BASIC CONCEPTS OF LEADERSHIP AND taking charge" or "handling, direction, or control.

"
MANAGEMENT Both definitions imply that management is the
process of leading and directing all or part of an
LEADERSHIP organization, often a business, through the
 Has many meanings and there is no single definition deployment and manipulation of resources.
broad enough to encompass the total leadership
process Managers then typically:
 Leaders are those individuals who are out front,  Have an assigned position within the formal
taking risks, attempting to achieve shared goals, and organization.
inspiring others to action. Those individuals who  Have a legitimate source of power due to the
choose to follow a leader do so by choice, not delegated authority that accompanies their
because they have to. position.
 The essence of leadership is a social influence  Are expected to carry out specific functions,
process where leaders use interpersonal behaviors to duties, and responsibilities.
motivate followers to commit and give their best effort  Emphasize control, decision making, decision
to contribute to group goals. analysis, and results.
 Leaders are in the front, moving forward, taking risks,  Manipulate people, the environment, money,
and challenging the status quo. It is important to time, and other resources to achieve
remember though that a job title alone does not make organizational goals.
a person a leader. Only a person's behavior  Have a greater formal responsibility and
determines if he or she holds a leadership role. accountability for rationality and control than
Leadership Roles: Decision maker, Coach, Forecaster, leaders.
Communicator, Counselor, Influencer, Evaluator,  Direct willing and unwilling subordinates.
Teacher, Creative problem solver, Facilitator, Critical  If a manager guides, directs, and motivates and a
thinker, Change agent, Risk taker, Buffer Diplomat, leader empowers others, then it could be said that
Mentor, Advocate, Role model, Energizer Visionary every manager should be a leader. Similarly,
Innovator leadership without management results in chaos and
failure for both the organization and the individual
Other characteristics of leaders include the following:
executive.
 Leaders often do not have delegated authority but
obtain their power through other means, such as Thompson (2012) agrees, suggesting that good
influence. management, as defined by strong planning,
 Leaders have a wider variety of roles than do organizational skills, and control, allows managers to
managers. intervene when goals are threatened. But it is
 Leaders may or may not be part of the formal leadership skill that is needed to implement the
organization. planned change that is a part of system improvement.
 Leaders focus on group process, information Thus, the integration of both leadership and
gathering, feedback, and empowering others. management skills is critical to goal attainment.
 Leaders emphasize interpersonal relationships. Dignam et al. (2012) also agree, suggesting that
 Leaders direct willing followers. since change is a primary feature of contemporary
 Leaders have goals that may or may not reflect those health-care environments, managers must be able to
of the organization shift from a traditional focus on operational task
completion to the leadership skills of visioning,
10 Fatal Leadership Flaws
motivating, and inspiring others before desired
1. A lack of energy and enthusiasm
outcomes can be achieved.
2. Acceptance of their own mediocre performance
MacLeod (2012) echoes similar thoughts in his
3. Lack of a clear vision and direction
assertion that in the face of significant change, both
4. Having poor judgment
sound management and strong leadership skills are
5. Not collaborating
essential to the long-term viability of today's health-
6. Not walking the talk
care organizations.
7. Resisting new ideas
8. Not learning from mistakes HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF MANAGEMENT
9. A lack of interpersonal skills THEORY
10. Failing to develop others  Theorists' views of what successful management is
and what it should be have changed repeatedly in the
 It is important to remember that all it takes to stop last 100 years.
being a leader is to have others stop following you.  Scientific Management (1900 to 1930)
 Leadership then is more dynamic than management  Frederick W. Taylor, the "father of scientific
and leaders do make mistakes that can result in the management
loss of their followers.  The four overriding principles of scientific
MANAGEMENT management as identified by Taylor (1911) are:
 Dictionary.com (2013, para 1) defines 1. Traditional "rule of thumb" means of organizing
management as "the act or manner of guiding or work must be replaced with scientific methods. In
 other words, by using time and motion studies determining a fiscal course of action; and
and the expertise of experienced workers, work managing planned change.
could be scientifically designed to promote 2. Organizing includes establishing the structure to
greatest efficiency of time and energy. carry out plans, determining the most appropriate
2. A scientific personnel system must be type of patient care delivery, and grouping
established so that workers can be hired, trained, activities to meet unit goals. Other functions
and promoted based on their technical involve working within the structure of the
competence and abilities. Taylor thought that organization and understanding and using power
each employee's abilities and limitations could be and authority appropriately.
identified so that the worker could be best 3. Staffing functions consist of recruiting,
matched to the most appropriate job. interviewing, hiring, and orienting staff.
3. Workers should be able to view how they "fit" into Scheduling, staff development, employee
the organization and how they contribute to socialization, and team building are also often
overall organizational productivity. This provides included as staffing functions.
common goals and a sharing of the 4. Directing sometimes includes several staffing
organizational mission. One way Taylor thought functions. However, this phase's functions
that this could be accomplished was using usually entail human resource management
financial incentives as a reward for work responsibilities, such as motivating, managing
accomplished. Because Taylor viewed humans conflict, delegating, communicating, and
as "economic animals" motivated solely by facilitating collaboration.
money, workers were reimbursed according to 5. Controlling functions include performance
their level of production rather than by an hourly appraisals, fiscal accountability, quality control,
wage. legal and ethical control, and professional and
4. The relationship between managers and workers collegial control.
should be cooperative and interdependent, and
the work should be shared equally. Their roles, Human Relations Management (1930 to 1970)
however, were not the same. The role of  During the 1920s, worker unrest developed. The
managers, or functional foremen as they were Industrial Revolution had resulted in great
called, was to plan, prepare, and supervise. The numbers of relatively unskilled laborers working
worker was to do the work. in large factories on specialized tasks. Thus,
 The result of scientific management: Productivity and management scientists and organizational
profits rose dramatically. Taylor maintained that he theorists began to look at the role of worker
truly believed managers and workers would be satisfaction in production. This human relations
satisfied if financial rewards were adequate as a era developed the concepts of participatory and
result of increased productivity humanistic management, emphasizing people
Max Weber, a well-known German sociologist, began rather than machines.
to study large-scale organizations to determine what Mary Parker Follett (1926) was one of the first
made some workers more efficient than others. theorists to suggest basic principles of what today
Weber saw the need for legalized, formal authority would be called participative decision making or
and consistent rules and regulations for personnel in participative management. In her essay "The Giving
different positions; he thus proposed bureaucracy as of Orders," Follett espoused her belief that managers
an organizational design. His essay "Bureaucracy" should have authority with, rather than over,
was written in 1922 in response to what he perceived employees. Thus, solutions could be found that
as a need to provide more rules, regulations, and satisfied both sides without having one side dominate
structure within organizations to increase efficiency. the other.
 The human relations era also attempted to correct
Management Functions Identified (1925) what was perceived as the major shortcoming of the
Henri Fayol (1925) first identified the management bureaucratic system-a failure to include the "human
functions of planning, organization, command, element."
coordination, and control. Mayo and his colleagues discovered that when
Luther Gulick (1937) expanded on Fayol's management paid special attention to workers,
management functions in his introduction of the productivity was likely to increase, regardless of the
"seven activities of management"- planning, environmental working conditions. Mayo (1953) also
organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, found that informal work groups and a socially
and budgeting-as denoted by the mnemonic informal work environment were factors in
POSDCORB. determining productivity, and Mayo recommended
more employee participation in decision making.
The management process and a brief description of the Douglas McGregor (1960) reinforced these ideas by
five functions for each phase of the management process theorizing that managerial attitudes about employees
follow: (and, hence, how managers treat those employees)
1. Planning encompasses determining philosophy, can be directly correlated with employee satisfaction.
goals, objectives, policies, procedures, and rules; He labeled this Theory X and Theory Y.
carrying out long- and short-range projections;
 - Theory X managers believe that their employees o Democratic leadership is particularly effective
are basically lazy, need constant supervision and when cooperation and coordination between
direction, and are indifferent to organizational groups are necessary. Studies have shown,
needs. Theory Y managers believe that their however, that democratic leadership may be less
workers enjoy their work, are self-motivated, and efficient quantitatively than authoritative
are willing to work hard to meet personal and leadership.
organizational goals. o The democratic leader exhibits the following
Chris Argyris (1964) supported McGregor and Mayo behaviors:
by saying that managerial domination causes workers  Less control is maintained.
to become discouraged and passive. He believed that  Economic and ego awards are used to
if self-esteem and independence needs are not met, motivate.
employees will become discouraged and troublesome  Others are directed through suggestions and
or may leave the organization. Argyris stressed the guidance.
need for flexibility within the organization and  Communication flows up and down.
employee participation in decision making.  Decision making involves others.
 The human relations era of management science  Emphasis is on "we" rather than "I" and
brought about a great interest in the study of workers; "you."
contributed to our understanding about worker  Criticism is constructive.
motivation.  Authoritarian leadership results in well-defined group
Historical Development of Leadership Theory actions that are usually predictable, reducing
The Great Man Theory/Trait Theories (1900 to 1940) frustration in the work group and giving members a
 The basis for most leadership research until the feeling of security. Productivity s usually high, but
mid-1940s. The Great Man theory, from creativity, self-motivation, and autonomy are reduced.
Aristotelian philosophy, asserts that some people Authoritarian leadership is frequently found in very
are born to lead, whereas others are born to be large bureaucracies such as the armed forces.
led. It also suggests that great leaders will arise o The authoritarian leader is characterized by the
when the situation demands it. following behaviors:
 Trait theories assume that some people have  Strong control is maintained over the work
certain characteristics or personality traits that group.
make them better leaders than others.  Others are motivated by coercion.
 Contemporary opponents of these theories argue  Others are directed with commands.
that leadership skills can be developed, not just  Communication flows downward.
inherited. Avolio, Walumbwa, and Weber (2009)  Decision making does not involve others.
suggest, however, that very little work has been  Emphasis is on difference in status (“I" and
done in the last 100 years to determine whether "you").
leadership can actually be developed.  Criticism is punitive.
 Trait theories assume that some people have Fiedler's (1967) contingency approach reinforced
certain characteristics or personality traits that these findings, suggesting that no one leadership
make them better leaders than others. style is ideal for every situation. Fiedler felt that the
 Contemporary opponents of these theories argue interrelationships between the group's leader and its
that leadership skills can be developed, not just members were most influenced by the manager's
inherited. Avolio, Walumbwa, and Weber (2009) ability to be a good leader. The task to be
suggest, however, that very little work has been accomplished and the power associated with the
done in the last 100 years to determine whether leader's position also were cited as key variables.
leadership can actually be developed. Situational and Contingency Leadership Theories (1950
Behavioral Theories (1940 to 1980) to 1980)
 During the human relations era, many behavioral Mary Parker Follett, one of the earliest management
and social scientists studying management also consultants and among the first to view an
studied leadership. As leadership theory organization as a social system of contingencies. Her
developed, researchers moved away from law of the situation, which said that the situation
studying what traits the leader had and placed should determine the directives given after allowing
emphasis on what he or she did the leader's style everyone to know the problem, was contingency
of leadership. leadership in its humble origins.
 A major breakthrough occurred when Lewin  Because it nondirected leadership, the laissez-faire
(1951) and White and Lippitt (1960) isolated style can be frustrating; group apathy and disinterest
common leadership styles. Later, these styles can occur. However, when all group members are
came to be called democratic, and laissez-faire. highly motivated and self-directed, this leadership
 Democratic leadership, appropriate for groups who style can result in much creativity and productivity.
work together for extended periods, promotes Laissez-faire leadership is appropriate when
autonomy and growth in individual workers. problems" are poorly defined, and brainstorming is
needed to generate alternative solutions.
 o The laissez-faire leader is characterized by the the first to recognize that both leaders and followers
following behaviors: have roles outside of the leadership situation and that
 Is permissive, with little or no control. both may be influenced by events occurring in their
 Motivates by support when requested by the other roles. With leader and follower contributing to
group or individuals. the working relationship and both receiving
 Provides little or no direction. something from it, Hollander (1978) saw leadership
 Uses upward and downward communication as a dynamic two-way process. According to
between members of the group. Hollander, a leadership exchange involves three
 Disperses decision making throughout the basic elements:
group.  The leader, including his or her personality,
 Places emphasis on the group. perceptions, and abilities.
 Does not criticize.  The followers, with their personalities,
perceptions, and abilities.
Interactional Leadership Theories (1970 to Present)  The situation within which the leader and the
 The basic premise of interactional theory is that followers' function, including formal and informal
leadership behavior is generally determined by group norms, size, and density.
the relationship between the leader's personality o Leadership effectiveness, according to Hollander,
and the specific situation. requires the ability to use the problem-solving
Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) built on the work of process; maintain group effectiveness;
Lewin and White, suggesting that managers need communicate well; demonstrate leader fairness,
varying mixtures of autocratic and democratic competence, dependability, and creativity, and
leadership behavior. They believed that the primary develop group identification.
determinants of leadership style should include the
nature of the situation, the skills of the manager, and Ouchi (1981) interactional leadership theory in his
the abilities of the group members. application of Japanese style management to
Hersey and Blanchard (1977) also developed a corporate America. Theory Z, is an expansion of
situational approach to leadership. Their McGregor's Theory Y and supports democratic
tridimensional leadership effectiveness model leadership. Characteristics of Theory Z include
predicts which leadership style is most appropriate in consensus decision making, fitting employees to their
each situation based on the level of the followers' jobs, job security, slower promotions, examining the
maturity. As people mature, leadership style becomes long-term consequences of management decision
less task focused and more relationship oriented. making, quality circles, guarantee of lifetime
Blake and Mouton's (1964) grid showed various employment, establishment of strong bonds of
combinations of concern or focus that managers had responsibility between superiors and subordinates,
for or on productivity, tasks, people, and and a holistic concern for the workers.
relationships. In each of these areas, the leader- Kanter (1977), develop the theory that the structural
manager may rank high or low, resulting in numerous aspects of the job shape a leader's effectiveness.
combinations of leadership behaviors. Various She postulated that the leader becomes empowered
formations can be effective depending on the through both formal and informal systems of the
situation and the needs of the worker. organization. A leader must develop relationships
Schein (1970), an interactional theorist, was the first with a variety of people and groups within the
to propose a model of humans as complex beings organization in order to maximize job empowerment
whose working environment was an open system to and be successful. The three major work
which they responded. A system may be defined as a empowerment structures within the organization are
set of objects, with relationships between the objects opportunity, power, and proportion. Kanter asserts
and between their attributes. A system is considered that these work structures have the potential to
open if it exchanges matter, energy, or information explain differences in leader responses, behaviors,
with its environment. and attitudes in the work environment.
o Schein's model, based on systems theory, had Nelson and Burns (1984) suggested that
the following assumptions: organizations and their leaders have four
1. People are very complex and highly variable. developmental levels and that these levels influence
They have multiple motives for doing things. productivity and worker satisfaction.
2. People's motives do not stay constant but 1. The reactive leader focuses on the past, is crisis
change over time. driven, and is frequently abusive to subordinates
3. Goals can differ in various situations. A 2. responsive, the leader is able to mold
person's performance and productivity are subordinates to work together as a team,
affected by the nature of the task and by his although the leader maintains most decision-
or her ability, experience, and motivation. making responsibility.
4. No single leadership strategy is effective in 3. At the proactive level, the leader and followers
every situation become more future oriented and hold common
To be successful, the leader must diagnose the driving values. Management and decision making
situation and select appropriate strategies from a are more participative. At the last level, high-
large repertoire of skills. Hollander (1978) was among
 performance teams, maximum productivity and 1. Modeling the way: Requires value
worker satisfaction are apparent. clarification and self-awareness so that
Brandt's (1994) interactive leadership model behavior is congruent with values.
suggests that leaders develop a work environment 2. Inspiring a shared vision: Entails visioning
that fosters autonomy and creativity through valuing inspires followers to want to participate in
and empowering followers. This leadership "affirms goal attainment.
the uniqueness of each individual," motivating them 3. Challenging the process: Identifying
to "contribute their unique talents to a common goal." opportunities and taking action.
Wolf, Boland, and Aukerman (1994) also emphasized 4. Enabling others to act: Fostering
an interactive leadership model in their creation of a collaboration, trust, and the sharing of power.
collaborative practice matrix. This matrix highlights 5. Encouraging the heart: Recognize,
the framework for the development and ongoing appreciate, and celebrate followers and the
support of relationships between and among achievement of shared goals.
professionals working together. The "social
architecture" of the work group is emphasized, as is Full-Range Leadership Theory
how expectations, personal values, and interpersonal This theory, originally developed by Antonakis,
relationships affect the ability of leaders and followers Avolio, and Sivasubramaniam (2003), suggests that
to achieve the vision of the organization. there are nine factors impacting leadership style and
Kanter (1989) perhaps best summarized the work of its impact on followers; five are transformational,
the interactive theorists by her assertion that title and three are transactional, and one is a nonleadership or
position authority were no longer sufficient to mold a laissez-faire leadership factor: Rowold and Schlotz
workforce where subordinates are encouraged to (2009) suggested:
think for themselves, and instead managers must Transforamational Factor:
learn to work synergistically with others 1. inspirational motivation, is characterized by
Transactional and Transformational Leadership the leader's articulation and representation of
Burns (2003), both leaders and followers have the vision.
ability to raise each other to higher levels of 2. Idealized influence (attributed), relies on the
motivation and morality. charist the leader to create emotional ties
o 2 Primary types of leaders in management. with followers that build trust and confidence.
3. idealized influence (behavior), results in the
 Traditional manager, concerned with the day-
leader creating a collective sense of mission
to-day operations, was termed a
and values and prompting followers to act
transactional leader.
upon these values.
 The manager who is committed, has a vision,
4. intellectual stimulation, leaders challenge the
and is able to empower others with this son
assumptions of followers' beliefs as well as
was termed a transformational leader.
analyze subordinates' problems and possible
o Transactional leaders focus on tasks and getting
solutions.
the work done. Transformational leaders focus 5. individualized consideration, occurs when the
on vision and empowerment. leader is able to individualize his or her
Bass and Avolio (1994) suggested that followers, recognizing and appreciating their
transformational leadership leads followers to levels unique needs, strengths, and challenges.
of higher morals because such leaders do the right Transactional factor,
thing for the right reason, treat people with care and 1. Contingent reward. the leader is task
compassion, encourage followers to be more creative oriented in providing followers with
and innovative, and inspire others with their vision. meaningful rewards based on successful
This new shared vision provides the energy required task completion.
to move toward the future. 2. Active management-by-exception, suggests
Doody and Doody (2012) contemporary health-care that the leader watches and searches
organizations need increasingly adaptive and flexible actively for deviations from rules and
leadership. suggest that transformational leadership standards and takes corrective actions when
"motivates followers by appealing to higher ideas and necessary.
moral values, where the leader has a deep set of 3. management-by-exception passive,
internal values and ideas. This leads followers acting describes who intervenes only after errors
to sustain the greater good, rather than their own have been detected or standards have been
interests, and supportive environments where violated.
responsibility is shared".  The ninth factor of full-range leadership theory is the
Kouzes and Posner suggest that exemplary leaders absence of leadership. Thus, laissez-faire is a
foster a culture in which relationships between contrast to the active leadership styles of
aspiring leaders and willing followers can thrive. transformational and transactional leadership
o Kouges and Posner's Five Practices for exemplified in the first eight factors.
Exemplary Leadership: