LECTURES ON LEXICOLOGY

LECTURE 1
INTRODUCTION. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF LEXICOLOGY
Plan
1. The subject matter of lexicology.
2. Lexicology in its relations to grammar, phonology and stylistics.

/. THE SUBJECT MATTER OF LEXICOLOGY

Lexicology (Gr. Lexis - "word" and logos - "learning") is a branch of

linguistics that studies the vocabulary of a given language. Its subject matter is
words and their meaning, their etymology and structural peculiarities, their
stability and synonymic relations, their stylistic value.
Lexicology should be organically related to all branches of linguistics such as
phonetics, stylistics, grammar and history of the language.
Changes of word meanings undergone by words in the course of language
development are described by semasiology. The semantic structure of words is
described in terms of lexico-semantic variation, distributional value and
synonymic differentiation. This part of the science of language is the basis of
lexicology. Lexicology should also include information on compiling
dictionaries. This is called lexicography.
The general study of words and vocabulary, irrespective of the specific
features of any particular language, is known as general lexicology. The
description of the characteristic peculiarities in the vocabulary of a given
language is the subject matter of special lexicology. The latter is based on the
fundamental principles of general lexicology, which forms a part of general
science of language.
Language is highly organized and systematic. The central interest in
vocabulary studies lies therefore in determining the properties of words and
different sort of relationships existing between them in a language. The ways in
which the development of meaning is influenced by extralinguistic reality
deserve considerable attention as well. The notions rendered in word-meanings
are, in fact, generalized reflections of things and phenomena of the outside
world, the connection of words with the elements of objective reality and their
relevance to the mental and cultural development of human society. Things that
are connected in reality come to be naturally connected in language too. The
study of language in our day has taken on new vitality and interest.
The subject matter of historical lexicology is the evolution of the vocabulary.
Dealing with changes that occur in time this part of linguistics treats of origin of
words and their development, investigates the linguistic and extralinguistic
forces modifying the structure of words, their meaning and usage. Historical
lexicology must survey the vocabulary as a system in its evolution, describing
its change and development in the course of time.
 The study of the vocabulary in its synchronic aspect, i.e. at a given stage of
its development (in its modern state), is the subject matter of descriptive
lexicology.
As any science, lexicology directs upon its subject matter a close scrutiny
attempting to produce careful objective descriptions of linguistic facts and refine
the results of its observations.
All the words in a language make up what is generally called the vocabulary
of the language.
The volume and the character of the vocabulary are determined by the social-
economic and cultural history of the people speaking the language. Social,
political and cultural changes in human society cause changes in the vocabulary
of the language. The vocabulary grows and changes together with the
development of human society. Language as a whole in all its aspects, its
words and idioms, its peculiarities of constitution, its pronunciation, and the
very tones of voice, language in its completeness, is the most perfect mirror of
the manners of the age. Words are the necessary tools with which we convey
thoughts and feelings. When a new product, a new conception comes into the
thought of a people, it inevitably finds a name in their language. A vocabulary
is a kind of mirror, reflecting the character, the mentality and the activity of the
people who use it; it is most sensible to changes and never remains stable. Like
all other forms of life, living languages are in a constant state of evolution.
The rapid advances which are being made in scientific knowledge, the
extension of sciences and arts to many new purposes and objects create a
continual demand for the formation of new words to express new ideas, new
agencies and new wants.
The history of a community must be reflected in changes of the vocabulary;
as objects and ideas are forgotten, the corresponding words or phrases must be
out of use, and as new knowledge is gained linguistic forms to match it appear.
A major interest is presented by linguistic relationships of lexical units within
the vocabulary. Distinction must be made at this point between syntagmatic
and paradigmatic relations; the former are based on the linear character of
speech and are studied by means of contextual, transformational and other
types of analysis, the latter reveal themselves in the morphemic structure of
words and are described in terms of morphemes and their arrangement.
In paradigmatic relationships we naturally distinguish:
(a) the interdependence of elements within words,
(b) the interdependence of words within the vocabulary,
(c) the influence of other aspects of the same language.

2. LEXICOLOGY IN ITS RELATION TO GRAMMAR, PHONOLOGY AND

STYLISTICS
As a branch of linguistics lexicology has its own aims and methods of
scientific research; its main task is the study of the vocabulary of a given
language. It must be borne in mind that the language system is so complex that
when we come to consider the best way in which one should arrange linguistic
facts we are always confronted with the problem of the proper distinction
between all levels of linguistic organization.
 The affinities between these levels will always remind us that one level of
linguistic structure cannot well be treated in isolation from each other.
No part of a language can be adequately described without reference to all
other parts.
Internal relations of elements within complex wholes are of the essence of
language with its many interdependent structures and systems at all levels, the
functions of every linguistic element and abstraction being dependent on its
relative place therein. This is, in fact, one of the fundamental features of
language and of the treatment of language in modern linguistics.
Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations are nearly as important in vocabulary
studies as they are at the levels of grammar and phonology.
Different ways of word-making, for instance, give sufficient evidence to say
that word-making can be assigned equally well to the provinces of lexis and
grammar. The categories and types of word-formation, which characterize the
present-day English linguistic system, are largely dependent upon its
grammatical structure.
Take such examples as nouns used in the plural in a special sense:
ach'ice = counsel, advices = information
colour = tint, colours - 1) plural of tint, 2) flag
custom = habit, customs= 1) plural of habit, 2) duties
spectacle = sight, spectacles = 1) plural of sight, 2) eyeglasses
damage = injury, damages = compensation for injury
Sometimes, when two kinds of pluralization, have produced two plurals of a
word, different uses and meanings have resulted, and as a consequence the
older form has not been ousted by the -s form. This can be seen in such pairs as:
brother- brethren, brothers
cloth-cloths, clothes
cow-kine, cows
fish-fish, fishes
die- dice, dies
penny-pence, pennies
No right line of demarcation can be drawn between grammatical and lexical
meanings.
Some concrete nouns may be used both as mass-nouns and as thing-nouns.
In the latter meaning they may form s-plural; fruit is used in the singular, the
plural fruits is used only when meaning "different kinds of fruit", the plural
form may also be used figuratively, as in fruits of labour; fish is generally used
in the singular, the plural fishes means "different kinds of fish".
We should distinguish grammar and vocabulary in terms of different kind of
generality.
Some linguistic facts on the lexical level are no less general than those in
grammar, word-making, in particular. And with this comes the realization that
there is a system in vocabulary, and lexicology must reasonably treat not only of
specific but also of general facts.
 The interrelation between vocabulary and grammar is not less characteristic in
making new words through conversion, which has existed at all stages of the
language and has flourished most in Modern English. A converted word
develops a meaning of its own and diverges so far from its original function that
it is felt to be an independent word, a homonym.
The constant reciprocal action of vocabulary and grammar will be exemplified
by different processes of compounding, most productive in various languages,
English including.
Contextual restrictions of word-meanings deserve special attention.
A single unambiguous word meaning is not always automatically assured.
Compare the following;
a) to smoke a cigarette;
b) to smoke fish, meat, etc (= to care meat, fish, etc.).

a) The table is round (table = an article of furniture);

b) The fruit was unfit for table (table = meal);
c) The table of contents (table + a condensed tabulated statement, a
schedule).
Examples like these may be given in numbers.
Mention must be made at this point about the language basis for ambiguities
and their resolution. There are different types of ambiguity. The first and most
familiar is a matter of vocabulary. Many words, including almost all the
common ones, are known to have two or more distinct meanings. The
combinations taking any of the available meanings for each word in a sentence
may be extremely numerous.
In the resolution of vocabulary ambiguities one factor primary in importance is
grammatical structure. And this must always be taken account of in the study of
language or of any single system within language.
The meaning of the word is very often signalled by the "grammatical" context
in which it occurs.
Compare the variant lexical meanings of the verb take in the following
sentences:
She took a book from the table.
She took to thinking.
She took me to be asleep.
He took to the life of travelling.
You were late, 1 take it (/ take it = I suppose).
The verb to mean + infinitive means “to intend", to mean + gerund means "to
signify", "to have as a consequence", "to result in something". Compare the
following:
(1) He had never really meant to write that letter - He had never intended
to write that letter.
(2) This means changing all my plans - This resulted in changing all my
plans.
To remember+gerund refers to the past and means "not to need to be
reminded", to remember + infinitive refers to the future and means "not to omit
to do something".
 The construction verb + gerund can also be compared with one consisting of
verb + adverbial infinitive, e.g.:
a) The horse stopped to drink;
b) The horse stopped drinking.
Further examples of the so-called "grammatical" context, which operates to
convey the necessary meaning, will be found in cases when, for instance, the
passive form of the verb gives a clue concerning its particular lexical meaning.
For example, the verb to succeed, as registered in dictionaries, can mean:
1) слідувати за чимось, кимсь, бути наступником, змінювати;
2) мати успіх, досягати успіху, досягати мети, удаватись.
As is known, the passive form of this verb excludes the secondary range of its
meaning.
That lexicology should be viewed in relation to other parts of linguistic
learning, such as phonetics and style, is also quite obvious.
The phonetic interpretation of the linguistic material is of undoubted interest
in modern language learning.
This dimension in phonetic analysis appears when sounds that have a
recognized status when considered as individual segments are strung together
in a sustained flow of talk. When a single phoneme, for instance, is examined in
relation to a total constellation of sounds in which it may appear, the factors of
pitch, loudness, rhythm, duration and juncture are at once observed. These five
factors are also phonemes. In phonemic terms, they are called prosodic or
suprasegmental (in contrast to segmental phonemes). All these are of primary
importance in talk as it appears in action.
The meaning of a word may sometimes rely on the situation of the accent
expressed mainly in terms of pitch (where there are no associated changes of
quality), e.g.:
rebel [' rebl] (n) - [ri ' bel] (v)
Further examples are such words as: anyone, anything, anybody following a
negative which may have a different meaning according to their pitch pattern,
e.g.:
/ 'can t 'eat anything -1 can eat nothing.
I 'can't eat anything -1 can eat some things.
Even more subtle distinctions fairly common in English, can be observed in such
cases, as for instance, green house and greenhouse, big black snake and big
blacksnake, blue bottle and bluebottle. In each of these pairs there is a difference in
meaning and it is indicated not by individual phonemes but by overall pattern they
produce. The same phenomenon may be observed in other structures.
In cases when the lexical meaning of the words admits either interpretation
without lexico-grammatical incongruity, ambiguity is presented in actual speech
by contrast in intonation patterns. Thus, for instance, a dancing girl with rise in
pitch and primary stress both on the head-word girl marks dancing as a present
participle: a girl performing the act of dancing. But a dancing girl, with primary
stress and rise in pitch both on the head-word and the modifier dancing,
identifies dancing as a verbal noun and signals the meaning a dancer –
танцівниця.
 That there is a close relationship between lexicology and stylistics is also
obvious.
Stylistics treats of selection among the linguistic forms described by grammar
and lexicology. For its great part it treats of the artistic modification of speech for
the sake of securing a particular effect of emotional colouring in pictorial
language.
The study of the vocabulary leads us to the observation that many words
suggest more that they literally mean, and sometimes words which have the same
literal or actual meaning (denotation) differ widely in their suggested meaning
(connotation). Some words are more general, colourless and neutral in tone. But
other words have a distinctly literary or poetic flavour, or suggestion, which
may be colloquial (informal), formal, humorous, vulgar, slangy, childish, stilted,
learned, technical and so on through the various labels by which we may
indicate the standing level of a word.
Multiformity of synonymic forms of expression, and transpositions on the
lexical level, which we study in lexicology, are closely connected with the stylistic
differentiation of a national language.
It is obvious from what has been said above that it is quite impossible to learn
a foreign language on a lexical basis alone. Nevertheless the knowledge of
lexicology provides us with a clear understanding of the laws of vocabulary
development and helps to master the language.

REVISION MATERIAL
Suggested Assignments on Lecture 1
1. Be ready to discuss the subject matter of lexicology.
2. Discuss the statement that lexicology must be viewed in relation to
other aspects of language learning.
3. Give illustrative examples to show that the lexical meaning of the
word is very often signalled by the “grammatical” context in which it
occurs.
4. Give examples to show that the phonetic interpretation of the linguistic
units is of undoubted interest in vocabulary studies.
5. Be ready to discuss the relationship between lexicology and stylistics.
6. Give comment on the diachronic and synchronic approach in
vocabulary studies.
7. Comment on the fundamental principles of structural linguistics.
8. Be ready to discuss the basic concepts of the descriptive theory.
9. Give a few examples of contrastive, non-contrastive and
complementary distribution.
10. How can we illustrate the influence of linguistic context on word-
meanings?
11.Comment on the difference between syntagmatic and paradigmatic
relations between words.
 LECTURE 2. THE ETYMOLOGICAL PECULIARITIES OF THE
ENGLISH VOCABULARY

The English vocabulary falls into elements of different etymology. It has

been estimated that from 60 to 79 % of the whole word-stock came from nearly
all the languages of the world.
The fact of this unusually great enrichment at the expense of foreign
languages is accounted for the frequent and durable contacts of the English
people with other nations.
We can divide the foreign element in English into early and late loans as
adopted orally and through writing.
The earlier the date of borrowing, the more complete the assimilation.
By assimilation we mean the adaptation of the lexical unit to the language
laws of its new sphere - sound system, stress position, morphological structure,
grammatical peculiarities, semantic structure, etc. Assimilation might begin
with the phonetical and morphological adaptation, then extend to its word-
building capacity so that the word becomes the centre of a whole nest of
derivatives and set expressions resulting in a complex semantic structure typical
of the language into which the word was borrowed and widely differing from
the one it had in its native sphere.
Early oral borrowings are mostly monosyllabic words and their frequency
value is great.
Later loans adopted mostly through writing are often polysyllabic, bookish
and less frequently used. Borrowed words are divided into:
• aliens or fo
grammar peculiarities (e. g. eau-de-Cologne,
phenomenon/phenomena, chemise)
• denizens or b
English (e.g. wine, table) and are not easily recognized as
borrowings.
As to degree of assimilation, we could classify borrowings into:
1) completely a
(e.g. line, cheap, take, throw, call, face, husband, street,
table, etc.);
2) partially ass

a)partially assimilated semantically (units of specific national lexicon), e.g.

Hryvna, rajah, sherbet, toreador, etc;
a) not assimila
retain their original plural forms: crisis - crises, index -
indices, phenomenon -phenomena, etc.;
b) not assimila
c) not assimila
 In the partially assimilated borrowing, e. g. ballet, the stress is already shifted
according to the English accentuation laws onto the first syllable but the final /
is still written, though not pronounced, in the French manner, and the e vowel
is pronounced in imitation of the French sound [ei]. These borrowings are
mostly limited in their sphere of usage (e. g. discus, sonata, bismuch);
3) words of local colouring (e. g. steppe, balalaika, gondola, etc.);
4) unassimilated borrowed words and phrases (barbarisms), which preserve their
original spelling and other characteristics, always have synonyms among the
completely assimilated words or corresponding English equivalents (native words),
and therefore, are not indispensable in English, limited to official, literary, bookish
usage, e.g. en regle, apropos, ad hoc, ciao, coup d'etat, eureka, persona grata, etc.).
a)The Anglo-Saxon Element in the English Vocabulary
When in the 5 century of our era the Anglo-Saxon tribes came to Britain, they brought
their dialects, which we now refer to as Old English and which formed the foundation
for the ultimate development of Modern English. The Anglo-Saxon element is still at the
core of the language.
Native words stand for fundamental things and generally express the most vital
concepts, for example:
-actions: go, say, see, find, love, hunt, eat, sleep;
-everyday objects: food, fish, meat, milk, water,
-names of animals and birds: sheep, bull, ox, fowl;
-natural phenomena: land, sun, moon, summer, winter, sea;
-geographical concepts: north, east, west, northward, northwest, way;
-names of persons: man, woman, father, mother, son;
-qualities: long, short, far.
The native stock of words includes modal and auxiliary verbs (shall, will, be),
pronouns (I, he she, you), prepositions (at, on, of, by), conjunctions (and, which, that,
but), articles (a, an, the), most of the numerals (one, ten, fifty, the third).
These words are characterized by:
a) plurality of m
b) great word-bu
c) combinative p
But a number of Anglo-Saxon words were irrevocably lost. Many of those words
denoting things no longer in use dropped out of the vocabulary, such as, for instance,
names of weapons no longer used, garments no longer worn, customs no longer
practised, etc.
b)The Celtic Element
Celtic borrowings in the English vocabulary can be considered of the least importance.
For example:
adjective dun - бурий
noun bin - засік
noun cradle - колиска
noun bannock – хліб домашнього випікання
 We can find Celtic element in geographical names:
Dover (Gael, dour - water)
Duncombe, Helcombe (Gael, cwm, cum - canyon)
Llandaff, Llandovery (Gael, llan - church)
Kent, Avon (Gael, amhuin - river)
The Downs (down- hill)
Loch Lomond, Loch Katrine (Loch - lake)

Some of the early Latin borrowings came into English through Celtic in the 5th century
(e. g. street, port, wall, mill, kitchen, Chester). LONDON is of Celtic origin. The Celts
called it Llyn-dun - (фортеця поблизу ріки (dun-"hill" and also "fort"). The Romans
changed it for Londinium
c)The Classical Element (Greek and Latin)
LATIN
Such words as pear, pea, pepper, cheese, plum, butter, wine, kettle, cup, dish,
line, mule are referred to the early loans. A number of words pertain to trade. They
are: cheap, pound, inch, monger (in fishmonger). We find the Latin element in
geographical names: Greenwich, Woolwich, Norwich. In the 7th century some
Latin borrowings appeared in the language of the church: devil, bishop, priest,
monk, nun, shrine, offer, candle, monster (in Westminster), sanct.
After the Renaissance Latin words came as terms -for various fields of science,
such as:
a) philosophy, m
radius;
b) words pertain
c) botany - mall
d) medicine - an
e) geographical
Some of these can be also traced to Greek roots.
There are some Latin abbreviations in English:
e. g. (exampli gratia) - for example,
i. e. (id est ) - that is
a m. (ante meridiem) -before noon
p. m. (post meridiem) - after noon,
etc. (et cetera) - and so on.

GREEK
The Greek words ate recognized by their specific spelling (ch, ph, ps, rh), by the
suffixes -ist, -ics, -ism, -id, -ize, -old, -osis, and -y between consonants.
After the Renaissance Greek words came as terms for various fields of science, such
as:
a) literature and
b) lexicology-lex
polysemy, synonym;

c) philosophy an
 d) botany-balsa
e) physics—dyn
f)medicine—diagnosis, diaphragm, homeopath, neuralgia, rheumatism.
Some proper names of Greek origin got to be quite popular in English: Catherine,
George, Margaret, Theodore, Sophia, Irene, Alexander, etc. There are also Greek
prefixes: a-, an-: aseptic, anarchy; anti-, ant-: antidote, Antarctic;

di-, dis-: dilemma, disyllabic, and others.

d)The Scandinavian Element (the 8 th century -1042)
Nouns: anger, fellow, gate, husband, sky, window.
Adjectives: ill, low, odd, ugly, flat, awkward, weak.
Verbs: crawl, gape, gasp, get, give, lift, die, take, raise, struggle.
Pronouns: same, both, they.
Scandinavian settlements in England left their toponymic traces in a great
number of places:
e. g. - by (from Sc. byr- "settlement, village") Derby, Rugby, Grimsby
(Sc. foss- "waterfall") Fossbury, Fossway
(Sc. thorp- "village") Althorp, Beythorp
(Sc. thvelt- "meadow") Applethwalte, Cowperthwalte.
Some English words change their meanings taking on the meanings of the
corresponding Scandinavian words, e.g.:
Sc. draumr- dream (OE "joy")
Sc. brauth -bread (OE "crumb", "fragment").
e)The Norman-French Element
French borrowings penetrated into English in two ways: from the Norman
dialect (during the first centuries after the Norman Conquest in 1066) and from
the French national literary language beginning with the 15th century.
Before the Norman Conquest only a few words were borrowed (e. g. proud,
turn, false, market, chancellor). The French words borrowed during the 13 th -
16th centuries are:
a) law terms: a
b) military term
c) religious ter
d) words conne
butcher, chair, beef, veal, pleasure, leisure, comfort, delight;
e) terms of ran
j) terms of art: art, beauty, colour, image, figure, costume, garment;
g) terms of architecture: arch, tower, column, castle, palace.
Later French borrowings can be easily identified by their peculiarities of form
and pronunciation (e. g. garage, machine, fiancee, automobile, resume, role,
technique).
French suffixes are: -age, -once, -ence, -ee, -ess, -ry, etc.
 f)Russian Borrowings
Sable, taiga, tundra; beluga, suslik sterlet; troika, kibitka; sarafan, shuba;
vodka, kvass, koumiss; tzar, zemstvo, pogrom, ukaz, etc.
g)Various Other Elements in the English Vocabulary
Spanish: armada, banana, barbecue, canyon, cargo, cocoa, cigar, chocolate.
Italian: umbrella, soda, gondola, casino, bank traffic, violin.
Australian: boomerang, kangaroo.
Japanese: geisha, kimono, samurai, harakiri.
African: baobab, chimpanzee, gnu, gorilla.
Egyptian: pyramid, fustian.
Indian: moccasin, wigwam, tomahawk
Arabic: algebra, elixir, azimuth, Islam, sherbet.
Ukrainian: borsch, varenyky, gholubtsi.
h) International Words
The term "international" is applied to those words that penetrate the
vocabularies of several languages, like nylon and to those that are found in all
the languages of the world, like sputnik.
Though they embody the same concept in a similar sound-complex, they are
spelt and pronounced differently in every language (e. g. revolution).
International words may refer to different fields of life and human activities
but they mostly express scientific, cultural technical and political concepts, e.
g.: physics, melody, aria, arioso, opera lecture, formula, dialectics, motor,
algorithm, cybernetics, telephone, entropy.
Much of modern scientific vocabulary is international in character. Latin and
Greek have given a large number of international words.
International words should not be confused with pseudo-international words
(false cognates, "translator's false friends") that have the same origin but
different semantic structures. The divergence in meaning can be partial (e.g.
the English adjective liberal corresponds not only to the Ukrainian
ліберальний, but also щедрий, великодушний, багатий, пишний, гуманітарний,
вільний (нe буквальний) or complete (e.g. the English aspirant does not mean
аспірант, but претендент, кандидат).
i) Archaisms
Archaisms are obsolete names for existing objects. They will always have a
synonym, i. e. a word denoting the same concept but differing only in its
stylistic sphere of usage. They are bookish words that are not used in everyday
speech (e. g. think - deem, joy - glee, man - wight, before -ere).
Archaisms may be classified into lexical and grammatical. Lexical archaisms
are words (e. g. gyves - chains, woe - sorrow, nigh - near) and grammatical
archaisms are obsolete grammatical forms (e. g. thou -you, thee, they, thine;
brethren - the plural form of brothers; tense forms like builded).
 Neologisms are words and expressions used for new phenomena, objects,
processes, that is, new concepts that appear in the course of language
development. For example: audiotyping, biocomputer, thoughtprocessor.
Neologisms are new meanings of the already existing words. For instance, big
C.
Neologisms are new names of old concepts: bread - гроші, acid — наркотик
ЛСД, gas – щось хвилююче і дуже приємне.
k) Translation-loans (calques) are borrowings (words or phrases), which do
not retain their original form to a certain extent, but undergo the process of
translating one part after another, e.g. Masterpiece < Meisterstűk (German), by
heart< par coeur (French).
1) The borrowing of meaning from a foreign word is called semantic
borrowing. E.g. In Old KngHsh the word dwellan (ME dwell) meant "lead
astray". The modern meaning of the word, i.e. "abide, stay", was adopted from
the Scandinavian dvelja ("live").
m) A pair of (or several) words borrowed from the same source at different
times, and therefore, having different forms and meaning are called
etymological doublets, e.g.
dais "high table in a hall; raised platform for this". XIII. < OF. deis.< L. discuss.
desk "rest for a book, writing-paper, etc." XIV. < L. discus.
dish "broad shallow vessel". XV. < OE. disc < L.discus,
disc "flat surface of the sun, etc." XVII < F. discue < L. discus.
discus "quoit used in ancient Greek and Roman games." XVII. < L. discus <
Gr. discos.
/After The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1985/.
n) Words which elements are derived from different languages are called
etymologycal hybrids, e.g. eatable (native stem + Roman suffix), distrust (native
stem + Roman prefix), beautiful (Romanic stem + native suffix), etc.
o) Dialecticisms and slang
Dialecticisms are words used by people of a certain community living in a
certain territory. In US Southern dialect one might say: "Cousin, y 'all talk
mighty fine" which means "Sir, you speak English well." In ethnic- immigrant
dialects the same sentence will sound as "Paisano, you speek good the
English." or "Landsman, your English is plenty all right already ".
Slang is non-standard vocabulary understood and used by the whole nation.
Slang is sometimes described as the language of sub-cultures or the language of
the streets. Linguistically, slang can be viewed as a sub-dialect. It is hardly used
in writing - except for stylistic effect. People resort to slang because it is more
forceful, vivid and expressive than standard usage. Slangy words are rough,
often scornful, estimative and humorous. They are completely devoid of
intelligence, moral, virtue, hospitality, sentimentality and other human values.
 Look how long, diverse and expressive the chain of slangy synonyms denoting
"money" is: cly, moo, queer, lettuce, lolly, sea-coal, green goods, hay,
shoestring, bean, bread, crap, salad, soap, sugar, iron, balsam, jack, pile, dust,
tin, brass, fat, rocks, chips, corn, red, sand, oil, shells, etc.

REVISION MA TERIAL
Suggested Assignments on Lecture 2
1. Be ready to d
2. Discuss the st
ultimate development of Modern English.
3. Give illustrati
4. Give example
5. Be ready to di
6. Give commen
borrowings into English.
7. Comment on
8. Give a few ex
9. What can you
10. Is mere any co
it?
11. What are sem
12. What is the di
hybrids?
 EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Rearrange the following words according to their origin.

1. Cattle, cow, horse, ox, pig, sheep, cat, goat.
2. Meat, beef, calf, mutton, veal.
3. Baker, butcher, fisherman, painter, shoemaker, tailor, weaver.
4. Baron, count, lady, lord, duke, madam, sir, monsieur.
Exercise 2. Comment on the etymology of the following words.
Define the approximate period of their borrowing.
Balalaika, beluga, borshch, Boyar, carp, Cheka, Cossack, droshky, duma,
Hetman, hopak, knout, koumiss, kulak, Kremlin, kvass, makhorka, muzhik,
nihilist, pogrom, pood, rouble sable, samovar, sarafan, seech, sewruga, sputnik,
steppe, sterlet, soviet, taiga, tsar, tundra, ukase, verst, vodka, voivode, zemstvo.
Exercise 3. Comment on the etymology of the following groups of
words.
a) Canoe, chocolate, cigar, cocoa, comrade, maize, mango, negro, tomato,
vanilla;
b) cobalt, leitmotiv, nickel, rucksack, swan-song, waltz; zinc;
c) ass, clan, Tory, whisky;
d) banana, port, vcranda(h), zebra;
e) deck, rabbit, skipper, yacht;
f) divan, khaki, kiosk, margarine, rice;
g) mazurka;
h) polka;
i) silk, tea;
j) caftan, coffee.
Exercise 4. Explain the etymology of the following words.
Sputnik, kindergarten, opera, piano, potato, tomato, droshky, czar, violin, coffee,
cocoa, colonel, alarm, cargo, blitzkrieg, steppe, komsomol, banana, balalaika.
Exercise 5. Read the following text. Identify the etymology of as many
words as you can.

The Roman Occupation

For some reason the Romans neglected to overrun the country with fire and
sword, though they had both of these; in fact after the Conquest they did not
mingle with the Britons at all but lived a semi-detached life in villas. They
occupied their time for two or three hundred years in building Roman roads and
having Roman Baths, this was called the Roman Occupation, and gave rise to
the memorable Roman law, 'He who baths first baths fast', which was a good
thing and still is. The Roman roads ran absolutely straight in all the directions
and all led to Rome. The Romans also built towns wherever they were wanted,
and, in addition, a wall between England and Scotland to keep out the savage
Picts and Scots.
(From 1066 and All That by C. W. Sellar, R. J. Yeatman)
Exercise 6. Mind the following Latin roots. Give words containing
these roots.
audio – слухати; porto – носити, доставляти;
centum – сто; scribe, scriptum – писати, написаний;
circus – круг; specto – дивитися;
civilis – цивільний, громадський, video – бачити, зір;
державний; visus- видіння;
lingua – мова, мовлення vita – життя.
Exercise 7. Give modern English equivalents of the following
abbreviations of Latin origin.
A.D. (Anno Domini), a.m. (ante meridiem), d (dinarius), e.g. (exempli gratia),
etc. (et cetera), i.e. (id est), lb (librae), op.cit. (opus citatum), p.a. (per anum),
p.m. (post meridiem), s (solidi), v.v. (Wee versa).
Exercise 8. Arrange the following Latin borrowings in groups according to
the period of their borrowing.
Altar, angel, animal, ass, beet, bishop, butter, camp, candle, cap, chalk, cross,
cup, devil, dish, fork, genius, inch, index, item, junior, kettle, kitchen, linen,
marble, maximum, mile, mill, minimum, monk, mule, oil, palm, pea, peach, pear,
pearl, pepper, pine, plant, plum, port, pound, priest, school, senior, series, spade,
stratum, street, tiger, veto, wall, wine.
Exercise 9. Arrange the following names of geographical places into two
groups according to their origin (Celtic and Latin).
Aberdeen, Avon, Chester, Concaster, Dover, Dunbar, Dundee, Gloucester,
Kent, Lancaster, Lincoln, Manchester, Trent, Thames, Worcester, Winchester,
Leicester.
Exercise 10. Mind the following Greek roots. Supply words containing
these roots. Illustrate the meaning of these words by the examples of your
own.
autos, automates – сам; logos – вчення;
bios – життя; onoma – ім’я;
chronos, chronikos – час; phone – звук;
demos – народ; phos, photos – світло;
grapho – писати; scopeo – спостерігати;
homos – однаковий; tele – далеко.
lexis, lexicon – слово, словник;
Exercise 11. Mind the following Italian borrowings. Comment on the
sphere of life they are used in.
Adagio, allegro, alt, aria, baritone, bass, bust, colonnade, concert, corridor,
fiasco, fresco, granite, influenza, libretto, macaroni, miniature, opera, operetta,
piano, primadonna, quartet, revolt, solo, sonata, soprano, studio, tempo, trio,
umbrella.
Exercise 12. Arrange the following borrowings of Scandinavian origin in
groups according to the part of speech they belong to.
Anger, birth, both, call, cast, clip, die, doze, fellow, flat, gate, get, glitter,
happen, happy, hasten, heaven, hit, husband, ill, knife, lift, loose, low, meek, odd,
raise, root, saga, same, scatter, sister, skill, skin, sky, sly, struggle, take, they,
though till, ugly, want, weak, window, wing, wrong.

Exercise 13. Comment on the phonetic and graphic peculiarities of

the following French borrowings.
1. Champagne, chic, chauffeur, machine.
2. Detente, liason, poste restante, restaurant.
3.Beige, bourgeois, bourgeoisie, garage, genre, prestige, regime, sabotage.
4. Closure, exposure, leisure, measure, pleasure, seizure, treasure.
5. Conservatoire, memoirs, repertoire, reservoir.
6. Ballet, bouquet, corps, debris, debut, depot.
7. Attache, cafe, cliche, fiance, fiancee, resume, foyer, communique.
8. Balloon, cartoon, platoon, saloon.
9. Antique, critique, physique, technique.
10. Employee, referee.
11. Engineer, racketeer.
12. Cadet, cigarette, coquette, etiquette, gazette, silhouette
13. Fatigue, intrigue.
14. Naive, marine, elite.
15. Provocateur, saboteur.
16. Millionaire, questionnaire.
17. Tete-a-tete, vis-a-vis, coup d'etat, table d'hote, a la carte.
Exercise 14. Arrange the following French borrowings into three
groups according to the degree of their assimilation:
a) fully assimilated,
b) partially assimilated,
c) unassimilated.
Act, aim, arm, art, autumn, ball, bank, baron, beauty, beef, bon mot, branch,
brilliant, butcher, capital, captain, chauffeur, city, close, colleague, command,
commence, coup d'etat, count, courage, crime, cry, decide, degree, delight,
emperor, employee, etiquette, exposure, face, fatigue, finance, foyer, fruit,
garage, gazette, genre, honour, hour, large, legal, leisure, machine, madam,
magazine, marine, measure, minister, monsieur, mutton, naive, nation, nice,
office, pass, pleasure, poet, restore.
Exercise 15. Arrange the following French borrowings into:
a) law terms,
b) military terms,
c) religious terms,
d) cookery terms,
e) art terms,
f) medical terms.
Accuse, admiral, army, arrest, art, bacon, banner, battle, bible, boil, cadet,
clergy, colour, conquest, court, defence, dinner, fatigue, fortress, fruit, genre, gout,
image, jelly, judge, ice, malady, music, mutton, ornament, pain, paradise, pastry,
pray, pulse, remedy, saint, sausage, siege, soldier, song, up, surgeon, talent, taste,
toast, tragedy, veal, vinegar, war.
Exercise 16. Arrange the following French borrowings into groups of
words denoting:
a) names of professions,
b) state and government notions,
c) terms of architecture,
d) things of everyday life.
Air, arch, architect, barber, butcher, cabinet, castle, ceiling, clock, column,
coat, dress, face, fashion, flower, frock, gown, minister, office, painter, palace,
parliament, place, porch, public, state, table, tailor, towel, tower, vase.

Exercise 17. Mind the following translation-loans. State the language they
came from.
Blitzkrieg, bon mot, collective farm, coup d'etat, enfant terrible, kindergarten,
leitmotiv, persona grata, prima donne swan-song, tete-a-tete.
Exercise 18. a) State the origin of the following translation loans, b)
Translate them into Ukrainian/Russian.
blue-stocking, the fair sex, Fatherland, fellow-traveller, first dancer, heel of
Achilles, knight errant, lightning way, local colouring, the moment of truth,
mother tongue, pen name, Procrustean bed, self-criticism, Sisyphean labour, a slip
of the tongue, surplus value, swan song, sword of Damocles, thing-in-itself,
vicious circle, wonder child, word combination, world-famous.
Exercise 19. Comment on etymological doublets. Explain the origin and
formation of the following doublets.
Abbreviate - abridge; hospital - hostel, hotel;
cavalry - chivalry; goal-jail;
captain - chieftain; major - mayor;
artist - artiste; pauper - poor;
liquor - liqueur; senior - sir;
rout - route; canal - channel;
suit - suite; legal - loyal;
salon - saloon; skirt - shirt;
shade - shadow; nay - no.
of- off;
Exercise 20. a) Compare the meaning of the following etymological
doublets. State their origin, b) Translate the doublets into
Ukrainian/Russian.
eatable - edible, cathedral - chair,
naked - nude, deacon - dean,
nine - noon; papyrus - paper;
bench - bank, chief- chef,
corn - grain, hostel - hotel,
lapel - label, saloon - salon,
name - noun, sergeant - servant,
ward - guard, suit — suite;
word - verb; camp - campus,
draw - drag, cross - crux,
hale - hail, inch - ounce,
shabby - scabby, street -stratum;
shirt - skirt, canal - channel,
shriek - screech; card - chart.
Exercise 21. State the origin of the following etymological doublets.
Compare their meanings and explain why they are called etymological
doublets.
1. captain - chief tan, canal - channel, cart - chart.
2. shirt - skirt, shriek - screech, shrew - screw.
3. gaol -jail, corpse - corps, travel - travail.
4. shadow - shade, off- of, dike - ditch.
Exercise 22. Comment on international words. Arrange the following
International words into groups taking into account the sphere of life and
man's activities they refer to:
a) scientific,
b) cultural,
c) technical,
d) political.

Motor, sputnik, concert, constitution, evolution, phonetics, drama, parliament,

decree, telegraph, meeting, pact, melody, history, lecture, republic, tractor, allegro,
revolution, radio, dialectics, formula, gas, nylon, sport, club, bank, comedy,
materialism, opera, jazz, civil, lyric, stadium, poet, analysis, cybernetics, satellite,
rector, idea, film, electron, biology, idealism, robot, computer, printer.
Exercise 23. Arrange the following international words into groups
according to their origin.
Comedy, opera, sport, character, drama, parliament, regime, biology, music,
system, class, rector, analysis, poet.
Exercise 24. From the list below pick up international words, words which
have partial equivalents in Ukrainian/Russian and false friends of translator:
test object decade process
address figure faculty minister
objective collection notation journal
pilot data model expression
novel negative license order
scholar complement problem category
expertise specialization regular academic
coupe selection routine presentation
concern anonymous formalism final
control intelligence concrete technique
 LECTURE 3. THE MORPHEMIC STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH
WORD
Plan
1. Morphemes.
2. Root morphemes.
3. Affixes (prefixes, suffixes).
4. Stems.
5. Structural types of English words:

1. Morphemes

The problem associated the definition of the word unit have always been
most complex and remain disputable in the analysis of linguistic structure in
our day. Determining the word unit involves considerable difficulties for the
criteria employed in establishing it are of different character and each language
presents a separate system with its own patterns of vocabulary items, its
speckle types of structural units and its own way of distinguishing them. The
feet of the matter is that words being the most elementary unities of sound and
meaning ("a naming meaningful unit of "(N.M. Rayevskaya), nevertheless fall
into smaller meaningful structural units or morphemes and phrases.
Distinction must be made between a word and the other fundamental
linguistic unit, a morpheme.
The word "morpheme" is one more term which linguistics owns to Greek
(morphe - form + -eme); the Greek suffix -eme has been readily adopted to
denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature (Cf.: phoneme,
sememe, lexeme, grammeme, opposeme).
Morpheme is the smallest unit with meaning into which a word can be
divided, e.g. "run-s" contains two morphemes and "un-like-ly" contains three
morphemes.
Morphemes may be identified as an association of a given meaning with a
given sound pattern but they are not independent, although a word may consist
of a single morpheme. Nor are they divisible into smaller meaningful units.
2. Root morphemes
From the semantic point of view all morphemes are subdivided into two
large classes: root morphemes (roots) and affixational morphemes (affixes).
The root is the primary element of the word, its basic part, which conveys its
fundamental lexical meaning (it's the lexical nucleus of a word). It shows the
main significance of the word. It is common to a set of words that make up a
lexical word-cluster, e.g. act in act, actor, action, active, inactive; theor- in
Iheory, theorist, theoretician, theoretical, etc. There exist many roots, which
coincide with root-words, e.g. man, son, desk, tree, black, red, see, look, etc.

3. Affixes
 Affix is a letter or a group of letters added to the beginning or the end of a
word to change its meaning or the way it is used. Thus, affixes modify the
meaning of the root morpheme.
The affixes, in their turn, fall into prefixes, which precede the root (unhappy,
rewrite, discover, impossible, misbehaviour, etc.) and suffixes, which follow the
root (friendship, peaceful, worker, teaching, realize, calmly, etc.
4. Stems
A part of a word, which remains unchanged in all forms of its paradigm (a set
of all the different forms of a word: verb paradigms), is called a stem (which is
more of grammatical nature). According to Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary a stem is the main part of a word that remains the same when endings
are added to it.
"Writ" is the stem of the forms "writes", "writing" and "written"; "girl"-
in "girls", "girl's"; "darken" - in "darkens", darkened", "darkening".
All sorts of inflections (endings) when added to the stem influence its
grammatical meaning and make a word form; a stem joined to another stem
makes a compound word. It stands to reason that one and the same root can
produce many stems, e.g. act - acting, active, activity, actor, actress, actual,
actuality).
Not all affix morphemes have equal power. Suffixes have a part-of-speech-
forming force while prefixes mostly modify the meaning of words; but there are
instances when prefixes serve to make another part of speech (e.g. rich-enrich,
slave-enslave, large-enlarge, etc.).
Stems that coincide with roots are known as simple or root stems, e.g. boy's,
trees, reads, etc.
Stems that contain one or more affixes are derived stems. The potential
meaning of suffixes modifies the meaning of the root, the lexical nucleus. E.g.
teacher's, misfires, governments, undecipherable, etc.
Binary stems comprising two simple or derived stems are called compound
stems, e.g. machine-gunner's, ex-film-star, gentlemanly, school-boyish, etc.
From the structural point of view morphemes fell into three types: free
morphemes, bound morphemes, and semi-bound morphemes.
A free morpheme can stand alone as a word, e.g. friendly, friendship (cf. a
friend).
Bound morphemes occur only as constituent parts of words. In other words,
they cannot function as words. E.g. freedom, greatly, poetic, depart, adrift,
enlarge, dishonest, misprint; conceive, deceive, receive; desist, resist, subsist,
etc.
Semi-bound morphemes can function both as affixes and as free morphemes
(i.e. words). Cf. after, half, man, well, self and after-thought, half-baked
chairman, well-known, himself.
In Modern English one can often meet morphemes of Greek and Latin
origin, which have definite lexical meaning though are not used as
autonomous words, e.g. tele - "far", scope - "seeing", graph - "writing", etc.

Such morphemes are usually called combining forms or bound root

morphemes.
Positional variants of a morpheme are known as allomorphs. Thus the prefix
in (intransitive, involuntary) can be represented by allomorph il- (illegal,
illiteracy), im- (immortal, impatience), ir- (irregular, irresolute).
Several morphemes are polysemic, i.e. a certain form, being a component of
words, which belong to the same part of speech, can express different
meanings. Cf. bluish (a.):: Spanish (a); baker (n.):: boiler (n); sculptor (n)::
reactor (n.).
Homonymic morphemes have the same form and different meaning, being
components of words that belong to different parts of speech, e.g. quickly
(adj.):: lovely (a.); soften (v.):: silken (a.). One should distinguish between the
homonymy of derivational affixes, on the one hand, and the homonymy of such
affixes and inflexions, on the other, e.g. worker (n.):: longer (comp. d. of a.);
golden (a.):: taken (Past part).
5. Structural types of English words
English words fall into four main structural types:
a) simple words (root words) which have only a root morpheme in their
structure, e.g. sky, go, look, bright, long, etc.;
b) derived words (affixational derivatives) which consist of a root and one
or more affixes, e.g. joyful, remake, undo, childhood, disagreement,
reproductive, indifference, etc.;
c) compound words (compounds) in which two or more stems are
combined into a lexical unit, e.g. classroom, whitewash, salesgirl, snow-white,
speedometer, forget-me-not, blacklist, etc.;
d) derivational compounds in which phrase components are joined
together by means of compounding and affixation, e.g. long-legged, black-
eyed, oval-shaped, bald-headed strong-willed etc.
There exists a more complicated classification of the structural types of words.
It takes into account the varieties of root morphemes, the positions of affixes as
regards the root, and some other factors.
1. Simple words
1. R- big, tank, stop, now.
2. R(fr) - zoo, (zoological), lab (laboratory), pop (popular).
//. Derived words
3. R+ S -baker, friendship, acceptable, realize.
4. R (fr) + S - combo (combination), psycho (psychic).
5. R (b) + S - theory, barbarism.
6. P + R - outdo, rewrite, mistrust.
7. P + R (b) - receive, perceive, deceive.
8. P+R+S - disagreeable, discouragement, misinterpretation.
III. Compound words
9. R+R-time-table, schoolgirl, jet-black.
10. R (fr) + R (fr) - smog (smoke + fog), brunch (breakfast + lunch).
11. R (b) + R(b) - telescope, microphone, telegraph.

12. R+I+R - handicraft, gasometer, statesman.

 13. (R+S) + R- safety-belt, wedding-finger, writing-table.
14. R+(R + S) - sky-jumping, vote-catching, pen-holder.
15.R+ F + R- stay-at-home, fly-by-night, hide-and-seek.
IV. Derivational compounds
16. (R +R) + S - light-minded, snub-nosed, long-legged.
Conventional signs:
R - root; R (fr) - root fragment; R (b) - bound root; S - suffix; P - prefix; I -
interfix; F - function word.
Morphological structure of words can be determined by the special
synchronic method known as the analysis into immediate and ultimate
constituents (ICs and UCs). This method is based on the binary principle. It
means that the analysis proceeds in stages, and at each stage the word or a
part of it is segmented into two immediate constituents. Such successive
segmentation results in ultimate constituents that defy any further division,
e.g.:
Denationalize
1. denationalize de / nationalize;
2. nationalize national / ize;
3. national —► nation / al.
Hence, the UCs of the word denationalize are: de / nation / al / ize.

REVISION MATERIAL
1. Be ready to discuss the subject matter of morphological structure of English
words.
2. Tell about root morphemes.
3. What do you know about affixes?
4. Give examples to show different types of sterns.
5. What are the main structural types of English words?
6. What can you tell about simple or root words.
7. Comment on the derived words.
8. Give comment on the compound words.
9. How can you explain the formation of compound-derived words in English?
 EXERCISES
Exercise 1. a) Make the morphemic analysis of the following words, b)
Translate the words into UkrainianRussian.
act, ailment, air, asymmetry, beggarly, chairman, childishness, conclude,
democratic, disturbance, drawback, eatable, eliminate, everydayness,
expressionless, eyelet, fact, footballer, foretell, gentlemanly, governmental,
honeymooner, illegal, illumination, illumine, illustrate, immeasurable,
immovable, inflammability, innovation, irrelevance, landmark, loveworthy,
marriage, matter-of-factness, monopolize, old-ladyish, outstay, pot, power,
prospective, receive, self-praise, serve, troublesome, undernourishment,
unsystematic, voyage, warmonger, winter, womanishness, workmanship, zeal.
Exercise 2. Classify the stems of the words given below into simple,
derived, compound, free, bound, semi-bound.
babylike, bluebell, blue-eyed, book, busload, cameraman, colour-blindness,
crossing, document, dusty, enrich, fashionmonger, foolishness, foresee,
furnitureless, gladden, granulate, headachy, homeless, hyperslow, irresponsibility,
kind-heartedness, look, old-maidish, playwright, purify, reddish, resist,
rewrite, shock-proof, shoemaker, small, snow-whiteness, sunflower, take,
tnickload, trustworthy, unbutton, unfriendliness, unpleasantness.

Exercise 3. Comment on structural types of words. Arrange the following

words into:
a) simple,
b) derived,
c) compounds,
d) derivational compounds.
Railway, child, childish, bald-headed, toy, mute, deaf, deaf-mute, act. actor, long-
legged, dark, darkness, friend, friendship, everything, boyishness, open-hearted,
daytime, narrow-minded, whatever, big, biggish, space, spaceman, old, old-timer,
teenager, ill, ill-mannered, double, fame, famous, norm, normal, sunrise, timesaving,
sharp, sharpen, hand, handful, handy, moon, honey-mooner, week-end, bare, leg, bare-
legged, three-coloured, film, film-star, mistress, breakdown, overgrow, light-blue.
Exercise 4. Arrange the following words into three groups: those having:
a) free stems;
b) bound stems;
c) semi-bound sterns.
Public, voyage, boyish, disarrange, manly, freedom, vital, waiter, experience,
businesslike, annual, speechless, careful, policeman, well-known, half-done, personal,
difference, patience, untrue, longish, length, likely, terrorist, unselfish, tremendous,
famous, weekly.
Exercise 5. Comment on simple stems and derived stems. Arrange the
following words into two groups:
a) those having simple stems,
b) those having derived stems.
Hearty, heartily, organise, organised, consciously, boyish, boyishness, enslave,
en-slavery, effortless, boxer, princess, quickly, familiarity, brutality, singer, steadiness,
courageous, worker, boiled, appearance.
 Exercise 6. Give the definition of a root-morpheme. Define roots in the
following sets of words.
Bake, baker, bakery; civil, civilian, civilise, civilised, civilisation; collect,
collection, collector, collective, collectivisation; differ, difference, different,
differential, differentiate; gentle, gentleman, gentility, gentleness, genteel, gently;
please, pleasant, pleasure; describe, prescribe, inscribe; success, successful,
unsuccessful, successfully, succession, successor, successive; porter, transport,
import, export.

Exercise 7. Comment on the derivational suffix -s in the following nouns.

authority 1) авторитет, 2) влада authorities адміністрація
cloth 1) тканина, 2) ганчірка clothes одяг
colour колір colours прапор
custom звичай customs митниця
development розвиток developments події
direction напрямок directions інструкція
duty обов’язок duties 1)службові обов’язки,
2) мито
draught тяга, протяг draughts шашки
glass 1) скло, 2) склянка glasses окуляри
honour честь honours шана
humanity людство humanities гуманітарні науки
picture картина pictures кіно
power сила, міць powers повноваження
talk бесіда talks переговори
work робота works 1) завод, 2) збірка праць
Exercise 8. Translate the following sentences. Choose those cases in which
the suffix -s is derivational.
1. Where are my glasses? I can't see anything without them. 2. There was
an explosion in the glass works some days ago. 3. Time works wonders. 4.
Why do you scatter yourself in so many directions? 5. Follow the directions
and everything will be all right. 6. "What does she study?" "The humanities."
7. His grandfather was buried with military honours. 8. All the travellers
must go through the customs. 9. Each country has its own customs, and if you
live in this country you must know them. 10.I am very sensitive to draughts. 11.
He usually beats me at draughts. 12. Let's discuss the latest developments. 13.
We have no powers to solve such problems. 14. Don't exceed your powers.
Exercise 9. Arrange the following into compounds and free word-groups.
Railway, railway station, railway carriage, neck-lace, necktie, velvet
jacket, blue jacket, government office, office-boy, office-girl, mother's mark,
punctuation mark, excellent mark, below the mark, mother tongue, mother
bee, mother-in-law, black sheep, sheep-dog, sheep skin, old oak, oak-tree,
dancing-hall, dancing girl, stone wall, stone-blind.
Exercise 10. Classify the following compounds according to the part of
speech they belong to.
Age-old, home-made, anything, skin-deep, killjoy, yes-man, salesman, ill-
fitting, whitewash, three-room, first-rate, metal-cutting, baby-sit, haymaker,
water-proof, handshake, well-bred, tender-hearted, whatever, anybody, one-
sidedly, never-to-be-forgotten, himself, bottleneck, widespread, old-looking,
sunbathe, whoever, third-rate, clean-shaven, hairdresser, hair-do, well-wisher,
oak-tree, life-long.
 Exercise 11. Arrange the following compounds according to the
type of composition and the linking elements into:
a) those formed by juxtaposition;
b) those with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element;
c) those with linking elements represented by conjunctions and
prepositions.
Man-of-war, editor-in-chief, undertaker, looking-glass, get-at-able, stay-
at-home, red-hot, butter-fingers, lady-bird, up-to-date, officer-in-charge,
workday, Anglo-American, speedometer, midday, hide-and-seek, frying-pan,
sick-leave, handicraft, salesman, electroplate, queen-bee, fine-looking,
washing-machine, high-heeled, touch-me-not, cherry-orchard, servant-of-all-
work, saleslady, note-book, give-and-take, well-to-live, mother-in-
law, gas-mask, fountain-pen, sunburnt, inlet, black-eyed, bloodiest, night-
flight, oil-rich, factory-packed, waste-paper-basket, once-a-year, do-it-yourself,
difficult-to-learn, nearby, deep-cut, far-gone, hard-working, peace-loving.
Exercise 12. Classify the following compounds into:
a) co-ordinative,
b) subordinative.
Frontbenchers, mother-of-thousands, sea-coast, dining-room, person-to-person,
blue-eyed, criss-cross, pine-apple, pigtail, carefree, motorcycle, acid-resisting,
first-hand, war-damaged, fifty-fifty, oil-poor, fire-proof, play-ground, sunrise,
blue-berry, crystal-clear, man-eater, good-for-nothing, walking stick, skyscraper,
cinema-goer, lamp-shade, hot-dog, odd-looking, record-breaking, two-room,
second-hand, thick-skinned, lazy-bones, frost-resistant, all-destroying, self-
analysis, whole-hearted.
Exercise 13. Comment on the meaning of the following compounds.
Pick out compounds in which the semantic integrity is idiomatic in
character.
1. Buttercup, butterfish, butterfingers, butterfly.
2. Dog-cheap, dog-days, dog-hole, dog-Latin, dog-lead, dog-rose, dog's ear, dog-
sleep, dog-skin.
3. Ladybird, lady-chair. Lady Day, lady-in-waiting, lady-killer, lady's finger.
4. Motherland, mother-of-pearl, mother-of-thousands, mother-ship, mother's
mark, mother-in-law.
5. Wall-flower, wall-eye, wallpaper, wall-painting, wall-pier, Wall Street.
6. Cowboy, doughboy, post-boy, pot-boy, stableboy.
7. Cold-blooded, hot-blooded, bloodthirsty.
8. Bare-headed, bald-headed, pig-headed, thick-headed, wooden-headed.
9. Cross-eyed, dim-eyed, eagle-eyed, hollow-eyed, green-eyed, round-eyed, sharp-
eyed, single-eyed, sleepy-eyed, wild-eyed, blue-eyed.
10. Black-hearted, chicken-hearted, cold-hearted, cruel-heaited, light-hearted, lion-
hearted, noble-hearted, soft-hearted, stony-hearted.
11. Home-bird, homebody, home-bred, home-comer, home-coming, homecraft,
home-folk, homeland, home-made, home-sick, home-sickness, home-work.
12. Red-bearded, red bird, red-blind, red-blooded, red-book.
Exercise 14. Find examples of converted verbs in the following sentences.
Translate these sentences into Ukrainian/Russian.
1. Mother stopped ladling the broth. (Cr.) 2. It's hardly becoming in a
gentleman approaching middle age who's chained to an invalid bed. (Mg.) 3. Our
appointment was timed for 10 a.m. (Pr.) 4. His wife was dogged by ill health. (Cr.)
5. How can you stomach all that? (HI.) 6. Shouldering their guns, they disappeared
into the woods. (Ln.) 7. The silence lengthened and she eyed at him. (G.) 8. They
valued their lives. (H.) 9. The call echoed down the empty passage like a mocking
laughter. (Tw.) 10. "What is money after all!" said MrDombey backing his chair a
little. (D.) II. So intolerable did this seem to him that he was very near to
telegraphing an excuse and staying up. (G.) 12. She had wired that it would be
Friday. (G.) 13. Pocket your pride. (Mg.) 14. Sighing he dipped his brush and
began to whitewash. (Tw.) 15. For some years now they had not even roomed
together. (Dr.)
Exercise 15. Comment on the meaning of the following converted verbs. Use
them in sentences of your own.
ape —> to ape face —> to face
arm —> to arm finger —> to finger
back —> to back fish —> to fish
dog —> to dog head —> to head
duck —> to duck line —> to line
dress —> to dress pocket —> to pocket
Exercise 16. Compare the following pairs of nouns and adjectives.
Comment on their meanings. Use the adjectives in sentences of your own.
camp (n.) - camp (a.); cloth-cap (n.) - cloth-cap (a.); cod (n.) - cod (a.); jet-set
(n.) -jet-set (a.); looking-glass (n.) - looking-glass (a.); mixed-media (n.) ~
mixed-media (a.); no-growth (n.) - no-growth (a.); no-lead (n.) - no-lead (a.);
nuts-and-bolts (n.) - nuts-and-bolts (a.); platinum (n.) - platinum (a.); redbrick
(n.) - redbrick (a.); soul (n.) - soul (a.).
 LECTURE 4. WORD FORMATION
Plan
1. Word-formation. General notes.
2. Affixation.
3. Compounding (Composition).
4. Reduplication.
5. Phrasal verbs.
6. Conversion
7. Substantivation.
8. Adjectivization.
9. Phrasal nouns.
10. Shortening.
11. Abbreviation.
12. Back-formation (Reversion).
13. Blending.
14. Minor types of word-formation: change of stress.
15. Sound interchange (Gradation).
16. Sound imitation (Onomatopoeia).
17. Lexicalization of the plural of nouns.

1. Word-formation
Word-formation is the process of creating new words from the material available in
the word-stock according to certain structural and semantic patterns specific for the
given language.
Various types of word-formation in Modern English possess different degrees of
productivity. Some of them are highly-productive (affixation, conversion,
substantivation, compounding, shortening, forming phrasal verbs); others are semi-
productive (back-forming, blending, reduplication, lexicalization of the plural of
nouns, sound-imitation), and non-productive (sound interchange, change of stress).
2. Affixation
Affixation is a word-formative process in which words are created by adding word-
building affixes to stems. Affixation includes preftxation, i.e. forming new words with
the help of prefixes, and suffixation, i.e. forming new words with the help of suffixes.
From etymological point of view affixes are classified according to their origin into
native (e.g. -er, -nese, -ing, un-, mis-, etc.) and borrowed (Romanic, e.g. -tion, -ment,
-ance, -re-, sub-, etc.; Greek, e,g. -ist, -ism, anti-, etc.).
Affixes can also be classified into productive (e.g.-er, -ness, -able, -y, -ize, un- re-,
dis- etc.) and non-productive (e.g. -th, -hood, -en, -ous, etc.).
Affixes and a root constitute the meaning of the word, the root morpheme forming
its semantic centre, affixes playing a dependent role in the meaning of the word.
Prefixes and suffixes are semantically distinctive, they have their own meaning.
Affixes and a root constitute the meaning of the word, the root morpheme forming its
semantic centre, affixes playing a dependent role in the meaning of the word.
Prefixes change or concretize the meaning of the word. The main word-building
prefixes are:
 a) prefixes with a negative meaning (e.g. un-, in-, il-, ir-, im-, dis-, de-, non-);
b) prefixes with different meanings (e.g. anti-, co-, counter-, inter-, mis-, over-,
en-, post-, pre-, re-, self, semi-, sub-, ultra-, super-, undre-).
Suffixes have a grammatical meaning they indicate or derive a certain part of speech.
Most of frequently used suffixes are:
a) noun-forming: -er, (-or), -tion (-sion), -ity, -ance, -ence, -ment, -ness, -ics, -
ture, -sure, -age, -ing;
b) verb-forming: -ize, (-ise), -fy (-ify), -en, -ate;
c) adjective-forming: -able, -ible, -al, (-ial), -fill, -less, -ive;
d) adverb-forming: -ly; -ward (-wards).
3. Compounding (Composition)
Compounds are words produced by combining two or more stems, which occur in
the language as free forms. They may be classified proceeding from different criteria:
-according to the parts of speech to which they belong (e.g. cut-throat, shoe-maker-
compound nouns, watch making , tooth-picker- verbal compound nouns; bring up,
sit down - compound verbs, life-giving, long-tailed - compound adjectives, etc.);
-according to the means of composition used to link their ICs (immediate
constituents) together (e.g. classroom, timetable, H-bomb, grey-green, etc);
-according to the structure of their ICs (e.g. gasometre, handicraft, Anglo-Saxon,
etc.);
-according to their semantic characteristics (e.g forget-me-not, up-to-date, son-in-
law, etc).
The classification of compounds according to the means of joining their ICs together
distinguishes between the following structural types:
1) juxtapositional (neutral) compounds whose ICs are merely placed one after
another: classroom, timetable, heartache, whitewash, hunting-knife, weekend, grey-
green, deep-blue, U-turn, etc.;
2) morphological compounds whose ICs joined together with a vowel or a
consonant as a linking element, e.g. gasometre, sportsman, saleswoman,
electromotive, postman, etc.;
3) syntactic compounds (integrated phrases) which are the result of the
process of semantic isolation and structural integration of free word-groups, e.g.
blackboard (>black board), highway (>high way), forget-me-not (>forget me not),
bull's eye, go-between, known-all, brother-in-law, upside-down, etc.
The classification of compounds according to the structure of their ICs includes the
following groups:
Group 1. Compounds consisting of simple stems: railway, key-board, snow-white,
bookshelf, scarecrow, browbeat, etc.
Group 2. Compounds where at least one of the ICs is a derived stem: chain-smoker,
shoe-maker, pen-holder, snow-covered, moon-tit, price-reduction, etc.
Group 3, Compounds where at least one of the ICs is a clipped stem: photo-intelligence,
bacco-box, maths- mistress, T-shirt, TV-set, X-mas, etc.
Group 4. Compounds where at least one of the ICs is a compound stem: wastepaper-
basket, newspaper-ownership, etc.
 Note: Compounds of Group 2 should not be mixed with derivational compounds
(Group 5) in which the second component doesn't occur as a free form. Derivational
compounds are built by adding a suffix to phrases of the A+N, N+N, Num+N type.
Cf: chain-smoker (N + (V = -er)):: slim-waisted ((A + N) + -ed).
In many English words one can find unstressed stems approaching the status of
derivational affixes. They have generalized meaning and their combining capacity is
very great. Such morphemes are called semi-affixes.
Semi-affixes can be used in preposition (semi-prefixes, e.g.: half-, ill-, mini-, midi-,
maxi-, self-) and in postposition (semi-suffixes, e.g. -man, -land, -monger, -wright, -
worthy, -proof, -like, -way(s)).
4. Reduplication
In reduplication compounds are made by doubling a stem (often a pseudomorpheme).
Reduplicative compounds fall into three main subgroups:
1) Reduplicative compounds proper whose ICs are identical in their form, e.g.:
murmur, bye-bye, blah-blah, pooh-pooh, goody-goody, etc.
2) Ablaut (gradational) compounds whose ICs have different root-vowels, e.g: riff-
raff, dilly-dally, ping-pong, chit-chat, singsong, etc.
3) Rhyme compounds whose ICs are joined to rhyme, e.g.: willy-nilly, helter-
skelter, hoity-toity, namby-pamby, walkie-talkie, etc.
5. Phrasal verbs.
Phrasal verbs are combinations of a verb and adverb or a verb and preposition (or verb
with both adverb and preposition).
Phrasal verbs may be either non-idiomatic or idiomatic. Non-idiomatic phrasal verbs can
retain their primary local meaning, e.g.: come in, come out, come out of, take off, put
down, etc. They may also have a kind of perfective colouring, e.g. add up, eat up, drink
up, swallow up, rise up, etc.
In idiomatic compounds meaning cannot be derived from ICs, e.g.: bring up -
виховувати, bear out - підтверджувати, give in – піддаватися, fall out - сваритися,
take in - обманювати, etc.
In modern English fiction one can often come across verbs which denote an action and at
the same time modify it in occasional colligations with prepositions or adverbs e.g. He
then tiptoed down to dinner. We forced our way into the buffet.
6. Conversion
Conversion is a special type of affixless derivation where a newly-formed word acquires
a paradigm and syntactic functions different from those of the original word (by
conversion we mean derivation of a new word from the stem of a different part of
speech without the adding of any formatives).
As a result the two words are homonymous, having the same morphological structure
and belonging to different parts of speech. As a matter of fact, all parts of speech can be
drawn into the wordbuilding process of conversion to a certain extent. Its derivational
patterns are varied, the most widespread among them being N --► V, V N, A —► V.
For example: N+V: a face-to face, a walk-to walk, a tube - to tube, a pen - to pen. V
—>N: to make-a make, to bite-a bite, to smoke - a smoke, to talk - a talk.
A—>V: narrow-to narrow, empty-to empty, cool-to cool.
 7. Substantiation
Substantivation is the process in which adjectives (or participles) acquire the paradigm
and syntactic functions of nouns. One should distinguish two main types of
substantivation: complete and partial.
Completely substantivized adjectives have the full paradigm of a noun, i.e. singular and
plural case forms. They may be associated with various determiners (definite, indefinite
and zero articles, demonstrative and possessive pronouns, etc.), e.g. an official, the
official, officials, the officials, official's, officials \ this official, our officials, etc.
Complete substantivation is often regarded as a pattern of conversion (A N), though it
may be argued, since, as a rule, it is the result of ellipsis in an attributive phrase: a
conservative politician —► a conservative, a convertible car a convertible.
In the case of partial substantivation adjectives do not acquire the full paradigm of a
noun. They fall into several structural-semantic groups:
a) partially substantivized adjectives (PSA) or participles which are singular in
form though plural in meaning. They are used with the definite article and denote a group
or a class of people, e.g. the rich, the accused, the English, the blind, the twing, etc.;
b) PSA used mostly in the plural and denoting a group or a class of people, e.g.
reds, greens, buffs, blues, etc.
c) PSA used mostly in plural and denoting inanimate things, e.g. sweets, ancients,
eatables, etc.
d) PSA presenting properties as substantive abstract notions, e.g. the good, the
evil, the beautiful, the singular, etc.
e) PSA denoting languages, e.g. English, German, Ukrainian, Italian, etc.
8. Adjectivization
Premodification of nouns by nouns is highly frequent in Modern English. Non-
adjuncts should not be considered as adjectives produced by means of conversion.
Nevertheless, some nouns may undergo the process of adjectivization and function as
attributes with idiomatic meanings, e.g.: coffee-table (n.) —> coffee-table (adj.) - "Of a
large size and richly illustrated."
9. Phrasal nouns
Phrasal nouns are built from phrasal verbs as a result of a combined effect of
compounding, conversion, and change of stress. They consist of ICs identical to those of
the corresponding phrasal verbs, but obtain, as a rule, the single-stress pattern and either
solid or hyphenated spelling, e.g.: to break down —> a breakdown (a break-down).
10. Shortenings
There exist two main ways of shortening: contraction (clipping) and abbreviation (initial
shortening).
Contraction. One should distinguish between four types of contraction:
1) Final clipping (apocope), i.e. omission of the final part of the word, e.g.: doc
(< doctor), lab (< laboratory), mag -(< magazine), prefab (< prefabricated), vegs (<
vegetables), Al (< Albert), Nick (< Nickolas), Phil (< Philip), etc.
2) Initial clipping (apheresis), i.e. omission of the fore part of the word, e.g.: phone
(< telephone), plane (< aeroplane), story (< history), van (< caravan), drome (< airdrome),
Dora (< Theodora), Fred (< Alfred), etc.
 3) Medial clipping (syncope), i.e. omission of the middle part of the word, e.g.:
maths (< mathematics), fancy (< fantasy), specs -(< spectacles), binocs (< binoculars),
through (<thorough), etc.
4) Mixed clipping, where the fore and the final parts of the word are dipped, e.g.:
tec (< detective), flu (<influenza), fridge (< refrigerator), stach (< moustache), Liz (<
Elizabeth), etc.
Contractions may be combined with affixation, i,e. by adding the suffixes -y, -ie, -o,
to clippings, e.g.: hanky (<handkerchief), comfy (<comfortable), unkie (<uncle),
ammo (< Ammunition), etc.
11. Abbreviation
Abbreviations (initial shortenings) are words produced by shortening the ICs of
phrasal terms up to their initial letters. Abbreviations are subdivided into 5 groups:
1) Acronyms which are read in accordance with the rules of orthoepy as
though they were ordinary words, e.g.: UNO /'ju:nou/ (< United Nations
Organization), UNESCO /'ju:'neskou/ (< United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organization), NATO /'neitou/ (< North Atlantic Treaty Organization),
SALT /so:lt/ (<Strategic Arms Limitation Talks), STEM /stem/ (< scanning
transmission electron microscope), radar /reida/ (< radio detecting and ranging), etc.
2) Alphabetic abbreviation in which letters get their full alphabetic
pronunciation and a full stress, e.g.: USA /'ju:es'ei/ (< the United States ofAmerica),
B.B.C. /'bi:'bi:'si:/ (< the British Broadcasting Corporation), M.P. /'em'pi:/ {<
Member of Parliament), F.B.I. /'efbir'ai/ (< FederalBureau of Investigation), etc.
Alphabetic abbreviations are sometimes used for famous persons' names, eg.: B.B.
(< Brigitte Bardot), FDR (< Franklin Delano Roosevelt), G.B.S. (< George Bernard
Shaw), etc.
3)Compound abbreviations in which the first IC is a letter (letters)
and the second a complete word, e.g.: A-bomb ( < atomic bomb), V-day (<
Victory day), Z-hour (< zero hour), L-driver (< learner-driver), ACD solution (<acid
citrate dextrose solution), etc.
One or both ICs of compound abbreviations may be clipped, e.g.: mid-August,
Interpol (< International police), hi-fi (< high fidelity), sci-fic (< science fiction), etc.
4) Graphic abbreviations which are used in texts for economy of space. They
are pronounced as the corresponding unabbreviated words, e.g.: Mr. (< Mister), m. (<
mile), fl. (< foot/feet), v. (< verb), ltd. (< limited), govt. (< government), usu. (<
usually), pp. (< pages, Co (< Company), X-mas (< Christmas), etc.
5) Latin abbreviations which sometimes are not read as Latin words but as
separate letters or are substituted by their English equivalents, e.g.:
i.e. /ai'i:/-that is, a.m. /ei'em/-before midday, in the morning, e.g. -for example, Id. -
in the same place, cf. -compare, etc.
12. Back-formation (Reversion)
Back-formation is the derivation of new words (mostly verbs) by means of
subtracting a suffix or other element resembling it, e.g.: butle < butler, combust <
combustion, greed < greedy, lase < laser, luminisce < luminiscent, sculpt < sculptor,
etc.
 13. Blending
Blending is the formation of new lexical units by means of merging fragments of
words into one new word, or combining the elements of one word with a notional
word, e.g.: smog (< smoke+fog), radiotrician (radio+electrician), drunch
(drinks+lunch), cinemagnate (cinema+magnate), etc.
14. Minor types of word-formation: change of stress
Several nouns and verbs of Romanic origin have a distinctive stress pattern. Such
nouns, as a rule, are forestressed, and verbs have a stress on the second syllable, e.g.
'accent (a):: ac'cent (v.), 'contest (n.):: 'con'test (v.), 'record (n.):: re'cord (v.), etc.
The same distinctive stress pattern is observed in some pairs of adjectives and
verbs, e.g.: 'absent (a):: ab'sent (v.) 'abstract (a) ::ab'stract(v.), etc.
15. Sound interchange (Gradation)
Words belonging to different parts of speech may be differentiated due to the sound
interchange in the root, e.g.: food (a):: feed (v.), gold (a):: gild (v,), strong (a)::
strength (n), etc.
16. Sound imitation (Onomatopoeia)
Sound-imitative (onomatopoeic) words are made by imitating sounds produced by
living beings and inanimate objects, e.g.: babble, bang, buzz, crash, giggle, hiss, moo,
purr, rustle, etc.
17. Lexicalization of the plural of the nouns
There are cases when the grammatical form of the plural of nouns becomes isolated
from the paradigm and acquires a new lexical meaning. This leads to the appearance
of new lexical units, cf: look “погляд” :: looks "зовнішність".

REVISION MATERIAL
1. Be ready to discuss the subject matter of word-formation
2. Tell about affixation
3. What do you know about compounding (composition)?
4. Give examples of reduplication
5. What are phrasal verbs and phrasal nouns?
6. What can you tell about conversion?
7. Comment on the substantivation and adjectivization.
8. Tell about shortening: contractions and abbreviations.
9. What is back-formation?
10. Give examples of blending.
11. Comment on the minor types of word-formation.
12. What is the difference between gradation and onomatopoeia?
13. What does "lexicalization of the plural of nouns" stand for ?
 EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Comment on the origin and meaning of the prefixes in the
following words.
1. Afloat, afoo
2. Amoral, ano
3. Befriend, be
4. Uncomforta
5. Unarm, unb
6. Disagree, di
7. Disappear, d
Exercise 2. Form adjectives by adding the negative prefix in- or its
allo-morphs it-, im~, ir-.
Accurate, active, attentive, capable, comparable, convenient, correct, frequent,
human, legal, literate, logical, moral, movable, possible, probable, proper, regular,
respective, rational.
Exercise 3. Add the prefix un- to the following words and comment
on its meaning.
Able, apt, aware, certain, common, equal, fair, natural, official, pleasant,
professional, reasonable, safe, satisfactory, true, usual.
To bolt, to cork, to fix, to hook, to lock, to pack, to seal, to screw, to tie, to wrap.
Exercise 4. Comment on the meaning of the prefix non-. Translate the
following words into Ukrainian.
Non-ability, non-acquaintance, non-admission, non-aggressive, non-alcoholic,
non-arable, non-believer, non-durable, non-effective, non-essential, non-
European, non-existence, non-ferrous, non-freezing, non-fulfillment, non-human,
non-logical, non-official, non-permanent, non-persistent, nonsense, non-smoker,
non-standard, non-stop, non-transportable, non-voter.
Exercise 5. Comment on the meaning of the prefix mis-. Paraphrase the
following word-combinations avoiding verbs in mis-.
To misunderstand something; to be misinformed; to miscarry a letter;
misleading information; to correct a misprint; a mispronounced sound; a
mistranslated sentence; to accuse somebody of misbehaving.
Exercise 6. Paraphrase the following word-combinations using the verbs
with the prefix en-/em-.
To throw into a rage; to reduce to slavery; to place on a throne; to put into a
cage; to hold fast with a chain; to inclose in a circle; to give power; to expose to
danger; to make rich (bitter, larger, able, sure).
Exercise 7. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian/Russian. Pick
out prefixed words and comment on the meaning of these prefixes.
1. He was disinclined to trouble himself with a young man (Mg.). 2. There would
be a time for rearrangements and readjustments (Ch.). 3. Your co-believers are
remarkably unscrupulous and insensitive about those of us who have come to the
opposite conclusion (D.). 4. As she talked to Mamma, relating the events of her
journey, she displayed strong, discoloured teeth which, however, were somewhat
unmanageable and made little clicking noises (Cr.). 5.1 am afraid, I misjudged
you in the past, I beg your pardon (Mg.). 6. In all big cities there are self-
contained groups that exist without intercommunication (Mg.). 7. Uncle Elliot
said it was most improper and Mamma said she thought it unnecessary (Mg.). 8.
He was a non-representative artist and he painted portraits of her in squares and
oblongs
(Mg.). 9. Until the events of the last few days he had been almost super-
naturally steady all this year (G.). 10. He was an ex-fisher. (Mg.). 11. Young
Jolyon sat down far off, and began nervously to reconsider his position. (G.). 12.
Soames desired to alter his condition from that of the unmarried man to that of
the married man remarried. (G.). 13. There's an unfortunate devil, who has got a
friend on the poor side, that's glad to do anything of that sort. (D.).

Exercise 8. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -er in the

following nouns. Translate them into Ukrainian/Russian.
Baker, composer, hatter, interpreter, miner, painter, potter, roofer, sewer,
turner, waiter, welder, writer.
Exercise 9. Translate the following nouns in -or paying attention to the
typical Ukrainian/Russian endings.
Actor, aggressor, agitator, compressor, constructor, corrector, cultivator,
decorator, inspector, instructor, operator, radiator, reflector, refrigerator.
Exercise 10. Comment on the meaning of the noun-forming suffix -ist. Give
Ukrainian/Russian equivalents of the following nouns in -ist.
Agronomist, anatomist, archaeologist, biologist, diplomatist, feudalist,
ideologist, metallurgist, philologist, physicist, physiologist, sociologist, therapeutist.
Exercise 11. Explain in English the meaning of the following nouns in -ist.
Dramatist, essayist, humourist, journalist, lyrist, memoirist, parodist, prosodist,
satirist.
Exercise 12. Comment on the meaning of the noun-forming suffix -ess. Give
Ukrainian/Russian equivalents of the following nouns in -ess.
Baroness, poetess, actress, stewardess, empress, heiress, lioness, tigress, traitress,
adventuress, hostess, Jewess, laundress, shepherdess, waitress, countess, goddess.
Exercise 13. Comment on the meaning of the semi-suffix -man. Give
Ukrainian/Russian equivalents of the following nouns in -man.
Airman, cavalryman, guardsman, seaman, Dutchman, Englishman, Frenchman,
Irishman, Scotchman businessman, congressman, policeman, yachtsman.
Exercise 14. Form nouns in -hood. Comment on their meaning.
Baby, bachelor, boy, child, father, girl, likely, man, mother, parent, sister,
widow, woman.
Exercise 15. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ship. From the following
words form nouns in -ship. Translate them into Ukrainian/Russian.
Author, censor, chairman, champion, citizen, companion, comrade, craftsman,
director, fellow, guardian, horseman, leader, member, partner, penman, salesman,
town.
Exercise 16. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ment. Form
nouns in -ment from the following words. Translate these nouns into
Ukrainian/Russian.
Agree, appoint, arrange, astonish, embarrass, employ, encourage, enlarge,
fulfill, govern, imprison, nourish, pave, publish, punish, treat.

Exercise 17. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -age. Arrange the
following nouns into groups denoting:
a) place;
b) collectivity;
c) process;
d) state;
e) measure uni
Acreage, breakage, brewage, clientage, coinage, drainage, footage, fruitage,
herbage, hermitage, leafage, leakage, orphanage, percentage, postage, package,
shortage, stoppage, storage, tonnage, usage, voltage, wastage.
Exercise 18. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ness. From the
following adjectives form nouns denoting colours, human qualities and
sensations.
Black, red, white, yellow; deaf, dumb, fair, good, greedy, hasty, hopeless,
lame, rude, stubborn, tender.
Exercise 19. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -al. Form nouns
in -al from the following verbs and translate them into
Ukrainian/Russian..
Appraise, approve, arrive, betray, dismiss, portray, propose, recite, remove,
renew, revive, survive, withdraw.
Exercise 20. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -ate. Give Ukrainian/
Russian equivalents of the following verbs in -ate.
Activate, advocate, agitate, complicate, concentrate, explicate, fascinate,
formulate, generate, granulate, hyphenate, initiate, laminate, navigate, originate,
participate, populate, propagate, protectorate, regulate, separate, speculate, stagnate,
stimulate, subjugate, subordinate, terminate, underestimate, vaccinate.
Exercise 21. Comment on the meaning of the suffix -en. Form verbs in -en
from the following adjectives.
Black, broad, damp, dark, deep, fat, flat, glad, hard, light, ripe, rough, quiet, sad,
sick, sharp, soft, stiff, straight, weak, white, wide.
Exercise 22. a) Arrange the following words in four columns according to
the type of clipping.
b) Translate the words into Ukrainian/Russian.
ad, amp, bus, cab, chute, combi, deli, disco, divi, dub, exam, fan, fancy, fence,
fladge, flu, fridge, gas, hols, lab, limo, mike, math, mayo, mob, nuke, para, perm,
phone, plane, pop, prefab, props, retro, specs, tec, tech, teeny, frank, trannie, vac,
vamp, veggies, Becky, Bella, Bess, Kate, Tony.

Exercise 23. Comment on the spelling and pronunciation of the

following shortenings.
A-bomb, A-level, H-bomb, O-level, V-day.

Exercise 24. Mind the following shortenings of Latin origin. Give their
English equivalents.
AD, a.m., cf, d, e. g., i.e., lb, NB, op.cit, p.a., p.m., v, viz.
Exercise 25. Comment on Initial Abbreviations. Write the following
abbreviations in full.
AD, BBC, BC, CIA, EEC, FBI, NATO, NB, OK, PS, RAF, SAT, SOS, TV,
UK, UNO, UNESCO, USA, BA, CID, FO, GCE, MP, PEN, PM, RN, VP.
Exercise 26. Give the abbreviations used for:
a) the names o
b) the names o
c) the names o
Canada, England, France, Germany, India, Ireland, Italy, Spain, United
Kingdom, United States of America.
Exercise 27. Arrange the following units into two groups:
a) shortenings
b) initial abbr
ABC, Apr., Av(e), BA, bk, BS, C, Cath, ch, COD, Dec, dol, F, flu, Fri,
gym, IMF, JC, mag, max, Mon, NB, Nov, p, PEN, PM, p.m., pop, S, Sat,
specs, T, t, TB, taxi, TV, UNESCO, van, vol. VP, W, we, yr.

Exercise 28. a) Pick out all sound-imitative words from the sentences
given below, b) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian/Russian.
1. My phone buzzed. I picked it up (H. Robbins). 2. Day after day she heard only
the chirping babble of her daughters (K. Norris). 3. He tip-toed across the porch
and gently opened the screen door, remembering that it screeched when yanked
(P. Benchley). 4. The car moved through the city, its motor humming in the warm
afternoon (E. L. Doctorow). 5. Passenger liners tooted their basso horns (Id.). 6.
The carriage was clapping along in Central Park, being whooshed at by passing
cars (E. Queen). 7. Clap-clap came through the window (Th. Dreiser). 8. Dreadful
young creatures - squealing and squawking and showing their legs (J.
Galsworthy). 9. Pons puffed reflectively on his pipe (A. Derleth). 10. He said
something, and she giggled (H. Slesar).

Exercise 29. Give Ukrainian/Russian equivalents to the following

English interjections:
a-tishoo, baa, bow-wow, caw, chirp-chirp, chuck, clippety-clip, cluck-cluck,
cock-a-doodle-doo, croak, cuckoo, ding-dong, drip-drop, flop, gook-gook-gook,
haw-haw, kerplunk, meow (mew, miaow, miaou), moo, oink-oink, pit-pat, quack,
rat-a-tat, splosh, tap-tap, te-hee (toe-hee), thump-thump, tick-tack (tick-tick, tick-
tock), tweet-tweet, wah, weet-weet, whoosht, wuff-wuff, yak-yak-yak, zonk.
 LECTURE 5. SEMASIOLOGY
Plan
1. Lexical meaning and semantic structure of English words.
2. Change of meaning.
3. Transference of names resulting from tropes.
4. Semantic groups of words. Semantic relations in paradigmatics. Synonyms.
5. Euphemisms.
6. Homonyms.
7. Paronyms.
8. Semantic relations in paradigmatics. Semantic fields: Hyponymy.
9. Functional semantic classes.

Semasiology is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of linguistic units,
first of all, that of words and word equivalents.
Lexical meaning reflects the concept expressed by the given word.
The interrelation between the structural pattern of the word and its lexical meaning is
called motivation. There are three main types of motivation: phonetical motivation,
morphological motivatioa and semantic motivation,
Phonetical motivation is observed in words whose sound-clusters imitate the sounds
they signify, e.g. boom, cuckoo, his, titter, whisper, murmur, etc.
Morphological motivation is apparent in derived words and non-idiomatic
compounds due to their word-formation pattern, eg. worker (work + er) = "one who
works"; rewrite (re = write = "write again or anew"; shoemaker (shoe + make + er) =
"one who makes shoes"; bathroom (bath + room) = "room with a bath", etc.
Semantic motivation is the relationship between the direct and the transferred
meaning of the word, e.g. mother tongue, a summit meeting, the mouth of a river, a
green beginner, etc.
The mistaken motivation due to the fancied analogy of borrowings with well-known
native words is called folk (false) etymology. For instance, a crayfish has nothing in
common with fish. It originated from Old French crevisse (cf. креветка).
One should distinguish three main types of the lexical meaning of words:
1. Nominative meaning, which is the direct meaning of the word, immediately
referring to objects in extralinguistic reality. The nominative meaning includes
denotational and connotational components.
Denotation is the expression of the direct meaning proper of the word without any
emotive evaluation or stylistic colouring, e.g. father, friend, girl, dog, begin, great, love,
etc. Connotation is the supplementary expressive meaning presented either by emotive
charge (e.g. girlie, doggy, tremendous, worship, sheepish) or by stylistic reference (cf.
girl (neutral denotation):: maiden (poet):: toss (folk.):: chick (slang); father (neutral) ::
parent (bookish):: dad (col):: governor (slang); friend (neutral):: chum (col); begin
(neutral)
:: commence (bookish); great / pleasure (neutral):: terrific /pleasure (colloquial).
 2. Syntactically conditioned meaning, which manifests itself in different
colligations. Cf ask smth.:: ask smb. about (after, for) smth.:: ask for smb.:: ask for
smth.:: ask smb. to smth; consist of smth.:: consist in smth.:: consist with smth.
3. Phraseologicalty bound meaning, which is idiomatic and manifests itself only
in certain phraseological units, e.g. tall story, buy smth. for a song, catch a cold, a great
gun.
There are three main semantic structures of words: monosemy, polysemy, and
semantic diffusion.
Monosemy is the existence within one word of only one meaning. Monosemantic
words are comparatively few in number. They are mainly scientific terms, e.g.
biochemistry, cybernetics, molecule, radar, tungsten, etc.
Polysemy is the existence within one word of several connected meanings. One of
them is the main (central) meaning, whereas the rest are associated (marginal)
meanings. Associated meanings of the word become evident in the certain lexical and
grammatical contexts. Polysemantic words constitute the bulk of the English
vocabulary. E.g. face (noun) 1. the front of the head / the main meaning/. 2. the
expression of the countenance. 3. the main or front surface . 4. the surface that is
marked, as of a clock. 5. Appearance; outward aspect 6. Dignity, self-respect/
associated meanings /After Webster's New World Dictionary/.
Semantic diffusion is observed in words with a very wide conceptual volume. Such
words denote, in fact, one concept, but can name an indefinitely large number of
objects (referents). For instance, the word thing denotes "any object of our thought".
Hence it can name various inanimated objects, lrving beings, facts, affairs, problems,
possessions, pieces of writing, compositions, etc.
2. Change of meaning
If the polysemantic structure of the word is subjected to a diachronic semantic
analysis, it becomes clear that the word, as a rule, retains its original meaning, but at
the same time acquires several new ones.
Hence one should distinguish the following meanings comprising the set treated
diachronically:
I. The direct meaning, subdivided into:
a) the primary (etymological) meaning, e.g. wall (noun) <L. vallum - "rampart",
"fortification ";
b) the diverted meaning: wall - "upright structure, forming part of a room or building".
II. The secondary meaning, subdivided into:
a) the secondary denotative meaning: wall – “inside surface of cavity or vessel”, e.g.
walls of the heart; reactor wall;
b) the figurative meaning, e.g. wall of partition/between person/; wall of fire; wall
of hostility.
Semantic changes in denotation may lead to.
1) the extension (generalization) of meaning, e.g. barn n. OE bern - "a place (or storing
barley" —> "a covered building for storing grain, hay, etc.
3) the narrowing (specialization) of meaning, e.g. voyage a OF vay-age "any trip
or journey" —»"a journey by sea or water".
 Semantic changes in connotation may result in:
1) the pejorative development of meaning (degradation), e.g. knave n. OF cnafa - "a
boy", "a male servant" "a tricky rascal", "a rogue".
2) The ameliorative development of meaning (elevation), e.g. fame n. OF fame -
"common talk", "rumour" "reputation, esp. for good".
3. Transference of names resulting from tropes
The word may be transferred from one referent onto another thus acquiring a new
meaning. This type of transference results from tropes: metaphor, simile, metonymy,
and some others.
One should distinguish between linguistic tropes (vocabulary units studied in
lexicology) and contextual poetic tropes used as stylistic devices and dealt with in
stylistics.
Linguistic metaphor is associating two referents, which resemble each other.
Metaphors may be based on various types of similarity, for example, similarity of
shape, function, position, colour, temperature, etc. E.G. the teeth of a saw, the key to a
test, the foot of a mountain, cold reason, black ingratitude, to catch an idea, etc.
Words denoting animals and their actions may be used metaphorically to denote
human qualities. Such cases belong to zoosemy, e.g. a fox “a crafty person”), an ass ("a
stupid person"), to wolf' ("to eat greedily"), etc.
Metaphoric epithets, denoting human qualities, are often applied to inanimate objects:
cruel heat, a sorrowful bush, a sullen sky, etc.
Simile which is closely related to metaphor is a comparison of two referents.
Contextual poetic similes (comparative constructions) make up one of the subjects of
stylistics. Lexicology deals with two main types of linguistic similes:
1) Stable idiomatic similes, e.g. /as / merry as a cricket /as/ thin as a pole, like a
bolt from the blue;
2) comparative nominals. Collocations with comparative nominals, the latter
functioning as comparative epithets, are easily transformed into comparative
constructions: the catlike creature — the creature like a cat; the inky water — the water is
like ink; an apple-cheeked girl — the girl with cheeks like apples, etc.
Linguistic metonymy is associating two referents which are in some way or other
connected in reality. The simplest case of metonymy is synecdoche, - the name of a part
is applied to the whole (L. pars pro toto) or vice versa, (L. totum pro parte), e.g. a fleet of
twenty sail; to earn one's bread; I don't want to provoke the police (a single policeman
is meant), etc.
Other examples of metonymy include: the symbol for the thing signified
(from the cradle to the grave); the instrument for the agent (the pen is stronger
than the sword); the container for the thing contained (the kettle is boiling); the
material for the thing made (a copper, a glass); the name of a scientist (an
author, an inventor, etc.); for physical units, inventions, etc (ohm, volt, watt,
diesel, a mauser, a sandwich); the geographical name for the thing produced
there (astrakhan, china, champagne, Madeira, jeans); the proper name for a
common one (Don Juan, Don Quixot, a hooligan), and many other transfers.
 In metonymic (transferred) epithets certain properties of the whole are
ascribed to the part, e.g. clever fingers (i.e. the person is clever); threatening
eyes (it is the person who is threatening), etc.
4. Semantic groups of words. Semantic relations in paradigmatics. Synonyms.
Synonyms are words belonging to the same part of speech, differing in sound
form, and possessing one or more identical or nearly identical (similar)
denotational meanings. There are two types of synonyms:

1) ideographic synonyms which differ in shades of meaning, e.g. to shake

- to tremble - to shiver - to shudder - to quiver - to quake; fast - rapid—swift—
quick, etc.
2) stylistic synonyms which differ in stylistic characteristics, e.g. father -
parent - dad (daddy) -papa - governor; to eat - to partake – to wolf- to lay in,
etc.
In most cases the synonymic group includes both ideographic and stylistic
synonyms, e.g. to begin (neutral) - to commence (bookish) - to start (neutral) -
to initiate (bookish).
Absolute synonyms, quite alike in their meanings and stylistic colouring, and,
therefore, interchangeable in all contexts, are very rare, e.g. fatherland -
motherland - homeland; word-building - word- formation, compounding –
composition.
Each group of synonyms comprises a synonymic dominant - the unit
possessing the most general meaning of the kind: to shine:: to flash - to blaze -
to gleam - to glisten - to sparkle - to glitter - to shimmer - to glimmer.
5. Euphemisms
More "decent" synonymic substitutes used instead of indecent, impolite or too
direct words are called euphemisms.
Euphemisms may have various causes: superstition (devil - deuce, dickens),
social and moral taboos (to copulate - to make love, to make it), the need to
express something in a more delicate, softened way (to die - to decease, drunk -
mellow, stupid - unwise, to lie - to distort the facts), etc.
6. Antonym
Words that have directly opposite meanings are called antonyms. Antonyms
fall into two main groups:
1) Root antonyms (those which are of different roots), e.g. long:: short,
quickly:: slowly, up:: down, love:: hatred, to start:: to finish.
2) Affixal antonyms (in which special affixes or their absence express
semantic opposition), e.g. hopeful:: hopeless, faulty:: faultless, happy ::
unhappy, appear;; disappear, regular:: irregular, etc.
Polysemantic words usually have antonyms for each of their lexico-semantic
variants: a dull knife:: a sharp knife, a dull boy:: a bright boy, a dull novel:: a
thrilling novel, etc.
7. Homonyms
Words identical in form but quite different in their meaning and distribution
are called homonyms.
The traditional formal classification of homonyms is as follows:
I. Absolute homonyms which are identical both in sound and spelling, e.g. ball
(М’ЯЧ) :: ball (бал), bore (сверлити):: bore (нудна людина); hail (град):: hail
(окликати).
II. Partial homonyms subdivided into:
1) Homographs which are identical in spelling but different in sound, e.g. bow
/bou/ (лук):: bow/bau/(ніс корабля); lead /led/ (свинець):: lead
/li':d/ (вести); polish /poli / (глянсувати):: Polish /'pouli / (польський).
2) Homophones which are identical in sound but different in spelling, e.g. key
(КЛЮЧ) :: quay (набережна);fir (ялина) fur (хутро); sow
(сіяти):: sew (шити), etc.
Homonyms may be classified by the type of their meaning. In this case one
should distinguish between:
1) Lexical homonyms which belong to the same part of speech, e.g. club n.
(клуб):: club n. (КИЙОК); plane n. (літак):: plain n. (рівнина); light a.
(легкий):: light a. (світлий), etc.
2) Grammatical homonyms which belong to different parts of speech, e.g. horse
n. (кінь) :: hoarse a. (ХРИПКИЙ); row v. (гребти) :: row n. (ряд); weather a
(погода):: whether conj. (ЧИ), etc.
3) Homoforms which are identical only in some of their paradigm constituents,
e.g. bore n. :: bore (Past Indefinite of bear); scent n. :: sent v. (Past Indefinite
and Past Participle of send); seize v,:: sees (Pr. Ind., 3d p. sing, of see), etc.
From the viewpoint of their origin, homonyms are divided into etymological and
historical.
Etymological homonyms are words of different origin. Their formal
coincidence is the result of various factors: phonetical changes in native and
borrowed words, changes in spelling, etc.
E.g. OF bas >ME base I (підлий)
L. basis>OE base >ME base II (основа, підвалина)
OE mal >ME mole (родинка)
OE mol>Md.E molle >ME mole II (кріт)
Historical homonyms are those which result from disintegration (split) of
polysemy. At present there is not any connection between their meanings,
though they can be traced back to the same etymological source, e.g. nail
(ніготь) ..nail (цвях) > OE naeg(e)l; beam (промінь).. beam (балка,
бантина) >OE beam.
8. Paronyms
Paronyms are words resembling each other in form, but different in
meaning and usage, e.g. ingenious ("clever") :: ingenuous ("frank", "artless").
Paronyms are often mistakenly interchanged.
9. Semantic relations in paradigmatic., Semantic fields; Hyponymy,
Lexical units may be classified according to the concepts underlying their
meaning. Sectors of vocabulary, which comprise words, characterized by a
common concept as the common denominator of their meaning are called
semantic (conceptual) fields. For example, the words enjoyment, gayety,
happiness, joy, passion, sorrow, etc. belong to the semantic field of emotions.
This field includes not only nouns, but also verbs (to love, to hate, to enjoy, etc.),
such adjectives as merry, sorrowful, passionate, etc.
Another semantic classification of words is based on paradigmatic
hyponymic relations. Hyponymy is a semantic relationship of inclusion: the
meanings of the names of species (hyponyms), e.g. bluebell, daisy, forget-me-
not, rose, tulip, etc. are included in the meaning of flower which functions as
the genetic term (the hyperonym).

10. Functional semantic classes

Side by side with classifying words into lexico-grammatical classes known
as parts of speech, modern scholars make attempts to work out the classification
of words into functional semantic classes: substantives, predicatives,
determiners, etc. The origin of words fulfilling the same function and
constituting a certain functional semantic field can be traced back to different
parts of speech. Very often such words change their primary direct meaning,
The classification of words into functional semantic classes is at the initial
stage of elaboration. Therefore, it is limited to considering two functional
semantic classes which can be clearly and easily distinguished: those of
qualifiers and responsives.
Qualifiers
The functional semantic class of qualifiers comprises words with the function
of qualifying properties, states and actions as to the degree of their manifestation.
Qualifiers fall into 3 subclasses: intensifies (denoting high degree, e.g. very,
too, highly, extremely, etc.); moderators (denoting moderate degree, e.g. almost,
rather, enough, kind of, etc.); limiters (denoting low degree, e.g. a little, a bit,
faintly, hardly, etc.)
Responsives
The categorical features of responsives are as follows: their non-nominating
character, the communicative function of response to the interlocutor's
utterance or a certain situation, invariability and semantic intonational
arrangement
The bulk of the functional semantic class of responsives is constituted by
interjections (ah!, oh!, alas! etc.). However, this class includes a lot of words
which descended from other parts of speech (my!, boy!, hell!, swell!, come! etc.).
 EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Comment on the phenomenon of synonymic

dominant. In the following groups of synonyms find the synonymic
dominant. Give your reasons for the choice.
1. Able, capable, clever, competent, fitted, powerful, qualified, skilful,
vigorous.
2. Bold, brave, chivalric, chivalrous, courageous, daring, dashing,
dauntless, fearless, gallant, heroic, manful, unafraid, undaunted, valiant,
venturesome.
3. Common, customary, frequent, habitual, ordinary, usual vulgar.
4. Dangerous, insecure, perilous, risky, threatening, treacherous.
5. Admirable, attractive, beautiful, delicate, elegant, excellent, exquisite,
fine, handsome, keen, nice, splendid.

6. Quake, quiver, shake, shiver, shudder, tremble, vibrate, waverr.

7. Add, broaden, enlarge, expand, extend, increase, heighten, lengthen,
sprad, widen.
8. Accept, admit, agree, approve, consent.
9. Affirm, approve, assure, conform, establish, prove, ratify, sanction, settle,
support, uphold.
10. Achieve, acquire, attain, earn, gain, get, obtain, procure, receive, win.
11. Cheer, cheerfulness, festivity, fun, gaiety, glee, joy, joyfulness,
liveliness, merriment.
12. Effort, employment, labour, toil, undertaking, work.
13. Dividend, division, part, portion, quantity, share.
14. Description, diorama, illustration, image, landscape, painting, panorama,
picture, portrait, representation, scene, scenery, view.
15. Blow, crash, impact, shock, stroke.
Exercise 2. Make a distinction between a synonymic dominant and a
general term. State whether the italicised word is a synonymic dominant
or the general term.
1. Victory, triumph, conquest.
2. Complain, grumble, mutter.
3. Sound, clatter, creak, clang, patter.
4. Smell, fragrance, scent, perfume, odour.
5. Colour, olive, pink, brown, red.
6. Red, scarlet, crimson, cherry, purple.
7. Footwear, shoes, rubbers, slippers.
8. Dog, fox-terrier, hound, borzoi, collie.
9. Courage, bravery, gallantly, valour, fortitude.
10. Take, accept, pocket, seize, capture, grab.
Exercise 3. Give synonyms of Germanic origin to the following words.
Beverage, cease, educate, enemy, envisage, error, faith, inquire, reply, vital,
vocation.
Exercise 4. Give synonyms of Romanic origin.
Book, comer, deem, end, freedom, friendship, happiness, home, holy, king,
speech, thoughtful, wood.
Exercise 5. Give synonyms of Scandinavian origin.
Elevate, heaven, mate, present, sick, shine, throw, uneven, weep.
Exercise 6. Arrange the following ideographic synonyms according to
the degree of intensity.
1. Ask, beg, implore.
2. Desire, long, wish.
3. Decay, fade, wither.
4. Beautiful, handsome, lovely, pretty.
5. Annoy, irritate, vex.
6. Alarmed, frightened, terrified.
7. Delight, happiness, pleasure.
8. Affliction, despair, sadness.
9. Astonishment, consternation, surprise.
10. Excuse, forgive, pardon.
11. Accident, disaster, misfortune.
12. Capability, genius, talent.

Exercise 7. Give the Ukrainian equivalents to the following synonymic

groups and analyze them.
ask; implore; beg longing; desire; wish
alarmed; frightened; terrified
happiness; pleasure; delight
affliction; despair; sadness
accident; disaster; misfortune
malicious; naughty; nasty; wicked
genius; capability; talent
policeman; bobby; cop
master; owner; head; proprietor; possessor
mansion; house; habitation; residence; abode
worker; labourer; toiler; hand
fabricate; construct; frame; invent; forge; manufacture; feign
cheat; swindle; blackleg
Exercise 8. Give the English equivalents to the following synonymic
groups and analyze them.
говорити, мовити, балакати
клопотатися, просити, канючити
будинок, котедж, хижа
споживати, наминати, їсти, живитися, жерти
відступати, тікати, драпати
просуватися, іти, пертися
прекрасний, класний, гарний
присвоїти, поцупити, вкрасти
гроші, бабки, кошти
хлопець, юнак, пацан
 Exercise 9. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
To say, to tell, to speak, to talk.
1. "Well, good-bye, Mr. Kipps," she.... He shook her hand and... "Good-bye."
(Wl.) 2. "I bought you a ring today," he..., bending the book and...ing for the sake
of..ing something. (WL) 3. I could... nothing in reply. (D.) 4. And now... me
who is the lady about whom he is...ing. (Ch. B.) 5.1... her all the story about my
sad childhood. (Ch.B.) 6. "You... French well," Lady Grizel..., who so herself...
the tongue in an Edinburg accent. (Th.) 7. They returned to the room where the
company was...ing loudly. (D.).
To wear, lo carry, to bear
1. A very handsome man of fifty,...ing a rather dandified curly-brimmed hat,
and...ing an elaborate walking stick, comes into the room. (Sh.) 2. "Would you
mind to... this sack of flour for me to market?" (Mr.) 3. This bearded man also...
moustache. (G.) 4. I can't... this scent. (G.) 5.1 really cannot... the whole burden of
our family affairs any longer. 6. Please, Sir, can you tell me which gentleman of
your party... a bright blue dress-coat? (D.)

Bad, ill, wicked, evil

1. Working on a newspaper one does not leam the way to break... news. (Cr.) 2.
Nessie fiddled with her tea-spoon, dropped it, then blushed shamefully as though
discovered in a... act. (Cr.) 3. It is not a... plan.(J.KJ) 4. He could see the little...
eyes. (H.) 5. A pretty face may cover a... heart. (Cr.) 6. I know how cruel and...
my temper can be. (Cr.) 7. I thought it was... news you were going to tell me.
(Cr.)
High, tall, lofty
I. He looked ahead at the... grass with the flat-topped trees behind. (H.) 20.
"Women upset," said Wilson to the... man. (M.) 3. Oh, one's mode of life might
be... and scrupulous. (G.) 4. The captain was a... man of about forty. (M.) 5. Her
drawing room has three windows looking on the river, and the ceiling is not so...
as it would be in an older house of the same pretension. (Sh.) 6. She said in a
very... way, "Do you mind following me into the drawing room?" (M.) 7. He wore
a... hat. (Dr.) 8. The... polish of his boots shone even in the dimness of the tent.
(Hm.)
Firm, hard, solid
1. His sister, who was a..., rather practical person, used to complain that there
were too many scents at Manderley. (Mr.) 2. The stones were... and... under my
feet. (Mr.) 3. She looked very... and grim. (Mr.) 4. It was... to give in while I still
had some fight in me. (Mg.) 5. He uttered a... laugh. (G.) 6. These orders that are
coming now are turned into... business. (Pr.) 7. He felt triumphant, proud,... and
successful man among a lot of failures. (Pr.) 8. "Well," she said, her voice dry
and..., not the voice she would have used to him. (Mr.)
Rough, harsh, uneven, rugged
1. He wore... clothes that smacked of the sea. (Ln.) 2. Her greyish blouse was
worn and old, her shoes were split, her little hands... and red, her neck browned.
(G.) 3. A... surface of sand was blowing and settling on the maps though there was
no wind. (Aldr.) 4. They were in the car again, Macomber and Wilson hanging on
the sides and rocketing swayingly over the... ground. (H.) 5. His voice was..., not
his voice at all. (Mr.) 6. It's kind of you to bother, Evie. I've had a rather... passage,
but
at all events I know where I am now. (Mg.) 7. It was along,... struggle. (Cr.) 8. He
took her hands, small, ... brown. (G.) 9. The mountainous road was.... (Mr.).
Blank, empty, vacant
1. Her seat beneath the birch tree was..., though the day was pleasant and the sun
was high. (Sc.) 2. There was only a bare yard to be seen, and the... side of the brick
house. (Hn.) 3. Their rooms were... and lonesome. (D.) 4. The coach was... of
passengers by this time. (Mg.)

Exercise 10. Give words homophonous with the following.

fare, flour, hair, heel, here, eye, night, peace, reign, pear, plain, right, soul,
sum, sun, week.
Exercise 11. Choose appropriate homophones.
1. My (sole, soul) is dark. 2. Honey is (sweet, suite). 3. Don't (sale, sail)
the (bear's, bears) skin before you have (court, caught) it. 4. After (reign,
rain) comes fine (whether, weather). 5. (No, know) living man all things can.
6. Make hay while the (sun, son) shines. 7. (To, two) heads are better than
(one, won). 8. Out of (site, sight) out of mind. 9. (Too, two) many cooks
spoil the broth. 10. (New, knew) wine in old bottles. 11. One can (here, hear)
the grass grow. 12. One's (hart, heart) goes into (once, one's) boots. 13. Like
(father, farther) like (sun, son). 14. It never (reigns, rains) but it (paws,
pours).

Exercise 12. a) Find the homographs to the following words and

transcribe both, b) Give the Ukrainian/Russian equivalents to these
homographs.
Bass, bow, buffet, celt, close, compact, desert, house, housewife, invalid,
minute, object, polish, row, slough, tear, wind.
Exercise 13. a) Find the homophones to the following words, b) Give
the Ukrainian/Russian equivalents to these homophones.
Air, birth, coarse, core, cite, dessert, fare, fir, flower, hare, heal, key, knight,
meat, oar, pair, paw, piece, pole, rain, right, sail, sea, sell, sole, son, sow, suite,
whether, whole.

Exercise 14. a) Define the meanings of the following paronyms, b) Use them
in constructing
anterior - interior; draught - draughts - drought;
sentences of your own.
canal - channel; physics -physique;
career - carrier; popular - populous;
cause - course; preposition - proposition;
complement -compliment; prescription -proscription;
conscience - consciousness; price - prize;
wander - wonder.
 Exercise 15. Comment on the phenomenon of paronymy. Make
distinctions between the following paronyms.
bear - beer; law - low;
bare - beer; lawyer - lower;
canal - channel; major - mayor;
career-carrier; moda - model;
cause - course; Paul poll;
collar - colour; -
pair pier;
company - campaign; -
pear -pier;
conscience - conscious; personal - personnel;
contents — context — petrol - patrol;
contest; pour poor;
courage - carnage; -
price - prize;
corps - corpse; quay - queue;
cost - coast; quiet - quite;
crash - crush; raise - rise;
dairy - diary; seize - cease;
draught - draughts; -sell - sail;
draught drought; skirt - shirt;
hare - heir; sergeant - surgeon;
hair - hear; soil - soul;
human - humane; suit - suite;
lay - lie; very vary.
-

Exercise 16. Fill in the blanks with appropriate paronyms.

Campaign, company
1. The election... in England lasts about a month. 2. It was Napoleon's last.... 3.
Misery loves.... 4. Don't talk about your diseases.in....
Canal, channel
1. The Great Lakes are connected with.... 2. The English... washes Great
Britain in the south. 3. This film is devoted to the builders of the Suez.... 4. The
North... separates Scotland from Ireland.

Cause, course
1. Let tilings take their.... 2. All of them are devoted to their common.... 3. In
the... of time he will realise everything. 4. There is no... to worry.

Context, contents, contest

1. I don’t remember the … of the letter. 2. The … can I change the meaning of
the word. 3. Who won this … ? 4. I have never come across the word in this … .
5. Look it up in the table of … . 6. Have you tested the … of this bottle?
Exercise 17. Comment on the phenomenon of antonymy. Give
derivational antonyms to the following words.
Equal, fortunate, grateful, gratitude, just, justice, like (adv), lively, movable,
moved, radical, rational, regular, related, relative, reproachful, reserved,
restored, rhymed, ripe, safe, salted, satisfactory, selfish, systematic, symmetrical,
timely, true, worthy.
 Exercise 18. Give antonyms to the following words. Arrange them
into three columns:
a) derivational antonyms
(careful - careless: active - inactive);
b) absolute antonyms
(white - black);
c) mixed antonyms
(correct - incorrect, wrong).
Active, alert, alive, amity, appearance, arrange, artless, attentive, aware, bad,
big, begin, brave, busy, careful, comfortable, competent, consistent, continue,
convenient, correct, courage, descend, discord, distinct, employed, enemy,
expensive, faithful, faulty, final, free, frequent, gay, hostile, kind, legal, low,
misfortune, normal, painful, polite, post-war, preceding, progressive, rational,
revolutionary, rough, safety, sane, slow, sufficient, temporary, timidity,
underestimate, uniformity, wet, white, wrong.
Exercise 19. Fill in the blanks with words antonymous to those in italics.
1. Why do you reject my offer and... his? 2. He may be dexterous at football,
but he is very... on the dance floor. 3. I enjoy the climate that is rigorous in
winter and... in summer. 4. Some of the books were excluded from the list but
those that were... were obligatory. 5. I'm afraid the sweet cream will get... if you
keep it in the warm. 6. Most exercises were correct, but several were.... 7. Near the
bank the river was shallow, but in the middle it was... enough to swim. 8. The
basket was disposed on a low settee beside the... clipboard.
 LECTURE 6. ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY/ CLASSIFICATION OF
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS
Plan
1. Classification of phraseological units based on the semantic principle.
2. Classification based on the structural principles.
3. Classification according to the difference in their functions in the acts
of communication.
4. Semantic relations in phraseology.
1. Classification of phraseological units based on the semantic principle
Phraseological units are stable word-groups characterized by a completely
or partially transferred meaning. There exist several different classifications of
phraseological units based on different principles.
According to the classification based on the semantic principle English
phraseological units fall into the following classes:
a) Fusions - completely non-motivated idiomatic word-groups, e,g. to show
the white feather ("to betray one's cowardice"), to pull smb 's leg ("to deceive
smb."), to bell the cat ("to take a risk for the good of others"), red tape
("bureaucratic delays"), a white elephant (" a present one can't get rid of), half
seas over ("drunk"), once in a blue moon ("hardly at all" or "hardly ever"), etc.
b) Half-fusions - stable word-groups in which the leading component is
literal, while the rest of the group is idiomatically fused, e.g. to rain cats
and dogs ("to rain heavily"), to talk through one’s hat ("to talk foolishly"), to
work double tides ("to work very hard"), to buy something for a song
("to buy smth very cheaply"), to pay through the nose ("to pay unreasonably
much"), etc.
c) Unities - metaphorically motivated idioms, e.g. to make a mountain out
of a molehill ("to become excited about trifles"), to play second fiddle
("to have a lower or less important position"), to wash one's dirty linen in public
("to tell people about one's hidden sins and faults"), a snake in the
grass ("a person with harmful intentions", "a hidden enemy'), etc.
d) Half-unities - binary word-groups in which one of the components is
literal, while the other is phraseologically bound (the so-termed
phrasemes), e.g. black frost ("frost without ice or snow"), small talk ("polite
talk about unimportant things"), a tall story ("a lie"), Dutch courage
("courage of a drunk"), husband's tea ("very weak tea"), to talk turkey ( to talk
plainly and honestly about practical matters"), etc.
e) Phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) - word-groups
with the components whose combinative power (valence) is strictly
limited, e.g. to make friends (but not * to do friends or * to make comrades), to
bear a grudge, to break silence, to make sure, to take into account,
unconditional surrender, ways and means, now and then, etc.
 j) Phraseological expressions - proverbs, sayings and aphoristic familiar
quotations, e.g. Birds of a feather flock together (Лисий лисого здалека
бачить); Still water runs deep (Тиха вода греблю рве); No pains no gains (Без
труда нема плода); Something is rotten in the state of Denmark (Не все гаразд
у Датському королівстві, тобто «щось не гаразд, справи йдуть не так, як
треба»); Brevity is the soul of wit (Набалакав – і в торбу не збереш); Fools rush
in where angels fear to tread (Дурням закон не писаний).
2, Classification based on the structural principle
Phraseological units belonging to Classes 1-5 may be classified in
accordance with their structure and their ability to perform the same syntactical
functions as parts of speech. The classification based on the structural
principles distinguishes phraseological units into the following classes:
1. Verbal, e.g. to ride the high horse, to lose one's head, to drop a brick to
take the hull by the horns, to take a fancy, etc.
2. Substantive, e.g. a grass widow, a drop in the bucket, a bull in the china
shop, the apple of discord, a maiden speech, etc.
3. Adjectival, e.g. high card mighty, high and dry, fair and square, as dead
as a door nail, as busy as a bee, etc.
4. Adverbial, eg. from head to foot, by hook or by crook, by a long chalk,
as the crow flies, like a shot, in a trice, etc.
5. Interjectional, e.g. goodheavens!, sakes alive!, by George!, my eye!,
holy smoke!, goodness gracious!
Among adjectival, adverbial and verbal phraseological units one can easily
discern stable idiomatic similes of two semantic types: figures of likeness and
degree (as alike aspects in a pod, sober as a judge, to grin like a Cheshire cat,
as the crow flies, more praise than pudding, better than nothing, etc.) and
figures of intensification (phraseological intensifiers, pseudo-similes), e.g. as
(like) anything, as (like) hell, as a basket of chips, like sixty, etc.
3, The classification according to the difference in the functions in the acts
of communication
Phraseological units differ in their functions in the acts of communication and
therefore fall into four classes:
1. Nominative phraseological units of various patterns which correlate
with words belonging to different parts of speech, e.g. a dark horse, ships
that pass in the night, quick on the trigger, to get a bee in one's bonnet, at the
back of one's mind when pigs fly, etc.
2. Communicative phraseological units represented by proverbs and
sayings, e.g. the pot cannot call the kettle back; the race is got by running; no
joy without alloy; all one's geese are swans, etc.
 3. Nominative-communicative phraseological units which include
nominative verbal idioms that can be transformed into a sentence
(communicative) structure when the verb is used in the Passive Voice, e.g. to put
the cart before the horse - the cart was put before the horse;
to catch smb. with chaff— smb. was caught with chaff; to break the ice - the ice
is broken, etc.
4. Pragmatic phraseological units (interjectional idioms and response
phrases), e.g. My aunt!; Bless your heart!; By ginger!; Does your mother know
you 're out?; The answer's a lemon, etc.
4. Semantic relations in phraseology
Many phraseological units are polysemantic. Their polysemantic structure
develops mostly due to further metaphoric transference of their meaning.
Like words phraseological units can be related as synonyms, e.g. to back the
wrong horse - to hunt the wrong hare - to get the boot on the wrong foot; before
the ink is dry - in a twinkle of an eye — before one can say Jack Robinson; Like
a shot — in half a trice, etc.
Phraseological synonyms often belong to different stylistic layers.
Phraseological synonyms should not be mixed up with variants of a
phraseological unit, e.g. to add fuel to the fire - to add fuel to fire - to add oil to
fire - to add fuel to the flame, etc.; God blows - goodness knows - Heaven
knows - the Lord knows, etc.; not worth a bean - not worth a brass farthing -
not worth a button — not worth a pin—not worth a rap - not worth a straw, etc.
Occasional phraseological variants may be formed due to author's
actualizing the potential (literary) meanings of their components. Cf. A
skeleton in the family cupboard:: We were peeping into the family cupboard and
having a look at the good old skeleton.
Phraseological antonyms are of two main types: they may either differ in a
single component (to do one's best - to do one s worst, up to date –out of date
to look black - to look bright, etc.) or have different sets of components (to
draw the first breath – to breath one’s last, to take a circuit – to make a bee-line,
to talk nineteen to the dozen – to keep mum, etc.).
Such phraseological units as to hang by one's eyebrows I “ВИСІТИ, ТРИМАТИСЯ
НА ВОЛОСИНЦІ”, "БУТИ В КРИТИЧНОМУ СТАНОВИЩІ" and to hang by one's
eyebrows II "бути настирливим, упертим; лізти на рожон" can be regarded
as homonyms. Phraseological homonyms are very rare and should not be
confused with numerous homophrases, i.e. phrases identical in form but
different in meaning that belong to different classes (free word-groups, phrasal
terms and phraseological units including phraseological professionalisms), e.g.: to
ring a bell I "ДЗВОНИТИ У ДЗВІН" (free word-group) :: to ring a bell II
"нагадувати", "наводити на думку" (phraseological unit); peeping Tom I
"надмірно допитлива людина" (phraseological unit):: peeping Tom II a)
"розідувальний літак", b) "розвідувальна PJIC", c) "аерофотоапарат"
(phraseological professionalisms); blue bottle I "СИНЯ ПЛЯШКА" (free word-
group) :: blue bottle ІІ 1) бот. "волошка синя"; 2) ент. "муха синя"; 3) зоїл.
"фізалія" (biological terms):: blue bottle ІІI "поліцай" (phraseological unit).
 EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Comment on the difference between phraseological fusions,

phraseological unities and word combinations.arrange thefollowing
phraseological units into three groups:
1) word combinations;
2) phraseological units;
3) phraseological fusions.
1. To see the world through rosy spectacles. 2. To show the white feather. 3.
To kiss the hare’s foot. 4. To call a spade a spade. 5. To make friends. 6. To take
revenge. 7.A house of cards. 8. To make up one’s mind. 9. To shed crocodile
tears. 10. To commit suicide. 11. Judas kiss. 12. To play the first fiddle. 13. To
find faults with somebody. 14. The apple of one’s eye. 15. To get in touch with
somebody. 16. True to fact. 17. To dot the I’s and cross the T’s. 18. I am fed up
with it! 19. A pretty kettle of fish. 20. To give way. 21. To nip in the bud. 22. To
wash one’s hands. 23. To rest on one’s oars. 24. Let sleeping dogs lie. 25. To
have all the trumps in one hand. 26. Between wind and water. 27. To lose one’s
way (temper). 28. To go a long way. 29. A slip of the tongue (pen.). 30. Blank
verse. 31. To establish control. 32. A hard nut to crack.

Exercise 2. Explain the meaning of the following phraselogical units.

Arrange them into groups according to their origin:
1) expressions associated with some customs;
2) expressions associated with some historical events;
3) expressions borrowed from some literary sources;
4) expressions borrowed from the Bible.
1. The land of promise. 2. Baker’s dozen. 3. New wine in old bottles. 4. Ask
for bread and butter given a stone. 5. To beat the air. 6. To give the devil his
due. 7. Vanity fair. 8. Daily bread. 9. Forbidden fruit is sweet. 10. It rains cats
and dogs. 11. To rob Peter to pay Paul. 12. Thirty pieces of silver. 13. To wash
one’s hands of something. 14. A prodigal son. 15. Something is rotten in the
state of Denmark. 16. A thorn in the flesh of somebody. 17. To catch somebody
red-handed. 18. Marriage is a lottery. 19. To fight the windmills. 20. Judas kiss.

Exercise 3. Comment on the etymology of the following phraseological

units.
1. To cany coals to Newcastle. 2. A black sheep. 3. When queen Anne was
alive. 4. To cut the Gordian knot. 5. Solomon's judgment. 6. A crooked
sixpence. 7. To be bom under a lucky star. 8. From the bottom of one's heart.
9. A peeping Tom. 10. To dance attendance on.
Exercise 4. State from what languages the following phraseological units
were borrowed.
1. The horn of plenty. 2. Blue blood. 3. Through thick and thin. 4. Achilles'
heel. 5. The apple of discord. 6. It goes without saying. 7. A storm in a tea-cup.
8. The fifth column. 9. A marriage of convenience. 10. Snake in the grass. 11. To
lead somebody by the nose. 12. One's place in the sun. 13. To burn the candle at
both ends. 14. The bed of Procrustes. 15. The game is not worth the candle. 16.
To pull the devil by the tail.
Exercise 5. Give Ukrainian/Russian equivalents to the following
phraseological units. Mind their association with human activities.
I. To fish in troubled waters. 2. To rise to the fly. 3. To swallow the bait. 4. To
join the colours. 5. To mask one's batteries. 6. To hunt the wrong hare. 7. To hunt
with the hounds and run with the hare. 8. To kill two birds with one stone. 9. To
feel one's pulse. 10. To take the law into one's own hands. 11. To play first fiddle.
12. In tune. 13. Out of tune. 14. To touch the right cord. 15. To go through the
mill. 16. Spade work. 17. To be in the limelight. 18. To be out of limelight.

Exercise 6. Match the following English and Ukrainian idioms.

 as fussy as hen with one chick * вовка ноги годують
 the dog that trots finds a bone * вовк в овечій шкурі
 you should not look into the * ворон воронові ока не виклює
gift horse’s mouth * дарованому коню в зуби не
 dog doesn’t eat dog дивляться
 crows do not pick crow’s eye * забув віл, коли телям був
 geese with geese and women with * як кіт наплакав
women * знайся кінь з конем, а віл з волом
 what can you get of the cat but her * з поганої вівці хоч вовни жмут
skin? * кому що, а курці просо
 the sow likes bran better than roses * краще синиця в жмені, ніж
 better an egg today than a hen журавель у небі
tomorrow * купити кота в мішку
 a bird in the hand is worth two in * між вовками по-вовчому вий
the bush * на похиле дерево і кози скачуть
 a sparrow in hand is worth a pheasant * пес бреше, дощ чеше, а вітер далі
that fly by несе
 to buy a pig in a poke * носиться, як курка з яйцем
 with foxes we must play the fox * схожий, як свиня на коня (тільки
 flies go to a lean horse шерсть не така
 a wolf in a sheep’s clothing
 dogs bark, but the caravan goes on
 the moon does not heed the barking
of the dogs
 as like as an apple to an oyster
 old cow thinks she was never a calf
 as scare as hen’s teeth

Exercise 7. Give Ukrainian/Russian equivalents of the following simple

and phrasal verbs.
bear - + down, out, up, with;
beat - + back, down, into, out, up;
break- + down, off, up, with;
call - + at, for, in, on (upon), over, up;
 come - + about, across, along, at, back, by, down, down upon, for, in, of, off,
out, out with, over, round, to, up, up to, up with, upon;
cry - + down, for, up;
cut - + down, in, off, out;
do - + away with, up, with, without;
drop - + across, away, behind, in, into;
fall - + away, back, back upon, behind, in, into, in with, off, out, through, to,
under, upon;
hang - + about, back, on, out, together, up;
pick - + apart, at, away, from, in, off, on, out, over, up, with.

Exercise 8. a) Set off idiomatic and non-idiomatic phrasal verbs. Comment

on their meaning, b) Translate the sentences into Ukrainian/Russian
1. She reluctantly decided that to go on was the only thing to be done (A.
Christie). 2. "I mustn't keep you up. It's - it's very good of you letting me come
and talk to you" (Id.). 3. I make up a little story about beauty and pretend that it
has something to do with truth and goodness (A. Christie). 4. "No, don't bother to
shift, I can get by" (A. Sillitoe). 5. "Go on," she cried. "You're daft. I can never
make you out" (Id.). 6. "No," he said, "it's no life for a woman. Nobody to look
after her and take her out when she feels like a good time" (Id.). 7. Do you expect
stupid people to love you for showing them up? (B. Shaw). 8. "When we're
married they'll soon come round. People always come round to facts" (J.
Galsworthy). 9. Elliott called me up one morning (W.S. Maugham). 10. He went to
the door and called out after them (G. Greene). 11.1 got out, heaving my luggage
after me, and he drove away at once (M. Dickens). 12. Miss Faulkner put on a
long pale green dinner dress (Id.) 13. "I'm thinking of giving up the shop soon" (J.
Braine). 14. He picked up the magazine and went out (Id.). 15. He settled in one of
the armchairs in the outer room and turned over the pages of the New Yorker,
waiting until someone he knew should turn up (S. Waugh). 16. "I must be getting
along" (R. Gordon). 17.1 peeped out - he was putting on his hat with a hasty and
uneasy air (A.J. Cronin). 18. It took minutes of ringing before he came down to let
us in (C.P. Snow). 19. They took their seats in the plane and set off (A. Huxley).
20. "I promise I won't give you away" (J. Cary).

Exercise 9. Translate the following English proverbs into Ukrainian.

 A bird in the hand is worth two * Enough is as good as a feast;

in the bush; * Fine words butter no parsnips;
 A fault confessed is half redressed; * First catch your hare, then cook him;
 As the baker, so the buns, * Handsome is as handsome does;
as the father, so the sons; * Hunger is the best sauce;
 As you sow, you shall mow; * If its and ands were pots and pans;
 The cobbler should stick to his last; * It is the first step that costs;
 Don’t cross your bridges before you * It’s better late than never;
come to them; * Like cures like, Murder will out;
 Don’t teach your grandmother to * One good turn deserves another;
suck eggs; * Second thoughts are best;
 East or West, home is best. * Two heads are better than one.
Exercise 10. Give the proverbs which the following phraseological units
have developed.
 a bee in one’s bonnet; * to lock the stable door;
 beer and skittles; * to make hay;
 a bird in the bush; * a new broom;
 birds of a feather; * an old bird;
 a black sheep; * to put all one’s eggs in one basket;
 to cast pearls before swine; * a silver lining;
 to catch smb. with chaff; * to stick to one’s last;
 to clutch at a straw; * a stitch in time;
 to cry over spilt milk; * to take care of the pence;
 the early bird; * a velvet paw;
 to eat one’s cake and have it; * the last straw.

Exercise 11. Give the English equivalents for the following Ukrainian
proverbs and sayings.
 Буде й нашій вулиці свято; * На Юрія о цій порі, як рак
 Вовків боятися – в ліс не ходити; свисне на оборі;
 Горбатого могила виправить; * Не все те золото, що блищить;
 Дарованому коневі в зуби не * Не спитавши броду, не лізь у
дивляться; воду;
 Друзі пізнаються в біді; * Порожня бочка гучить, а повна
 З дурної голови та на здорову; мовчить;
 Куй залізо поки гаряче; * По своєму ліжку простягай і
 Курчат восени лічать; ніжку;
 Лихо не без добра; * Скажеш “гоп”, як перескочиш;
 Лякана ворона куща боїться; * Скрипливе дерево довго живе;
 М’яко стелить, та твердо спати; * Соловей піснями не ситий;
 На безвідді і рак риба; * Тринди-ринди коржі з маком;
 Шила в мішку не сховаєш; * У багатьох няньок дитина без ока;
 Шкурка за вичинку не стане; * У тихому болоті чорти водяться;
 Щоб рибу їсти, треба у воду лізти; * Яка яблунька, такі й яблука.
 Як посієш, так і пожнеш;

Exercise 12. Comment on the phenomenon of a proverb. Give Ukrainian/

Russian equivalents of the following proverbs.
I. Actions speak louder than words. 2. After death the doctor. 3. All cats are grey
in the dark. 4. All is not the gold that glitters. 5. Appearances are deceptive. 6. The
appetite comes with eating. 7. Art is long, life is short. 8. As the call, so the echo. 9.
Barking dogs seldom bite. 10. Beauty lies in lover's eyes. 11. Best defence is attack.
12. Better to do well than to say well. 13. Birds of a feather flock together. 14.
Business before pleasure. 15. Caution is the parent of safety. 16. Cheats never
prosper. 17. The child is father of a man. 18. Clothes do not make a man. 19.
Curiosity killed the cat. 20. The devil is not so black as he is painted. 21. Dog does
not eat dog. 22. Don't strike a man when he is down. 23. Don't teach fishes to swim.
24. Easier said than done. 25. Easy come, easy go. 26. The end justifies the means.
27. Every cloud has a silver lining. 28. Every man to his taste. 29. Face is the index of
the mind. 30. False friends are worse than open enemies. 31. Fear has a quick ear. 32.
First think, then speak. 33. Fortune favours the brave. 34. A friend in need is a friend
indeed. 35. A good dog deserves a good bone. 36. Great talkers are little doers. 37.
Habit is a second nature. 38. Haste makes waste. 39. He laughs best who laughs last.
40. He that dies pays all debts. 41. If the cap fits, wear it. 42. If you run after two hare,
you will catch none. 43. All news travels fast. 44. Life is not a bed of roses. 45. Like
father, like son. 46. Love cannot be forced. 47. Love is blind. 48. Love me, love my
dog. 49. Lucky at cards, unlucky in love. 50. A man can die but once. 51. Marriages
are made in heaven. 52. Measure twice and cut once. 53. Money makes money. 54.
The more you have, the more you want. 55. New lords, new laws. 56. One hand
washes the other. 57. One man, no man. 58. Out of sight, out of mind. 59. Over shoes,
over boots. 60. Rome was not built in a day. 61. Still waters run deep. 62. There is
no smoke without fire. 63. Time works wonders. 64. Walls have ears.

Exercise 13. Give proverbs synonymous to the following ones. Suggest

Ukrainian/Russian equivalents.
1. Don't count your chicken before they are hatched. 2. Strike while the
sun shines. 3. So many man, so many minds. 4. Misfortunes never come
singly. 5. Between two stools one falls to the ground. 6. Business first,
pleasure afterwards. 7. Every man has his taste.
Exercise 14. Classify the following proverbs into:
a) simple sentences; b) compound sentences; c) complex sentences.
1. Love is blind. 2. Hope is a good breakfast, but a bad supper. 3. Never pup
off till tomorrow what you can do today. 4. Too many cooks spoil the broth. 5.
When guns speak it's too late to argue. 6. All cats are grey in dark. 7. When the
cat is away, the mice will play. 8. It never rains, but it pours. 9. It is an ill bird
that fouls his own nest. 10. Live and learn. 11. Look before you leap. 12. Man
does not live by bread alone. 13. No news is good news. 14. So many
countries, so many customs. 15. They that have got good store of butter may lay
it thick on their bread. 16. Time is a great healer. 17. United we stand, divided
we fall. 18. What can't be cured must be endured. 19. What will be, will be. 20.
While there is life, there is hope.
Exercise 15. Give English equivalents of the following proverbs and
phraseological units.
1. В чуже прос не пхай носа. 2. На смак товариш не всяк. 3. У кожної
медалі є зворотний бік. 4. Не кажи “гоп”, поки не перескочиш. 5. Чия
відвага, того й перемога. 6. скупий два рази платить. 7. Голод не свій брат.
8. Погані вісті не лежать на місті. 9. Чи пан – чи проправ, двічі не вмирати.
10. Слово – срібло, мочання – золото. 11. Багато знатимеш – скоро
постарієш. 12. Не по словах судять, а по ділах. 13. Наскочила коса на
камінь. 14. Хто рано встає, тому Бог дає. 15. Легко прийде, прахом піде. 16.
Мій дім – моя фортеця. 18. Любиш поганяти, люби й коня годувати. 19.
Щоб рибу їсти, треба у воду лізти. 20. Не чіпай лиха, коли воно спить. 21.
Хто рідніший, той і цінніший. 22. Котрий собака багато бреше, той мало
кусає. 23. Напад – найкраща оборона. 24. Краще щось, ніж нічого. 25. З
двох лих вибирай менше. 26. Краще пізно, ніж ніколи. 27. Полохливий
заєць і пенька боїться.
Exercise 16. Classify the following sayings into:
a) Statements,
b) Questions,
c) Exclamations,
d) Imperatives.
 1. Carry me out! 2. The world is a small place. 3. Queen Anne is dead! 4.
Whose dog is dead? 5. Do you see any green in my eye? 6. May your shadow
never grow less! 7. A lot of water has flown under the bridge since.... 8. One's
cup is full. 9. What's up? 10. Draw it mild! 11. Damn your eyes! 12. One's
mouth waters after/at/for something. 13. One's days are numbered. 14. Where
do you hail from? 15. Hold your horses!
 LECTURE 7. STYLISTIC DIFFERENTIATION OF ENGLISH
VOCABULARY
Plan
Linguostylistics discerns the following lexico-stylistic layers of the English
vocabulary:
1. Stylistically neutral words
2. Literary-bookish words
3. Colloquial words

Stylistically neutral layer, which is the living core of the vocabulary, consists
of words mostly of native origin though it also comprises fully assimilated
borrowings. Such words are devoid of any emotive colouring and are used in
their denotative meaning e.g. man, sky, table, street, go, move, speak, easy,
long, often, never, etc. In groups of synonyms neutral words fulfil the function
of the synonymic dominant.
LITERARY-BOOKISH WORDS
Literary-bookish words belong to the formal style. The so-called learned
words are used in descriptive passages of fiction, scientific texts, radio and
television announcements, official talks and documents, business
correspondence, etc. As a rule, these words are mostly of foreign origin and
have poly-morphemic structure, e.g. solitude, fascination, cordial, paternal,
divergent, commence, assist, comprise, endeavour, exclude, heterogeneous,
miscellaneous, hereby, thereby, herewith, wherein, etc.
Terms are words or nominal groups, which convey specialized concepts used
in science, technology, art, etc., e.g. gerontology, phoneme, radar, knee-joint,
common denominator, periodic table, still life, choreography, etc.
Barbarisms are words or expressions borrowed without (or almost without)
any change in form and not accepted by native speakers as current in the
language, e.g. ad libitum, qui pro quo, entre nous, bon mot, table d'note, coup
d'Etat, etc.
Poetic words with elevated, "lofty" colouring are traditionally used only in
poetry. Most of them are archaic and have stylistically neutral synonyms, e.g.
lone ("lonely"), brow ("forehead"), gore ("blood"), woe ("sorrow"), array
("clothes"), hearken ("hear"), behold ("see"), oft ("often"), ere ("before"), etc.
Archaisms are obsolete names for existing words, actions, phenomena, etc. All
of them can be replaced by neutral synonyms, e.g. hark ("listen"), deem ("think"),
glee ("joy"), aught ("anything"), nigh ("near"). Grammatical archaisms represent
obsolete grammatical forms: thou, thee, thy, thine; yei; he goeth, thou knowest,
etc. Among archaic words one should distinguish historical words that denote
no-longer existing objects, e.g. yeoman, fletcher, gleeman, galleon, visor,
arbalernt, etc. Historical words have no neutral synonyms in Modern English.
Neologisms are words and word-groups that denote new concepts, e.g.
teledish, n. ("a dish-shaped aerial for receiving satellite television
transmissions"); roam-a-phone n. ("a portable telephone"); graviphoton n. ("a
hypothetical particle"); Gieger counter n. ("a device for detecting
radioactivity"); magalog n. ("a large magazine-format catalogue advertising
mailorder goods"); NIC n. ("newly-industrializing country"), etc.
Among neologisms one can find the so-termed occasional words (or nonce-
words) coined for a particular situation or context and aimed at a certain stylistic
effect e.g. "A what? " Moneyholic. A word I've just made up to describe someone
with an uncontrollable addiction to money" (D. Francis).
Several nonce words coined by famous English authors have penetrated to
the Standard English vocabulary and are registered in dictionaries, e.g.
Lilliputian (J. Swift), snob (W.M. Thackeray), to galumph, to chortle (L.
Carrol).
One should not confuse occasional words with potential words based on
productive word-formation patterns and devoid of any stylistic colouring.
Typical cases of potential word-formation are composite numerals (thirty-five,
four hundred and sixteen), numerous adjectives with the semi-suffix - like
(moth-like, soldier-like) and some other widely distributed patterns. Being easily
coined and understood, potential words are not registered in dictionaries.
COLLOQUIAL WORDS
Colloquial words are characteristic of the informal style of spoken English.
One should distinguish between literary (standard) colloquial words as units of
Standard English and non-literary colloquialisms that belong to sub-standard
English vocabulary.
Literary colloquial words are used in everyday conversations both by
cultivated and uneducated people and are also met in written literary texts.
As for their etymology and syllabic structure, literary colloquial words are
closer to neutral words than to literary-bookish units, but, as a rule, have
stronger emotional colouring. They are formed on standard word-formative
patterns, some of them (for instance, contraction, phrasal verbs and nouns,
substantivation) being particularly frequent: granny, birdie, latish, touchy, perm,
disco, baby-sit, chopper, put up, do away, turn in, let-down, make-up, hand-in-
glove, daily (n.), constitutional (N.), etc.
The informal style of spoken English is also characterized by extensive use of
occasional and potential words (see Neologisms above), qualifiers, responsives,
pragmatic phraseological units, evaluative attributes and predicatives, e.g.
Reaganomics, Oscarish, awfully glad, terribly sweet, dead right, you bet, there
you are, what next?, it's no go, smart kid, lousy weather, too New-York, etc.
Several classes of nomination are exclusively
colloquial: semantically diffused words (thing, stuff, affair, etc.), the so-
termed ersatz-words (thingummy, whatsename, whatchamacallit, etc),
syntagmatic doublets (you boys, Bobby boy, darling dear, etc.).
Non-literary (sub-standard) colloquial words include slang, jargonisms,
professionalisms and vulgarisms.
 Slang comprises highly informal words not accepted for dignified use. Such
words are expressive sub-standard substitutes for current words of standard
vocabulary. As a rule, their meanings are based on metaphor and have a jocular
or ironic colouring, e.g. attic ("head"), beans ("money"), governor ("father"),
saucers ("eyes"), soaked ("drunk"), to leg/it/ ("to walk"), to rag ("to tease"), etc.
Slang words are easily understood by all native speakers, because they are not
specific for any social or professional group (cf. with Ukrainian просторіччя,
e.g. баньки /"очі"/, макітра /"голова"/, поцупити /"вкрасти"/, etc.).
Therefore, such terms as "army slang", "school slang", "football slang", "sea
slang" and the like are rather inaccurate.
Informal words peculiar for a certain social or professional group should be
considered as jargonisms. Such words are usually motivated and, like slang
words, have metaphoric character, e.g. bird ("rocket", "spacecraft"); garment
("pressure space suit") /astronauts' jargon/; to grab ("to make an impression on
somebody") /newspaper jargon/; Mae West ("pneumatic vest")/military jargon/;
grass, tea, weed ("narcotic") /drug addicts' jargon/, etc.
Among social jargons cant or argot (thieves' jargon stands somewhat apart.
Cant (argot) words are non-motivated and have special "agreed-upon",
secretive meanings, e.g. book ("life sentence"), spiv ("black-marketeer"), sposh
("money"), to rap ("to kill"), etc.
Professionalisms are sub-standard colloquial words used by people of a
definite trade or profession. Such words are informal substitutes for
corresponding terms, e.g. nuke ("nuclear"), identikit ("photorobot"), Hi-Fi ("high
fidelity"), anchors ("brakes"), smash-up ("accident"), ack-ack gun ("anti-aircraft
gun"), and the like.
Vulgarisms include: a) expletives and swear words of abusive character, like
damn, goddam, bloody, etc.; b) obscene (or taboo, four-letter) words, which are
highly indecent.
Phraseological unite, like words, belong to stylistically neutral literary-bookish
and colloquial layers,
In most cases, phraseological collocations (standardized phrases) are
stylistically neutral, to make friends, to make haste, to render a service, to go to
bed, all of a sudden, on no account, etc.
Among literary-bookish phraseological units one can find barbarisms: ab
ovo (Lat), ad verbum (Lat), a la lettre (Fr), apropos (Fr), etc.; archaic and
poetic units, forever and aye, a heart of oak the apple of discord at fortune's
alms, to bring to mould, to fall from grace, etc.; neologisms: Abominable
Snowman, a back seat driver, to put on the back burner, straight from central
casting, etc.
A great number of phraseologjcal units are literary colloquial, e.g. bag and
baggage, alive and kicking, as crows flies, like water off duck's back, to be at
sixes and sevens, to be on the carpet, etc.
Non-literary (sub-standard) colloquial phraseological unit are subdivided
into:
 a) slang units, e.g. to have a crush on somebody, to get (to go) bananas, to
bat (to shoot) the breeze, to buy the farm, to get high, like the clappers, etc.
b) jargonisms, e.g. to put to bed (jur-); to break it up (theatre); to lay an egg
(a bomb)(theatre); to be on the blink (eng.); to sell one's back (sport); rough
stuff (sport); to pump iron (sport); to go into the drunk (av.), etc.
c) professionalisms, e.g. to hit the ground (av.); to ride the beam (av.,); to
fall into a caldron (mil.); to ride a desk (mil.); to hit the headlines (journ.), etc.
e) vulgarisms, e.g. to hand somebody crap, to have a boob,to fress
freebee, etc.
DIALECTS AND VARIANTS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Linguists distinguish local dialects and variants of English. In the British Isles
there exist five main groups of local dialects: Northern, Western, Midland,
Eastern, and Southern. These dialects, used as means of oral communication,
are peculiar to comparatively small localities. They are marked by some
deviations mostly in pronunciation and vocabulary, but have no normalized
literary form.
One of the best-known Southern dialects is Cockney, the regional dialect of
London.
Regional varieties of English possessing a literary form are called variants. In
the British Isles there are two variants: Scottish English and Irish English.
The varieties of English spoken in the USA, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa and India should also be considered as variants of
Modern English. Each of them is characterized by distinct peculiarities in
pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, and grammar system.
Read the following excerpts and comment on their dialectal
peculiarities.
A. North-Western
"Well thou shall have to do summat my son. This pig-sty's no place for a man.
Thee wife's next thing 'til a beggar. Thee dowter looks like an orphan. Thou
looks like workhouse fodder. Thou shall hev to do summat. Yer mother's sick
wid' worry."
"Don't bring her until it. Thou moans thou's shamed. That's all."
"All! Ay lad, Aa's shamed. But thou's bluddy near ruined Now - theee's a job,
he'll give thee fourteen bob a week. Tek it. Git out of this muck-heap. That's
what Aa kem to say."
"And now thou's off." /.../
"Ay - Aa's offl Aa'll catch diphtheria sittin' in this byre. What the hell man! Is
this as good as thou can manage for thisel?' (M. Bragg).

B. Midland
"What sort o'work do you do?"
"I wok for my feyther 'polsterin'." /.../
"What's "polsterin?'
 "Reparin' sofys and chairs. The old man teks wok in from pubs and
'ouses. /.../It's good work, but you've got to be as strong as a hoss, climbing up
three flights o' stairs wi' a sofy on your back and getting nowt but threepence for
your trouble when you get there."
"Don't your old man pay you wages?" "Ay," he said "but it ain't a sight"

C. Southern-Eastern
"Gearge! You gart whad a wand?' At that he turned and hurried down to her.
"Janny," he said over the rail of the cellar steps," 'tas the truth what Hen-frey
sez. 'E's not in uz room, 'e en't And the front door's onbolted" /.. ./ "If 'e en't
there," ne said, "is close are. And what's 'e doin' 'ithout 'is close, than? 'Tas a
most curius basness." (H.G. Wells).

D. Cockney
The Flower Girl. Nah then, Freddy: look wh'y' gowin, deah.
Freddy. Sorry/ He rushes off/.
The Flower Girl /picking up her scattered flowers and replacing them in the
basket/. Theres menners fyer! Te-oo banches o voylets trod into the mad, /…/
The Mother. How do you know that my son's name is Freddy, pray?
The Flower Girl. Ow, eez ye-ooa son, is e? (G.B. Shaw).

'That's where the Socialists myke their mistyke, sir. Nothing keeps me going
but the sight of other people spendin' money. It's what we might all come to
with a bit of luck. Reduce the world to a level of a pound a dy - and it won't
even run to that, they sy! It'a not good enough, sir. I'd rather 'ave less with the
'ope of more. Take awy the gamble, and life's a frost" (J. Galsworthy).

E. Irish Variant
Haffigan. Tim Haffigan, sir, at your service. The top o the mornin to you,
Misther Broadbent.
Broadbent I delighted with his Irish visitor/. Good afternoon, Mr. Haffigan.
Tim. An is it the afthernoon it is already? Begorra, what I call the mornin is
all the time a man fasts afther breakfast./.../Besides, I'm Irish, sir: a poor aither,
but a powerful dhrinker (G.B. Shaw).

F. Scottish Variant
"Did ye see the like! She's nearly gane! The puir thing! And her so young
and so bonnie. I maun dae ma best for her /.../'. Back in her comfortable
kitchen she shouted to her son, who sat before the huge cracking log fire:
"Quick man! I want ye to run like fury to Levenford for a doctor. Ye maun get
yin at a' costs. There's an ill woman in the byre. Go, in God's name, at once, and
no' a word frae ye. It's life or death. ///// If ye dinna hurry she'll be gane. Haste
ye awa' for help" (A. J. Cronin).
 EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Comment on the opposition of stylistically marked and
stylistically neutral words. Arrange the following words into stylistically
marked and stylistically neutral.
Accommodation, beautiful, chap, deem, domestic, eve, evening, fair, father,
forenoon, get, girl, home, fellow, horse, kill, labial, lip, maiden, main, mental, mind,
morning, naught, nothing, obtain, parent, room, sea, slay, solar, steed, sunny, think.
Exercise 2. a) Analyse the following synonymic series and classify its
members according to their stylistic character, b) Give their
Ukrainian/Russian equivalents.

to be called to one's account, to go to Abraham's bosom,

to be gathered to one's fathers, to go to glory,
to breathe (to gasp) one's last, to go to heaven,
to cross the river, to go to one's last home,
to cross the Stygian ferry (the Styx), to go to one's long rest,
to cut the cable, to hop the stick (the twig),
to depart out of this world, to join the great majority,
to depart to God, to kick the bucket,
to drop a cue, to kick up one's heels,
to drop off the hooks, to pay the debt of nature.
Exercise 3. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian/Russian. Pick
out colloquialisms.
1.1 feel like the first man because I have hardly got a stitch on and am sent
against the frozen fields in a shimmy and shorts. (Sl.) 2. Don't I come out three
mornings a week on my long-distance running, which is fifty times better than
boozing. (Sl.) 3. But anyhow we were all kids then. (Sl.) 4. It's a good job I can
only think of these things as fast as I can write with this stub of pencil that's
clunched in my paw, otherwise I'd have dropped the whole thing weeks ago. (Sl.)
5. The time was autumn and the night foggy enough to set me and my mate Mike
roaming the streets when we should have been rooted in front of the telly or stuck
into a plush posh seat at the pictures, but I was restless after six weeks away from
any sort of work and well you might ask me why I'd been bone-idle for so long.
(Sl.) 6. And when the dough ran out I didn't think about anything much, but just
roamed the streets looking for another job. (Sl.)

Exercise 4. Comment on special terms. Pick out special terms from

the extracts below. State what branch of science or sphere of life they
belong to.
1. Acute leukaemia is more indolent than has been thought. There is good
precedence for it in other haematology disorders.
2. The word plays such a crucial part in the structure of language that we
need a special branch of linguistics to examine it in all its aspects. This branch is
called Lexicology and it forms, next to Phonology, the second basic division of
linguistic science.
3. A fraction is a part of some thing which is treated as a whole or a unit. In
arithmetic, a proper fraction is a number which represents a part, that is, a number
which is less than 1. In writing a common fraction, two numbers are used, called the
numerator and denominator.
 4. The most important combinations of sulphur and oxygen are sulphur dioxide
SO, and sulphur trioxide SO3, which form with water sulphurous acid H,SO3 and
sulphuric acid H,SO4.

Exercise 5. Comment on the concept Slang. The following are some slang
words and phrases. Mind their vulgar, cynical and harsh sounding.
1. Face: mug, phiz.
2. Head: attic, brain-pan, hat peg, upper storey.
3. Girl, woman: baby, baggage, chick(en), doll, mouse, witch.
4. Money: beans, brass, buttons, dibs, dough, chink.
5. Drunk: boozy, cock-eyed, high.
6. To have a drink: to crack a bottle, to wet one's whistle, to be on the
booze.
Exercise 6. Translate the following sentences into Ukrainian/Russian.
Comment on slang words and phrases in bold type.
1. Tell the old bag to mind her own business. 2.1 need some dough to buy
some groceries. 3.1 need to get some bread to live on. 4. Who's the doll I saw you
with last night? 5. Let's go out and booze up! 6.1 am too muggy to drive. 7. Wipe
that smile off your mug! 8. He's been drinking since noon and is pretty wet. 9.
Hard liquor makes people soft.

Exercise 7. Read the following excerpts and point out typical features of
Irish and Scottish variants of English.
A. Irish Variant
Haffigan. Tim Haffigan, sir, at your service. The top o the mornin to you,
Misther Broadbent.
Broadbent /delighted with his Irish visitor/. Good afternoon, Mr. Haffigan.
Tim. An is it the afthernoon it is already? Begorra, what I call the mornin is all
the time a man fasts afther breakfast. /.../ Besides, I'm Irish, sir: a poor aither, but a
powerful dhrinker (G.B. Shaw).

B. Scottish Variant
"Did ye see the like! She's nearly gane! the puir thing! and her so young and so
bonnie. I maun dae ma best for her /.../".
Back in her comfortable kitchen she shouted to her son, who sat before the huge
crackling log fire: "Quick man! I want ye to run like fury to Levenford for a
doctor. Ye maun getyin at a' costs. There's an ill woman in the byre. Go, in God's
name, at once, and no' a word frae ye. It's life or death. /.../ If ye dinna hurry she'll
be gane. Haste ye! Haste ye awa' for help" (A.J. Cronin).
 LECTURE 8. THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN THE USA
English is known to be the language not only of the British Empire, but in the
17th century, since the time of American colonization, it became the language
of the USA.
It has been customary in recent vocabulary studies to identify American
English as a variety of Standard English, which seems perfectly reasonable.
The linguistic evidence drawn from the study of American and British English
gives every reason to conclude that in spite of certain differences in the
vocabulary, colloquial idiom and slang, in particular, their diversity is on the
whole not so great as to give grounds to consider that there exists the American
language as such. Changes inlexical variants, pronunciation and spelling and
grammar are also not so far reaching as to give grounds for claiming the
existence of the American language, as some American linguists will have it.
Vocabulary
Here are some examples to show that a number of words in every-day use differ
in England and America:
English
American
beer ale
cinema movie
chemist druggist
goods freight
goods train freight train
motor car automobile
petrol gasoline
postman letter carrier
porridge oatmeal
railway railroad
seaside beach
underground train subway train
sweets candy
tart pie
tin can
tram car trolly car
typist typewriter
wireless radio
Ffat apartment
leader (article) editorial
lorry truck
lift-boy elevator-boy
luggage baggage
letter card post card
maize corn
minerals soft drinks
 There are also words whose general meaning is the same in both countries but
which in America have acquired a specific meaning in addition, e.g. in England
the verb to fix is commonly restricted to the meaning of "establish", "make
stable", "place in a permanent position", in America it is a serviceable word of
all work which saves the trouble of finding the specific term to describe almost
any kind of adjustment or repair.
There are words that in America have been narrowed in meaning, e.g. gun in
England denotes almost any kind of firearm except the pistol. In America it is
especially the pistol. Hence to gun used figuratively in the expression to gun for,
English - to go in pursuit for, of.
Some words retain in America a meaning now obsolete or dialectal in
England, e.g. the word thrifty in America, retains the sense of "thriving",
"prosperous", which is now obsolete in England, except in some dialect.
The word dry retains in America the earlier sense "thirsty"; the word curious
retains the meaning of "fine", "excellent" (now obsolete in England); the verb
to guess in the meaning of "to think" is much more common in America than in
England. Other well-known examples are: homely - in America the word retains
its primary meaning "ugly". The word mad is commonly used in America as a
synonym for angry. It is obsolete in this sense in England except in highly
colloquial speech.
We may also find words whose meaning has in America been extended due
to contiguity, eg. bakery - in America denotes not only a place where baking is
done but a place where baked products are sold; candy - in England means a
particular form of sweetmeat In America candy is a general name for everything
included in the English term sweets except the sense of the "sweet course" (at
dinner).
The verb to get has developed in America such additional meanings as:
встановити телефонний зв'язок, ударити, оволодіти чимось, поставити в
глухий кут, досаждати, роздратувати.
Spelling
Here are some examples of different spelling in England and America:
English American
arbour arbor
ardour ardor
armour armor
candour candor
clamour clamor
clangour clangor
centre center
defence defense
endeavour endeavor
honour honor
humour humor
labour labor
neighbour neighbor
parlour parior
rancour rancor
vigour vigor
valour valor
vapour vapor
There are some differences in spelling words with inflectional and derivational
suffixes: -ed, -ing, -er, -ery, -or, -ist and others. In American English l is doubled only in
cases when the stress falls on the last syllable of the stem. Compare:
English American
apparelled appareled
councillor councilor
jewellry jewelry
levelled leveled
libelled libeled
marvellous marvelous
medallist medalist
travelling traveling
woollen woolen
On the other hand, l is doubled in words with the stress on the last syllable. In Standard
English such words are spelled with one l.
English American
enrol enroll
enthral enthrall
fulfil fulfill
There are differences in spelling such prefixes as em-, en-, im-, in-:
English American
empanel impanel
encase incase
encrust inciust
enfold infold
The spelling of some loan-words from French was simplified and accommodated to
the rules of English spelling.
English American
bark/barque (барка) bark
catalogue catalog
cheque check
gauge gage
gramme gram
programme program
Foreign elements
There is no doubt that foreign elements in the English language in America not
found in England before their adoption by the Americans are insignificant.
Among Indian names of specifically Indian things taken over by the American
colonists we find such, as: canoe, moccasin, toboggan, wigwam, squaw, succotash,
mugwump.
A few examples of Spanish borrowings, ranch, cinch, adobe. Among German words
that have entered the English language in America may be mentioned: pretzel (a baked
and salted biscuit of knot like form), Wienerwurst (a kind of highly seasoned sausage),
loafer (G. laufen colloq. - to walk).
Loan-words brought into the language through the Negroes are not numerous. A few
words like piccaninny (a Negro child), banjo (a Negro instrument) juba (a kind of
dance), hoodoo or voodoo (to bring bad luck, a cause of bad luck) exhaust the list of
words that have been familiarized through their use by the Negroes. Scarcely longer is
the number of English words that have special associations with Negroes, such as:
cake-walk Mammy (a Negro nurse), aunty (an old Negro woman).
There are a number of technical, political, geographical, military and other terms,
which do not coincide in England and America, e.g.
English American
government (уряд) administration
office, ministry (міністерство) department
plurality (більшість голосів) majority
section (відділення) squad
Royal Amoured Corps (бронетанкові війська) Armored Force
A number of words have been made by shortening, e.g.
movies - from moving pictures
sub - from subway
bike - from bicycle
Here are extreme abbreviations current in the English language in America:
S.G. - Secretary General (of the United Nations)
G.I. General Issue, Government Issue
Q's and A's -questions and answers
Pronunciation
A considerable number of divergences between BE and AE can be detected in the area
of pronunciation.
1. AE ǽ versus BE a, e.g.: pass, bath, grass.
2. AE a versus BE e, e.g.: pot, red, got.
3. AE o: (low) versus BE o: (much higher and more rounded), e.g.: all, saw, law,
ball.
4. AE central vowel 3and (r-coloured) versus BE non-coloured
 There is a considerable number of words which differ in their phonetic shape.
AE BE
asthma ǽzmə ǽsmə
blouse blaus blauz
clerk kl3k kla:k
either iδə aiδə
epoch εpək ipək
z zi zεd
There are words which differ in stress in BE and AE
AE BE
address address
ancillary ancillary
aristocrat aristocrat
beret beret
cafe cafe
cigarette cigarette
complex complex
dictate dictate
donate donate
frontier frontier
inquiry inquiry
research research
Grammar
Some minor differences occur in grammatical forms.
Verbs
1. will, would, shall, should
In AE will and would have long been used instead of shall and should to express
simple futurity as well as volition in the first person singular and plural. In AE will and
would are used not only in affirmative sentences but also in both interrogative and
negative ones.
Examples
AE: I will do it if only I can;
BE: I shall do it if only I can;
AE: Will I see you tomorrow?;
BE: Stall I see you tomorrow? or Will I see you tomorrow?
It is not incorrect to use shall and should in AE; however, ore rarely hears forms used
by native Americans.
On the other hand British speakers although still preserving shall and should, also
tend to be gradually replacing these by will and would.
Consequent use of will and would in AE instead of shall and should in BE concerns
various grammatical constructions like Future Sentences, Reported Speech structures,
rhetorical questions, subjunctive phrases, etc. However, in structure like: You should do
it or when shall expresses purpose or authority, both shall and should are also used in
AE.
 2. do
The auxiliary verb to do is widely used for forming questions and negative
sentences like Do you know him? and He doesn 't know. The particular forms of the
verb differ according to the tense and sentence type employed.
Discrepancies between BE and AE are limited only to one verb to have with respect to
which do is applied on varying principles. In BE the use of do is, as a rule, restricted to
habitual actions, for example: What time do you ha\'e breakfast every morning?
Occasionally, however, it may be used in other constructions, e.g., substituting to obtain
or to receive as in: Did he have an opportunity to come here?, to be obliged as in: Do I
hove to do that? Do is very seldom used in BE with to have in the sense of possess.
Inversion and not are used, instead. For example: Have you (got) enough money?; I
haven t (got) a television set.
Note the difference (in BE) between Do you always have two eggs for breakfast?
(habitually) and Have you (got) a bag? (possession).
3. Infinitive
Some examples show that AE uses the infinitive with or without to whereas BE only
with to. For instance, AE: Let 's go see him versus BE: Let's go to see him or Let 's go and
see him. The American variety sounds to Englishmen archaic.
4. Perfect Participle
In some cases in expressions of the type to be + Perfect Participle AE optionally
deletes the to be group. Thus, for example: / ordered her to be replaced, correct in both
BE and AE, may be reduced in AE to: / ordered her replaced. BE: She wanted a
conference to be held may be in AE both: She wanted a conference to be held and She
wanted a conference held.
5. The Subjunctive
In AE the subjunctive is formed merely by means of the uninflected form of the verb.
In BE, however, a combination of should and the infinitive is the most natural.
AE BE
1 suggest that you go. I suggest that you should go.
He urged that we come back to America He urged that we should come back to
America
6. Tenses
Present Tenses
AE tends to use Simple Past instead of Present Perfect, e.g. He just came
instead of He has just come. Simple Present, Present Perfect Continuous and
Present Continuous uses remain basically the same.
Past Tenses
Here, the use of Simple Past (in AE) instead of Past Perfect can be observed,
e.g., AE: After he came back home he ate dinner instead of After he had come ...
 Future Tenses
No differences are conspicuous with regard to the Simple Future and Future
Continuous Tenses. The only area of discrepancy is a Future Time Perfect
whose use may alternate in AE with the Simple Present, e.g., AE: After you have
thought it over, please let me know what you decide or After you think it over,
please let me know what you decide. In BE only the former is correct.

7. Reported Speech
AE tends to disregard the rules of sequence of tenses. Occurrences like: He
said he is feeling bad or She said today is Monday are not rare in AE. Sporadic
instances of this kind can also be recorded in BE, but they are comparatively
infrequent. This distinction, also, primarily refers to the spoken language of
educated speakers.

EXERCISES
Exercise 1. Give the British equivalents for the following Americanisms.
apartment, drugstore, movies,
associate professor, editorial, saloon,
baby-carriage, elevator, sidewalk,
baggage, fall, stock,
candy, flat, store,
cane, foil, street car,
check, gimmick, subway,
cookie, mail, suspenders,
corn, mailbox, truck.

Exercise 2. Comment on the differences in the meanings of the following

words in British and American English.
administration, dumb, lunch,
apartment, faculty, mad,
billion, to fire, minerals,
corn, to guess, pavement,
to cover, homely, sick.
dresser, lumber,

Exercise 3. Transcribe the words below according to British and American

norms of pronunciation.
ask, derby, premier,
auditory, dictionary, secretary,
candidate, dormitory, schedule,
centenary, laboratory, teacher,
ceremony, lieutenant, territory,
clerk, matrimony, tomato,
dance, missile, top,
delegate, not, wrath.

Exercise 4. Write the words below according to American spelling norms.

anaemic, dialogue, judgement,
catalogue, encase, labour,
 centre, fibre, offence,
colour, honour, programme,
defence, inflexion, theatre,
traveller.

LECTURE 9. LEXICOGRAPHY

Compiling dictionaries or lexicons containing an alphabetical arrangement

of the words in a language with a definition of each is called lexicography.
Sometimes the smallest dictionary will give all the information needed. But
it often happens that what you are especially concerned about perhaps the older
meanings of a word, rare or special meanings, or detailed etymology - is not to
be found except in one of the larger volumes.
In its proper sense a dictionary is a book, containing a collection of the words,
dialect or subject, arranged alphabetically or in some other definite order, and
with explanations in the same or some other language. When the words are few
in number, being only a small part of those belonging to the subject, or when
they are given without explanation, or some only are explained, the work is
called a vocabulary, a glossary is properly a collection of unusual or foreign
words requiring explanation. It is the name frequently given to English
dictionary of dialects.
The tendency of great dictionaries is to unite in themselves all the peculiar
features of special dictionaries. A large dictionary is most useful when a word is
to be thoroughly studied, or when there is difficulty in making out the meaning
of a word or phrase. Special dictionaries are more useful for special purposes, for
instance, synonyms are best studied in a dictionary of synonyms.
Small dictionaries are more convenient for frequent use as in translating from
a foreign language, for words may be found more quickly, and they present the
words and their meaning in a concentrated form, instead of being scattered over
a large space and separated by other data.
There are bilingual dictionaries and dictionaries of several languages, called
polyglots, of different kinds. Some are polyglot in the vocabulary, but not in the
explanation, like Johnson's, dictionary of Persian and Arabic explained in
English; some in the interpretation, but not in the vocabulary or explanation,
like Calepini octoglotton, a Latin dictionary of Latin with the meanings in
several languages. Many great dictionaries are now polyglot in this sense.
Some are polyglot in the vocabulary and interpretation, but are explained in
one language, like Jal 's Glossaire Nautique, a glossary of sea terms in many
languages, giving the equivalent of each word in the other languages, but the
explanation is in French. There are also special dictionaries of many kinds, such
as: dictionaries of etymology, foreign words, dialects, slang, pronunciation,
spelling.
There are dictionaries of political and social sciences; of mathematics; of
natural history, of philosophy, of zoology and botany, of agriculture and rural
economy, of commerce, navigation and the military arts; of chemistry, geology
and mineralogy; of architecture, painting and music; of medicine, surgery,
anatomy, pathology and physiology, of diplomacy; of law, of mechanics,
machines and manual arts. There are dictionaries of antiquities of chronology,

of dates, of genealogy, of abbreviations and of very many other subjects. And

lastly, there are dictionaries of the arts and sciences, and their comprehensive
offspring, encyclopaedias, which include in themselves every branch of
knowledge.
The history of English lexicography begins with the compilation of Latin-
English glossaries of which many appeared in the Middle Ages and the
Renaissance.
Among the earliest publications we find John Bullokar's English Expositour
(1616), which is probably the earliest claimant for the title of the first English
dictionary.
A Table Alphabetical published in 1604 by Robert Cawdrey according to its
full tide is limited to borrowed words and to importations from Greek, Latin
and French.
Minsheu's Ductor in Linguas, or Guide into the Tongues (1617), is the first of
etymological dictionaries; Henry Cockeram's English Dictionary published in
1623 is the first in which the word dictionary is used in the sense in which we
understand it now.
The full titles of Bullokar's and Cockeram's compilations suggest the early
conception of a dictionary as limited to difficult words only: the one reads: An
English Expositour; Teaching the Interpretation of the Hardest Words Used in
our Language, with Sundry Explications, Descriptions and Discourses; the
other: The English Dictionary or An Interpreter of Hard English Words.
Earlier dictionaries followed in the line of old glossaries and directed their
attention to such words as were likely to be unfamiliar to the ordinary man. They
usually make the proper meaning of a word the starting point of its definition
and arrange its other meanings ignoring the historical order in which the various
meanings arose. Still less do they attempt to give data from which the vocabulary
of the language at any previous period may be determined. The philologist,
however, for whom the etymology of words is a fact of major importance,
regards no record of a language as complete, which does not snow this growth in
its successive stages. He would like to know when and where each word and
each form and sense of it are first found in a given language; if the word or sense
is obsolete, when it died; and any other fact that throws light upon its history.
The full etymology of a word should include the phonetic descent the source of
the word, whether native or foreign, and, if the fitter, whether by adoption, or
adaptation, or if a formed word, the origin of the parts which go to make it up.
Later dictionaries with greater pretension to completeness are: Edward
Phillips -New World of Words, or A General English Dictionary (1658) and that
of Nathaniel Bailey, the direct predecessor of Johnson - Universal Etymological
English Dictionary.
The first edition of Samuel Johnson's dictionary, in two folio volumes,
appeared in 1755.

The greatest of all dictionaries is The New English Dictionary (also called The
Oxford English Dictionary), which appeared in instalments over a period of
forty-five years from 1883 to 1928. Its first editor was James Murray. The
editor's principal assistants were Dr. Henry Bradley, Dr. W. A. Craigie, and C.
T. Onions.
The dictionary fills twelve volumes embracing not only the standard language
of literature and conversation, whether current at the moment or obsolete, but
also the main technical vocabulary, and a large measure of dialectal usage and
slang.
Founded mainly on materials collected by the Philological Society it applies
the method of exposition on historical principles particularly by quotations.
Illustrative sentences and lines of poetry are quoted, with date and author.
The New English Dictionary furnishes for the first time data from which the
extent of the English vocabulary at any given period, and the course of its
development, can fairly be estimated.
It presents in alphabetical series the words that have formed the English
vocabulary from the times of the earliest records down to the present time with
all the relevant facts as to their form, sense, history, pronunciation and
etymology. For this purpose the materials furnished by the older dictionaries are
quite insufficient, on account of their incompleteness and unhistorical character.
Other distinctive features of The New English Dictionary are the precision
with which variations of pronunciation and spelling are indicated; the fullness of
the etymologies which abound in new information and corrections of old
errors, the accuracy of the definitions and the elaborate differentiation of
meanings which, if not in all cases with entire success, yet on the whole gives a
wealth of linguistic evidence in the history of words. The full historical account
is especially valuable to the student who finds in his reading of sixteenth or
seventeenth century literature uses of words which are wry different from the
modern usage.
It may be said with little fear of exaggeration that this monumental work,
whose history goes back to 1857, is one of the greatest achievements of modern
English scholarship and research.
Abridgements and adaptations of The New English Dictionary (several
forms) have been produced by the Clarendon Press: the two-volume Shorter
Oxford English Dictionary, the Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English,
the Pocket Oxford Dictionary (of which there is an American version) and the
Little Oxford Dictionary, the Oxford Shakespeare Glossary is also directly based
upon it.
In matters of pronunciation foreign students rely more and more on Daniel
Jones's An English Pronouncing Dictionary, the ninth edition of which,
containing 56,280 words in international phonetic transcription appeared in
1948.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica is a Dictionary of Arts, Sciences and Literature

with pectoral illustrations, with brief etymological notes showing but in outlines
the sources and history and in many cases the development in meaning.
In the manner of compilation it is a modern cooperative dictionary, the joint
product of a large number of scholars.
In the application of the encyclopaedic method it is conservative, excluding,
with a few exceptions, proper names and restricting, for the most part, the
encyclopaedic matter to descriptive and other details, which might be added to
the definitions.
The combination of lexicon and encyclopaedia is exhibited in the Century
Dictionary edited by W. D. Witney, and published in 1889-1891 in 6 volumes,
containing 7046 pages.
It conforms to the philological mode in giving the older as well as the
present vocabulary of the language, and in the completeness of its etymology;
but it does not attempt to give the full history of every word within the language.
Its other distinctive features are the inclusion of a great number of modern
scientific and technical terms and the abundance of its quotations.
It is to be marked that between the dictionary and the encyclopaedia no rigid
line of demarcation can be drawn. Instances are not few when the meaning of
words cannot be explained properly without some description of things, and, on
the other hand, the description of things and processes often comprises the
definition of names.
The large vocabulary of the general dictionary makes it possible to present
certain kinds of encyclopaedic matter with a degree of fullness and convenience
of arrangement, which are possible in no single work of any other class.
There are also well-known Webster and Merriam-Webster Dictionaries: An
American Dictionary of the English Language, edited by Noah Webster in
1828; The Revised Edition, in 1840; a New and Revised Edition, edited by
Chauncey A. Goodrich, in 1847; a Revised and Enlarged Edition with
Pictorial Illustrations and a Table of Synonyms, edited by Chauncey A
Goodrich in 1859; the Unabridged, with Vocabulary three times the size of the
1828 Dictionary, and with etymologies revised in 1804; the Unabridged, with
a Pronouncing Gazetter in 1884; the International in 1890; and the New
International, having more that 400,000 entries, in 1909. The latest is Webster's
New International Dictionary off the English Language (Springfield, mass.,
USA, 1948).
W. W. Skeat's Etymological Dictionary is devoted especially to the
etymology of English words. There are special dictionaries of synonyms such
as W. Taylor's English Synonyms Discriminated (1813), J. Crabb's English
Synonyms Explained (1816), George F. Graham's English Synonyms Classified
and Explained' (1846), Roget's Thesaurus of 'English Words and Phrases and
others.

In a Thesaurus words are grouped according to the ideas they express, rather
than in alphabetical order as in a dictionary. Usually, about half the volume is
devoted to an index giving references to the various numbered sections of the
Thesaurus itself. In Roget's Thesaurus, for instance, there are six primary
classes;
1. Abstract relations. 2. Space. 3. Matter. 4. Intellect. 5. Volition. 6. Affection.
For English idioms, proverbs and proverbial phrases the student may consult
such special works as P. M. Roget's Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases,
W. McMordie's English Idioms and How to Use Them, L. P. Smith's Words
and Idioms, J. M Dixon's English Idioms, Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase and
Fable, A Desk-Book of Idioms and Idiomatic Phrases by Vizetelly and Bekker.
Students of English will also find valuable information on English idioms in A.
Koonin's Anglo-Russian Phraseological Dictionary, Kiev, 1956. The book will
be highly useful not only as an aid in immediate difficulties but as a means to
extend the practical knowledge of the language.
The best known bilingual dictionaries edited in our country are: The
Russian-English Dictionary compiled by O. S. Akhmanova, T. P. Gorbunova,
N. F. Rotshtein, Prof Smirnitsky and Prof Taube (Moscow, 1948); V.
Myullefs Anglo-Russian Dictionary (Moscow, 1955); M. L. Podvesko's
Ukrainian-English and English-Ukrainian Dictionaries edited in Kiev in 1957
and in 1959; K. T. Barantsev's English-Ukrainian Phrase-Book edited in Kiev
in 1969; M. I. Balla's English-Ukrainan and Ukrainan-English Dictionaries
edited in Kiev in 1996 (in two volumes); Ye. F. Popov Ye. F., M I. Balla's
Comprehensive Ukrainian-English Dictionary edited in Kiev in 2001.

EXERCISES

Exercise 1. Analyse V. Myuller's Anglo-Russian Dictionary; state what type

it belongs to; comment on the principles of selection of words, structure of
dictionary entry, what information about a word can be deduced from the
dictionary entry.
Exercise 2. Analyse I.Galpcrin's Big Anglo-Russian Dictionary, state what
type it belongs to; comment on the principles of selection of words, structure of
dictionary entry; what information about a word can be deduced from the
dictionary entry.
Exercise 3. Analyse the dictionaries: The Concise Oxford Dictionary, Webster's
New World Dictionary.
Exercise 4. Choose one word out of the following list: head, hand, arm, body,
thing, to go, to tab to be and analyse its dictionary entry and its semantic structure
as presented in the following dictionaries:
 1. V. Myuller's Anglo-Russian Dictionary;
2. The Concise Oxford English Dictionary;
3. The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles;
4. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English by L. S. Hornby

CONTENTS

1. Introduction. The subject matter of lexicology.

The subject matter of lexicology.
Lexicology in its relations to grammar, phonology and stylistics.
2. The etymological peculiarities of the English vocabulary.
Assimilation. Ways of assimilation.
Borrowed words.
International words.
Archaisms.
Neologisms.
Semantic borrowings and translation-loans.
Dialecticisms and slang.
3. The morphemic structure of the English word.
Morphemes. Root morphemes.
Affixes (prefixes, suffixes).
Stems.
Structural types of English words.
4. Word formation.
Word formation – general notes.
Affixation.
Compounding (Composition).
Reduplication.
Phrasal verbs.
Conversion.
Substantivation.
Adjectivization.
Phrasal nouns.
Shortening.
Abbreviation.
Back-formation (Reversion).
Blending,
Minor types of word-formation: change of stress.
Sound interchange.
Sound imitation (Onomatopoeia).
Lexicalization of the plural of nouns.
5. Semasiology.
Lexical meaning and semantic structure of English words.
Change of meaning.
Transference of names resulting from tropes.
Semantic groups of words. Semantic relations in paradigmatics. Synonyms.
Euphemisms.

Homonyms.
Paronyms.
Semantic relations in paradigmatics. Semantic fields. Hyponomy.
Functional semantic classes.
6. English phraseology. Classification of phraseological units.
Classification of phraseological units based on the semantic principle.
Classification based on the structural principles.
Classification according to the difference in their functions in the acts of communication.
Semantic relations in phraseology.
7. Stylistic differentiation of English vocabulary.
Stylistically neutral words.
Literary-bookish words.
Colloquial words.
8. The English language in the USA.
Vocabulary.
Spelling.
Foreign elements.
Pronunciation.
Grammar.
9. Lexicography.
The main notions of lexicography.
Types of dictionaries.
 ЛІТЕРАТУРА

Основна

1.Верба Л. Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. -

Вінниця: Нова кн., 2003. - 153 с.
2.Грищенко А. П. Сучасна українська літературна мова. — К.: Вища
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4.Ніколенко А.Г. Лексикологія англійської мови - теорія і практика.
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Додаткова

5.Аліфіренко М. Ф. Теоретичні питання фразеології. — X., 1987. — 135 с.

6.Антрушина Г. Б., Афанасьева О. В., Морозова Н. Н. English lexicology. -
М., 2000. —287 с.
7.Арнольд И. В. Лексикология современного английского язьїка. - М.:
Высш. шк., 1986.— 296 с.
8.Бугайчук О. В. Лексикологія англійської та української мов:
Методичні рекомендації для студентів II курсу факультету лінгвістики,
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Дніпропетровськ, 1981. — 67 с.
10.Гак В. Г. Сопоставительная лексикология. — М.: Высш. шк., 1977. -
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ареали, етимологія. - X., 1999.
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