the basic principle in C&D waste management, and waste 3.3.4. Landfill
minimisation is of the top priority, because it is the optimal man- Landfill is an undesirable option to treat C&D waste, because
agement measure for lowest negative impacts on environment C&D waste can consume large space and detrimental components
(Huang et al., 2018). In addition, it can contribute to reduction in can lead to harmful chemical leachate and other contaminants
waste transportation and recycling (Yuan et al., 2011). The pres- (Ulubeyli et al., 2017). Approximately 80% of C&D waste has the
sure from the large volume of C&D waste and the rapid depletion potential of recycling (Ding and Xiao, 2014). Currently, C&D waste
of lands in China may be difficult to be addressed through recycling generated in Chongqing, Shanghai and Changsha could be lawfully
and landfilling completely. Waste minimisation at design stage destined in landfills. The C&D waste is poorly handled in Chongq-
should be considered. Only interviewees from Chengdu and Nan- ing and Changsha, because cost of landfill is rather low and landfill
jing industries stated that local governments encouraged waste activities are not strictly regulated. Disposing C&D waste in land-
reduction designs, application of this concept in actual practice is fills is strictly forbidden in Chengdu, Hangzhou, Nanjing, Shenzhen,
difficult, because of practitioners’ (such as developers, architects Zhoukou, Xi’an and Suzhou. Waste landfilling should be approved
and site operatives) reluctance. by local government. With local government priories waste recy-
cling, only unrecyclable components could be landfilled in Shen-
3.3.2. Waste exportation zhen and Xi’an, but special treatment is required before landfilling.
There is constant pressure from rapid urbanization and corre-
spondingly increased C&D waste quantity. Exporting C&D waste
to surroundings could relieve municipality from the pressure, but 3.4. Supervision and penalty
this action could bring about difficulties to other cities in waste
management. In Shanghai, Hangzhou, and Xi’an, waste export is Illegal dumping is rampant as this action is regularly reported
strictly prohibited. C&D waste produced in these cities should be (Duan et al., 2015). In addition, disobey of related stakeholders
disposed of within the same cities. Waste exportation to surround- increase difficulty in C&D waste management. Imposed penalties
ing cities or provinces is allowed in Nanjing, Xi’an, Shenzhen, and and supervision system can affect the behaviours of related stake-
Suzhou, but it should be approved by the local government. There holders (Li et al., 2017). Table 4 represents current supervision sys-
is no restriction on waste exportation in Chengdu, Zhoukou, and tem and penalties imposed on improper actions, including penalty
Chongqing, but the transportation costs to other destinations are policies, estimation of waste quantity, waste tracing system, and
high. Therefore, waste export might not be a desirable option for cooperation among multiple government departments.
contractors. Specifically, in Changsha, a small amount of C&D
waste would be transported to Jiangxi Province, because the land- 3.4.1. Illegal dumping
fill capacity is nearly full. Illegally disposing C&D waste in unlawfully accepted places
could cause detrimental damage to environment and human
3.3.3. On-site sorting health (Du et al., 2020). Penalties can regulate illegal waste dump-
Construction waste, renovation waste and demolition waste are ing behaviours. In Chengdu, Suzhou, and Shenzhen, the level of
identified as the three typical categories of C&D waste, based on its penalties depends on the degree of damage caused by illegal
generation phase (Wu et al., 2014). Inert materials (including con- dumping on surrounding environment. The Municipal Comprehen-
crete, blocks and bricks) and some hazardous components (such as sive Law-enforcing Bureau of City Administration is allowed to
asbestos) are major components of C&D waste (Wu et al., 2014). decide penalty. The level of penalty is based on the location of
However, the absence of regulations on on-site sorting, C&D waste the illegal dumping, the potential risks, and the waste volume.
mixed with unwanted fractions (such as domestic garbage) would Interviewees from Chengdu company mentioned that the penalty
be transported to recycling plants. It might potentially decrease in Chengdu was divided into three levels. Violators are faced with
quality of recycled aggregates and increase following treatment a fine up to 10,000–30,000 yuan (US $1433–$4300) per truck for
cost, because recycling companies need to sort the waste (Wang non-hazardous waste, 30,000–50,000 yuan (US $4300–$7167) per
et al., 2010). Interviewees from Suzhou, Shanghai, Chengdu and truck for slightly hazardous waste, and 50,000–100,000 yuan (US
Xi’an industries mentioned that local government provided guid- $7167–$14333) per truck for hazardous waste. In Shenzhen and
ance on on-site sorting, including a rough classification of C&D Suzhou, violators can be sentenced when the damage on environ-
waste and different treatments for different class. Although the ment is significant. The other seven cities follow their local rules or
operation conditions vary among these companies, a principle for the national guidance (Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural
waste treatment has been developed to manage C&D waste. C&D Development of the People’s Republic of China, 2005). Besides,
waste can be roughly classified into three categories: (1) recy- dumping is being detected in the 10 selected cities. Citizens can
clables, (2) waste that can be burnt, and (3) waste that should be report illegal dumping by phone, e-mail, or mail. In Chengdu, an
further studied. Steel, timber, and concrete waste belong to the online application was designed for reporting. Users can upload
first category. Steel should be separated from concrete waste at pictures and share locations or other details to help local authori-
the demolition site and sold back to the market. Approximately ties to target illegal dumping.
618
Fig. 3. Waste Tracing System in Shanghai and Zhoukou.
Additionally, in most cities, penalties for illegal actions of stake- three duplicated-bills and deliver the two remaining bills to con-
holders (including contractors, transportation companies, recy- tractors. When transportation and recycling companies receive
cling companies, and landfill sites) are specified. The waste and these bills, they should check the waste class, verify
interviewees from Nanjing industry revealed that contractors the waste volume, and sign the bills. Government would verify
who consign the waste to unauthorised recycling companies were the waste quantity through comparing the original bill and the bill
faced with a fine up to 100,000 CNY (or US $14,302). The unautho- submitted by the transportation company. In Shenzhen, an elec-
rised recycling companies were subject to fines up to 150,000 CNY tronic bill system is used, and duplicated bills are created automat-
(or US $21,453). ically in system (Fig. 4b). Similar to Hangzhou, the local
government in Xi’an uses a four duplicated-bill system to trace
C&D waste (Fig. 4c).
3.4.2. Waste tracing and quantity estimation
Fig. 5a could present the C&D waste tracing system used in
Figs. 3 to 5 provide information relevant to waste tracing sys-
most Chinese cities. Specifically, Suzhou is slightly different from
tems in the 10 selected cities. All the vehicles used for transporting
those cities, because the definition of C&D waste in Suzhou is dif-
C&D waste should be equipped with a global positioning system
ferent from that in other cities. In Suzhou, C&D waste refers to
(GPS), follow an approved route, and be supervised by local gov-
clean concrete waste. In other cities, C&D waste consists of con-
ernment. The estimation of the annual generation of C&D waste
crete, bricks, timber, glass, and furniture, which is defined as reno-
is based on demolition amount noted in the disposal plans which
vation waste in Suzhou. The recycling subsidy is only provided to
are submitted by contractors. This number could be further veri-
industries who recycle renovation waste. The local government
fied by recycling companies or landfill sites, according to the num-
would block the demolition site and decide whether the waste pro-
ber of trucks and the truck volume to their sites (or by using a
duced is categorised as renovation waste (Fig. 5b). After the assess-
weighing scale). In Xi’an, a special green truck with a solid top
ment, the recycling industry can transport the waste to the
cover was designed to transport C&D waste to recycling plants,
recycling plant. For consistency, the term ‘‘C&D waste” is used to
which forbid overload and illegal dumping. The capacity of each
replace ‘‘renovation waste” in Suzhou.
waste truck remains constant (approximately 20 m3). However, it
is difficult to estimate the amount of C&D waste produced in
Changsha, as numerous small-scale projects are not required to 3.4.3. Cooperation among different administrative departments
estimate waste quantity and submit disposal plans to the local Because of the specific organizational structure of Chinese gov-
government. The amount of C&D waste in Changsha is significantly ernment, municipal regulations would be developed after issue of
underestimated. fundamental principles formulated by central government (Yuan,
Normally, before waste removal, contractors should submit a 2017). Regulations and policies formulated by local governments
C&D waste disposal plan to local government and obtain permits could largely influence the practice of C&D waste management
for waste disposal. In Shanghai and Zhoukou (Fig. 3), contractors (Wang et al., 2010), which requires cooperative efforts made by
should make an advance payment to an authorised account for dis- various departments of municipal government. Approximately
posal and transportation fees, according to the approved demoli- nine departments are involved in C&D waste management in one
tion amount in the disposal plan. The final payment can be made city, including Municipal Commission of Housing and Urban-
only after completion of transportation and waste disposal. The Rural Development, Municipal Comprehensive Law-enforcing
transportation and disposal fees are transferred directly from the Bureau of City Administration, Municipal Environmental Protec-
governmental account after official verification. tion Bureau, Municipal Planning and Natural Resources Bureau,
A duplicated-bill system is used in Hangzhou, Shenzhen and Municipal Tax Service, Municipal Finance Bureau, Municipal
Xi’an (Fig. 4). A three duplicated-bill system is used in Hangzhou Science & Technology Commission, Municipal Public Security
to trace C&D waste (Fig. 4a). When the disposal plan is approved Bureau and Municipal Transport Burau. However, interviewees
by local government, three duplicated-bills are created and filled from Changsha, Zhoukou and Chongqing companies stated that
with relevant information. Government should keep one of the fostering cooperative relationships among these departments
619
Fig. 4. Waste Tracing System in Hangzhou, Shenzhen and Xi’an.
was complex, as each department was at the same administrative 3.5. Challenges and recommendations
level and therefore inconsistency arises. For example, the
Municipal Commission of Housing and Urban-Rural Development It can be observed that some efforts have been made by local
translate national policies into a regional context, and encourage governments to promote C&D waste management in the past cou-
the engagements of other departments, e.g., Finance Bureau should ple of years. However, the performance varies across different
consider provision of subsidies for recycling activities. However, regions. Different cities are faced with different challenges. C&D
the Financial Bureau has the right not to follow the act issued by waste management needs to be further improved. Eight challenges
the Municipal Commission of Housing and Urban-Rural Develop- are summerized in Table 5. Corresponding recommendations are
ment, because they are at the same administrative level. discussed below.
620
Fig. 5. Waste Tracing System in Suzhou, Changsha, Chengdu, Nanjing and Chongqing.
Table 5
Challenges in C&D waste management in the 10 selected cities.
Challenges Eastern China South-Central China Western China

Unstable source of C&D waste for recycling
Absence of subsidies for recycling activities
High cost for land use
Insufficient attention paid to design for waste
minimisation
Absence of regulations on on-site sorting
Unregulated landfill activities
A lack of coordination among different government
administration departments
A lack of accurate estimation of waste quantity and
distribution
A lack of an effective waste tracing system
3.5.1. Challenge one: Unstable source of C&D waste for recycling (Li et al., 2020a). Local government could provide some guidance
One challenge faced by recycling companies in Changsha, Xi’an on recycling process and enforce waste holders to deliver C&D
and Chongqing is how to ensure the stability of the waste sources waste to recycling plants. The transportation cost is directly influ-
for recycling activities. Short of C&D waste source might be caused enced by the distance from demolition worksite and recycling
by absence of mandatory recycling regulations or high transporta- plant. Because fixed recycling plants are not allowed to be estab-
tion cost (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018). Local govern- lished in urban areas and the number of recycling plants is signif-
ments in Chongqing could learn experiences from other selected icantly sparse compared to landfill sites, waste holders usually
cities. Measures, including release of governmental contracts or need to pay higher transportation costs for delivery to recycling
franchise rights to recycling companies could be taken. Mandatory plants (Pan et al., 2020). The high transportation cost caused by
policies on recycling are fundamental to achieve recycling target the remote location of Chongqing recycling plant results in prefer-
621
ences for landfilling. A governmental subsidy could be applied to 2020a). Conducting on-site sorting could increase reusability and
C&D waste transportation company to reduce cost of transporta- recyclability of C&D waste and therefore contribute to production
tion. The government paying part of the transportation cost can of high-quality products (Bao and Lu, 2020). However, it seems
help to shift waste holders’ preferences from landfilling to very slow for the construction industry in China to embrace on-
recycling. site sorting. Only governments in Suzhou, Shanghai, Chengdu and
Xi’an provided a simple guidance on on-site sorting. There is an
3.5.2. Challenge two: Absence of subsidies for recycling activities and absence of detailed regulations on on-site sorting in the 10 selected
high cost for land use cities. In most occasions, metals, such as steels, are picked out and
It is hard for C&D recycling companies to make profit without directly sold on-site (Yuan, 2017). A mixture of materials, including
provision of economic preferences from government (AECOM non-inert and inert waste materials, hazardous components and
Asia Company Limited, 2018). VAT deduction has been applied in some municipal waste is delivered to recycling companies directly.
the ten selected cities. Some local governments, such as Hangzhou, As some untreated waste in the mixture would impact the quality
Nanjing, Changsha, Zhoukou, Chongqing, Chengdu, and Xi’an, of recycled aggregate, recycling companies need to spend efforts to
should consider provision of subsidies for recycling activities to sort clean concrete from other kind waste. Relevant regulations
improve the economic feasibility of recycling companies. Land tak- should be executed to guide efficient on-site sorting. For instance,
ing is one challenging issue, because of high costs of land acquisi- some recyclable materials, including concrete and bricks, should be
tion. In addition, location of recycling plants would directly carried to recycling plants, while municipal waste should be sepa-
influence transportation cost. However, economic situation of rately collected and delivered to incineration plants.
municipality could determine choice of preference policies (Liu
et al., 2020). For a few cities (such as Chongqing and Changsha), 3.5.5. Challenge five: Unregulated landfill activities
it is difficult to reduce rental prices for land use to the Shenzhen Diverting C&D waste from landfill to recycling is urgent,
level (1 CNY/m2/year or US $0.14/m2/year), because of financial because of the depletion of land resources (Li et al., 2020b). Land-
constraints. Franchise management, such as BOT, is applied in Suz- filling of C&D waste generated in Chongqing, Shanghai and Chang-
hou, Nanjing and Zhoukou, which could shelter recycling enter- sha is lawfully accepted. Specifically, landfill activities are not
prises from competition, and ensure the stability of C&D waste strictly regulated in Chongqing and Changsha which result in the
for recycling. Nevertheless, a franchised monopoly might arise heavy dependence on landfilling. Execution of a landfill ban could
and prevent entry of small or medium-scale recycling companies. be employed to increase recycling rate (Jin et al., 2017). This ban
Therefore, local governments should consider the possible effects can apply to all the reusable or recyclable components. Landfill is
of franchise management. In addition, if there is no sufficient mar- only allowed to treat non-hazardous and unrecyclable components
ket for products recycled from C&D waste, long-term support from and should not be permitted without approval from the local gov-
local government is in need (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018). ernment. However, fully implementation of the landfill ban is not
These products should be the prior choice in government-funded advisable in a short-term, if there is no effective recycling system
projects. Besides, government could widen the application of recy- (Zhao et al., 2010). Economic penalties, such as a high landfill-
cled aggregates in structural use and introduce standards for recy- tipping fee, could be another idea approach to change industry’s
cled products from C&D waste to foster the recycling industry behaviours from landfill to recycling and therefore stimulate recy-
(Zhao et al., 2010). cling activities (Li et al., 2020c). It could potentially increase the
profits earned by recycling companies in the competition with high
3.5.3. Challenge three: Insufficient attention paid to design for waste landfill charge fees. Specifically, mixing one class of waste with
minimisation other substances or classes of waste should be prohibited to drive
Approximately one third of construction waste is resulted from on-site sorting. A landfill charge scheme of different price levels for
design decisions (Yuan et al., 2011). However, design for waste different class of waste could be considered. In United Kingdom
minimisation has not received sufficient attention, because of and Germany, higher landfill charge fee is applied to unsorted
inadequate training and education for industry practitioners C&D waste (Li et al., 2020c). In Hong Kong, HK$ 27 (about US$
(Yuan et al., 2011), practitioners’ indifference to environment pro- 3.44) per ton is charged for inert waste without non-inert waste,
tection (Lu and Yuan, 2010) and absence of regulations on waste while mixed C&D waste containing over 50% non-inert waste is
reduction (Huang et al., 2018). While local governments in HK$ 125 (about US$ 15.93) per ton for landfilling (Li et al., 2020c).
Chengdu and Nanjing encouraged waste reduction designs, the
waste reduction has not been applied in real practice in all the 3.5.6. Challenge six: A lack of coordination among different
10 selected cities. Government should introduce policies to require government administration departments
industry practitioners to consider waste minimisation during the The leading role of Municipal Commission of Housing and
design stage and promote design standards to guide real practice Urban-Rural Development in C&D waste management in one city
(Huang et al., 2018). In recent years, China has investigated prefab- is clearly defined by central government (AECOM Asia Company
rication technology that can significantly influence the waste Limited, 2018). However, interviewees from Changsha, Zhoukou
reduction and subsequent waste handling activities (Li et al., and Chongqing stated that as multiple departments are involved
2014). However, current practice of precast construction in China in the process of C&D waste management, ineffective coordination
is in a stage of infancy, because of the immaturity of the prefabri- arises when these departments are at the same administrative
cation market (Hong et al., 2018). Training programs could help level as the leading department. In addition, responsibilities of
practitioners to obtain a comprehensive understanding of waste these departments are limited to specific areas and are not effi-
minimisation and to provide them with technical guidance. For ciently arranged (Yuan, 2017). For instance, in Changsha, Municipal
instance, architects could learn selection of material and technol- Comprehensive Law-enforcing Bureau of City Administration is
ogy. Site operatives could improve their construction skills (Yuan responsible to deliver waste transportation license, but overload
et al., 2011). is regulated by Municipal Public Security Bureau. A department
of a higher administrative level should be nominated to take the
3.5.4. Challenge four: Absence of regulations on on-site sorting primary responsibilities and effectively arrange activities of these
On-site sorting is preferred, because less labours and costs are departments. For instance, in Xi’an and Chengdu, the Municipal
required compared with sorting at recycling centres (Li et al., People’s Congress, was in charge of translating national guidance
622
into regional context, and co-ordinating the C&D waste manage- class, appearance, amount, and treatment. When transportation
ment of each department. companies receive these bills, they should check the waste class,
Besides, there is a lack of coordination mechanism among each waste quantity, and drop-off location. Recycling companies and
district in Hangzhou, as district authorities act individually. Incon- landfill sites should visually inspect waste, determine whether
sistency arises when a standard in one district is in conflict with a the waste can be lawfully accepted, verify the waste volume, and
standard in another district. Different application standards of sign the bills. To improve the management efficiency, an electronic
recycled aggregates for different districts in Hangzhou lead to the bill system for data sharing could be developed. Contractors, trans-
situation that recycled aggregates of same quality can only be portation companies, recycling companies, and operators of landfill
accepted in specific districts. This conflict inhibits the development sites can log in to the system and record the waste details. In waste
of market. In Chongqing, district authorities have no responsibility tracing systems in Shanghai and Zhoukou (Fig. 3), waste holders
to manage C&D waste transported outside their administrative have to make an advanced payment to transportation and recy-
region, although the waste is originated from their control area. cling companies, to ensure the proper treatment of waste and pre-
Managing the inconsistencies is another issue. A special urban vent illegal dumping. Local governments can assess advantages
management bureau could be set up to centralize the manage- and disadvantages of these systems and formulate a suitable C&D
ment, in order to efficiently guide and supervise C&D waste man- waste tracing system.
agement of each district (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018).
4. Conclusion
3.5.7. Challenge seven: A lack of accurate estimation of waste quantity
and distribution
Recycling as an alternative approach to deal C&D waste could
The large generation of C&D waste in China is a big challenge in
reduce dependence on landfill. However, the implementation of
the development of an effective waste management system (Ding
recycling policies in practice seems to be far from effective in
and Xiao, 2014). Estimation of C&D waste quantity is a prerequisite
China. Therefore, identification of challenges is essential in the
to understand the generation trend in one city and formulate rea-
development of C&D management. Although C&D waste manage-
sonable recycling policies (Yu et al., 2018). In the 10 selected cities,
ment in China has received increasing attention from researchers,
the estimation of C&D waste quantity is based on the waste quan-
the focus of past studies was on one specific city. Overall review
tity notified in waste disposal plans, which is submitted before
of potential challenges in C&D waste management, particularly in
demolition process. However, the actual amount is not accurately
promotion of recycling in China, is still inadequate.
qualified, which might further cause inappropriate resource alloca-
This paper adopted site visits to 10 different recycling plants
tion and effectiveness of management (Menegaki and Damigos,
and interviews with 25 industry practitioners to examine potential
2018). Specifically, multiple factors, including project type, func-
challenges in the current C&D waste management in China. Eight
tion of projects and composition of waste stream, could influence
challenges were identified: (1) unstable source of C&D waste for
the accuracy of estimation (Yuan, 2017). The influences from these
recycling, (2) absence of subsidies for recycling activities and high
factors could be minimised through extensive researches in a large
cost for land use, (3) insufficient attention paid to design for waste
amount of sample projects (Yuan, 2017). Local governments can
minimisation, (4) absence of regulations on on-site sorting , (5)
cooperate with universities or research institutes to establish a
unregulated landfill activities, (6) a lack of coordination among dif-
systematic data collection method (Akhtar and Sarmah, 2018). In
ferent government administration departments, (7) a lack of accu-
addition, the regulation on small-scale construction projects
rate estimation of waste quantity and distribution, and (8) a lack of
should be tightened. In Changsha, small-scale construction pro-
an effective waste tracing system. Recommendations to address
jects are not required to submit waste disposal plan. The quantity
these challenges were presented.
of C&D waste from these projects remains unknown and this num-
However, two challenges, i.e. a lack of higher value use of recy-
ber is not included in the calculation of municipal C&D waste
cled aggregates and high cost for recycling, which were frequently
amount. Under this condition, the actual amount of C&D waste in
discussed in past literatures were not emphasized in this study.
Changsha is significantly underestimated. However, regulation on
Investigating higher value use of recycled aggregates could widen
small-scale projects would incur additional labours and regulatory
application of recycled aggregates and foster market, but most
costs. Compliance costs brought by this regulation, including
interviewees stated that market of recycled products was not their
inspection charges and time spent on records, could become a bur-
key concern, because demand of recycled aggregates or bricks have
den on these small-scale projects in the industry (Parliament of
already surplus supply. In addition, high cost for recycling is not
Australia, 2003).
avoidable, because of rigorous environmental assessment
approval, land acquisition and equipment purchase. Measures to
3.5.8. Challenge eight: A lack of an effective waste tracing system
alleviate their economic burden, including provision of subsidies,
Some recycling policies, such as landfill ban and compulsory
and lowering rent price, have been discussed in previous chapters.
recycling requirement, have been adopted in some cities. Beha-
The results of this study present current C&D waste manage-
viours of related stakeholders in the construction industry can
ment in China and provide a useful reference for researchers who
directly influence the effectiveness of these policies (Li et al.,
are interested in C&D waste recycling industry. Some challenges,
2017). The obeyance of related stakeholders is largely dependent
including ‘unstable source of C&D waste’ and ‘a lack of an effective
on an effective supervision system (AECOM Asia Company
waste tracing system’ which were not emphasized in previous
Limited, 2018). A waste tracing system enables government to
studies, should receive additional attention. In addition, recom-
trace waste from its source to the final disposal site. In addition,
mendations raised in this study could help policy makers in China
it could indirectly verify the waste quantity for disposal. Specifi-
to improve the performance of C&D waste management.
cally, the four duplicated-bill system in Xi’an, the three
duplicated-bill system in Hangzhou, and the electronic bill system
in Shenzhen (Fig. 4) are good examples to follow. In these waste Declaration of Competing Interest
tracing systems, responsibilities of related stakeholders in the
recycling chain are emphasized. Bills are delivered to contractors The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
from recycling companies or local governments. Contractors cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
should fill these bills with relevant information such as the waste to influence the work reported in this paper.
623
Acknowledgements Li, J., Zuo, J., Jiang, W., Zhong, X., Li, J., Pan, Y., 2020b. Policy instrument choice for
construction and demolition waste management: the case study of Shenzhen,
China. Engineering, construction, and architectural management 27, 1283–
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support from the 1297.
Australian Research Council (ARC), Australian Government (No: Li, J., Zuo, J., Wang, G., He, G., Tam, V.W.Y., 2020c. Stakeholders’ willingness to pay
for the new construction and demolition waste landfill charge scheme in
DP190100559, DP200100057 and IH1501000006).
Shenzhen: a contingent valuation approach. Sustainable Cities and Society 52,
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Waste Management 118 (2020) 610–625

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Challenges in current construction and demolition waste recycling:

Fig. 1. 10 selected cities.

Fig. 2. Framework of analysis process of this study.

between government regulations and industry practices (Wafula

bricks; and recycled

(C20 and below).

(C15 and below)

teria: (1) project managers should have adequate industry experi-

light panel wall; and

industry practice, i.e. at least three-year experience in related

fields, who could supplement additional information of recycling

technologies, facilities, production process, and products. The

questions is presented in Appendix 2. Interview questions are

focused on four aspects: (1) characteristics of recycling plants,

(2) government incentives, (3) local regulations, and (4) supervi-

mat. The original data collected at the 10 recycling plants were

further organised and managed into Table 1-4. Based on these

tables, another round of analysis is conducted to explain and assess

challenges hindering current C&D waste management in the 10

3. Results and discussions

3.1. Characteristics of the 10 recycling plants

Table 1 describes characteristics of the 10 recycling plants.

business scope, source for recycling, recycling capability, plant type

and major products. The details of these characteristics are dis-

3.1.1. Types of recycling plants

different levels of technology and produce recycled aggregates of

different grades (Blengini and Garbarino, 2010). Fixed plants are

permanently placed in a recycling centre and can produce recycled

Eastern China Southern-Central China Western China

Eastern China Southern-Central China Western China

Waste Management 118 (2020) 610–625

emission of noise and dust (AECOM Asia Company Limited, 2018).

instance, C&D waste can be directly separated and recycled at

the mobile plants in Chengdu and Changsha. In contrast to the

scope, production in the Changsha industry is significantly influ-

150–200 tonnes of C&D waste per hour, the Changsha industry

time in demolition. Despite the lowest transportation cost from

mobile plants by decreasing distances from recycling plants and

construction sites (Zhao et al., 2011), complaints from surrounding

residents regarding noise and dust limit the growth of mobile

affected by recycling activities. As large-scale construction activi-

ties are still undergoing in Changsha, surrounding residents have

relocated and are not affected by recycling activities. Interviewees

from Changsha mentioned that without a city plan regarding land

use for C&D waste recycling, a mobile plant appears to be a better

3.1.2. Private or state-owned company

In Hangzhou and Nanjing, only state-owned companies are

qualified to recycle C&D waste. Hangzhou is divided into 10 dis-

tricts by the authorities. Multiple state-owned C&D waste recy-

cling companies were nominated to recycle waste in each

district. Interviewees from Nanjing industry stated that recycling

plants run by private companies were faced with risks of forced

closure. At present, environmental assessment approval for fixed

Limited, 2018). Fixed recycling plants should be equipped with

wastewater recycling systems, dust suppression spray systems,

an acceptable level. The initial investment of establishing such a

C&D waste recycling plant can be substantial (Zhao et al., 2010).