TECHNICAL

MANUAL
FOR BRICKS

Marshalls.co.uk
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/BRICKS-AND-MASONRY
 TECHNICAL
MANUAL
FOR BRICKS

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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION TO THE TECHNICAL MANUAL

2. ABOUT MARSHALLS BRICKS & MASONRY

3. MARSHALLS BRICKS & MASONRY

3.1 The Manufacturing Process
3.2 The Benefits of Marshalls Bricks

4. MARSHALLS BRICK TYPES

4.1 Facing Bricks
4.2 Common Bricks
4.3 Coursing Bricks
4.4 Engineering Quality Bricks
4.5 Special Shaped Bricks

5. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
5.1 Composition
5.2 Configuration
5.3 Manufacturing Control
5.4 Product Selector Chart

6. BRICK SPECIFICATIONS AND STANDARDS

6.1 Standards
6.2 CE Marking
6.3 Properties and Performance
6.4 Brick Specification Summary Chart
6.5 Procurement and Ordering
6.6 Sample Panels

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7. FUNCTIONAL PERFORMANCE, DESIGN AND SITE PRACTICE
7.1 Durability
7.2 Efflorescence & Colour Integrity
7.3 Sulphate Resistance
7.4 Water Absorption and Weathering Resistance
7.5 Resistance to Rain Penetration
7.6 Environmental Performance
7.7 Fire Resistance
7.8 Sound Insulation
7.9 Thermal Insulation
7.10 Air Permeability
7.11 Movement
7.12 Product Comparisons
7.13 Mortar
7.14 Use Below DPC
7.15 Brick Bonds
7.16 Cavity Insulation
7.17 Site Guidance

8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

9. INDEX

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10. APPENDICES
Appendix I: Brick Technical Data Sheets
BTDS 1: Facing Bricks
BTDS 2: Engineering Quality Bricks
BTDS 3: Coursing Bricks (Application)
BTDS 4: Dense Common Bricks
BTDS 5: Specials

Appendix II: Brick Technical Bulletins

BTB 1: Good Site Practice Guide
BTB 2: Product Comparison
BTB 3: Environmental Characteristics
BTB 4: Mortars for Concrete Masonry Products
BTB 5: Movement Control
BTB 6: Durability
BTB 7: Efflorescence and Colour Integrity
BTB 8: Cleaning, Maintenance and Repair
BTB 9: Resistance to Rain Penetration
BTB 10: Coursing Brick Applications
BTB 11: Concrete Engineering Quality Bricks
BTB 12: Use of Marshalls Bricks with Dissimilar
Materials BTB 13: Fire Resistance
BTB 14: Sound Insulation
BTB 15: Thermal Insulation

Appendix III: Health & Safety Data Sheets

HSDS 1: Product Hazards
HSDS 2: Safe Loading, Transit and Off-Loading

Appendix IV: Questions & Answers

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1. INTRODUCTION

This Technical Manual has been produced by the team at

Marshalls, drawing on over 60 years of knowledge and experience
in the manufacture of concrete bricks in the United Kingdom, to
assist industry professionals in the design, specification and
application of the bricks for all aspects of buildings
and construction.
The Manual is laid out in a simple format for easy bricks are the same and therefore this Manual may not be
access to the various sections covering the products relevant to products offered by other organisations.
manufactured by Edenhall, with their specifications, The information and guidance contained in this Technical
characteristics and standards, through functional Manual is regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s
performance and design, ending up with practical site continuous development and improvement programme.
guidance. More comprehensive technical information Updates and amendments can be made without notice
on each section is referenced throughout the manual and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors
and summarised in the Appendix as: Brick Technical or omissions. Data and information is based on the
Data Sheets; Brick Technical Bulletins; Health & Safety current Standards and Codes applicable at the time
Data Sheets and “Questions & Answers”. All the of publication. The content of this document and the
documents are available as downloads on our website referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables,
www.edenhall.co.uk. diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
This Manual, together with the supporting material on The Edenhall Technical Manual was produced in
our website, is designed to be the reference point for consultation with and input from various developers,
advice and guidance on concrete bricks manufactured architects and construction companies together with
and supplied by Edenhall. If you require further details or organisations with specific technical expertise such as
information please contact the Company where someone The Concrete Society, LABC and NHBC.
will be happy to help. Please note that not all concrete

“Concrete bricks in all their performance types, colours and shades provide a welcome and
complementary concrete alternative to traditional clay. This Technical Manual provides all
the information needed for specifiers and users of concrete bricks in the UK.”

Concrete Society (June 2017)

“Thanks to the expertise and guidance from the Marshalls technical manual LABC
warranty have been able to further develop our own technical standards.”

LABC warranty (April 2017)

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MARSHALLS
2. ABOUT Marshalls

Marshalls has been involved in the production of concrete

bricks since the 1950s. Now Britain’s leading independent
brick manufacturer, the Company has flourished under private
ownership through a combination of product development and
technical innovation that has provided a range of products
that meets the needs and surpasses the expectations of
both specifiers and users of brick in the market. Historically
the concrete facing brick was concentrated in the severe
exposure locations of the western regions of Britain. Since the
millennium, with the investment in new manufacturing facilities
and techniques, the product has evolved beyond recognition
to now become a real alternative to traditional clay bricks
nationally across the UK.
Marshalls offers an unrivalled range of facing bricks attractive and technically sound product that is concrete,
with an assortment of textures and finishes combined resulting in a national market for our product that is now,
with an extensive palette of colours and blends. From at long last, acknowledged and accepted by specifiers,
traditional reds, browns and buffs through a selection planners, local authorities, warranty providers, developers
of multi colours into a contemporary collection of blues, and contractors throughout the UK.
greys, whites, creams and even green bricks, we have an Marshalls operates in a responsible manner to deliver a
aesthetic solution to every brick built project from housing quality product and professional service to customers
to apartments into commercial and public buildings. whilst setting the highest standards for health, safety and
Leading the way in the development of facing bricks welfare of stakeholders together with minimising any
made in Britain by a British Company, Edenhall continues environmental impact of its activities.
to break down barriers and provide practical solutions You can have confidence in Marshalls both as a business
that have changed the perceptions of those that use and your supplier of bricks.
brick, converting them to the strong, durable, aesthetically

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 MARSHALLS
3. ABOUT Marshalls BRICKSBRICKS

3.1 The Manufacturing Process

The process for manufacturing Marshalls bricks is efficient and flexible allowing adjustments to production plans to be
made quickly and easily in response to market demands.
Production involves the compaction of a semi-dry mix of graded aggregates, cementitious material, water, pigments
and additives. During the mixing process various combinations of pigments and additives can be introduced depending
on the particular brick that is required. The whole process is computer controlled to ensure that replication of the recipe
can be maintained for future requirements. Secondary treatments for texture and colour can be applied to the brick as
and when required.
The resultant “green” or uncured bricks are transferred to chambers where the exothermic reaction of the cement
increases the temperature and humidity so that the product cures naturally. Minimal additional heat is required, thus
CO2 emissions are significantly reduced. Once the bricks are cured in the chambers they are packaged and
shrink-wrapped and left to further cure in the stockyard until they are required on site.

3.2 The Benefits of Marshalls Bricks

• The aggregate raw materials are generally sourced locally and are often classed as a by-product of primary, clean
graded aggregates.
• Cements are generally sourced from UK production facilities and are supplemented by environmentally beneficial
replacements with pozzolanic properties.
• The amount of water used in production is extremely low and can come from recycled sources.
• Facing bricks can be made to prescribed mixes which can be replicated at different Edenhall factories, thus
reducing distribution costs.
• Edenhall bricks will continue to age harden throughout their life cycle. They have virtually no soluble salts and can
be crushed and recycled at the end of their life.
• Edenhall bricks have low cement content, aided by the pozzolanic characteristics of the fine aggregate, thus
minimising the carbon footprint whilst maintaining their strength and durability properties.
• The composition of the bricks means they are fire resistant, have an A+ rating, and their density can offer
enhanced levels of sound reduction in flanking walls or lightweight structures.
• Edenhall’s factories are strategically placed throughout the country thus enabling us to minimise our transport
mileage which in turn reduces our carbon footprint. We do not need to import bricks to support demand.
• The embodied and emitted carbon content is low and they are a net absorber of CO2. Edenhall bricks typically will
have <50% of the embodied carbon content of a clay brick.
• Packaging materials are all responsibly sourced and are recyclable.
• Marshalls has been independently assessed to recognised environmental standards.
• Bricks are cast in steel moulds and as such are extremely consistent and accurate in size in all directions without
any bending or bowing.

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• The cement content in the mix is low and this coupled with the incorporation of additives and other
treatments leads to minimal risk of efflorescence and low levels of shrinkage and moisture movement.
• The strength of bricks can be adjusted to cater for specific structural or exposure conditions.
• Pigments used in manufacture are colourfast and fully dispersed throughout the brick, ensuring full through
colour.
• Bespoke colours or permutations of colours can be accommodated by using different types of aggregate,
cement, pigment and finishes.
• Facing bricks are available in a number of forms: solid, frogged or perforated, and in a whole spectrum of
colours, blends and finishes.
• Bricks are frost resistant, durable and harden with age. They can be classed as equivalent to a clay F1/S1
grade.
• Flexibility of the production process facilitates rapid response to customer needs and market demands.
• Once bricks are extracted from the curing chambers they are packaged to protect them from the weather
and can be available for use on site within a matter of days. They are pre-blended within the packs,
although working from a number of packs, as recommended by good site practice, should be followed.
• To complement our wide range of facing bricks we also offer a comprehensive choice of special bricks as
well as utility bricks including dense commons, engineering quality, lightweight and dense coursing units,
and brick slips.
• Finally, as market leaders, Marshalls has an unsurpassed record and history in the supply of concrete
masonry bricks throughout the country to both national and local housebuilders and developers,
contractors and builders merchants.

For further information refer to the Brick Technical Data Sheets and Bulletins detailed in
“References” – Sections 8.1 and 8.2.

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4.MARSHALLS
4. Marshalls BRICK BRICK
TYPESTYPES

Marshalls bricks can be divided into five categories which in turn can be further divided into sub groups as shown below:

Brick Category Sub Group

Sandfaced/Textured/Smooth/New Sandstock/Shotblasted/
Facing Bricks
Vintage Sandstock/Stonefaced

Common Bricks Solid/Frogged/Perforated

Coursing Bricks Dense/Lightweight

Engineering Quality Bricks Standard/High Strength

Special Bricks

4.1 Facing Bricks

At Marshalls we specialise in producing a wide variety of different colours, blends and finishes. From the traditional
reds and oranges through to yellows and creams we also produce blues/blacks, greys, whites and if required
for example green bricks. To complement the extensive palette of colours we manufacture a number of differing
textures and finishes.
Sandfaced: an innovative sandy textured, durable face creating strong colour definition and intensity.
Textured faced: has a regular brushed bark effect. The deep rusticated texture is an ideal finish for anyone looking to
step away from traditional smooth brick faces. Bricks are supplied with one textured face and a percentage of single
headers. Double or extra headers can be supplied to special order.
Smooth faced: normally chosen for detailing brickwork, this finish is classed as ex mould. Due to the compaction
technique there may be slight variances between the stretcher face of the brick which can add character to the general
appearance.
New Sandstock finish: a more stock like feel with an antiqued, aged effect offered in frogged format including
“reclaimed” colour options.
Shotblasted finish: marketed as the “Island” Collection these have a distinctive looking texture with the perception of a
weathered face. Bricks are subject to a secondary treatment after curing which abrades the arrises, partially exposes
the aggregate, and leaves the face with a softer texture.
Vintage Sandstock: as the name suggests bricks are tumbled together creating a rounder, “vintage”, distressed finish.
In build the rumbled texture creates a very attractive appearance, giving an aged patina with a modern hard structure.
Although the bricks are distressed the regular properties of dimensional accuracy for ease of building are maintained.
Stonefaced finish: a classic split stone texture, our “Abbey” Collection is designed to complement and replicate the
appearance of natural stone with all the inherent variations in colour and shading.

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As well as the above our technical expertise and flexible production process allows us to offer a brick matching or
design service with the ultimate “design your own brick” facility. Although we have an extensive core range, bespoke
requirements can often be accommodated.
A whole spectrum of colours, either a plain mono colour which is ideal for feature brickwork, or blends of different
shades and hues, is available with Marshalls bricks. The production process allows the introduction of secondary or
tertiary colour effects such as “flashing”, “hearting” or “flecking”, all of which contribute to the unique visual
appearance of the finished brick.
By blending specific aggregates or different cements, along with an infinite choice of stable synthetic pigments, bricks
can be manufactured in a wide range of colours from an intense blue/black to a sparkling white or cream. This choice
of colours, coupled with the different finishes available, make the choice of bricks produced by Marshalls unsurpassed
in brick masonry.
As the product is made from natural materials with their inherent variations, the following good practice and simple
practical steps will help deliver a quality finish to the brickwork.
As the product is made from natural materials with their inherent variations, the following good practice and simple
practical steps will help deliver a quality finish to the brickwork:
• Orders should be placed in full rather than individual loads, together with call off delivery schedules to assist stock
availability and supplies from complementary batches.
• A reference panel should be built on site, prior to commencement of the build, to fairly represent the product
standards and finish expected on the project.
• Although facing bricks are pre-blended in their packs, it is recommended that bricklayers work from 2-3 packs at
a time and that a balance of a previous load is kept prior to another arriving so that a seamless blend is maintained
throughout the brickwork.
For further information refer to our Brick Technical Data Sheet for Facing Bricks – BTDS 1.

4.2 Common Bricks

Available in either solid, frogged or perforated form, depending on the supplying factory, Marshalls common bricks
are designed to be used for all types of construction both above and below dpc, either independently, or in
conjunction with dense aggregate blocks. They are frost resistant, produced in two heights, 65mm and 73mm, and
are intended for use in locations where their appearance and colour are of secondary importance.
For further information refer to our Brick Technical Data Sheet for Common Bricks – BTDS 4.

4.3 Coursing Bricks

Produced in two grades, dense and lightweight, and in two widths, 100mm and 140mm, coursing bricks are 65mm
high and are designed to be used in conjunction with dense or lightweight aggregate blocks. They are also available
as 40mm high slips for use in building up courses in beam and block floors. The selected aggregates used in the
lightweight bricks provide a product which is compatible in terms of strength, density and thermal conductivity to that
of a large majority of lightweight aggregate concrete blocks with a density range of 1000-1500kg/m3. They should not
be used in conjunction with aerated autoclaved blocks.
For further information refer to our Brick Technical Data Sheet for Coursing Bricks – BTDS 3, and Brick
Technical Bulletin BTB 10 – Coursing Brick Applications.

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4.4 Engineering Quality Bricks

Edenhall’s Engineering Quality bricks are durable, high strength, solid bricks, specially manufactured to cope with
exposure to aggressive conditions. Made from selected dense aggregates and cement blends which can resist
sulphate attack, the bricks exhibit low absorption and high dimensional accuracy. They are fully frost resistant and are
suitable for use below ground level and in locations where natural sulphates, up to and including Class 3 levels, are
present. Solid Engineering Quality bricks are manufactured and tested in accordance with the relevant Standard and
meet the criteria for strength, durability and sulphate resistance given in all construction and mandatory Standards.
They perform the same and to the same performance standards and applications as clay Class B engineering bricks.
For further information refer to our Brick Technical Data Sheet for Engineering Quality Bricks – BTDS 2
and Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 11 – Concrete Engineering Quality Bricks.

4.5 Special Shaped Bricks

The Marshalls range of facing bricks is supported by a selection of standard matching specials. Please note that
certain specials are only available in certain finishes. Please consult your local Marshalls Sales Office for
specific details.
For further information refer to our Brick Technical Data Sheet for Special Bricks – BTDS 5.

FURTHER HELPFUL GUIDANCE AND ADVICE ON THE USE OF MARSHALLS

EDENHALL’S BRICKS IS
CONTAINED IN BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN BTB 1 – GOOD SITE PRACTICE GUIDE.

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5. PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

5.1 Composition

Bricks are produced using two different materials depending on brick type.
Facing, Common, Engineering Quality and Dense Coursing bricks are all produced using crushed dense
aggregates which is combined with Portland Cement and other constituents. The aggregates have low water
absorption, low soluble salts and ARE frost resistant.
Lightweight Coursing bricks are produced using lightweight aggregates. These bricks have similar density,
strength and thermal conductivity properties as that of lightweight/medium density aggregate concrete blocks.
They are NOT considered to be frost resistant.

5.2 Configuration

Bricks are available in three different configurations or forms, depending on the brick type and
manufacturing works. (Ref. 5.4 – Product Selector Chart)
Solid: having no perforations, voids or frogs. Bricks of this type offer significant savings in mortar use.
Frogged: which have a shallow frog on one bed face of the brick.
Perforated: which have three perforations through the brick.

5.3 Manufacturing Control

Marshalls operates a comprehensive internal Quality Control programme which is supplemented by regular
independent tests carried out by recognised test houses. Based on the requirements of BS EN 771-3, bricks are
declared as Category II products.

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5.4 Product Selector Chart

The table below gives a brief summary of the form, finishes and composition of each brick type.

Brick Type

Facings
Engineering Coursing
Commons
Quality Bricks
Solid Frogged Perforated

Solid

Form Frogged

Perforated

Dense
Composition
Lightweight

Sandfaced

Textured

Smooth

Finish Shotblasted (Island)

Stonefaced (Abbey)

Vintage Sandstock

New Sandstock

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6. BRICK SPECIFICATION
AND STANDARDS
6.1 Standards

Marshalls bricks are produced in accordance with BS EN 771-3: 2011: “Specification for Masonry
Units. Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units”. Units within this Standard are described as:

• Facing masonry units intended for use with one or more faces left visible and which may or may not be
exposed to external climatic conditions.
• Masonry units exposed to external climatic conditions without render or other equivalent protection.
• Common units are defined as masonry units intended for use with no faces left visible.

All Marshalls brick products are compliant with the Construction Products Regulations 2011 with
CE Certification, including Declaration of Performance, available for download from our website –
www.Marshalls.co.uk/bricks-and-masonry

The above Standards are purely manufacturing Standards and do not contain any information on use or application of
the product. These are covered by the following Standards with which all Marshalls bricks comply.
• BS 5628, Parts 1, 2 and 3: 2005: “Code of Practice for the Use of Masonry”.
• PD 6697: 2010: “Recommendations for the Design of Masonry Structures to BS EN 1996-1-1 and BS EN 1996-2”.
• BS 8000-3: 2001: “Code of Practice for Masonry. Workmanship on Building Sites”.
• BS EN 752: 2008: “Drain and Sewage Systems outside Buildings”.
• WAA Civil Engineering: “Specification for the Water Industry”.
• Water Services Association Guide: “Sewers for Adoption”.
• Highways Agency: “Specification for Highway Works”.
• National House Builders Council (NHBC).

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6.2 CE Marking Information

Marshalls bricks are manufactured to a harmonised European Standard BS EN 771-3: 2011:

“Specification for Masonry
Units and therefore under the Construction Products Regulations (2011) they have to carry a CE Mark and an
accompanying Declaration of Performance (DoP).
Marshalls has systems in place to ensure products comply with this certification, details of which can be found on the
website where they are available as printable downloads.

6.3 Properties and Performance

The following are generic properties which cover all Marshalls brick products:

Tolerances: Category D1 (plus 3mm, minus 5mm) in all directions

Resistance to Fire: Euroclass A1
Water Vapour Permeability: 5/15μ (Tabulated from EN 1745)
Specific Heat Capacity: 840-880 J/kg oC
Green Guide Rating: A+
Bond Strength: 0.15N/mm2 (Tabulated from EN 998-2: 2003, Annex C)
Flexural Bond Strength: No performance declared as not mandatory in the UK
Characteristic Flexural Strength (FKx): 0.53 parallel and perpendicular to bed joints
Dangerous Substances: No performance declared
Air Permeability: As required under Part L (Conservation of Fuel and Power) the assumed
values for dense bricks is 0.15m3/hr/m2
Built Wall Weights (100mm wide): Dense bricks@175-215kg/m2
Lightweight bricks@150kg/m2

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6.4 Brick Specification Summary Chart

The following table summarises, in brief terms, the properties and performance of Marshalls bricks. Individual
product performance is available from specific Brick Technical Data Sheets which can be downloaded from our
website – www.marshalls.co.uk/bricks-and-masonry

Facing Engineering Utility/Common Coursing

Bricks Quality Bricks Bricks Bricks

215 x 100 x 65mm 215 x 100 x 65mm 215 x 100 x 65mm

Dimensions 215 x 100 x 73mm
215 x 100 x 65mm
215 x 100 x 73mm 215 x 140 x 65mm

Configuration Solid Solid

(depending on Frogged Solid Frogged Solid
brick type) Perforated Perforated

Dense Aggregate and Dense Aggregate and Dense Aggregate and Dense Aggregate
Composition Cement Sulphate Resisting Cement Cement Lightweight Aggregate

1900-2100 2100 +/- 50kg/m3

Dry Density 2000 ±100kg/m3 2200 ±50kg/m3
±50kg/m3 1400 +/- 50kg/m3

1.9-3.1kg Lightweight/
Dense 100mm
Dry Weight 2.5–3.2kg 3.1–3.3kg 2.3–3.1kg
2.7-4.1kg Lightweight/
Dense 140mm

Mean
>22.5N/mm2 – Dense
Compressive >22.5N/mm2 >50N/mm2 >22.5N/mm2
>10N/mm2 – Lightweight
Strength
Approx 0.45 mm/m -
Moisture Dense
Approx 0.30mm/m Approx 0.45 mm/m Approx 0.60 mm/m
Movement Approx 0.90mm/m -
Lightweight

Water Absorption
<85g/m2/s0.5 <45g/m2/s0.5 <150g/m2/s0.5 50-150g/m2/s0.5
by Capillarity

Typical Water
Absorption 5-9% <7% 6-10% 8-16%
by Weight
Thermal
1.11 W/mK – Dense
Conductivity: 1.11 W/mK 1.24 W/mK 1.11 W/mK
0.42 W/mK – Lightweight
Dry
Thermal
1.24 W/mK – Dense
Conductivity: 1.24 W/mK 1.39 W/mK 1.24 W/mK
0.47 W/mK – Lightweight
@ 3%
Thermal
1.33 W/mK – Dense
Conductivity: 1.33 W/mK 1.49 W/mK 1.33 W/mK
0.50 W/mK – Lightweight
@ 5%
Dense - Frost Resistant
Frost Resistance Frost Resistant Frost Resistant Frost Resistant Lightweight – Not Frost
Resistant

* NPD – No performance data

Special Bricks – refer to the specification and performance data of the relevant facing brick.
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6.5 Procurement & Ordering

At order stage providing Marshalls with the following information will help process and service your requirements
efficiently:
Full brick name.
Full order quantity.
Quantify and identify any brick specials, if required.
Call off schedule.
Delivery method/vehicle type required (eg.crane off-load/flat bed).
Any site restrictions that may impact on delivery.
Start date; number of plots; rate of build (plots/week); estimated finish date.
Any other special information/instructions.
Customer contact details (including site).
Depending on the type and supplying works, bricks may be supplied either strapped in voided packs or wrapped
onto disposable pallets or skids. Marshalls does not accept responsibility for the collection or return of pallets and it
is the site’s responsibility to dispose of or recycle them. All packaging materials are recyclable.
The carriage of bricks is not subject to hazardous substance conveyance regulations and vehicle labelling is not
required. (Ref. Health & Safety Data Sheet HSDS 2 – Safe Loading, Transit and Off-Loading).

6.6 Sample Panels

The construction of a sample panel for major projects is good practice and strongly recommended by Marshalls.
Ideally a sample reference panel should be constructed on site using the delivered product, laid in the normal way,
and not using specially selected bricks. It should be recognised that facing bricks are defined as having an
acceptable colour, finish and texture, but like a large proportion of building materials they can suffer from a certain
degree of variation and damage through the build process.
As with any bricks there is a risk of chipping when handled on site. BS 5628-3, Appendix D requires facing bricks
to be reasonably free from deep or extensive cracks and damage to the edges and corners. The accepted industry
standard is that no individual chip should be greater than 15mm in diameter and that the whole wall panel should
be viewed from a distance of not less than 3 metres.
The range of Marshalls bricks, with their different finishes, can have an effect on the final brickwork appearance and
the following comments should be considered:
Textured, Sandfaced and “Island” Shotblasted bricks have one finished stretcher face and approximately 25% of
the pack has a finished header end. Additional finished headers are available if required and these should be
specified at the time of order.
Smooth faced bricks have one finished stretcher and are presented face up in the pack. The non-faced stretcher
is marked and care should be taken to lay the bricks the correct way.

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7. PERFORMANCE, DESIGN
AND SITE PRACTICE
7.1 Durability

All dense bricks are classed as frost resistant and exhibit excellent freeze thaw characteristics. This has been
confirmed by independent testing.
For further information refer to our Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 6 – Durability.
Although not directly comparable Marshalls bricks can be considered to be at least equivalent to a clay F1/S1
grade brick.
Lightweight coursing bricks are only recommended for use in internal walls above dpc.
The table on the next page, which is extracted from Table 15 of PD 6697: 2010, shows the recommended
brick strengths and mortar designations for specific locations. (Also Ref. BTB 4 – Mortars for Concrete
Masonry Products).

(Note: This Standard has superseded BS 5628: Part 3 which is still in common circulation. For more
comprehensive information please consult the Standard. Further note that the strength grades given are those
which apply for Marshalls bricks.)

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Recommended Brick Strengths and Mortar Designations

Recommended Marshalls Recommended Masonry Unit Strength

Application
Masonry Unit Mortar Class (N/mm2 )

Lightweight Coursing Brick iv/M2 10

Internal Walls above dpc
Dense Common Brick iii or iv/M4-M2 15

Internal Walls below dpc Dense Common Brick iii/M4 22

Unrendered External Walls both Dense Common Brick or

iii/M4 22
above and below dpc Facing Brick

Rendered External Walls Dense Common Brick iii/M4 22

Facing Brick or
Cappings, Copings and Cills ii/M6 35
Engineering Quality Brick

Facing Brick or
Earth Retaining Walls i or ii/M12-M6 35
Engineering Quality Brick

Manholes and Inspection

Dense Common Brick iii/M4 22
Chambers – Surface Water

Manholes and Inspection

Engineering Quality Brick i or ii/M12-M6 50
Chambers – Foul Drainage

Class 1 Sulphate Conditions Dense Common Brick iii/M4 30

Class 2 Sulphate Conditions Engineering Quality Brick ii or iii/M6-M4 in SRPC 50

Class 3 Sulphate Conditions Engineering Quality Brick ii/M6 in SRPC 50

Areas of High Exposure Facing Brick or

ii/M6 35
(See note below) Engineering Quality Brick

Note: Special care should be taken in the choice of facing brick if used in areas of high exposure, saturation or wear
such as steps, kerbs or certain types of retaining walls. Standard strength facing bricks are not suitable for use in these
environments. Facing bricks are not resistant to de-icing salts.

A standard 22.5N/mm2 brick used in conjunction with a minimum strength M4 mortar should be suitable for use in
elevations and other vertical surfaces in areas of high and very high exposure but horizontal surfaces should be treated
as a special case and a higher strength brick and M6 mortar should be used. Each case should be assessed on its own
merits depending on the degree of exposure, orientation and topography.

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7.2 Efflorescence & Colour Integrity

The majority of Marshalls bricks are manufactured using crushed aggregates and stable synthetic pigments, all
of which are predominantly insoluble, therefore the amount of soluble salts is minimal. There is no requirement
within the British Standard to declare soluble salt content and therefore the bricks can be classed as having nil-
minimum efflorescence.
Note: Further information on Efflorescence and Colour Stability is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin
BTB 7.

7.3 Sulphate Resistance

Edenhall’s dense bricks, due to their cement content, density and low absorption, are suitable for use in up to
Class 2 ground sulphate levels. Higher sulphate conditions than this may necessitate a modification to the mix
design. Engineering Quality bricks are made specifically for these locations and are suitable for Class 3 levels as
well as use in sewerage conditions. (Ref. BTB 11.

7.4 Water Absorption and Weathering Resistance

The standard for concrete masonry indicates a moisture absorption by capillary test and results for individual
brick types are given in Section 6.4. This test has superseded the more traditional 24 hour water absorption
test, the results of which are also shown in the individual Brick Technical Data Sheets.
The water absorption test approach is different for concrete bricks compared with that of clay bricks for example,
but the requirements are there for different reasons. For clay bricks the test is primarily related to mortar adhesion
and frost resistance, the former being important in case of excessive suction of the water from the mortar before
it has had chance to cure, and the latter to ensure that the correct choice of brick is used in exposed conditions.
A high absorption clay brick may be more susceptible to frost attack.
With concrete bricks a low/medium absorption is important to inhibit the absorption of surface dirt whilst at the
same time giving sufficient suction to allow the mortar bond to develop properly. Marshalls bricks are unique in
that although some may contain an element of internal additives, others have a material applied to the face which
contributes to maintaining the continuous appearance of the bricks. In addition the continuous ageing means the
absorption reduces over the years whilst the bricks continue to develop in strength.

7.5 Resistance to Rain Penetration

Marshalls bricks have been independently tested in built wall conditions which showed that properly constructed
walls adequately resist rain penetration. It should be noted that no bricks of any type will resist rain penetration in
single leaf walls in prevailing conditions.
Further information on Resistance to Rain Penetration is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 9.

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7.6 Environmental Performance

Bricks produced by Marshalls have excellent “Green” credentials as summarised

below. Marshalls bricks:
• are a net absorber of CO2
• are 100% recyclable.
• utilise aggregates which may be otherwise classed as waste products from primary clean graded aggregate.
• contain raw materials that are sourced locally using home based cements.
• contain supplementary/replacement cementitious materials.
• create minimal waste during production.
• require no heat to cure the product hence CO2 emissions are very low.
• have packaging which is responsibly sourced and is recyclable.
• ensure minimum transport distances to sites by a wide spread of factory locations.
• have a BRE A+ rating for built walls.
• have an Embodied Carbon footprint which is significantly less than clay bricks.
Further information on Environmental Characteristics is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 3.

7.7 Fire Resistance

Concrete masonry is a non-combustible material possessing excellent fire resisting properties. Bricks are produced
from Class 1 aggregates and are classed as non-combustible with a zero spread of flame. Typical resistance values
(in hours) are as follows:
• 100mm, single leaf load bearing wall with finish = 3 hours.
• 100mm, non load bearing single leaf wall with finish = 3 hours.
• 100mm, load bearing cavity wall = 6 hours
• 100mm, non load bearing cavity wall = 6 hours.
Further information on Fire Resistance is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 13.

7.8 Sound Insulation

Marshalls bricks offer excellent sound insulating properties which can be particularly important in preventing flanking
wall transmission or in lightweight structures.
The average built wall weights and their Sound Reduction Indices for lightweight plastered single leaf and cavity walls
are as follows:
• Solid dense brick, 100mm thick wall @ 214kg/m2 = 46dB
• Solid dense brick, 215mm thick wall @ 458kg/m2 = 50dB
Further information on Sound Insulation is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 14.

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7.9 Thermal Insulation

Dense bricks can be considered to be similar to dense aggregate concrete blocks in terms of density and thermal
conductivity whilst lightweight coursing bricks have similar properties to that of medium weight aggregate blocks.
The following thermal conductivity values are typical:

Thermal Conductivity Dense Bricks Lightweight Bricks

Dry 1.11 W/mK 0.42 W/mK

@3% 1.24 W/mK 0.47 W/mK

@5% 1.33 W/mK 0.50 W/mK

Further information on Thermal Insulation and U-Values is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 15.

7.10 Air Permeability

Although no declared values are quoted, similar products achieve values of 0.15m3/hr/m2.

7.11 Movement

There is no requirement within the British Standard to declare the drying shrinkage or moisture movement values
of concrete masonry products but typical values for individual Marshalls products can be found in the specific Brick
Technical Data sheets. However a summary of typical results is given below. Designers should take into account
these values when comparing against other concrete masonry products such as aerated blocks.

Drying Shrinkage Moisture Expansion Total Movement (mm/m)

Product
Mean Max Mean Max Mean Max

Facing Bricks 0.14 <0.20 0.13 <0.20 0.27 <0.40

Engineering
0.23 <0.30 0.21 <0.30 0.44 <0.50
Quality Bricks
Dense Coursing
0.14 <0.20 0.15 <0.20 0.29 <0.40
Bricks
Lightweight
0.43 <0.60 0.28 <0.40 0.73 <0.90
Coursing Bricks
Utility/Common
0.14 <0.20 0.15 <0.20 0.29 <0.40
Bricks

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31
The composition and manufacturing procedures for bricks ensure that Marshalls offers some of the lowest
shrinkage and moisture movement values of cement based masonry used today.
• Low cement and mix water contents with high aggregate ratios give low moisture changes after curing.
• Low water absorption of the brick leads to reduced moisture changes in use and hence reduced movement in a
structure.
• Inherent high strength of the brick for relatively low cement content produces “stiffer” units which can resist internal
stresses.

The information below is an abbreviated version of more comprehensive information on Movement Control which
is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 5 and outlines the key points in considering the accommodation of
movement when using Concrete Facing Bricks. Note not all concrete masonry is the same, and the data provided
in this Manual refers to use of Marshalls bricks only.
• Ensure that bricks are kept as dry as possible whilst storing and stacking out. Bricks should not be wetted before
laying and incomplete brickwork should be protected from rain and snow.
• Ensure the correct grade of mortar is specified and used. An M4 Class mortar is generally most appropriate
but be aware that stronger mixes which utilise a CEM I rather than a CEM II cement may not accommodate
movement as well.
• In most cases movement joint centres of between 7.5-9 metres in two storey and above type dwellings should be
adequate, but shorter distances may be needed for single storey buildings. The length/height ratios of brickwork
panels should not exceed 3:1.
• Particular care should be taken with openings greater than 1.5 metres, especially if they are placed directly above
each other, eg. the panel profile between a ground floor opening and a first floor window may be less than 3:1 but
they are relatively slender and can be subject to stresses from larger areas of brickwork adjacent to the openings.
In these cases lattice type bed joint reinforcement should be introduced above the ground floor opening and below
the first floor window. Note, whilst bed joint reinforcement will assist in the prevention of potential cracking, it is not
a complete alternative to the provision of movement joints which should be installed in the appropriate locations.
• For openings where there are only a few courses of bricks above or below the openings then crack inducers, in
the form of raked joints which have been filled with mastic, should be considered at the ends of the openings.
• A large proportion of movement joints when using concrete bricks can be simple contraction joints, but south
facing elevations, particularly those built with dark coloured bricks, may require full compressible joints to
accommodate thermal movement.
• In elevations which consist of block and render and concrete bricks then any movement joints should follow
through both materials.
• Movement joints at short returns can frequently be installed as butt joints incorporated into the corner, with the
longer leg abutting the shorter return.
• Placing vertical movement joints in locations where lateral support from party walls or internal load bearing
partitions exist will assist in the stability and resistance to wind loading.
• Avoid mixing dissimilar materials that have different levels and types of movement characteristics, eg. concrete
(shrinkage) v. clay (expansion). Bricks made using limestone aggregates, such as those produced by Edenhall,
will generally have lower moisture movement values than bricks made with gravel/sand type aggregates.
• Shrinkage cracks tend to be mainly cosmetic and do not normally affect the integrity of a structure.

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7.12 Product Comparisons

There are fundamentally three types of brick that have been used, or are used, in the UK over many years. Of
these clay and concrete bricks are the most prevalent, although a certain number of calcium silicate or sand/lime
bricks have been used in the past. The latter are now no longer produced in this country, but Edenhall’s range of
Sandfaced bricks can offer a reasonable match if extensions or replacements are required.
Although clay and concrete bricks are produced to different manufacturing Standards their performance in
use and application are covered by similar Standards such as PD 6697: 2010. This and other Standards detail
the appropriate brick specification for various locations. A comparison of the concrete and clay Standards is
shown overleaf.
Further information is detailed in Brick Technical Bulletin BTB 2.

33
COMPARISON TABLE

Concrete Bricks Clay Bricks

British Standards

BS EN 771-3: Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units BS EN 771-1: Clay Masonry Units

Note: Both of the above Standards are manufacturing Standards only and as such make no reference to use or application.

Compressive Strength

>22.5N/mm2 available up to 50N/mm2 to special order Depends on brick type and manufacturer

Note: Both BS 5628: Part 3 and the new PD 6697 give recommendations for which brick properties are required in various locations.
For example, a minimum strength of 22.5N/mm2 is recommended for a concrete brick used above and below dpc.

Dimensions
T1: +1-6mm if the bricks are between 209-221 mm in length
D1: +3-5mm in all dimensions
T2: +1-4 mm if the bricks are between 211-219mm in length
D2: +1-3mm in all dimensions; ±2mm in height
T1: +1-6mm if the bricks are between 59-71mm in height
D3: +1-3mm in all dimensions; ±1.5mm in height
T2: +1-4mm if the bricks are between 61-69 mm in height

Water Absorption

Generally 5-9% by weight Depends on brick type and manufacturer

Composition
Produced from naturally occurring aggregates, Portland cement, various
Produced from naturally dug materials, frequently blended with other
admixtures and synthetic iron oxide pigments. Bricks are through
materials. Certain bricks may only have applied faces.
coloured.

Durability
May contain metallic salts such as sodium, potassium and magnesium, and
Fully frost resistant and with minimal soluble salts consequently are categorised as either SO (no requirement), S1 or S2.
Under BS EN 771-1 the original FL grade is categorised as F2/S2.

Although produced to a different standard, Marshalls bricks are equivalent to the old clay FL Grade

Acoustic & Thermal Performance

Highly resistant to sound transmission
Depends on brick density and mass
Moderate rate of thermal conductivity

Green Credentials

Produced using low cement content

No additional heat required during curing Bricks are dried out prior to firing
Minimal water content used in manufacture Kiln temperatures between 700-1100oC and very energy intensive
CO2 emissions are minimal Large amounts of CO2 are emitted during firing process
Bricks are recyclable Frequent imports to subsidise stocks
No imports Bricks types tend to be unique to specific factories
Flexibility in production factories Embodied CO2 is high at 220kg/CO2/Tonne
Embodied CO2 is low @ 84kg/CO2/Tonne

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7.13 Mortar

A 1:1:6 (mortar designation iii/compressive strength class M4 is adequate for most facing brick locations. Lime
enhanced mortars have more capacity to absorb small degrees of movement and are recommended. This mortar
designation allows the location of movement joint centres to be at 7.5 – 9.0 metre centres or greater depending on
openings and other factors.
Higher strength mortars i.e. 1:¹⁄₂:4-4¹⁄₂, class M6, should be used with Engineering Quality bricks, including sulphate
resisting properties for Class 3 conditions.
Workability of the mortars should be adjusted to accommodate the density and absorption of the bricks, which
should be laid in a dry condition. Retarded or silo based mortars should be used in accordance with the suppliers’
recommendations.
Further information on Mortar Types and Profiles is detailed in Technical Bulletin BTB 4.

7.14 Use Below DPC

All Facing bricks, Common bricks, Engineering Quality bricks and Dense Coursing bricks are suitable for use below
and within 150mm of damp courses as well as in superstructures. Lightweight Coursing bricks should not be used in
these locations.

7.15 Brick Bonds

Although normal stretcher bond is the most common, alternative bond patterns are also available if a more
decorative appearance is required. Some of these bonds demand the more prevalent use of headers and it is
recommended that the designer discusses this with the Marshalls sales staff prior to specification. Bonding patterns
should be maintained at openings - broken bonds increase the risk of cracking.

7.16 Cavity Insulation

The BRE Good Building Guide, GBG44, Part 2, Table 3 details the maximum recommended exposure zones for
various types of insulated walls. For facing masonry walls, eg. facing bricks with tooled flush joints, the maximum
recommended exposure zone for built in cavity fill is Zone 3. For exposure zones greater than this then full cavity fill is
not recommended.

7.17 Site Guidance

Detailed guidance on the practical use of Edenhall’s concrete bricks is provided in BTB1 “Good Site Practice
Guide”.

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8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the enthusiasm and expertise of Geoff Matthews who has worked tirelessly in helping to
complete the manual. Geoff has over 50 years’ experience in the sale, production and technical application
of concrete based materials. Starting as a chemist in the laboratories of British Gypsum and then Rugby
Cement he gained a wealth of relevant qualifications. His career developed with a number of concrete
product manufacturers before he joined the Marshalls Group in 1999. In a commercial and technical capacity
Geoff made a significant contribution to the team at Marshalls in achieving the technical advancements in
product development. This has ensured that the modern day Marshalls bricks are aesthetically attractive and
technically sound, and can be seen on buildings throughout the UK.

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9. INDEX

Page Number
Air Permeability 30
Cavity Insulation 35
CE Marking 20
Colour 27
Common Bricks 14
Coursing Bricks 14
Durability 25
Marshalls 9
Efflorescence 27
Engineering Quality Bricks 15
Environmental Performance 29
Facing Bricks 12
Fire Resistance 29
Mortar 35
Movement 30
Product Comparisons 33
Rain Penetration 27
Site Guidance 35
Sound Insulation 29
Special Shaped Bricks 15
Specifications 18
Standards 18
Strength 25
Sulphate Resistance 27
Thermal Insulation 30
Water Absorption 27
Weathering 27

37
10. APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: Brick Technical Data Sheets

BTDS 1: Facing Bricks

BTDS 2: Engineering Quality Concrete Bricks
BTDS 3: Dense & Lightweight Coursing Bricks
BTDS 4: Dense Concrete Common Bricks
BTDS 5: Special Bricks

APPENDIX II: Brick Technical Bulletins

BTB 1: Good Site Practice Guide

BTB 2: Product Comparison
BTB 3: Environmental Characteristics
BTB 4: Mortars for Concrete Masonry Products
BTB 5: Movement Control
BTB 6: Durability
BTB 7: Efflorescence and Colour Integrity
BTB 8: Cleaning, Maintenance and Repair
BTB 9: Resistance to Rain Penetration
BTB 10: Coursing Brick Applications
BTB 11: Concrete Engineering Quality Bricks
BTB 12: Use of Marshalls Bricks with Dissimilar Materials BTB 13: Fire Resistance
BTB 14: Sound Insulation
BTB 15: Thermal Insulation

APPENDIX III: Health & Safety Data Sheets

HSDS 1: Product Hazards

HSDS 2: Safe Loading, Transit & Off-Loading of Products

APPENDIX IV: Questions & Answers

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BRICK TECHNICAL
DATA SHEETS
 BTDS 1

BRICK TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

FACING BRICKS

Edenhall’s facing bricks provide an attractive appearance and may be used for the majority of forms of external and internal construction.
They are available in wide ranges of mono and multi colours, from white to blue, and in a variety of different textures including
Sandfaced, Smooth, Textured, Stonefaced, Rumbled and Weathered finishes.
Facing bricks are manufactured by blending selected dense aggregates and colourfast iron oxide pigments with Portland cements. Their
low porosity, frost resistance and age hardening properties make them eminently suitable for use below dpc in foundations, boundary
walls and externally above ground level, regardless of the severity of exposure.
The bricks, which may be solid, frogged or perforated, are manufactured and tested in accordance with BS EN 771-3: 2011:
Specification for Masonry Units: Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units.
• Facing masonry units intended for use with one or more faces left visible and which may or may not be exposed to external climatic
conditions.
• Masonry units exposed to external climatic conditions without render or other equivalent protection.

Solid Facing Frogged Facing Perforated Facing

Smooth, Textured, Weathered,
Appearance Smooth as mould, Rumbled Smooth as mould
Stonefaced, Rumbled, Sandfaced

Dimensions 215 x 100 x 65mm

Tolerances Category D1 (+3-5mm in all directions)

Configuration Solid, no voids or frogs Frogged, one bed face 3 vertical perforations

Net Dry Density 2000kg/m3 average 2000kg/m3 average 1950kg/m3 average

Dry Weight 3.1kg – 3.25kg 2.5kg – 2.7kg 2.3kg – 2.45kg

Compressive Strength >22.5N/mm2 mean. Air dry.

Thermal Conductivity 1.11 W/mK (dry); 1.24 W/mK (@3%); 1.33 W/mK (@5%)

Durability Based on tabulated values from PD 6697:2010 facing bricks are classed as frost resistant with minimal salts.

Water Absorption by Capillarity <85g/m2/s0.5

Water Absorption by Weight 5-9% after 24 hours

Moisture Movement <0.45mm/m

Water Vapour 5/15μ (Tabulated from EN 1745)

Reaction to Fire Euroclass A1

Shear Bond Strength 0.15N/mm2 (Tabulated from EN 998-2: 2003, Annex C)

215kg/m2 189kg/m2 175kg/m2

Built Wall Weight (100mm Wide)
Unplastered Single Leaf Wall Unplastered Single Leaf Wall Unplastered Single Leaf Wall

Green Guide Rating A+

Self contained packs, shrinkwrapped in most instances to non-returnable pallets, or void packed and
Presentation
shrinkwrapped, depending on supplying works.
*As many of these products are made to order for specific markets, please obtain further details on specification details, product availability, pack
sizes and weights from your local Marshalls Sales Office, or alternatively call our Head Office.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
BRICK TECHNICAL DATA SHEET
ENGINEERING CONCRETE BRICKS
Edenhall’s Engineering Concrete Bricks are durable, high strength bricks, specially manufactured to accommodate high loads and cope
with exposure to aggressive ground conditions. Made from selected dense aggregates and a choice of cements, the bricks, which
exhibit low porosity and high dimensional accuracy, are completely frost resistant and suitable for use below ground where natural
sulphates, up to and exceeding Class 3 levels, are present. Two grades of bricks in two forms are available:
(a) Red Semi Engineering Brick [RSE] made with Ordinary Portland Cement. Available in both Solid and Frogged forms.
(b) Sulphate Resisting Engineering Quality Brick [EQ] made with Sulphate Resisting Cements. Available in Solid form only.
Engineering Bricks are manufactured and tested in accordance with BS EN 771-3: 2011; Specification for Masonry Units: Aggregate
Concrete Masonry Units and meet the criteria for strength, durability and sulphate resistance as detailed in BS 5628 Pt 3: 2005 and PD
6697 and other Standards.
Can be used: below d.p.c; for inspection chambers; manholes; catch pits containing surface water or foul
Application
drainage and for earth retaining walls
Appearance Red [RSE]/ Tawny [EQ]colour – close texture. Colour consistency not guaranteed.
Dimensions 215mm x 100mm x 65mm Tolerances Category D1 (+3-5mm in all directions)
Configuration Solid (no frogs/perforations)
Dense aggregate and Portland OR Sulphate Resisting blended cements, with a minimum cement content
Composition of 360kg/m3. Both types of engineering bricks have been surface carbonated in accordance with BRE
Special Digest 1:2005, Concrete in Aggressive Ground Conditions: Part F5.
Dry Density Average 2200kg/m3
Dry Weight 3.1kg - 3.3kg approximately
Compressive Strength >50N/mm2 mean. Air dry.
Note: Under the standards BS EN 771-1: Clay Bricks and BS EN 771-3: Concrete Masonry Units the test method for measuring compressive
strength has been amended. This results in higher strengths being achieved but with no inherent alteration in the fundamental properties of the
product. Engineering Concrete Bricks harden with age and a standard 50N/mm2 brick will perform in a similar manner as regards durability to a
Clay Class B.

Thermal Conductivity 1.24 W/mK (Dry): 1.24 W/mK (@ 3%); 1.33 W/mK (@ 5%)
Engineering Concrete bricks comply in all respects to the standards required by BS 5628: 2005, the
NHBC, the Highways Agency, the Water Research Council and the Department of Transport. They are
suitable for use in sulphate soil conditions up to and including DS-1, DS-2 and DS-3.
The EQ brick may be suitable up to DS-4 conditions subject to satisfying the other criteria laid down in the
Durability relevant BRE Special Digest.
Neither Engineering Brick is suitable for use as an actual damp proof course.
Neither Engineering Brick, nor the mortar, is resistant where high levels of acid are present and degradation
will occur to varying degrees dependant on the pH levels as shown below:
*pH 6.5-5.5 - slight degradation *pH 5.5-4.5 - severe degradation *pH < 4.5 - very severe degradation
Water Absorption <45g/m2/s0.5. Average water absorption <7%. Engineering bricks are required to have a water absorption of less
by Capillarit than 7%. This traditional test method is measured by a different test to that of water absorption by capillarity.
Moisture Movement <0.6mm/m
Water Vapour Permeability 5/15μ (Tabulated from EN 1745)
Reaction to Fire Euroclass A1
Shear Bond Strength 0.15N/mm2 (Tabulated from EN 998-2: 2003, Annex C)
Green Guide Rating A+
Self-contained packs, shrink-wrapped in most instances to non-returnable pallets, typically containing 448
Presentation
No. bricks.
Further information on the history and performance of Edenhall’s Engineering Concrete Bricks can be found in our Technical Bulletin BTB11.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTDS 3

BRICK TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

DENSE AND LIGHTWEIGHT COURSING BRICKS

Edenhall’s coursing bricks are designed to be used in all types of construction in conjunction with dense aggregate or lightweight
aggregate concrete blocks.
The 140mm width units are particularly suitable for use in the inner leaf of three storey buildings and party walls (Ref, Parts A and E of
the Building Regulations) in addition to the requirements of BS 8103, ‘Structural Design of Low Rise Buildings’.
For lightweight bricks the specially selected aggregates used in the manufacturing process provide density, strength and thermal
conductivity values which are comparable with the majority of lightweight aggregate blocks with a density range of 1000-1500kg/m3.
Lightweight bricks should not be used in conjunction with autoclaved aerated blocks.
Good quality coursing bricks age harden and dense coursing bricks, with an average compressive strength of 22.5N/mm2, will resist
freeze-thaw cycles. Lightweight bricks should only be used on inner leaves and should be protected from prolonged frost or snow.
The bricks, which are solid, are manufactured and tested in accordance with BS EN 771-3: 2011 - ‘Specification for Masonry Units:
Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units’.

Dense Bricks Lightweight Bricks

Greyish colour with variable texture. The colour may vary depending upon the supplying works.
Appearance
No guarantee can be given in respect of colour or texture consistency.

215mm x 100mm x 65mm 215mm x 100mm x 65mm

Dimensions
215mm x 140mm x 65mm 215mm x 140mm x 65mm

Tolerances Category D1 (+3-5mm in all directions)

Solid (no frogs/perforations). Bricks can be supplied with a textured face for render situations as required by the
Configuration
NHBC Standards (Chapter 6.1 – D15(d)).

Selected dense aggregates and Portland cements. Selected lightweight aggregates and Portland cements.
Composition A certain amount of recycled aggregate may also be A certain amount of recycled aggregate may also be
included in the mix. included in the mix.

Dry Density Average 2100kg/m3 Average <1400kg/m3

100mm: 3.1kg 100mm: 2.0kg

Dry Weight
140mm: 4.1kg 140mm: 2.8kg

Compressive Strength Average 22.5N/mm2 mean Average 10N/mm2 mean

Protected: 1.24 W/mK Protected: 0.39 W/mK

Thermal Conductivity
Exposed: 1.33 W/mK Exposed: N/A

Based on tabulated values from BS 5628-3 and PD 6697 dense coursing bricks are classed as frost resistant. Lightweight bricks
Durability
should only be used on internal walls and the inner leaves of cavity walls above dpc level where there is no risk of freezing.

Water Absorption By Capillarity 50-150g/m2/s0.5

Water Absorption By Weight 8-16%

Moisture Movement <0.45mm/m <0.90mm/m

Water Vapour Permeability 5/15μ (Tabulated from EN 1745)

Reaction To Fire Euroclass A1

Shear Bond Strength 0.15N/mm (Tabulated from EN 998-2: 2003, Annex C)

2

200kg/m 2
150kg/m2
Built Wall Weight (100mm Wide)
Unplastered Single Leaf Wall Unplastered Single Leaf Wall

Green Guide Rating A+

Presentation Self contained packs, shrinkwrapped in most instances to non-returnable pallets in packs of 384, 448 and 512 No. bricks.*

• Making up courses in blockwork • As padstones on top of hollow blocks

Applications • As reveals, jambs and window heads • As kicker units to bring blockwork to wall height
• To eliminate cutting on site

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTDS 4

BRICK TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

DENSE CONCRETE COMMON BRICKS

Edenhall’s Dense Common Bricks are designed to be used for all types of construction above and below dpc level, independently
or in conjunction with dense aggregate concrete blocks.
The specially selected dense aggregates used in the manufacturing process provide density, strength and thermal conductivity
values, which are compatible with the majority of dense concrete blocks.
In addition to their ability to withstand repeated cycles of attack from rain and frost, good quality dense concrete bricks age harden,
and throughout independently controlled laboratory experiments, the bricks passed the most rigorous freeze-thaw tests designed
to establish the durability classification for masonry.
The bricks, which may be solid, frogged, or perforated, are manufactured and tested in accordance with BS EN 771-3: 2011;
Specification for Masonry Units: Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units.
As stated in this Standard they can be defined as common masonry units normally intended for use with no faces left visible.

Solid Facing Frogged Facing Perforated Facing

Colour and finish may vary depending on the supplying works.
Appearance
No guarantee can be given in respect of colour or texture.
215 x 100 x 65mm
Dimensions 215 x 100 x 65mm 215 x 100x 65mm
215 x 100 x 73mm

Tolerances Category D1 (+3-5mm in all directions)

Configuration Solid, no voids or frogs Frogged, one bed face 3 vertical perforations

Composition Dense aggregates, recycled materials and Portland Cement

Dry Density 1850kg/m3 – 2150kg/m3 1850kg/m3 – 2000kg/m3 1900kg/m3 – 2000kg/m3

Dry Weight 2.7kg – 3.1kg 2.5kg – 2.7kg 2.3kg – 2.5kg

Compressive Strength >22.5N/mm2 mean. Air dry.

1.24 W/mK @ 3%
Thermal Conductivity
1.33 W/mK @ 5%
Based on Table 15 of PD 6697:2010 common bricks are classed as frost resistant and suitable for use below
Durability
or near external ground level with a high risk of saturation and freezing

Water Absorption by Capillarity <150g/m2/s0.5

Water Absorption by Weight 6-10% after 24 hours

Moisture Movement <0.60mm/m

Water Vapour 5/15μ (Tabulated from EN 1745)

Reaction to Fire Euroclass A1

Shear Bond Strength 0.15N/mm2 (Tabulated from EN 998-2: 2003, Annex C)

190kg/m2 180kg/m2 175kg/m2

Built Wall Weight (100mm)
Unplastered Single Leaf Wall Unplastered Single Leaf Wall Unplastered Single Leaf Wall

Green Guide Rating A+

Self contained packs, shrinkwrapped in most instances to non-returnable pallets, or void packed and
Presentation
shrinkwrapped, depending on supplying works.
All products are manufactured and supplied in accordance with the relevant Standard with the exception of Regrade/Mixed Commons that carry no
warranty on their performance or suitability.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTDS 5

BRICK TECHNICAL DATA SHEET

SPECIAL BRICKS

The Marshalls range of facing bricks is supported by a range of standard matching specials produced to BS EN 771-5: 2011 -
Specification for Manufactured Stone Masonry Units. This Technical Data Sheet is only intended to show the most popular sizes and
shapes. Many other complementary and striking shapes can be manufactured to meet bespoke requirements.
Please note that certain specials are only available in a Smooth finish, whilst others are produced in both Smooth, Textured and
Sandfaced finish. Please consult your local Marshalls Sales Office for specific details.
Due to the particular method of production of special bricks it is important that adequate notice is given before delivery can
commence. Your local Marshalls Sales Office can quote delivery times.
The drawings show some of the basic shapes of the units and their principal dimensions. Where sizes or angles have to be specified,
please contact your local Marshalls Sales Office for details of availability.
 BTDS 5

Notes: S: Specify Dimension S1: Specify Dimension R: Specify Radius A: Specify Angle

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 Marshalls.co.uk

BRICK TECHNICAL
BULLETINS

43
 BTB 1

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

GOOD SITE PRACTICE GUIDE

The following notes are a précis of more comprehensive details available from our other Brick Technical Bulletins which are available
on our website – www.marshalls.co.uk/bricks-and-masonry

DELIVERY
Marshalls Sales Offices can advise on load and pack sizes, weights and delivery methods. Please advise the Offices of any
special delivery requirements, site restrictions or time windows which are applicable at the time of ordering and before
deliveries commence.

STORAGE AND HANDLING

Bricks should be stored on sound, level ground and raised clear of wet and muddy areas to prevent contamination and staining.
Storage areas should be sited close to the points of work to reduce unnecessary handling and minimise damage and waste. Bricks
should be protected from the weather on site and during construction, including the covering of completed but uncapped
brickwork. Waterproof coverings should allow circulation of air. These precautions will reduce the likelihood of subsequent lime
bloom, shrinkage and movement. Materials used in conjunction with concrete facing bricks should also be stored under protection.
Damage and wastage will be minimised by mechanical methods of distribution to the points of work. Facing bricks should be lifted
and placed – not thrown and tipped. Selection of bricks should be made by combining from 3 packs if possible and mixing loads
where practical. Bricks should be kept as dry as possible with opened packs and bricks that are stacked out on site protected from
the weather.

LAYING, BEDDING AND JOINTING

Building with Marshalls bricks should pose no more problem than using any other masonry material. The accurate dimensions
and regularity of size will help with the laying out and maintenance of brick courses. Bricks should be dealt with in the same way as
dense concrete blocks, reconstructed or natural stone. Solid bricks in particular can offer mortar savings of up to 15% when
compared with deep frogged or perforated bricks. The number of courses achievable per day should be between 15 and 20,
provided dry bricks are used and mortar consistency is adjusted to suit brick suction. In accordance with BS 8000-3 the height of
lifts should not exceed 1.5 metres or 20 courses per day.
Frogged bricks should be laid frog up. Marshalls bricks should NOT be wetted before laying. The workability of the mortar should be
adjusted to take into account the weight and suction of the bricks. Marshalls bricks have a low to medium absorption and tend to
shed water towards the mortar joints. Failure to fill the perpend joints in particular can lead to excessive water ingress into the cavity.
The specified joint profile should be formed after leaving the mortar to harden slightly. Tooling is recommended to compact the
joints, improve weather resistance and reduce shrinkage in the mortar. Recessed or flush pointing is not recommended in areas of
high exposure.
Do not lay bricks when the temperature is at or below 3°C or when freezing may occur after the mortar has hardened. Wall ties
should be placed at normal locations, except around movement joints where additional ties may be necessary. Ties should be
positioned within 225mm either side of the opening or joint and at vertical centres not exceeding 300mm. Alternatively flat ties may
be inserted across the joint provided one end of the tie is unbonded.

BED JOINT REINFORCEMENT

Bed joint reinforcement (BJR) may be used to control stresses within the brickwork and in certain instances can be used to extend
the distances between movement joints.
We would suggest a ladder type reinforcement however consultation with an approved engineer is recommended.

BONDING
Bonding patterns should be maintained at openings. Broken bonds increase the risk of cracking. Where special details are required
at openings Marshalls can supply a full range of standard or bespoke special bricks to suit each design.
 BTB 1

CAVITIES
Both leaves of a cavity wall construction should rise simultaneously. Cavities must be kept clean to reduce the risk of cold bridging or
water reaching the inner leaf. Cavity trays over openings should incorporate stop ends to prevent water over-run during severe weather.

WEEP HOLES
Weep holes should be provided wherever there is extensive bridging of the cavity, eg. at lintels and floor slabs. Weep holes are
recommended at the rate of every third perpend.

WALL TIES
The selection of wall ties should be made in accordance with PD 6697: 2010, Section 6.2. Tables 9 to 12 give guidance on the selection
of ties for normal use and refer to exposure zone, cavity width and type of structure. Wall ties should be simultaneously incorporated
into both leaves as the work progresses and be embedded at least 50mm into each leaf. The ties should have the drip located centrally
within the cavity and facing downwards. Ties should fall towards the outer leaf to prevent any tracking of moisture towards any partial
cavity insulation or the inner leaf.
The density of ties (number of ties per square metre) should be in accordance with BS EN 1996-1-1: 2005 and they should be evenly
distributed except around openings where, at vertical edges (for example movement joints), additional ties should be used at a rate of
one tie per 300mm height. These should be placed not greater than 225mm from the edge.

DAMP PROOF COURSES

Damp proof course materials should conform to the relevant British Standard referenced in Table 1 of PD 6697: 2010. Damp proof
material must be of the correct width so that it fully covers the leaf thickness. Damp courses should be fully bedded in mortar and have
an overlap of at least 150mm.
In certain instances where a slip plane is required, two layers of joint material may be laid on top of each other, but the effectiveness
of this depends on the type of material used and the loads imposed upon it. Reputable manufacturers can give further advice. If a slip
plane is to be provided, then other means of maintaining structural stability, such as extra wall ties, should be installed.

MORTAR
A 1:1:6 or equivalent mortar is adequate for most locations. Further details for specific locations are given in Table 15 of PD 6697: 2010
or by reference to Marshalls.
Lime enhanced mortars have more capacity to absorb small degrees of movement and are recommended. This mortar category allows
the location of movement joints to be at 7.5-9 metre centres depending on window openings and other factors. Workability should be
adjusted to suit the density and absorption of the brick. Approved admixtures may be used to improve the workability. Retarded or silo
based mortars should be used in accordance with the suppliers’ recommendations. (Full information regarding Mortar is detailed in
Technical Bulletin BTB 4).

CUTTING AND CHASING

Cutting can be done by bolster, mechanical saw or hydraulic guillotine. On facing work mechanical means should be adopted to
preserve a true arris. Wet cutting will help to maintain the appearance of the bricks, but if this method is used the bricks should be
hosed down immediately after cutting and dried prior to laying. Chases generally should not exceed one-third of the thickness of the wall
in vertical chasing and not be deeper than one-sixth of the wall in horizontal chasing. Timber laths should be used as guides when using
mechanical means. Goggles and dust masks should always be used when chasing concrete bricks.

BRICK FINISHES
The choice of brick, with their different finishes, can have an effect on the final brickwork appearance and the following comments
should be considered.
Textured and Sandfaced bricks have one finished stretcher and approximately 25% of each pack has a finished header end. Additional
finished headers are available if required, and these should be specified at the order stage. Smooth faced bricks have one finished
stretcher and are presented face side up in the pack. The non-faced stretcher is marked and care should be taken to lay smooth faced
bricks the correct way around. Sandstock bricks, which are frogged, have finished faces on four sides.
 BTB 1

Final brickwork appearance is a matter of agreement between the specifier or user and the supplier and may vary depending on
the use to which the bricks are to be put. Sample panels are recommended to be built between 1 to 1.5 square metres in size.
Viewing of these panels should be made from a distance of at least 3 metres. The brickwork should be examined as a whole rather
than just viewing individual bricks. Some degree of damage may be inevitable on an individual brick, depending on the brick type
and subsequent site handling, but generally speaking bricks are required to be reasonably free from deep or extensive cracks and
damage to edges and corners. However, it is generally accepted that all facing bricks may have some form of chipping and the
industry accepted standard is that no individual chip should be greater than 15mm. An added benefit of Marshalls bricks is that
they are through coloured and hence any chips may be less apparent than an applied face brick.

MOVEMENT CONTROL
For general movement control measures should have been catered for by the designer and if not indicated on drawings it is
advisable to raise it with the designers prior to work commencing. Edenhall’s recommendations, derived from those given in BS
5628-3 and PD 6697, together with the experience of the technical and performance characteristics of the product, are detailed as
follows. This guidance is endorsed for Marshalls bricks by warranty schemes including NHBC, Local Authority Building Control
(LABC) and Checkmate.
• Ensure that bricks are kept as dry as possible whilst storing and stacking out. Bricks should not be wetted before laying and
incomplete brickwork should be protected from rain and snow.
• Ensure the correct grade of mortar is specified and used. An M4 Class mortar is generally most appropriate but be aware that
stronger mixes which utilise a CEM I rather than a CEM II cement may not accommodate movement as well.
• In most cases movement joint centres of between 7.5 to 9 metres in two storey and above type dwellings should be adequate,
but shorter distances may be needed for single storey buildings. The length/height ratios of brickwork panels should not exceed
3:1.
• Particular care should be taken with openings greater than 1.5 metres, especially if they are placed directly above each other,
eg. the panel profile between a ground floor opening and a first floor window may be less than 3:1 but they are relatively slender
and can be subject to stresses from larger areas of brickwork adjacent to the openings. In these cases lattice type bed joint
reinforcement should be introduced above the ground floor opening and below the first floor window. Note, whilst bed joint
reinforcement will assist in the prevention of potential cracking, it is not a complete alternative to the provision of movement
joints which should be installed in the appropriate locations.
• For openings where there are only a few courses of bricks above or below the openings then crack inducers, in the form of
raked joints which have been filled with mastic, should be considered at the ends of the openings.
• A large proportion of movement joints when using concrete bricks can be simple contraction joints, but south facing elevations,
particularly those built with dark coloured bricks, may require full compressible joints to accommodate thermal movement.
• In elevations which consist of block and render and concrete bricks then any movement joints should follow through both
materials.
• Movement joints at short returns can frequently be installed as butt joints incorporated into the corner, with the longer leg
abutting the shorter return.
• Placing vertical movement joints in locations where lateral support from party walls or internal load bearing partitions exist will
assist in the stability and resistance to wind loading.
• Avoid mixing dissimilar materials that have different levels and types of movement characteristics, eg. concrete (shrinkage)
v. clay (expansion). Bricks made using limestone aggregates, such as those produced by Marshalls, will generally have lower
moisture movement values than bricks made with gravel/sand type aggregates.
• Shrinkage cracks tend to be mainly cosmetic and do not normally affect the integrity of a structure.
More detailed information regarding Movement can be found in Technical Bulletin BTB 5.

PREVENTION OF EFFLORESCENCE
The phenomenon of efflorescence or lime bloom in all concrete products is derived from the leaching of free calcium ions which are
present in solution during the hydration of the cement matrix within the bricks. As the calcium ions migrate to the surface of the
brick they crystallise on the surface and are exhibited as a milky white deposit. However, due to the above potential problems,
Marshalls has developed systems which involve the incorporation of advanced additives both within and on the surface of the brick.
The amount of efflorescence emanating from Marshalls bricks can thus be classed as minimal.
Although the bricks can be classed as having minimal efflorescence this can still occur if good site practice and laying procedures
are not followed.
 BTB 1

The most common causes are:

• Poor building practice, such as partially built walls being left exposed to rain.
• Poor storage of bricks on site, both once packs have been delivered and also once packs have been broken down and bricks
have been stacked out ready for building. Marshalls bricks need to be kept dry.
• Poorly designed or missing copings and flashings.
• Failure to protect incomplete brickwork at the end of the working day. It must be remembered that mortar is rich in cement and
whilst in its uncured state it is extremely susceptible to water leaching out the lime within it. (Further information is detailed in
Technical Bulletin BTB 7 – E lorescence and Colour Integrity).

PLASTERING AND RENDERING

Any areas of concrete common brickwork that are to be rendered or plastered should have raked joints to form a key for the specified
finish. For optimum adhesion a plaster bonding coat or similar should be applied. A spatterdash coat may be necessary for good
adhesion and if so this should be 1:2-3 parts cement:sand, applied before the undercoat. On concrete masonry the render coat should
be 1:1:6 (this is referring to 3 elements not 2 as above) or equivalent, using clean sand. In all cases of two or three coat rendering the
final coat should be a weaker mix than the undercoat or the same mix but thinner.

PAINTING
Smooth faced bricks are suitable for painting with emulsion or alkali resisting paint, especially plastic emulsions. Brickwork should be
dry and free from dust, lime bloom, grease and other detritus. Oil based paints should be avoided.

CLEANING DOWN
Concrete masonry in the form of bricks, split walling and cast stone can be described as a “low maintenance” building material.
However there are simple precautions that should be taken to ensure its long term attractiveness and ability to perform its required
function. These involve:
• Ensuring the masonry remains weatherproof.
• Ensuring adequate design and detailing of protruding elements.
• Prevention of the possibility of mortar smears and efflorescence by good site practice.
Given the above is carried out, then the amount of cleaning down should be minimal. (Further information is detailed in
Technical Bulletin BTB 8 – Cleaning, Maintenance and Repairs).

REPAIRS
One of the many advantages of Marshalls bricks is their through colour which enables any repairs on chips or damage to be carried
out in a reasonably discrete manner.

WINTER WORKING
Marshalls bricks are supplied in shrink wrapped packs which should remain sealed until such time as they are required. Once opened
packs should be kept protected, as should incomplete or fresh brickwork. Stacked out bricks on scaffolding should also be fully
protected. Overnight, or whenever rain interrupts bricklaying, the top of newly laid walls should be protected. Bricklaying should
cease when the temperature is below 3oC and falling or when frost is imminent. Brickwork and mortar dry out more slowly when cold
and mortar takes more time to cure, hence it is important that adequate protection is given to the wall until the mortar has developed
enough strength to resist frost attack.

WASTE DISPOSAL
Marshalls bricks are completely inert and may be crushed and recycled as aggregate or inert fill. All packaging, which may consist of
polythene covers, plastic strapping and wooden pallets or skids, is recyclable. If burnt, however, they may release smoke and fumes,
which if inhaled in sufficient quantities can be injurious to health.

Head Office: PD Edenhall Ltd, Danygraig Road, Risca, Newport, NP11 6DP Tel: 01633 612671 Fax: 01633 601280 edenhall.co.uk

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 2

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

PRODUCT COMPARISON

This Technical Bulletin details the comparison between Marshalls concrete bricks and clay bricks. Historically there was also a third
type of brick used in the British Isles, namely the Calcium Silicate or Sand Lime brick, but as these are no longer produced in this
country they have been ignored for comparison purposes.

BRITISH STANDARDS
Concrete bricks are produced to BS EN 771-3: Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units. This replaced BS 6073: Parts 1 and 2.
Clay bricks are produced to BS EN 771-1: Clay Masonry Units. This replaced BS 3921.

Both Standards for concrete masonry and clay units specify the characteristics and performance requirements for both products
but do not give any reference to their use or application. This is covered generally by BS 5628: Code of Practice for Walling, now
replaced by a new Standard PD 6697:2010 and other Codes and Standards.

COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
Marshalls bricks have a minimum compressive average strength of 22.5N/mm2, increasing where required to 50N/mm2. Concrete
bricks continue to gain strength with age.
Clay bricks vary in strength, depending on type, with a typical strength range of 15-90N/mm2. There is no strength gain with clay
bricks.
Strength and cement content are indicative of durability in Marshalls bricks, whereas in clay bricks strength is a function of the
constituent raw material and firing technique. For example, in PD 6697 the minimum strength requirement for use in a typical
external wall above and below dpc requires a concrete brick of 22.5N/mm2, whereas a clay brick has to be selected from one with
the preferred frost resistance and soluble salts content.

DIMENSIONS
The tolerances on concrete bricks are broken down into three categories:
D1: +3-5mm in all dimensions
D2: +1-3mm in all dimensions; ±2mm in height
D3: +1-3mm in all dimensions; ±1.5mm in height
Clay brick tolerances are:
T1: +1-6mm if the bricks are between 209-221mm in length
T2: +1-4mm if the bricks are between 211-219mm in length
T1: +1-6mm if the bricks are between 59-71mm in height
T2: +1-4mm if the bricks are between 61-69mm in height

Fundamentally concrete bricks, because of their manufacturing method, tend to be produced to finer tolerances than clay bricks.
Marshalls bricks are produced and certified to D1 category.

DURABILITY
Durability in the form of frost resistance and soluble salts content in concrete bricks is a function of the compressive strength and
mix design. Independent tests that have been carried out by the Building Research Establishment and other approved Testing
Laboratories have confirmed that concrete bricks are frost resistant in most locations. They may not however be resistant to de-icing
salts or certain situations experiencing high wear or high acid environments.
Further tests show Marshalls bricks to have a minimal soluble salts content and the admixtures used both within the mix and on the
surface of certain facing bricks ensure that bricks have minimal efflorescence.
By contrast clay bricks may contain metallic salts such as sodium, potassium and magnesium, and consequently are categorised as
either SO, S1 or S2. These define the maximum level of soluble salts.
 BTB 2

Under the more recent BS EN 771-1 the old original FL grade is now categorised as F2/S2. There is no such requirement for concrete
bricks and they can be classified as being equivalent to F2/S2.

COMPOSITION
Marshalls bricks are manufactured by compacting under a combination of high pressure and vibration a semi-dry mix of naturally
occurring aggregates, portland cements, various admixtures, and synthetic iron oxide pigments. The bricks are through coloured.
This gives the major advantage that any small chips or damage will be predominantly the same colour as the main face of the brick.
Clay bricks are also produced using naturally dug materials, frequently blended with other materials and they are then fired in kilns.
Certain bricks may only have applied faces and the body of the brick may be different from that of the applied face.

WATER ABSORPTION AND WEATHERING RESISTANCE

The standard for concrete bricks requires a moisture absorption by capillarity test, and results are given in the relevant Product Data
Sheets. This test has superseded the more traditional 24 hour water absorption test, the results of which are also shown in the individual
Product Data Sheets.
The water absorption test approach is different for concrete bricks compared with that, for example, of clay bricks, but the requirements
are there for different reasons. For clay bricks the test is primarily related to mortar adhesion and frost resistance, the former being
important in cases of minimal or excessive suction from the mortar before it has had a chance to cure, and the latter to ensure that the
correct type of brick is used in exposed conditions. A high absorption brick of low strength may be susceptible to frost attack.
With concrete bricks a low-medium absorption is important to inhibit the absorption of surface dirt whilst at the same time giving
sufficient suction to allow the mortar bond to develop properly. Marshalls bricks are unique in that they contain certain specialist
additives which not only maintain the overall appearance but also inhibit any potential efflorescence. At the same time the continuous
ageing
of Marshalls bricks means the absorption reduces over time whilst the bricks still increase in strength, resulting in excellent durability
characteristics.

ACOUSTIC AND THERMAL PROPERTIES

Concrete bricks tend to have a higher density than clay and hence have a higher sound reduction index. This can lead to better degrees
of sound attenuation in flanking walls, which may be critical in those properties of lightweight construction.
Conversely, concrete bricks will have a higher value of thermal conductivity than clay bricks. In real terms this will have minimal effect on
the U-value of a wall construction due to the degree of secondary thermal insulation necessary to meet Building Regulations.

GREEN CREDENTIALS
Edenhall bricks have beneficial “green” credentials including the following:
• The bricks are manufactured using low cement content, with raw materials sourced generally within 50 miles of the
manufacturing works.
• No additional heat is used in the production of the bricks. The natural exothermic reaction of the process is sufficient to cure
the product.
• Bricks from the core range of the same colour and texture can be replicated at different works. The core range allows
manufacture in a number of locations thus minimising delivery distances and subsequent CO2 emissions.
• Concrete by its very composition is a CO2 absorber.
• Water consumption and usage during the whole manufacturing process is minimal.
• CO2 emissions in the whole manufacturing process are minimal. There is no pre-drying of materials or any firing process.
• Marshalls bricks are recyclable with no deleterious materials present when crushed.
• Marshalls does not need to import bricks to sustain demand.
• The embodied CO2 of Marshalls bricks is low and <50% of that for clay bricks.
Clay bricks use a process that starts with materials which have to be extracted, aged, milled and mixed. The bricks are then dried before
being fired. Firing temperatures in kilns are between 700-1100˚C and the process is very energy intensive. Large amounts of CO2 are
emitted during the firing process and the burning technique can be difficult to control.
Capital costs of introducing extra capacity by the opening of new factories are significantly more than that of an equivalent output factory
for concrete bricks.
Clay manufacturers frequently need to import stocks to maintain supply levels.
 BTB 2

COMPARISON TABLE

Concrete Bricks Clay Bricks

British Standards

BS EN 771-3: Aggregate Concrete Masonry Units BS EN 771-1: Clay Masonry Units

Note: Both of the above Standards are manufacturing Standards only and as such make no reference to use or application.

Compressive Strength

>22.5N/mm2 available up to 50N/mm2 to special order Depends on brick type and manufacturer

Note: Both BS 5628: Part 3 and the new PD 6697 give recommendations for which brick properties are required in various locations.
For example, a minimum strength of 22.5N/mm2 is recommended for a concrete brick used above and below dpc.

Dimensions
T1: +1-6mm if the bricks are between 209-221 mm in length
D1: +3-5mm in all dimensions
T2: +1-4 mm if the bricks are between 211-219mm in length
D2: +1-3mm in all dimensions; ±2mm in height
T1: +1-6mm if the bricks are between 59-71mm in height
D3: +1-3mm in all dimensions; ±1.5mm in height
T2: +1-4mm if the bricks are between 61-69 mm in height

Water Absorption

Generally 5-9% by weight Depends on brick type and manufacturer

Composition
Produced from naturally occurring aggregates, Portland cement, various
Produced from naturally dug materials, frequently blended with other
admixtures and synthetic iron oxide pigments. Bricks are through
materials. Certain bricks may only have applied faces.
coloured.

Durability
May contain metallic salts such as sodium, potassium and magnesium, and
Fully frost resistant and with minimal soluble salts consequently are categorised as either SO (no requirement), S1 or S2.

Under BS EN 771-1 the original FL grade is categorised as F2/S2.

Although produced to a different standard, Marshalls bricks are equivalent to the old clay FL Grade

Acoustic & Thermal Performance

Highly resistant to sound transmission
Depends on brick density and mass
Moderate rate of thermal conductivity

Green Credentials
Produced using low cement content
No additional heat required during curing Bricks are dried out prior to firing
Minimal water content used in manufacture Kiln temperatures between 700-1100˚C and very energy intensive
CO2 emissions are minimal Large amounts of CO2 are emitted during firing process
Bricks are recyclable Frequent imports to subsidise stocks
No imports Bricks types tend to be unique to specific factories
Flexibility in production factories Embodied CO2 is high at 220kg/CO2/Tonne
Embodied CO2 is low @ 84kg/CO2/Tonne

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 3

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

ENVIRONMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE SUMMARY

• Marshalls bricks can be considered as a net absorber of CO2 due to the continuous carbonation of concrete, or to give it a more
accurate name, recarbonation, which is the reaction between carbon dioxide gas (CO2) in the atmosphere, weak atmospheric
acid, and calcium oxide. Calcium oxide is an alkaline product of cement which reacts with CO2 to reform calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) as concrete ages.
• Concrete Bricks are 100% recyclable and suitable for, and indeed are reused as crushed aggregates.
• The aggregates used in the manufacturing process utilise materials that are often classed as a waste product of quarrying, being
a by-product of manufacturing primary clean graded aggregates.
• Most aggregates used are from sources local to Edenhall’s plants and brick delivery points are typically within 100 miles,
therefore reducing the environmental impact and associated carbon footprint.
• Marshalls bricks are manufactured at a number of locations throughout the UK and have reduced environmental impacts
compared with imported products, eg. imported bricks from Europe, which may travel 500 miles from factory to site and
generate nearly 700kg/CO2 per delivery, equivalent to 24kg/CO2/Tonne. This compares with the more local deliveries from
Marshalls of 8kg/CO2/Tonne, approximately one third of that of clay imports.
• The high energy firing of kilns in clay production processes is not required for the curing of Marshalls bricks. We simply use the
natural exothermic reaction of the cement with little additional energy input. This means minimal additional natural resources are
consumed and overall emissions are reduced.
• Cements used in the production of Edenhall’s bricks are supplemented by replacement materials such as blast furnace slag.
Additionally Marshalls supports UK cement production facilities rather than the high carbon footprint associated with overseas
and imported products.

CARBON FOOTPRINT OF MARSHALLS BRICKS

The embodied CO2 of dense concrete masonry products is estimated as 84kg/CO2/Tonne*. This is assumed to be an “ex works”
figure which takes into account the manufacture of the product itself, but not the transportation to site.
On a typical return journey of 160 miles a 44 tonne vehicle carrying 28 tonnes will produce about 8kg/CO2/Tonne**. Hence the
average total embodied carbon content of Marshalls bricks is estimated at 92kg/CO2/Tonne manufactured and delivered to site.
By comparison clay bricks have an embodied carbon content of 244kg/CO2/Tonne from quarry to site***.
Taking into account a typical end of terrace house of 31m2 floor area using 3840 bricks and assuming 20% openings, the embodied
carbon of a clay brick is 2202kg/CO2/Tonne which over a design life of 100 years equates to 22kg/CO2 per year.
The equivalent figure for a concrete brick is 1095kg/CO2/Tonne or 11kg/CO2 per year over the same design life. Therefore an
Marshalls brick has 50% of the embodied carbon content of a clay brick thus halving the overall impact.
The recarbonation or CO2 absorption characteristics of Marshalls bricks, as described above, can also offset any embodied carbon
over the life of a building.
In addition, the slightly heavier mass of a concrete brick can contribute to improved sound reduction from external sources and can
also add to the thermal mass of a building.
Finally, with their low cement content, locally sourced aggregates, use of cement replacements and natural exothermic curing
regimes, along with local production factories which minimise haulage distances to site, Marshalls bricks are particularly
environmentally friendly.
Copies of Edenhall’s Environmental Policy, CPS4 and Sustainable Development Policy, CPS6 are available to download from the
website – www.marshalls.co.uk/bricks-and-masonry
 BTB 3

ENERGY CONSUMPTION TO PRODUCE MARSHALLS BRICKS

Apart from power used by production equipment, little additional energy is required to manufacture and cure the bricks. Typically <5Kw
hours are consumed for every tonne of finished brick product. The exothermic reaction of the cement is sufficient to cure the bricks to
a condition where they can be handled and after that natural curing takes place to age harden the product, a process which continues
to take place over the life of the brick.
Furthermore, minimal amounts of water are required in the process with usage averaging less than 0.00006 cubic metres per 1000
bricks

RECYCLABLE MATERIALS
All packaging materials, which are mainly in the form of plastic banding, shrinkwrapping and/or timber pallets or skids, are responsibly
sourced, contain recycled material and are suitable for recycling.

ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
As well as having a full set of policies which include; Health and Safety, Quality, Environmental, Equal Opportunities, Sustainable
Development, Anti Bribery, Ethical Trading and Corporate and Social Responsibilities, Marshalls is also independently assessed against
recognised environmental standards equivalent to ISO 14001.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The key aspects pertaining to both environmental and sustainability issues are outlined below:
• Concrete brick is 100% recyclable and would be suitable for use as a crushed aggregate. It contains no deleterious salts or materials
which could affect their future use. Marshalls recycles almost all in process material wastage during manufacture.
• The key materials used in the production of our bricks are generally from suppliers who are ISO 14001 compliant, demonstrating our
commitment to the responsible sourcing of materials
• Generally our source of raw materials is within the locality of our works and our delivery points are on average within 100 miles of a
factory, thus minimising the impact, and associated carbon footprint, of transportation.
• The geographical locations of our factories enable us to supply a similar product from any works to any location within the country
with the minimum of haulage. Concrete bricks are not imported.
• Concrete is an inherent CO2 absorber and a recent article published by the Concrete Centre demonstrates that concrete based
homes take advantage of their inherent thermal mass to save a significant amount of energy over their lifetime compared with a
lightweight construction.
• Our extensive network of stockists ensures that smaller, regular supplies to contractors can be made on a local basis rather than
having to transport partial loads long distances.
• Our production method does not require any additional energy for curing over that of the normal exothermic reaction when concrete
hardens. No additional energy is required in the curing of the product thus saving natural resources (fuel/water) and
reducing emissions (CO2/NO2).
• Excellent thermal capacity and insulation properties. The mass of concrete adds to the potential for solar gain which evens out
variations in temperature within a building. In addition the ‘U’ values of a typical wall construction using concrete bricks compared to
clay is similar (ref. CBA ‘U’ Value calculations where concrete brick can be substituted for dense aggregate block).

REFERENCES:
* Data derived from British Precast Fact Sheet - “Generic Carbon Footprint of Aggregate Blocks”.
(Note: Aggregate blocks and concrete bricks have similar densities and cement contents)
** Data derived from Road Haulage Association Document - “Carbon Footprint Explained”
*** Data derived from Brick Development Association Document - “Sustainability”

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 4

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

MORTARS FOR CONCRETE MASONRY PRODUCTS

To achieve maximum benefit mortars for use with Marshalls bricks should comply with the following Standards:
BS EN 998-1 - Specification for Mortar: Part 1 - Rendering and Plastering Mortar
BS EN 998-2 - Specification for Mortar: Part 2 - Masonry Mortar
These Standards should be read in conjunction with BS 5628: Part 3, PD 6697, BS 8000-3 and all other relevant Standards.

MORTAR PERFORMANCE
Mortars must be carefully gauged to the proportions given in the specification. Too strong a mix may lead to cracking through the
masonry unit itself, too weak a mix will adversely affect the strength and durability of the mortar. If the sand is dry or saturated the
specified volume should be used. If it is damp, it may be necessary to increase the volume to allow for the effects of bulking. In both
instances care must be taken to ensure the correct volumes of cement.
• Site mixing: Mortar should be mixed by hand or machine until it has a uniform colour throughout. Note: Shovel mixing of mortars
can cause apparent colour changes in the finished masonry, particularly if pigments are included. Shovel mixing often results in
weaker mortar than the designed strength due to the difference in the angle of repose of sand and cement.
• Adhesion: Good adhesion results from good workability. Sand:Cement mortars tend to be harsh to work and require additional
water to achieve workability and this in turn can compromise mortar strength. The addition of lime or proprietary admixtures can
improve workability without the addition of extra water.
• Concrete masonry units, including bricks and Darlstone Walling, tend to have low-medium suction rates and the mortar should
be adjusted accordingly.
• The Mortar Industry Association recommends that for silo based mortars the workability should be adjusted on site within the
mortar designation. For premixed retarded mortars, which are supplied in tubs, it is important to specify to the supplier that the
workability needs to suit masonry units with a low-medium absorption. The correct workability should be specified rather leaving
any retarded mortars for 24 hours to dry out slightly before use.
• Admixtures: Waterproofing agents, air extracting agents and pigments may be added to mortars. However their use should be
closely controlled as over-dosing can have a negative effect. Washing up liquids and calcium chloride based admixtures should
be avoided.

LIME MORTARS
Lime mortars offer significant benefits in terms of workability, water retention, elasticity, ultimate strength and durability. However, care
should be taken, as with all mortars, to protect uncured brickwork from the weather, in particular from the downward percolations
of water through the finished masonry. This can lead to calcium carbonate leaching out of both the lime and cement, resulting in
unsightly efflorescence staining around the joints which is difficult to remove once cured.

COLD AND WET WEATHER WORKING

Laying of masonry products should not be carried out when the temperature is below 3oC and falling.

NUMBER OF COURSES PER DAY

BS 8000-3: 2001 - Workmanship of Building Sites recommends:
“The consistency of the mortar should be adjusted to suit the suction rate of the bricks”;
“All frogged bricks should be laid frog uppermost and the frogs filled with mortar”; and
“The height of lifts should be limited to 1.5m in one day, ie. equivalent to 20 courses”
This should be achievable provided the bricks have been kept dry and the mortar workability is adjusted to suit the suction of the
unit and the prevailing conditions.
 BTB 4

TYPES OF MORTAR
• Cement:Lime:Sand
These mortars give good workability, water retention and adhesion. They may be site mixed or pre-batched.
• Ready Mixed Mortars
These are produced either in a dry form in silos or as wet mix, retarded mortars. Both types are factory batched and hence have
guaranteed mix proportions, thus eliminating site mix variations. Mortar workability should be adjusted to suit the suction and absorption
of the unit.
• Masonry Cement:Sand
This mortar type is pre-bagged OPC with a fine mineral filler and air entrained plasticiser. Masonry cements, in which a fine filler is lime in
a 1:1 ratio, can be used to produce cement:lime and sand mortars.
• Air-entrained Cement - Sand.
Specialised air-entraining admixtures are introduced to the mix as an alternative to lime to give improved working characteristics. Care
should be taken not to overdose on site or to use cheap alternatives such as washing up liquid.

MORTAR SELECTION
Mortar should be selected by considering the following:
• Characteristics of the masonry unit
• Degree of exposure
• Type of locations of the masonry
• Structural requirements (Reference should made to Table 12 and 13A BS 5628; Part 3; 2005 and PD 6697)
• Designed mortars are selected by the producer to achieve particular compressive strengths
• Prescribed mortars are made in pre-determined proportions as required

NOTES:
1. Proportioning by mass will give more accurate batching than by volume, provided bulk densities of materials are checked on site.
2. When the sand proportion is given as, for example, 5 to 6 the lower figure should be used with sands containing a higher proportion of fines.
3. Masonry cement (lime) complies with BS EN 197-1
4. Masonry cement inorganic filler (other than lime) complies with BS EN 197-1
5. The European Standard BS EN 998-2 - Specification for Mortar: Part 2 - Masonry Mortar has been written using the performance concept, ie.
prescribed by minimum strength category. This is a departure from the traditional UK practice which has been primarily based on a prescription
(recipe) approach, eg. mix ratio of 1:1:6 by volume.
The recipe approach is based on the producer of the mortar batching the required proportions of materials by volume, whereas the performance
concept requires the producer of the mortar to achieve the stated performance, eg. minimum strength, and allows the producer freedom to
select the mix proportions and cement types to achieve this.
The impact of this change of specification method with regard to its use with concrete masonry is that the actual performance of the mortar may
show different characteristics depending on the local mix design used to achieve the strength grade. For example, a nominal M4 mortar, which is
equivalent to the previous prescribed mix ratio of 1:1:6, may have a cement element included which has been made from a CEM I cement, whilst
another mix may utilise a CEM II cement which in itself may incorporate either a limestone, PFA or slag filler. Consequently the performance of
what is essentially the same grade mortar may be different from site to site or from producer to producer.
The recommendation for the appropriate grade of mortar to use with Marshalls bricks is detailed in this Technical Bulletin but customers should
be aware of the possible differences in performance, particularly in its consequent ability to accommodate movement due to the change in
specification method detailed above.
The main influence of the changes is that when a stronger mortar strength is achieved it is less accommodating to movement which may
result in an increased occurrence of shrinkage/movement cracking than historically would have been the case. This may, where strengths are
considerably higher than those achieved under the recipe approach, be evident in cracking through the brick units rather than around the edges
between the brick and mortar interface. Whichever is evident, they will in most situations be what are defined as micro cracks that do not impact
on the structural integrity of the brickwork and can, if particularly required, be retrospectively “filled” by specialist cosmetic companies that have
the ability and skill to minimise the aesthetic impact of this action.
 BTB 4

PRESCRIBED MORTARS (BY VOLUME)

Cement: Lime:Sand
Mortar Designation

Strength N/mm2 at

With or Without Air

With or Without Air

Masonry: Cement:

Masonry: Cement:
to Accommodate
Increasing Ability

Strength Class

Cement: Sand
Compressive

Entrainment

Entrainment
Movement

Sand (4)

Sand (3)
28 Days
i M12 12 1:0:1/4-3 - - -

ii M6 6 1:½:4-4½ 1:3-4 1:2½-3½ 1:3

iii M4 4 1:1:5-6 1:5-6 1:4-5 1:3½-4

iv M2 2 9
1:2:8- 1:7-8 1:5½ -6½ 1:4½

<0.20 0.15 <0.20 0.29 <0.40 <0.40 <0.40

MORTAR JOINT PROFILES

Joint profiles in brickwork constitute nearly 17% of the overall wall area and different bond joint profiles can affect both the final
appearance and weathering properties of the wall. The quality of workmanship is important in ensuring that the wall achieves its
structural, aesthetic and weathering requirements.
Bricks should be laid on a full bed of mortar and perpend joints fully filled. The majority of Marshalls facing products have a low-
medium absorption rate and during prevailing rainfall will tend to shed water towards the joints which, if not fully filled and tooled, will
allow excessive moisture into the wall cavity.
The different choice of faces available with Marshalls bricks allows various options of mortar joint to be chosen for any particular set of
circumstances. For example, a rumbled face Vintage Sandstock brick may look better with one particular type of joint when compared
with the precisely engineered and clean arrises of a traditional smooth faced brick.
On major projects the construction of a sample panel or panels gives the ideal opportunity to test and review the best type of joint to
satisfy the aesthetic and durability parameters that are required.

Weathered Joint – joint has a Concave/Bucket Handle Joint Vee Joint – inverted V profile
downward sloping edge

Flush Joint Stripped Joint – a medium Raked or Recessed Joint –

recessed joint not recommended not recommended for
for exposed areas exposed areas
 BTB 4

APPLICATION AND CHOICE OF MORTAR

(Derived from Table 12 and Table 13 of BS 5628: Part 3)

Recommended Marshalls Recommended Masonry Unit Strength

Application
Masonry Unit Mortar Class (N/mm2 )

Lightweight Coursing Brick iv/M2 10

Internal Walls above dpc
Dense Common Brick iii or iv/M4-M2 15

Internal Walls below dpc Dense Common Brick iii/M4 22

Unrendered External Walls both Dense Common Brick or

iii/M4 22
above and below dpc Facing Brick

Rendered External Walls Dense Common Brick iii/M4 22

Facing Brick or
Cappings, Copings and Cills ii/M6 35
Engineering Quality Brick

Facing Brick or
Earth Retaining Walls i or ii/M12-M6 35
Engineering Quality Brick

Manholes and Inspection

Dense Common Brick iii/M4 22
Chambers – Surface Water

Manholes and Inspection

Engineering Quality Brick i or ii/M12-M6 50
Chambers – Foul Drainage

Class 1 Sulphate Conditions Dense Common Brick iii/M4 30

Class 2 Sulphate Conditions Engineering Quality Brick ii or iii/M6-M4 50

Class 3 Sulphate Conditions Engineering Quality Brick ii/M6 in SRPC 50

Facing Brick or
Areas of High Exposure ii/M6 35
Engineering Quality Brick

Note: Special care should be taken in the choice of facing brick if used in areas of high exposure, saturation or wear such as steps,
kerbs or certain types of retaining walls. Standard strength facing bricks are not suitable for use in these environments. Facing
bricks are not resistant to de-icing salts.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 5

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

MOVEMENT CONTROL

This Technical Bulletin outlines in brief terms the mechanism behind the performance of Marshalls bricks, particularly in regard to
movement, and offers some comments and suggestions as to how that should be considered when designing to accommodate
that movement in buildings. It should be stressed however that the frequency and location of movement joints is not a precise
science and are influenced by many factors including those detailed in the Design Considerations section and consequently this
Bulletin can only offer general advice.

INTRODUCTION
All building materials move in one way or another, either from drying shrinkage, moisture movement (absorption and drying out),
thermal effects or structural movement. Concrete bricks are not unique in this respect.
People’s perceptions of drying shrinkage and hence cracking in concrete can stem from their experiences with traditional wet cast/
poured concrete. The mechanism of shrinkage in concrete commences with the drying out of excess mix water within the matrix.
Other factors such as the final water absorption; type of curing; cement content; aggregate type; density; and compressive strength
can all affect the amount of movement. Marshalls bricks specifically can claim:
• Low cement and mix water contents with a high aggregate ratio giving low volume changes within the brick matrix.
• Low water absorption of the cured brick leading to reduced moisture changes thus minimal moisture movement changes.
• Inherent high strength of the brick for relatively low cement content producing “stiffer” units which can resist internal stresses.
Marshalls bricks with the above characteristics therefore offer some of the lowest shrinkage and moisture movement values of
cement based masonry units used today.
Movement in a structure can either be controlled or localised in order to minimise internal stresses in the brickwork which may cause
cracking. The provision of movement or control joints offers an opportunity to localise that movement into a preferred position where
it can be best accommodated. Alternatively the introduction of bed joint reinforcement at the appropriate locations can dissipate any
stresses and/or allow an increase in spacing between joints.
It is widely accepted that the degree of movement is extremely difficult to predict. For example, Marshalls bricks, which have a
natural tendency to shrink when drying, will also expand when subject to moisture or thermal effects. These differential movements,
which occur in different directions, can in many instances nullify each other.
Although it is theoretically possible to just quote an arbitrary figure of 6-9 metres for spacing between vertical joints, in practice
the designer should take into account other factors such as orientation of the wall in relation to the sun; number and position of
openings; shape and slenderness of the panels; moisture content of the bricks; past experience; and utilise Edenhall’s extensive
knowledge of the product we supply.
The National House Building Council (NHBC) initially made general recommendations of maximum spacing of 6 metres for vertical
joints using concrete masonry products. This advice was acceptable for the generic group of cement based masonry but it was
recognised that concrete masonry encapsulates a wide variation of product groups ranging from Autoclaved Aerated Blocks with
a low strength and high drying shrinkage through to a Dense Masonry Brick of high strength and low shrinkage. The NHBC had
adopted the lowest performance characteristics of any product within the concrete products group as a guide for the spacing of
joints without consideration of the individual product characteristics. In simple terms these characteristics influence the degree
of movement and hence joint spacing. For Marshalls bricks these can be summarised as high density; low drying shrinkage; high
strength; high modulus of elasticity; and low water/cement ratio.
In a communication from NHBC in April 2014 they accepted that the 6 metre rule for joint spacing for concrete bricks could be
waived and that the recommendations given in BS 5628-3 and its subsequent supporting document PD 6697 should be utilised.
This states that joint spacing of between 6-9 metres may be acceptable but that designers should consult the manufacturer (eg.
Marshalls) over the use of their specific products given the manufacturer’s past experience and knowledge. As the leading concrete
brick manufacturer in Europe, Marshalls has a wealth of experience in all aspects of the use of concrete bricks.
Consequently Edenhall’s recommendations are that movement control measures are incorporated at 7.5-9 metres
subject to panel profile, position and size of openings, and site practice.
These spacings have also been recognised by other insurance agencies such as LABC and Checkmate.
 BTB 5

CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY
When concrete dries out it contracts and shrinks. When it is extracted from the mould in its uncured state it is as large as it is ever going
to be but as it cures it shrinks but expands again when wetted. That expansion does not occur to the same extent as the shrinkage.
These volume changes due to variations in moisture content are an inherent characteristic of hydraulic cement based concretes. The
volume and type of aggregate and cement content have a significant effect on the magnitude of these volume changes. Since
Marshalls bricks are produced with a relatively low cement content and use low shrinkage aggregates the volume changes are low.
The requirement within BS EN 771-3, “Specification for Concrete Masonry Units”, sets no limits for shrinkage or moisture movement
and the values for Marshalls bricks can be found with the individual CE and DoP documents. Designers should take into accounts these
values when comparing against other concrete masonry materials. However independent tests carried out on Marshalls bricks show a
typical Facing Brick to have the following values:
Drying Shrinkage: 0.07 – 0.17 mean 0.12mm/linear metre
Moisture Movement: 0.12 – 0.17 mean 0.14mm/linear metre
Total Movement Coefficient: 0.26mm/linear metre

Note: The test method measures the moisture expansion between the bricks at initial ambient condition and after soaking in water
for four days and then the shrinkage between that saturated value and after drying for 21 days @ 33°C. The sum of these gives the
total movement coefficient. These are extreme conditions – in effect measuring from absolute saturation to complete oven dry – a
condition unlikely to occur in practice on site. Indeed research in Canada estimates that actual shrinkage and moisture movement
is probably only half that compared with a standard test. It should also be noted that the effects of shrinkage due to drying may be
compensated for by the thermal expansion due to solar effects.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Types of Movement:
Movement in a structure can arise from the effects of:
• Thermal influences
• Shrinkage and moisture movement characteristics of the external masonry
• Changes in the orientation or shape of a building
• Site practice
• Type and grade of mortar
The tendency for all concrete products is to shrink slightly over time and when drying out, although they may revert back to near their
original size when subject to moisture. Like all materials they are also subject to thermal movement. Consequently the location of
movement joints is to define the most appropriate position to accommodate this movement whilst considering the aesthetic, practical
and structural factors.
Mortar Choice:
The recommended movement joint spacing of between 7.5-9 metres assumes the use of a Type iii (compressive strength M4) mortar, ie.
1:1:6 or equivalent. It should be noted that mortars designated by strength may be stronger than those batched by volume due to the
statistical requirement to achieve the minimum strength.
Stronger mortars, such as M6, which have higher shrinkage values, may necessitate the reduction in spacing of joints down to 6 metres.
Lime based mortars, with their degree of flexibility to accommodate movement, offer better characteristics than pure sand/cement
based mortars. For further information on Mortar Selection see Technical Bulletin BTB 4.
Site Protection:
Since bricks shrink slightly as they dry out it is important that they are kept as dry as possible before laying. Opened packs should be
covered up, as should bricks after they have been stacked up around the site. Incomplete brickwork should be protected as this will
minimise the risk of shrinkage and efflorescence leaching from around the mortar joints.
Thermal Movement:
South facing walls, particularly those built of dark coloured bricks, are more susceptible to thermal movement than other elevations.
Whereas a simple contraction joint may suffice in more sheltered elevations, joints for southern facing elevations should have movement
joints which are capable of responding to both expansion and contraction. If movement joints are not practical in these elevations then
the use of bed joint reinforcement should be considered above and below large openings.
 BTB 5

Dissimilar Materials:
In certain instances different masonry materials may be combined within the same elevations. In the case of clay bricks, which have
expansive properties, and concrete bricks, which may shrink slightly, it is important to make provision for this differential movement.
Where for example a clay brick is used up to dpc level and an Marshalls brick built as the superstructure, then the dpc itself may act as
a slip plane and allow the differential movement to occur. This can be dependent on the dead load on the dpc and an Engineer’s advice
should be sort as to whether a single dpc is adequate or whether two layers would be required. In all cases provision should be made to
ensure structural stability.
If two dissimilar materials are mixed on one elevation then slip planes should be introduced or bed joint reinforcement incorporated to
dissipate the areas of tensile stress. Again, provision must be made to ensure that structural stability is not compromised.
Length/Height Ratio and Panel Shape:
The relevant Standards, BS 5628-3 and PD 6697, recommend that the length/height ratio of panels should not exceed 3:1. Shape is
as crucial as arbitrary length. For example, a long garden wall of single leaf construction which is unloaded will have a greater tendency
for movement and hence cracking than a two storey box type dwelling. With a 1 metre high garden wall, movement joint spacing of
9 metres would be excessive as this well exceeds the 3:1 ratio, whereas a two storey elevation averaging 5.5 metres in height could
accommodate a movement joint at 9 metres or greater.

Joint to run down

side of joints and
through perpends

Figure 1. Figure 2.

The superstructure should be viewed as a series of panels. For example, in elevations where window openings are long in comparison
to their height, or where those types of openings are stacked above each other, this may result in the brick panels in between the
windows being less than 7.5-9 metres but exceeding the 3:1 ratio. In these instances vertical joints in line with the jambs may need to
be considered, or more realistically bed joint reinforcement introduced to dissipate the stresses within the panel.
The example shown in Figure 1 may be suitable for those openings where brick soldier courses are used as cills and heads, but if
Artstone or precast cills and heads are used then the designer should consider the practical difficulties of installing movement joints
which follows around the bed joint and at the end of those components.

Typical location
of bed joint
reinforcement

mj Figure 3.
mj
Figure 4.
 BTB 5

Particular care should be taken where there are large openings above each other, eg. 1.5 metres plus, but with only low panels of
brickwork above or below them. In these instances it is prudent to incorporate bed joint reinforcement above and below the openings.
See Figures 3 and 4. This is particularly important where the panel between the openings is long in relation to its height and there are
large areas of brickwork either side of that panel. By contrast a small, narrow window within a gable may not require the introduction of
any specific control measures if it is surrounded on all four sides by large areas of brickwork.

LOCATION OF MOVEMENT JOINTS

Movement joints should be introduced in areas of potential stress such as detailed in Figures 5, 6 and 7 below. If joints are placed near
adjacent structural members, eg. columns and beams, they should incorporate a flexible compressible filler between the brickwork and
member to allow for the absorption of movement and flexure under load, as well as providing a fire stop.

Figure 5. Figure 6.

mj

Figure 6a. Figure 6b.

Figure 7. Figure 7a.

 BTB 5

Where possible break up the elevations into discrete panels as

demonstrated in Figure 8.
Alternative position
Note: The window detail example shown frequently occurs on
upstairs windows below the wall plate where only one or two
courses of brickwork exist above the lintel. In these instances a
contraction joint, which acts as a crack inducer, can be installed
running vertically up the line of the jambs or ends of the lintels
(see Figure 14). This can be filled with mastic and will have the
effect of localising any potential cracking.

Figure 8.

Use bed joint reinforcement as an alternative or supplement to the

movement joints at areas of the greatest tensile stresses. Joint
reinforcement can be used in elevations where the division of the
wall into panels is impractical. See Figure 9.
Note: Full details on the use and application of bed joint
reinforcement is available from the manufacturers.
The use of bed join reinforcement should be especially considered
if the openings are greater than 1.5 metres.
Bed joint reinforcement cannot fully replace the necessity for
movement joints but it can allow an elimination or increase in the Typical location
spacing of joints by up to 50% of bed joint
reinforcement
Figure 9.

Areas of weakness also occur when the openings are

wide in relation to their height or where large openings are
positioned vertically above each other. In these instances
vertical joints should be considered adjacent to the jambs or
bed joint reinforcement introduced. See Figure 10.

Typical location
of bed joint
reinforcement
mj
mj
Figure 10.

JOINT SPACING
Edenhall’s experience in the supply of Facing Bricks, which can be demonstrated by numerous sites across the country, shows that
as a general rule vertical movement joints may only need to be incorporated at 7.5-9 metre centres. Certain shapes of buildings, for
example cube shaped two storey buildings with elevations of between 6-9 metres in length, may not require joints at all depending
on the frequency, size and location of openings. A typical two storey semi-detached block may only require joints at the party wall
junctions provided the correct mortar has been used and the bricks have been built when dry. See Figures 11, 11a, 11b, 11c and 11d.
 BTB 5

Figure 11 is practical if the joint can run vertically upwards from the end of the lintel and downwards from the line of the jamb.
Figure 11a may be suitable where there are soldier courses of cills and lintels, or where normal brick bonding exists. Alternative courses
of half brick will be needed either side of the joint.
Figure 11b. It is difficult to form an effective joint around the perimeter of projecting artstone or precast cills or lintels and this joint
location is not recommended.
Figure 11c shows typical locations for semi detached properties. The requirement for a joint in the gable or end wall is dependent on
the elevation dimensions.
Figure 11d shows suggested locations in typical linked properties. The longer elevation should butt up to the shorter return.
See Figure 12a.
Note: The long/low shape of the panel between the windows may require the introduction of bed joint reinforcement. If the gable
end is south facing consideration should be given to incorporating a movement joint in the centre.

Figure 11. Figure 11a.

Figure 11c.
Figure 11b.

Figure11d.
 BTB 5

The length of a panel can also include a return provided the overall panel length is within the allowed parameters. See Figures 12 and
12a. The longer leg should butt up to the shorter return.
Vertical movement can be considered to be of the same magnitude as horizontal movement and in buildings exceeding four storeys or
12 metres in height joints should be generally positioned at every second storey.
Consideration should also be given to the movement in timber frame buildings and the necessary provisions made to accommodate
shrinkage of the frame.

mj
mj

Not to Not to
scale scale
Figure 12. Figure 12a.

TYPES OF JOINT
In a large percentage of cases movement joints for Marshalls bricks can be installed as contraction joints apart from those elevations
that may be subject to excessive thermal movement thus requiring joints which are compressible as well as allowing for contraction.
In these instances the filling material in the joints should be easily compressible. Flexible materials such as polyurethane, polyethylene
or foam rubber are suitable.
For contraction joints fibre board or similar materials are suitable but care should be taken that the backing material does not dislodge
after any contraction of the brickwork has taken place. Joints should be sealed to resist any water ingress. BS 6213 gives further
details. Joints for Marshalls bricks should normally be 10mm wide.
Typical joint types are shown in Figures 13, 14 and 15.

Figure 13: gap

External
movement Figure 14.
joint with Internal
compressible contraction
filter joint

Figure 15
External contraction
joint, mortar raked back
and joint filled
 BTB 5

Contraction joints would also be used on internal walls where there is unlikely to be any significant expansion. In these instances a
simple raking out of vertical joints between the units may be sufficient to localise any potential cracking. In other locations the choice
of flexible filler and sealant should be adequate for the anticipated movement. Care should be taken that adequate stability is provided
across the joint by the incorporation of extra ties in a cavity wall or by the installation of horizontal flat ties across the joint. See Figures
16 and 17.

Detail shows open joint prior

to joint filler and mastic

Figure 16. Figure 17.

JOINTS BELOW DPC

NHBC Standards, Clause 6.1, D3 (g) says “Any movement joints provided in the substructure must be carried up into the
superstructure. Movement joints may be needed in the superstructure where none are required in the substructure – however suitable
allowance should be made for relative movement.”
In the case of Marshalls bricks below dpc the element of shrinkage is minimal, but in accordance with the NHBC Guidance the
following should be taken into consideration:
• Where the dpc is less than 600mm above ground level, movement joints do not generally need to extend below the dpc.
• Where the dpc is more than 600mm above ground level, consideration should be given to continuing the joint through the masonry
below the dpc.
• Where the movement joint is provided for differential ground movement, for example (a) at major changes in foundation level or (b)
between foundations of different designs or at variations in the height of buildings, the movement joints should continue through the
brickwork below the dpc.

WALL TIES AND SLEEVED TIES

According to document PD 6697, Clause 6.2.2.2., the density, ie. wall ties per square metre, should be in accordance with BS EN
1996-1-1:2005 where the ties are distributed evenly except around openings and movement joints where they should be installed at
vertical heights of 300mm, not more than 225mm from the edge of the joint. Alternatively the incorporation of flat wall ties, one end of
which is de-bonded, will allow relative movement whilst still maintaining stability.

BONDING TO THE INNER LEAF

Where external joints are to be coincidental to any internal
blockwork joints then those joints should be staggered
vertically by a minimum of 450mm.
See Figure 18.

Figure 18.
 BTB 5

BED JOINT REINFORCEMENT

The introduction of bed joint reinforcement can be used to

distribute stress around openings or as an alternative to
a vertical movement joint if that joint location is either not
practical or aesthetically acceptable. Typical locations would
be the front elevations of a property. Bed joint reinforcement
is not a substitution for movement joints but there is evidence
from manufacturers/suppliers that spacing of joints can be
increased by up to 50% depending on the circumstances. Bed
joint reinforcement must not extend past the movement joint
and should be installed in accordance with the manufacturer’s
recommendations. The reinforcement should be of the ladder/
Typical location lattice type as opposed to the expanded mesh version. See
of bed joint
reinforcement Figure 19.
The nominal extra cost of incorporating bed joint reinforcement is
generally outweighed by the benefits accruing from its installation.
Figure 19.

RETROSPECTIVE INSTALLATION OF MOVEMENT JOINTS

Although the inclusion of movement joints in the appropriate locations should have been provided for during design and construction,
there are instances where they may have been omitted.
It is possible to retrospectively install joints into a building by cutting vertical contraction joints into the brickwork at the designated
positions. These joints, which will be contraction joints, act as crack inducers and localise any shrinkage movement. They can be
formed by cutting vertical joints, 10mm wide, down the face of the brickwork to a minimum depth of 75mm. In order to maintain the
lateral stability of the wall, horizontal flat ties, one end of which is de-bonded, should be installed into the bed joints at 450mm centres.
The bed joints can then be mortared up as normal. The vertical joints can either be filled with a flexible strip or weak mortar which is
then faced with normal joint mastic.

• Joints can be incorporated at internal junctions if required.

See Figure 12a.
• Utilise down pipes and soil pipes to hide joints where
practical.
• If jambs of openings are directly above each other then a joint
along the jambs can follow through vertically. If the jambs are
staggered then bed joint reinforcement may be required.
• Introduce slip planes under any precast or art stone lintel if the
joint is running up the side of a reveal and around the lintel.
• Joints should ideally be at least 300mm away from any reveal.
• Placing vertical joints at locations, where lateral support from
party walls or load bearing internal walls exists, will assist in
the stability and resistance to wind loading. See Figure 20.
• It is essential to keep bricks as dry as possible before and Figure 20.
during construction.
• Use of bed joint reinforcement should be considered for all
openings greater than 1.5 metres.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 6

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

DURABILITY

There are no known instances of failure of correctly manufactured concrete bricks used in masonry walls due to frost action.
Marshalls, in conjunction with the Building Research Establishment Scottish Laboratory, commissioned accelerated freeze/thaw
testing of a variety of concrete bricks in the 1990s, which recorded no frost damage and concluded that the bricks have durability
at least equivalent to the old clay brick ‘F’ classification.
More recently Marshalls has commissioned further product testing with accredited laboratories to confirm the durability
classification. Marshalls has adopted the BSI document for testing clay masonry units because there is no test method specified in
BS EN 772. This enables Marshalls to meet the requirements needed to state the exposure classification of its bricks.
Sample bricks are tested for determination of freeze/thaw resistance in accordance with the British Standard Technical Specification
method of testing clay masonry units DD CEN/TS 772-22: 2006. This involves subjecting a panel of brickwork to repeated freeze/
thaw cycles designed to simulate naturally occurring weather conditions. From the test results the manufacturer gives the bricks
a declared freeze/thaw resistance classification by reference to its applicability or intended usage and whether it is subjected to
passive, moderate or severe conditions.
The brick classifications are: F2: Severe Exposure
F1: Moderate Exposure
FO: Passive Exposure
The panel of brickwork tested is subjected to 100 cycles, each cycle consisting of a flood coat of water, a drain period, a freezing
period, and a thawing period, with a cycle time of circa four hours. After each cycle the panel is visually examined for damage with
every tenth cycle including a physical “soundness” test and a final examination of each brick after the 100 cycles are complete.

THE FREEZE/THAW CYCLE DIAGRAM

Edenhall facing bricks can be classified as F2 and are suitable for

use in building situations where they are subjected to repeated
freezing and thawing.

THAWING
20 minutes Note: An F2 classification brick will provide excellent resistance
Heaters at 20˚C
to frost attack but in particularly wet or exposed locations even
(± 3˚C)
F2 products may exhibit some signs of damage, eg. steps,
retaining type walls and exposure to de-icing salts.

FREEZING
120 minutes
WATER SPRAY
Air temperature
2 minutes
-15˚C
(± 3˚C)

DRAINING
2 minutes

Head Office: PD Edenhall Ltd, Danygraig Road, Risca, Newport, NP11 6DP Tel: 01633 612671 Fax: 01633 601280 edenhall.co.uk

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 7

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

EFFLORESCENCE AND COLOUR INTEGRITY

Over a number of decades Marshalls has been at the forefront of improvements into the performance of concrete masonry bricks
and through research and development the products now exhibit superiority in both performance and appearance.
To explain the mechanism whereby efflorescence is minimised and colourfastness secured it is important to understand the
principles which caused certain concrete bricks built in previous years to look somewhat pastel in shade.

COLOUR INTEGRITY
In the early days of concrete brick production in the UK there was a tendency to use liquid or inferior, often carbon based
pigments. Ultimately these leached out due to natural weathering to leave just the base colour of the aggregate brick. Hence
there are examples of concrete brick buildings from the 1960s and 1970s which appear ‘washed out’ or ‘faded’.
Since the early 1990s however, Marshalls bricks have been produced using synthetic iron oxide pigments from the major industrial,
multi-national chemical companies. These pigments are high quality powders which retain their colour under all circumstances. All
pigments used by Marshalls are 100% Synthetic Iron Oxide and are, by definition, lightfast. Additionally, all pigments are
manufactured to the latest BS EN 12878: 2014 standard and this allows each of the products to carry the CE mark. Within this
standard there are various tests, including weathering trials, to which each pigment has to be subjected and therefore, if the
pigment is CE marked, the pigment has been determined as being resistant to weathering and is lightfast. However, even products
made with these colourfast pigments can appear to fade, not due to colour loss of the pigment, but due to lime bloom on the
surface of the brick which masks the true colour. This can appear to be more prevalent on darker colours.

EFFLORESCENCE
The phenomenon of efflorescence or lime bloom on all concrete products is derived from the leaching of the free calcium ions
which are present in solution during the hydration of the cement matrix within the bricks. As this calcium rich solution migrates to
the surface of the brick the calcium crystallises on the surface and exhibits itself as a milky white deposit. In time this deposit will
weather off due to environmental effects but it could return on an on-going basis, albeit less and less over the years.
Unless an inhibitor is incorporated into the face or within the matrix of the brick then it could appear to lose its intensity of colour
due to bloom, although this would eventually weather off by the acidity of rainfall.
Due to these issues, Marshalls, in conjunction with specialised chemical companies, derived a number of systems and treatments
to inhibit efflorescence.
The longevity of these treatments is tried, tested and evidenced on buildings constructed for many decades. However, the main
effect of inhibiting efflorescence is best demonstrated at the primary stages of a brick’s life, because as the brick gets older the
amount of free calcium ions reduces due to the continued hydration of the cement. Additional carbonation of the brick surface
reduces the permeability and any likelihood of efflorescence. Hence Marshalls facings bricks look good from initial construction
through the life of the building.
However, it is important that good practice, in terms of design and protection during construction, is followed to minimise the risk
of efflorescence, not only from the bricks but also from the mortar where unsightly staining can occur if adequate measures are
not taken to protect uncompleted brickwork.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 8

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

CLEANING, MAINTENANCE AND REPAIR

Concrete masonry, in the form of Facing Bricks, Darlstone Walling and Architectural Cast Stone, can generally be described as a
‘low maintenance’ building material. However, there are some important, simple precautions, based on standard best practice,
that should be taken to ensure its long term attractiveness and its ability to perform the required structural function. These
involve:
• Ensuring that masonry remains weatherproof
• Repairing any cracks or deterioration of joints
• Cleaning off any efflorescence, staining or mould and if necessary sealing the surface

CONSTRUCTION CONSIDERATIONS
Mortar Deposits
Mortar extruded from masonry joints during laying should be cut off with an upward stroke of the trowel. In this way a clean
cut can be made without smearing the face of the unit. On completion of laying and tooling, any mortar smears which may be
on the face of the work should be removed, firstly with dry brushing and secondly, if necessary, by wet brushing. Do not allow
mortar smears and snots to set on the face of the masonry. If these mortar deposits are allowed to set on face masonry, careful
use of high pressure water jets, or in extreme cases diluted acid solution, might be needed to remove mortar stains. (Note: See
‘Cleaning Concrete Masonry’ before testing either water jets or acid solutions). Acid cleaning should be avoided if possible as this
could affect the appearance and cause discolouration.
Scaffolding
Scaffolding planks should be placed with a clearance of at least 150mm to the wall. This gap allows mortar droppings to fall
clear of the plank instead of splattering on the plank and building, disfiguring the wall. At the end of each day’s work or when rain
interrupts work, the plank nearest the wall should be propped on edge to prevent mortar from being splattered onto the wall by
overnight rain.
Concrete Droppings
Masonry supporting reinforced concrete slabs and beams is frequently disfigured by residue from a concrete pour. If such
deposits are allowed to set it is sometimes impossible to rectify the damage. Protection is best achieved by covering the walls
with plastic sheeting. Where this is not done, any concrete on the wall must be thoroughly cleaned off before it sets.
Rain Interruption
Overnight, and when rain interrupts bricklaying, the top of newly laid walls should be protected with plastic sheeting or similar.
This is essential with face brickwork. When newly laid masonry is saturated by rain, lime is placed into solution either from
Portland cement, or from saline (unwashed) sands or hydrated lime in the mortar. This solution absorbs carbon dioxide in from
the atmosphere and precipitates as calcium carbonate along the line of the joints. This whitish stain is very disfiguring and not
easily removed. Frequently new masonry is marred by bands of calcium carbonate stain to three or four courses of masonry –
the result of rain saturating freshly laid work.

CLEANING CONCRETE MASONRY

Good Building Practice
Brick layers must take care when laying concrete masonry to minimise mortar staining and in particular must:
• Keep facing bricks as clean as possible while laying and tooling
• Keep unused pallets of bricks and the tops of unfinished walls covered during rain to prevent water penetration and
excessive efflorescence
• Clean any snots and mortar smears before they set hard
Remaining stains could be removed following the procedures set out below.
 BTB 8

Removal of Mortar Stains with Hand Tools

After using a bucket and brush, remove any remaining mortar snots and smears by rubbing the surface with a piece of ‘like
coloured’ brick or a piece of wood. Careful use of a paint scraper, wide bladed chisel or wire brush can be helpful in removing
mortar build-up, however care must be taken not to scratch or damage the masonry surface.
Pressure Water Cleaning
This cleaning method is not a substitute for good building practice and hand cleaning methods and should only be used after
these procedures have been carried out if further cleaning is required.
Essential Preliminaries
Thoroughly remove mortar smears and snots back to a flat surface with hand tools as outlined above. Hand cleaning must not
leave any thickness of mortar otherwise pressure water cleaning will damage the masonry face and mortar joints before removing
the thickness of mortar.
Allow the bedding mortar to harden for a minimum of seven days prior to pressure water cleaning.
Carry out a pressure water cleaning trial on a typical but inconspicuous area and allow it to dry to determine:
• The effectiveness of this cleaning method; and
• That marking, damage or erosion of the surface has not been caused before proceeding with the general cleaning.
(Caution: Excessive pressure will lead to damage of masonry units)
Note: If there is no inconspicuous area, a small wall could be constructed for this purpose.
Efflorescence
The term efflorescence is given to a white powdery deposit that forms on the surfaces of porous building materials such as
masonry units, mortar and concrete. The temporary appearance of efflorescence or lime bloom is not unusual on new masonry.
For efflorescence to occur, three conditions must be present:
1. There must be soluble salts present;
2. There must be water entering the masonry; and
3. The masonry must be able to dry out.
The absence of any of the above three conditions will prevent efflorescence. Any situation which allows water to enter the wall is
likely to promote efflorescence. The most common causes are:
• Poor building practice such as partially built walls left uncovered during rain. Delays in installation of window cills and
downpipes can exacerbate this problem, allowing rainwater to enter block cavities and leach free lime to the surface;
• Poor storage of masonry units on site. Before units are placed in the wall they can absorb ground salts and excessive water
in the stockpiled masonry and can mobilise latent salts. It is desirable to store masonry off the ground and loosely cover with
a waterproof membrane during rain;
• Poorly designed or missing copings and flashings;
• Excessively deep raked joints which allow water to enter the bed face of the masonry (ironed joints are recommended); and
• The use of inappropriate additives, such as washing up liquid, in the mortar which makes the mortar act like a sponge.
Good laying practice and site procedures are necessary for controlling efflorescence to a reasonable level. Care should also be
taken to ensure that excessive lime is not used in mortar.
In conjunction with dry brushing, the cleaning methods outlined previously will usually remove most ‘normal’ levels of
efflorescence. Dry brush, then wet brush and wash down. It is important to remove as much efflorescence as possible with DRY
brushing because powder efflorescence is water soluble. Wet brushing can dissolve the powder and the dry unit can re-absorb
it. If high levels of efflorescence are present on walls exposed to continual wetting from rain or other sources of dampness over
an extended period, calcification or hardening of the lime tends to take place. The powdery lime gradually becomes a very hard
film of calcium carbonate. If this occurs it will almost certainly require professional advice and specialised cleaning methods for its
removal.
Wall sealers also help to prevent future efflorescence, mould growth and general staining by reducing water absorption from rain.
Most cement based masonry products can be prone to efflorescence and allowances must be made by the purchaser for this
occurring. Marshalls products include inhibitors both within and on the surface to minimise this effect.
 BTB 8

Detailing to avoid Efflorescence

The following measures should be taken to minimise the occurrence of efflorescence in masonry walls.
Tops of Walls and Parapets
Walls and parapets should have protection such as flashings or capping to the top surface. A common source of staining of
masonry is water entering walls and cavities at this point via the exposed horizontal surface.
Window Cills
Window cills with an inadequate projection provide a source of water entry to the walls and will promote staining. The incorrect
installation of window flashings will exacerbate this problem.
Flashings
Flashings should protrude to the outside face of the brickwork. If the flashing is stopped short of the weep holes in the external
leaf, any moisture entering the wall will be channelled into the units, permeating the mortar, dissolving calcium hydroxide and
eventually passing to the outside, precipitating as efflorescence.
Masonry Units
Marshalls concrete masonry units have efflorescence potential of nil or slight due to the inclusion of additives and surface
treatments on the face of bricks, thus minimising the risk.
Mortar Designation

Class 4: For general applications (except as listed for M4):

Preferred: 1 part cement, 5 parts sand plus plasticiser.
Alternative: 1 part cement, 1 part lime, 6 parts sand.
Class 6: For applications subject to saline wetting and drying, in aggressive soils, in severe marine environments,
in saline or contaminated water including tidal splash zones and within 1km of an industry producing chemical
pollutants:
Preferred: 1 part Type cement, 4 parts sand plus plasticiser.
Alternative: 1 part Type cement, ½ part lime, 4½ parts sand.
Movement Joints
Walls should include well positioned movement joints to prevent indiscriminate cracking of the walls that would permit ingress
of moisture. Movement joints should be correctly sealed.
Weep Holes
Cavity walls should include numerous well positioned weep holes to allow any moisture in the cavity to escape. Cavities should
be free of mortar droppings. This is crucial to reduce lime leaching onto the face of the masonry.
Removal of Mortar Smears
The external face of the masonry should be kept clear of mortar smears.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS AND WARNINGS

• When using chemicals, care must be taken to avoid damage to adjacent materials and finished surfaces. Masking and
plastic sheeting may be necessary.
• To avoid personal injury, wear protective clothing and a vapour cartridge breathing mask, particularly in confined areas,
as recommended by chemical manufacturers.
• NEVER mix chemicals that you are unfamiliar with, particularly chlorine and acid as this will emit deadly chlorine gas.
Always follow the chemical manufacturer’s recommendations.
• Dilute acid by adding the acid to water. Never add water to the acid. Ideally use a pre-diluted proprietary cleaner.
• Harsh acidic chemicals should never be used for the cleaning of brickwork.
• Chemical waste must not be allowed to run down drains and storm water outlets in accordance with Environmental
Agency Regulations.
 BTB 8

Pressure Water Cleaning

Pressure water cleaning may be carried out with pressure not exceeding 7MPa (1000psi), the volume not exceeding 20 litres/
minute and a fan jet of a minimum 40 degree width, held not closer than 500mm from the wall. Cleaning should be continuous
and even. The pressure jet should never be stationary and should not ‘needle’ or zero in on mortar stains as surface erosion will
almost certainly occur.
Note: If this method is not totally successful, further hand cleaning and scraping should be carried out prior to further
pressure water cleaning.
Caution
High pressure water blasting can cause personal injury and damage masonry. Mortar joints can be blown out and face brickwork
marked and eroded.
Zero degree or needle jets, narrow fan jets and turbo jets should not be used on brickwork because all concentrate the water
pressure on too small an area which can cause damage.
Minimal pressure should be used to avoid mortar blowouts and/or damage to the face of units.
Experienced operators should carry out pressure water cleaning in accordance with the above recommendations only after
appropriate trials have taken place.
Acid Treatments
Only if hand cleaning and pressure water cleaning methods have failed to fully remove mortar stains should acid treatments be
considered for cleaning of concrete brickwork.
Note: Acids react with and dissolve cement, lime and oxide colourants in concrete masonry units and mortar joints and are
thus capable of etching, fading and streaking the masonry finish. When acid is applied to dry brickwork without pre-wetting it
is drawn below the surface it is intended to clean. Salts may reappear when the masonry dries out.
If it is considered necessary to use an acid for general cleaning it should only be used after trialling in an inconspicuous area, as
outlined under ‘Essential Preliminaries’ and strictly in accordance with the following procedures.
Hydrochloric Acid based cleaners can be tested at a strength of 1 part acid to 20 parts water. A less aggressive alternative is
powdered Citric Acid which can be used at strengths up to 1 part acid to 10 parts water (by volume).
Procedures for Acid Cleaning
1. Remove mortar snots and smears as described under ‘Removal of Mortar Stains with Hand Tools’.
2. Working from the top of the wall down in vertical ‘runs’, thoroughly pre-wet (SOAK) an area of brickwork of approximately
2m2 at a time.
3. Apply diluted acid to the water-soaked area using a brush or broom with a horizontal (sideways) action to prevent runs and
streaks.
4. Within 2 to 3 minutes rinse this area from top to bottom under tap pressure only. Pressure clean this area thoroughly, gently
and evenly, as outlined previously. Repeat steps 1 to 4 as necessary to achieve the best compromise between cleaning and
damage caused by excessive treatment.
Other Stains
Timber
These can usually be removed by the application of a chlorine solution, preferably Sodium Hypochlorite (household bleach), onto
the dry surface. Reapply as necessary to achieve the desired result.
Clay or Loam Stains
If not too severe and intransigent, these stains may be removed with a solution of 50ml household detergent and 500 grams of
oxalic acid dissolved in 4 litres of warm water. Lightly pre-wet the surface then apply the above solution with a nylon brush.
Rinse off and repeat as necessary. Pressure water cleaning as outlined previously may be of assistance.
 BTB 8

Mosses, Moulds and Lichens

These commonly appear as a green to black area, often with a hair like growth, around damp areas such as taps, gutter
overflows, south facing walls, etc.
1. Scrape off any thickness of moss/mould/lichen.
2. Pre-wet the mouldy area.
3. Apply a chlorine solution, preferably Sodium Hydrochlorite (household bleach), at sufficient strength to kill mould within
approximately 1 hour.
4. Scrubbing with a stiff brush or broom will normally assist.
5. Thoroughly flush the surface. If mould remains, repeat steps 1 to 3 as necessary to kill and remove the mould.
6. Pressure water cleaning, as outlined previously, may assist.

REPAIRS
Repairs to Marshalls bricks and masonry may be required to remedy any minor chips or cracks, both of which are relatively easy
to carry out depending on the severity of the damage. In certain instances, where for example only one unit is involved, it may
be more acceptable to leave the damaged unit where it is rather than replace it with something which may be more obvious. In
all cases a full risk assessment should be carried out and all appropriate PPE equipment used where necessary.
Chips
As Marshalls bricks and masonry are through coloured (although some may have supplementary faces applied) any minor chips
can be repaired using an appropriately coloured fine mortar or repair mix. The chipped area should be free of loose material and
be pre-treated with a pva solution. To avoid overspill the surrounding area should be masked with adhesive tape. The repair
material should be mixed to a workable consistency that allows it to be pressed into the chip without slumping. Any excess
should be struck off but leave some material slightly proud. After curing the excess material may be sanded down or textured to
match the adjacent faces. If required the whole brick face can then be tinted or stained to match the remainder of the wall.
Cracks
There may be two types of crack which need to be remedied; one which is relatively minor and can be classed as a minor or
micro crack, ie. less than 0.1mm in width; and another which is relatively wide and more obvious. In the latter case the crack
may appear to have continued right through the unit. This is typical of cracks resulting from shrinkage of the unit or structural
movement.
In the case of the micro crack, which appears to be on the surface of the unit, the crack may appear more obvious as it attracts
dirt. In many instances this crack may heal itself by the process known as autogenous healing whereby a combination of
moisture and absorbed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere reacts with unhydrated cement within the brick matrix. Any residual
dirt around the crack can be cleaned off as outlined in the above sections.
Larger cracks, possibly resulting from drying shrinkage or structural movement, may be treated in a number of ways.
1. If no further movement or expansion of the crack is anticipated then the crack can be raked out as deep as possible, but
maintaining as thin as width as is viable. All residual dust should be blown out and the crack filled in the same way as
detailed above for repairing chipped areas. If necessary a very fine, light coloured sand may be rubbed into the joint to help
match the brick texture. An alternative to repair mix is to use a mastic gun containing material similar to that used in any
movement joints. Again, fine sand can be incorporated into the surface of the repair.
2. Wider or more obvious cracks, or those which may have a tendency to reappear because of movement within the structure,
may require the introduction of bed joint reinforcement above and below the cracked areas in order to stabilise the
movement prior to any repairs to the unit itself. In certain instances the customer may wish to cut out and replace any
cracked bricks, although care should be taken to match up the mortar to the surrounding areas. There are a number of
specialist contractors and suppliers skilled in the installation of brick stitching systems and reference should be made to
these if required. Marshalls will be pleased to assist with this information. Should the bed joint reinforcement be installed
with the existing bricks in place then a traditional repair such as detailed above may be carried out.

Head Office: PD Edenhall Ltd, Danygraig Road, Risca, Newport, NP11 6DP Tel: 01633 612671 Fax: 01633 601280 edenhall.co.uk

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 9

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

RESISTANCE TO RAIN PENETRATION

Independent research has shown that walls built from Marshalls bricks perform well. The testing was carried out in accordance with
BS 4315: Part 2: 1970 and comprised intermittent spraying of water at a length of wall for one minute, at half hour intervals, over a
48 hour period, under a maintained positive air pressure. The area of dampness was then monitored. Tests carried out on various
types of concrete brick indicated very low levels of rain penetration occurred, thus clearly showing that there was no correlation
between rain penetration and the product readings for strength, density or water absorption of the various types of brick.
The notes below give general guidance for walls built using either concrete or clay bricks, and further reference should be made to
the following Standards.
• PD 6697: 2010: Recommendations for the design of masonry structures.
• BS 8104: Code of practice for assessing exposure of walls to wind driven rain.
• BRE Report 262: Thermal Insulation; avoiding risks.
Neither the outer leaf of cavity walls nor single leaf walls are impervious to driven rain. During periods of high or prolonged exposure
some moisture will penetrate the outer leaf, initially through the joints and then ultimately through the brick itself. The performance of
the wall in resisting water crossing over the cavity is affected by the workmanship, degree of exposure and the quality of design and
specification. Poor design or practice is more likely to lead to moisture transmission to the inner leaf.
In general Marshalls facing bricks can be classed as having a low-medium rate of absorption and thus tend to initially shed
rainfall towards the joints. It is important therefore that full bedding and complete filling of the perpend joints is carried out during
construction.

PERFORMANCE OF WALLS
Single Leaf Walls
1. Protected by tile hanging or cladding: These will be watertight in all locations provided the recommendations of the
manufacturers have been followed.
2. Protected by external rendering: Providing render of the correct specification has been applied then walls may be reasonably
watertight but some damp may percolate through to the inside given high degrees of exposure.
3. Unprotected: Walls of this type will not remain dry internally in all conditions, but where necessary their performance can be
improved by the application of a proprietary external water proofer with a high solids content.
4. Solid masonry walls: Internally insulated walls should be at least 328mm thick and have a notional cavity between the masonry
and the insulation.
Cavity Walls
Moisture may penetrate the outer leaf of a cavity wall but should not cause dampness on the inner leaf provided the appropriate
design and construction, type of insulation, cavity widths and workmanship have been carried out as suggested below.
1. Use the correct grade of mortar and mortar joint.
2. Take all necessary precautions to minimise the effects of movement and in particular the risk of cracking by the incorporation of
the appropriate movement joints.
3. Provide weep holes in the outer leaf immediately above any damp proof course or tray. They should be installed at not more
than 900mm centres. Provide means of restricting the entry of wind driven rain in areas of high or very high exposure.
4. Ensure clear cavities with a minimum width of 50mm are maintained throughout the wall and that cavities are not bridged by
mortar debris or incorrectly fixed insulation.
5. Do not adjust the position of bricks once they have been bedded. This can break the brick/mortar bond, leaving fine cracks for
rain penetration.
Determination of Exposure
BS 8104 gives recommendations for two methods of assessing exposure ratings of walls to wind driven rain, namely the local spell
index and the local annual index. The former should be used when assessing the resistance of a wall to rain penetration whilst the
latter is intended for use when assessing durability, the weathering appearance and the potential growth of mould or mosses.
 BTB 9

The exposure categories in terms of wall spell indices are given in the table below using the local spell index. They should not be
regarded as exact as local circumstances or experience may require adjustments to be made. Where an assessment produces an
intermediate index then the designer should utilise local knowledge, topography and experience to decide the most appropriate
exposure index.
Category of Exposure Calculated Quantity of Wind Driven Rain
(L/m2/spell)
Sheltered Zone 1 Less than 33
Moderate Zone 2 33 to less than 56.5
Severe Zone 3 56.5 to less than 100
Very severe Zone 4 Not less than 100
The full scale map detailed in the Standards above indicate the approximate zones within the United Kingdom but more accurate
data can be derived from large scale maps and the correction factors given in BS 8104. Adjustment may need to be made for local
conditions.

MAXIMUM RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE ZONE FOR FACING MASONRY WITH CAVITY INSULATION
More permutations of cavity type and widths are given in BRE Document 262.

Mortar Joint Profile

Insulation Method Clear Cavity Width (mm)
Tooled Flush Joint Recessed Joints

50 Zone 2 Zone 1
Built In Full Fill 75 Zone 3 Zone 1
100 Zone 3 Zone 1
50 Zone 2 Zone 1
Injected Fill (Not UF) 75 Zone 3 Zone 1
100 Zone 3 Zone 1
Partial Fill:
Residual 50mm Cavity Zone 3 Zone 1
Internal Insulation:
Clear 50mm Cavity 50 Zone 3 Zone 2
Clear 100mm Cavity 100 Zone 4 Zone 2

Thickness of Outer Leaf

The resistance to rain penetration is dependent on its thickness for single leaf walls. The table below gives the
recommended thicknesses for various categories of exposure using Marshalls bricks as an outer leaf.

Minimum Thickness Unrendered/ Fair

Rendered Externally Insulated Impervious Cladding
(mm) Faced

100 Not recommended Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 4

215 Not recommended Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4

250 Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 3 Zone 4

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 10

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

COURSING BRICK APPLICATIONS

This Marshalls Technical Bulletin is intended to clarify the type of concrete bricks that should be used as coursing units when
combined with blockwork.
A number of issues have been raised, predominantly by housebuilders and inspectors from the National House Builders Council
(NHBC), on the use of concrete common bricks in conjunction with other masonry materials, eg. blocks, when combined together
in a wall.
The NHBC Guidance Notes state in Clause 6.1 – S2(g):
“Where a different size of masonry unit is needed to ensure correct coursing, small units of the same material should be used
to reduce cracking and problems due to different thermal insulation properties”.
The NHBC Guidance Notes are intended to prevent problems created by mixing clay products, which expand, with concrete
materials, which contract, within the same wall, and where thermal bridging may be a problem, to prevent the mixing of aggregate
and aerated concrete products.
The table below can be used as an indicative guide to the acceptability of coursing bricks with different block backgrounds.

BLOCK BACKGROUND COURSING BRICK

Dense Concrete Blocks Solid Concrete Brick, textured for rendering if required

Medium Density Blocks Lightweight/Medium Density Coursing Bricks

DENSE CONCRETE BLOCKWORK

Definition: Aggregate blocks with a solid density range of 1850 - 2300kg/m3 which meet the Robust Details Specification.
Solid dense concrete bricks are recommended for use as coursing units in conjunction with dense aggregate blocks. The densities
of blocks and concrete bricks are compatible, as are their drying shrinkage, thermal conductivity and water absorption. If required,
the external face texture of solid common bricks can be manufactured with a ‘keyed’ or textured face to maximise adhesion
properties where necessary for render application. NHBC Standards Extra No. 40, December 07, gives further details. Dense
coursing bricks are available to suit 100mm and 140m widths at 65mm and 73mm high.

LIGHTWEIGHT/MEDIUM DENSITY BLOCKWORK

Definition: Medium density blocks with a density range of 1300 - 1550kg/m3.
In this application bricks of medium/lightweight density should be used. These are available in both 100mm and 140mm widths at
65mm high.

SOLID CONCRETE BRICKS

Definition: Solid bricks, not frogged or perforated, with a density range of 1900 - 2200kg/m3.

LIGHTWEIGHT/MEDIUM DENSITY COURSING BRICKS

Definition: Solid bricks with an average density of <1400kg/m3.
Note: By virtue of their production method, frogged and perforated concrete common bricks tend to have smoother faces and
may not offer the same degree of adhesion as a textured solid coursing brick. They are, however, suitable for use in general
construction, but care should be taken that they are laid frog up, and the frog filled with mortar. Frogged bricks are NOT
recommended for use either as soldier courses or as padstones, regardless of whether the frog is filled with mortar.
Clay bricks SHOULD NOT be used in conjunction with aggregate based or aerated blocks due to their potential differential
movement but dense or lightweight coursing bricks may be combined with the appropriate aggregate blockwork.
Marshalls coursing bricks are NOT suitable for use in conjunction with autoclaved aerated blocks.
 BTB 10

The use of bespoke coursing bricks offers the advantages of:

• Manufactured by the same basic material as dense and lightweight aggregate blocks.
• Similar performance characteristics in relation to density, drying shrinkage, thermal properties and water absorption.
• Available in different widths to accommodate 100mm to 140mm block widths.
• Eliminates the need for cutting blocks on site.
• Approved by the NHBC
• Available, if required with a specific keyed face to assist adhesion.
Concrete coursing bricks are available from most Builders Merchants. They should be specifically ordered as coursing bricks,
either lightweight or dense, depending on their compatibility with the block background.

Notes: Although the illustrations show the use of 140mm bed width coursing bricks,
the standard 100mm size can be used in similar applications.
1 2
1: Coursing bricks of both sizes and densities can be used to bond in block walls.
2: They are easily used to fill in the voids in walls formed by such items as pipes, etc.
where cutting of blocks may be difficult.
3: With the increasing use of hollow blocks due to weight restrictions, coursing bricks
3 can be used to form padstones to cover the voids within the block and to spread
any load.
4: The most popular use is in the makeup of courses in and around window and door
openings. Because both the dense and lightweight coursing bricks have similar
properties to that of the base blockwork, the overall wall construction can be
4
assumed to be a homogenous mass.
5: Standard storey heights within floor levels frequently co-ordinate to sizes which are
less than multiples of full-height blocks. The coursing bricks are ideal for making up
courses either as kicker units or by closing off at roof level. Similarly coursing bricks
5 can be used to make up half-length modules instead of the expense of cutting
blocks to size.

PROPERTIES
Dense Lightweight

Form Solid Solid

215mm x 100mm x 65mm

215mm x 100mm x 65mm
Sizes 215mm x 140mm x 65mm
215mm x 140mm x 65mm
215mm x 100mm x 73mm (Frogged)

Blended Lightweight Aggregate and Portland

Composition Dense Aggregate and Portland Cement
Cement
Density <2100 ±50 kg/m3 Average <1400 ±50 kg/m3
Strength 22.5N/mm2 min. 10N/mm2 min
Drying Shrinkage <0.45mm/m <0.9mm/m
Protected: 1.24W/mK Protected: 0.47W/mK
Thermal Conductivity
Exposed: 1.33W/mK Exposed: N/A

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 11

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

CONCRETE ENGINEERING QUALITY BRICKS

INTRODUCTION
Concrete Engineering Quality Bricks (EQs) produced by Marshalls satisfy the majority of criteria in terms of technical performance, but
more importantly they are produced at a number of strategically placed factories across the country and are generally available on an
ex stock basis. They were introduced over 30 years ago following the result of an extensive independent research and development
programme and have been widely used in all forms of civil and general construction since then.
Produced in a solid form, a format in which the clay brick manufacturers may have limited volumes, the Marshalls EQ brick offers a
cost competitive solution for ground works and utility constructions.

HISTORY
The EQ brick was developed originally by Marshalls in the mid 1980s and its concept was adopted nationally by other concrete
brick producers who existed at that time. The background was that there was a shortage of Clay Class Bs and a suitable
alternative was required.
The original Standards for concrete bricks of BS 6073 and prior to that BS 1180, included a category for the production of ‘Special
Purpose’ bricks which had a minimum cement content of 350kg/m3 but with no recommendation as to where they could be used.
Research by Marshalls showed that although there were significant examples of other precast concrete units being used in
underground and aggressive locations. eg. concrete pipes, rings, precast concrete manholes etc., there were no examples of
performance of concrete bricks in these locations. A typical concrete brick in those days tended to be limited to a strength of
20N/mm2 which restricted its use to above and below dpc.
The Building Research Establishment had carried out work in 1970 with concrete buried in sulphate bearing soils and had concluded
that the criteria for suitability under these conditions was a low absorption, sulphate resistant unit. BRE Digest 250, which was really
concerned with in-situ concrete, did allow precast units as long as they were made with some form of sulphate resisting cement for up
to Class 3 sulphate levels.
Marshalls then embarked on a programme of testing which resulted in the production of a brick with a minimum cement content of
350kg/m3 and made from a cement mixture of either sulphate resisting cement (SRPC) or Ordinary Portland Cement and cement
replacements such as Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) or Pulverised Fuel Ash (PFA). These blends gave the same
degree of sulphate resistance as bricks made with SRPC.
To carry out a performance comparison of concrete and clay Class B bricks Marshalls commissioned the Laing Design and
Development Centre to institute a six month programme. The test involved the construction of three walls of a simulated blocked
manhole using three different types of concrete bricks (limestone, basalt, and limestone aggregates at 40, 40, and 20 N/mm2
respectively). The fourth was built using a Clay Class B brick. The chamber was filled with a simulated acidic effluent, the pH of which
was maintained throughout the six month experiment. Laing’s subsequent report gave conclusions as follows:
‘The evidence produced shows that any of the three types of concrete brick is suitable for manhole construction, but if there is a
preference it is for the 40N/mm2 limestone one’.
‘All three types performed extremely well and only lost fractions of a millimetre at their exposed surfaces in an acid effluent for 6
months and only then from the three month interval’.
‘Under practical conditions of use, a lifetime of many decades can be predicted for any of the bricks provided good workmanship
is followed and the conditions of exposure lie within the ranges tabulated’.
Following these test results Marshalls applied for an Agrément Certificate which was granted in 1986. This Agrément Certificate has
not been replaced as the collated data from it formed part of the updated concrete masonry Standard BS 6073 and subsequently BS
771-3.

TYPICAL APPLICATIONS
Marshalls Engineering Quality bricks are particularly suitable above and below ground level where aggressive conditions occur and/or
where natural sulphate levels up to and including Class 3 are present. They are especially suitable in chimney stacks, manholes,
drainage inspection chambers, retaining walls, copings and caps and other constructions subject to aggressive conditions.
 BTB 11

APPROVALS
Engineering Quality bricks are approved under the following Standard and by the following authorities:
1. EQ bricks comply with BS EN 771-3: 2011
2. Bricks produced to the EQ specification comply with Table 12 ‘Durability of Masonry in Finished Construction’ BS 5628-3: 2005
and in the subsequent Standard PD 6697: 2010.
3. Freeze-thaw tests carried out the BRE in Scotland concluded that EQ bricks could be classed as frost resistant and equivalent
to the old Category ‘F’ for clay bricks. They have minimal soluble salts.
4. As EQ bricks comply with BS EN 771-3 and BS 5628, and in addition are suitable for use up to and including Class 3 sulphate
levels, the bricks are approved by the National House Building Council.
5. BS 8301: 1985: Clause 5.73 (now replaced by BS EN 752) states that a 40N/mm2 concrete brick with a minimum cement of
350kg/m3 should be used in foul situations. Consequently this Standard is referred to under the Building Regulations.
6. EQ bricks can be used for inspection chambers, manholes and catch pits which are to be adopted by a Local Authority.
In particular they are approved in:
• WAA ‘Civil Engineering Specification for the Water Industry’
• Water Services Association’s Guide ‘Sewers for Adoption’
• Highways Agency ‘Specification for Highway Works’.

PERFORMANCE
Under BS 5628: Part 3: 2005 and PD 6697, the required strength requirement for use in foul situations requires the strength of
concrete bricks to be 48N/mm2. Marshalls EQs are produced to a compressive strength of 50N/mm2. In addition they are produced
using a cement mix which is suitable up to Class 3 sulphate conditions.
Note: It should be noted that the requirement for a Clay Class B brick in the same location is now 75N/mm2. THIS IS PURELY
BECAUSE THE TEST METHOD FOR PREPARING AND TESTING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF CLAY BRICKS HAS
CHANGED.

APPEARANCE
Marshalls EQs are produced in a fully solid format and are a dark red colour. The colour is primarily due to cosmetic perceptions of what
an Engineering Brick looks like. Marshalls EQs are not classed as facing bricks, although in certain locations their appearance may be
aesthetically acceptable.
Marshalls EQs are a solid brick, produced to extremely tight tolerances with a smooth, reddish colour appearance.

BRICK COMPARISON
Concrete EQs compared to Clay Class Bs
Clay Engineering bricks are categorised into two types: Class ‘A’ with a compressive strength of 125N/mm2 and Class ‘B’ with a
compressive strength of 75N/mm2. Following on from the introduction of the new Standard for clay bricks, BS 771-1, the strength
categories of these bricks were increased purely due to a change in the preparations of the sample prior to compressive testing.
THE BASIC COMPOSITION OF THE BRICKS HAS NOT CHANGED.
The use of Clay Class B and Concrete EQs is covered in both BS 5628: Part 3 and PD 6697.
The requirement for long term durability should not be confused with the different compressive strengths exhibited by different materials.
Only a few specialised structural situations require bricks with strengths in excess of 35N/mm2. In the majority of situations, where
durability is the prime requirement, Concrete EQs perform in the same away as Clay Class B bricks.

LIMITATIONS OF USE
EQs should not be used in excessively strong acid environments. However, it should be noted that in these particular locations, if
built with any brick, then the mortar joints may be subject to attack and consideration should be given to using an alternative form of
construction.
They are also not suitable for use as dpc.
 BTB 11

ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE EQS

• EQs are produced in solid form with no frogs, perforations or voids, which is the preferred option for a number of Local
Authorities and Agencies.
• Concrete hardens with age. A brick which is 50N/mm2 strength at its early stage will keep increasing in strength and resistance
to moisture.
• Marshalls EQ’s are a custom made unit manufactured on a regional basis with competitive prices, consistent availability and
realistic delivery periods.

SUMMARY
The development of the Concrete EQ, which has been in existence now for over 30 years, has lead to its increased use as a cost
effective, readily available masonry unit. Produced on a regional basis throughout the UK it is generally available from stock and
can be delivered either direct to site or via the extensive network of Builders Merchants supplied by Marshalls.

Head Office: PD Edenhall Ltd, Danygraig Road, Risca, Newport, NP11 6DP Tel: 01633 612671 Fax: 01633 601280 edenhall.co.uk

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 12

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

USE OF Marshalls BRICKS WITH DISSIMILAR MATERIALS

It is recognised that a large proportion of building materials, especially masonry walling products, can have different characteristics
stemming from their basic raw materials, manufacturing methods, properties and performance, and although these products all
fulfil the functions required of them, the designer and end user should be aware of the differing properties and the effect on the
final building.
A prime example is that of concrete and clay bricks. Both products expand and contract in response to thermal movement but clay
bricks suffer an irreversible expansion after manufacture due to adsorption of moisture from the atmosphere. That expansion can vary
depending on the type of clay and the firing method.
By contrast, concrete has a tendency to shrink during drying and expand back to its original size when wetted. It should be noted that
the drying shrinkage and moisture movement of concrete masonry can vary from the extremes of aerated concrete @ 0.09% to that
of Marshalls bricks @ 0.02-0.03%. These values themselves can influence the frequency and position of movement joints.
However, there are instances where Marshalls bricks and clay bricks are to be used together and in these cases it is important that
steps are taken to accommodate the differential movement that may occur.
1. If either type of brick is used below dpc and another type built off it, eg. Marshalls bricks below dpc and clay bricks above it, then
the dpc may act as a slip plane and allow some amount of lateral movement between the two products. Below dpc, because the
Marshalls brick is likely to be in a semi-damp location, then it may not be necessary to incorporate movement joints at the
recommended intervals as the likelihood of shrinkage and hence the risk of differential movement is small.
2. If the clay brick is used below dpc and the Marshalls brick built off it then normal incorporation of movement joints in the
superstructure should be sufficient to accommodate the differential movement.
3. Feature Panels: These may be located where either clay or concrete bricks are incorporated as feature bricks surrounded by an
alternative product. In these instances provision should be made in the form of horizontal dpcs to act as slip planes both above
and below the panels. Vertical joints should be installed at the edges. In all cases the number and position of wall ties should be
adjusted to ensure structural stability. An Engineer’s opinion should be sought to verify the design.
4. Splash Courses: These can be examples where bricks are built up off the dpc for a number of metres or even up to the height of
the wall head at ground floor level. Again, slip courses may be introduced to allow for differential movement between any different
materials. If the Marshalls bricks are built at the base level then it is likely that the dead weight and superimposed load of the
masonry above those brick courses may be sufficient to restrain the brickwork to the extent that it may be possible to minimise
the frequency and distance that movement joints are required. This depends on the type of masonry unit that is built on top of the
brickwork.
5. Should rendered aggregate concrete blockwork be built on top of concrete facing work then any movement joints incorporated
into the blockwork should be followed through the brickwork courses below.
6. Where there is an element of doubt or suitability regarding the efficiency of a slip plane then an alternative action of incorporating
bed-joint reinforcement into the structure should be considered .This will have the effect of dissipating internal stresses and
controlling the differential movement.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 13

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

FIRE RESISTANCE

Concrete masonry in the form of Marshalls brick is a non combustible construction material possessing excellent fire resisting
properties. The resistance to fire within a structure utilising concrete masonry products is a function of:

1. The thickness of the units involved

2. The function of the wall, ie. whether or not it is load-bearing
3. Wall construction, ie. whether it is single leaf or cavity construction
4. The applied wall finish, whether plastered or otherwise
5. Finally, the type of aggregate used to produce the masonry units
Edenhall’s products are all produced from Class 1 aggregates, are classed as non-combustible with a zero spread of flame, and are
further classed as Category A1 in accordance with BS 13501-1.
The following tables indicate the nominal fire resistance periods for Edenhall’s various types of masonry, ie. common and facing bricks.
They are based on Table 14 of BS 5628: Part 3.

Fire Resistance in Hours Fire Resistance in Hours

Wall Thickness Wall Thickness
made from Brick made from Brick
No Finish VG Finish No Finish VG Finish

1. Load Bearing Single Leaf Wall 3. Load Bearing Cavity Wall

100mm 2 3 100mm 6 -

140mm 4 6 140mm 6 -

215mm 6 6 215mm 6 -

2. Non Load Bearing Single Leaf Wall 4. Non Load Bearing Cavity Wall

100mm 2 3 100mm 6 -

140mm 3 6 140mm 6 -

215mm 6 6 215mm 6 -

Notes:
• Marshalls bricks are produced in a minimum thickness of 100mm.
• Finishes should be not less than 13mm plaster on each face of a single leaf wall and the exposed faces of a cavity wall.
VG is Vermiculite: gypsum plaster.
• The thicknesses quoted are in millimetres and represent the work size of the unit or, where applicable for solid walls, the
sum of the work sizes for two units including the joint between them.

Head Office: PD Edenhall Ltd, Danygraig Road, Risca, Newport, NP11 6DP Tel: 01633 612671 Fax: 01633 601280 edenhall.co.uk

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 14

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

SOUND INSULATION

The ability of a material to reduce the transmission of sound or noise (noise being unwanted sound) through a panel or wall is primarily
based on the mass of that material, although it is also affected by air paths. Consequently the sound reduction of a panel or wall is
directly linked to its total mass, including any mortar joints or finishes.
The “Mass Law” establishes a relationship between Mass and the Sound Reduction Index (SRI) when measured over a range of
frequencies.
The average built wall weights for Marshalls bricks, assuming a coat of lightweight plaster on one leaf of the 100mm wall and two
coats of lightweight plaster on the 215mm thick wall, are as follows:
Solid Dense Brick of approximately 3.1kg in weight: 100mm thick wall @ 214kg/m2
Solid Dense Brick of approximately 3.1kg in weight: 215mm thick wall @ 458kg/m2
Frogged/Perforated Dense Brick of approximately 2.5kg in weight: 100mm thick wall @ 189kg/m2
Frogged/Perforated Dense Brick of approximately 2.5kg in weight: 215mm thick wall @ 405kg/m2

Based on the above figures the estimated Sound Reduction Index for each wall type, when measured over a frequency range of
100-3150Hz, is as follows:
Solid Dense Brick: 100mm wall @ 46dB
Solid Dense Brick: 215mm wall @ 50dB
Frogged/Perforated Dense Brick: 100mm wall @ 45dB
Frogged/Perforated Dense Brick: 215mm wall @ 48dB

The Building Regulations Approved Document E details the requirements for satisfying the criteria for Party and Separating Walls in
dwellings. Alternatively, a system of Robust Details may be used, which if followed avoids the need for pre-completion testing.
For those details shown in the Building Regulations, the use of solid dense bricks in both a 215mm thick wall and in a wall constructed
of two leaves of 100mm brick with a 50mm cavity would exceed the 415kg/m2 requirement.
By utilising Marshalls dense bricks, particularly those in a solid form, these could be considered to be similar in performance to that of
dense aggregate blocks which are acceptable under the following Robust Details Notations.
Two leaves of Dense Solid Bricks with a 75mm cavity and 13mm plaster: RD Notation: E-WM-1
Two leaves of Dense Solid Bricks with 8mm parging and drylining: RD Notation: E-WM-3
Two leaves of Dense Solid Brick with a 100mm cavity and 13mm plaster: RD Notation: E-WM-18
215mm Solid Wall (on Raft Foundations only), 15mm dense plaster and drylining: RD Notation: E-WM-9

Refer to the Robust Details Handbook for full details of the above, including specification of flanking elements.
Notes: Good practice points must be followed in all elements of separating wall construction, including:
• Direct air paths must be avoided, hence the necessity for wet plaster or parging.
• Careful detailing at junctions with flanking walls, ceilings and floor slabs.
• No services should pass through the walls and any chasing, especially back to back, should be avoided.

It should be noted that changes to Part L1A in the Building Regulations for England and Wales state that cavity separating walls can lose
a significant amount of heat by convection via the cavity. Consequently, edge sealing to prevent convection is a requirement in order to
achieve U-values of 0.02W/m2K or 0.0W/m2K if the cavity is sealed and filled with the appropriate insulation. Full details are given in the
Robust Details information.
The density of Marshalls bricks can give an advantage in external use, particularly in flanking walls with lightweight structures such as
timber framed constructions, as the bricks offer higher resistance to sound transmission.

Head Office: PD Edenhall Ltd, Danygraig Road, Risca, Newport, NP11 6DP Tel: 01633 612671 Fax: 01633 601280 edenhall.co.uk

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 BTB 15

BRICK TECHNICAL BULLETIN

THERMAL INSULATION

Marshalls bricks will generally be used in a number of locations during the construction process with the following effect on the
thermal performance of the building.
Facing Bricks/Dense Concrete Common Bricks/Utility Bricks/Dense Coursing Bricks
The products can be considered similar to dense aggregate blocks in terms of density and thermal conductivity. They would normally
be used in external walls or below ground level, although solid common bricks will offer particularly good values of sound insulation in
separating walls.

Thermal Conductivity (Dry) Thermal Conductivity @ 3% m/c Thermal Conductivity @ 5% m/c

1.11 W/mK 1.24 W/mK 1.33 W/mK

Lightweight Coursing Bricks

Lightweight coursing bricks have similar properties to medium weight aggregate blocks with a density range of 1350-1450kg/m3.
Coursing bricks are available in both 100mm and 140mm widths.

Thermal Conductivity (Dry) Thermal Conductivity @ 3% m/c Thermal Conductivity @ 5% m/c

0.42 W/mK 0.47 W/mK 0.50 W/mK

Engineering Quality Bricks (EQs)

EQs have a slightly higher density than normal dense bricks with thermal conductivity values as follows:

Thermal Conductivity (Dry) Thermal Conductivity @ 3% m/c Thermal Conductivity @ 5% m/c

1.24 W/mK 1.39 W/mK 1.47 W/mK

Air Permeability
Although no declared values are quoted, similar products achieve air permeability values of 0.15m3/hr/m2.
Specific Heat Capacity
Assume values of 840-880J/kg °C
U-Value
Currently, to achieve the maximum U-values allowed in UK Building Regulations, a value for external walls of 0.30W/m2K is set, although
lower values may be specified. Other aspects such as air permeability, edge sealing etc. have to be taken into account. Due to of the
amount of additional insulation incorporated either into the cavity or on the inner leaf, the thermal properties of an external facing brick
have no real significance on the overall performance of the wall. Consequently, an Marshalls facing brick can be deemed to produce
similar results to that of a rendered dense aggregate block or reconstructed stone unit. Due to the infinite numbers of permutations in
achieving the required U-value using internal and cavity insulation systems and inner leaves it is impractical to demonstrate methods of
achieving the required thermal requirements in this particular Bulletin.
Note: When calculating U-values the effect of mortar joints when using Marshalls bricks can be ignored. For precise calculations
the conductivity data given above should be used in individual cases.
Coursing Bricks
Marshalls coursing bricks are produced in two widths, 100mm and 140mm, to suit the most popular block sizes. Both types are 65mm
high and are available either as dense coursing units to be compatible with dense aggregate blocks, or as lightweight/medium
aggregate bricks to complement medium/lightweight aggregate blocks. They are not suitable for use with autoclaved aerated blocks.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 Marshalls.co.uk

HEALTH & SAFETY

DATA SHEETS

45
 HSDS 1

HEALTH & SAFETY DATA SHEET

PRODUCT HAZARDS

This Data Sheet is a formal notification as required by Section 6 of the Health & Safety at Work Act, as amended by the
Consumer Protection Act 1987. This legislation requires us to provide customers with certain information pertaining to the
properties and safe use of our products. It is important that this information is distributed to all relevant personnel and/or sub-
contractors or other parties employed by yourselves in the handling and use of these materials.

PRODUCTS
Precast concrete and masonry products manufactured and marketed by Marshalls comprise of Bricks, Blocks, Architectural Cast
Stone Dressings and Structural and Bespoke Precast items.
They are produced from the normal constituents of concrete, and when presented in their normal form and manner are unlikely to give
rise to any significant risk to health. The normal constituents are:
• Natural and Artificial Aggregates
• Cementing Agents
• Additional Binders
• Non-Toxic Iron Oxide Pigments
• Steel Reinforcement
• Steel Fixings

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Precast and masonry concrete products are manufactured to fine tolerances by the compaction and/or vibration of a hydrated mix
of constituent materials which subsequently undergo a curing process. Concrete of this nature can be considered to be inert and
therefore presents no major chemical hazard.

MAIN HAZARDS
The handling of concrete products may cause abrasive damage to the hands. Excessive handling may cause dermatitis or drying of
unprotected skin.
Manual handling should only take place where the weight of the unit(s) permits, otherwise injury may occur. Weights of products are
available from the supplying works.
Cutting, drilling, grinding or similar treatment of the products will give rise to respirable dust. Such dust, if inhaled in excessive
quantities over extended periods, can constitute a long-term health hazard. Cutting, unless adequately controlled, can project
particles at high velocity, with consequent risk of impact damage. Steel reinforcement, which may be integrated into some precast
units, may constitute a fire hazard from the resultant sparks if the units are to be cut. Wet cutting processes minimise the dust
exposure, however the product appearance may be affected. Dry cutting processes will require appropriate and adequate dust
extraction and protective equipment.

CLEANING AND MAINTENANCE

Periodic cleaning may be carried out by washing with water and mild detergents, using soft brushes. For more assertive cleaning refer
to specialist concrete cleaning agencies.
Aggressive cleaning with high pressure washers and/or diluted acids will leave units with a coarser texture which will change the
apparent colour.
 HSDS 1

PRECAUTIONS
During cutting or similar surface treatment, inhalation of dust should be avoided and eyes protected. When working with heavy,
dense, cementitious building products, personal protective clothing such as gloves and protective footwear should be worn.
Care should be taken when handling heavy components, and mechanical lifting equipment should be used in accordance with the
Manual Handling Regulations.
Care is required when cutting and disposing of any steel bands to avoid injury. Gloves and goggles should be worn.

TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE

The carriage of concrete products is not subject to hazardous substance conveyance regulations and vehicle labelling is not required.
Particular care should be taken in the handling and stacking of units or packs of units, taking into account the weight, method of
handling, condition of the ground, and stability of the packs.

WASTE DISPOSAL
Hardened concrete is inert but should be disposed of in accordance with local regulations. In some cases reinforced concrete will
need to be separated from unreinforced concrete prior to disposal.
Products may be delivered in packaging that comprises polythene covers, steel and plastic strapping and wooden pallets. All types
of packaging require careful site disposal after use. In particular the haphazard burning of polythene covers and wooden pallets will,
in themselves, release smoke and fumes which can be inhaled in sufficient quantities to be injurious to health.

Although Marshalls does its best to ensure that any advice, recommendation or information it may give is accurate, no liability of
any kind (including liability for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the Company, its servants or agents.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 HSDS 2

HEALTH & SAFETY DATA SHEET

SAFE LOADING, TRANSIT AND OFF-LOADING OF PRODUCTS

Although Marshalls generally utilises sub-contract haulage to deliver products, the notes detailed below are offered as guidance on
the safe loading, transit and off-loading of our products. For the purposes of clarity, references to sites also apply to yards, and the
term Contractors also applies to Builders’ Merchants.

APPLICATION
This Data Sheet applies to:
• All factories manufacturing or distributing products made by Marshalls
• Any company-owned, franchised or contracted delivery vehicle
• All customer vehicles whilst collecting from Marshalls factories
• Any indirectly owned customer vehicles which collect or deliver from any Marshalls factory

LEGAL RESPONSIBILITIES
• It is the duty of Marshalls to ensure that all its activities, including delivery and collections of its products, are done in a manner
which does not prejudice the health, safety or welfare of its employees, sub-contractors, customers or members of the public.
• It is the duty of every delivery driver, whether directly or indirectly sub-contracted to Marshalls, to ensure that his own safety
and that of all others is protected.
• Marshalls must ensure that all delivery drivers who collect or deliver on its behalf have demonstrated they have the necessary
training, competency and knowledge to comply with all legal and Health & Safety requirements.
• Marshalls must also ensure, as far as is practical, that its products are loaded, conveyed and off-loaded in such a way as to
protect the health and safety of our customers, sub-contractors and members of the public.

EDENHALL’S RESPONSIBILITIES
• Marshalls will carry out and document adequate risk assessments on the loading and transit of its products.
• Marshalls will ensure that the relevant safe systems of work (SSW) are provided and operated where necessary to minimise
hazards.
• The SSW require an appropriate and adequate method of restraint to be used on loads in order to minimise movement or loss in
transit.
• The SSW will include measures necessary to ensure the safety of drivers, loaders and all other yard personnel or pedestrians
when vehicles are on our premises.
• Marshalls will ensure that all drivers of loading machines have sufficient training to carry out their duties in a safe manner.
Assessment of the competency of loader drivers and all other yard personnel will be carried out at regular intervals.

HAULIERS’ RESPONSIBILITIES
• The haulier must carry out an adequate risk assessment on the safety and integrity of the load prior to off-loading so that all
relevant hazards are identified and Health & Safety procedures are followed.
• The haulier’s SSW must ensure that adequate and appropriate restraints are used on the load.
• The haulier must ensure that all drivers have sufficient training to carry out their duties in a safe and legal manner and that Hiab-
type cranes are only operated by suitably trained personnel whose training records are available for inspection. This requirement
also applies to any vehicles with detachable off-road fork trucks.
• Delivery drivers have a duty to familiarise themselves with all relevant risk assessments, SSWs and specific site procedures from
any Marshalls factory or delivery site, if necessary, prior to any unloading.
• The SSW should address the issue of reversing safely, which includes the requirement for a designated banksman being present
to control operations.
 HSDS 2

• Access to sites by the haulier should only be carried out with the express permission of the contractor or, in his absence, his
agent.
• The haulier shall ensure at all times that his personal protection equipment is maintained and is utilised as required by both
Marshalls and any contractor on site.
• No loading or unloading operations are to take place from vehicle platforms unless suitable methods of prevention of falls from
vehicles are in place.
• Access to unload materials, sheet/unsheet/fix/unfix load securing straps, or other restraints should only take place using secured
access systems.
• Any accidents, near misses or incidents should be reported to the relevant site personnel and the relevant report completed and
signed.

CUSTOMER RESPONSIBILITIES
• Customers have a legal responsibility to perform their own risk assessment of operations on their sites.
• Customers should ensure that their risk assessment controls and SSW are made known to delivery drivers arriving on their site,
and satisfy themselves that the delivery driver can perform his duties in a safe manner and with due regard to site rules.
• It is the customer’s responsibility to ensure that materials are off-loaded and stored in a safe and neat manner, and protected
from the elements where required.
• If customers off-load materials themselves, then they must satisfy themselves that the competency and training of their own
personnel satisfies their own SSW.

UNSAFE CONDUCT
• Where an unacceptable safety risk is known to exist on site, the haulier should draw this to the customer’s attention, and ask for
rectification within a reasonable timescale. Marshalls and the haulier reserve the right to withdraw deliveries until the safety risk
has been removed.
• Should the customer detect any unsafe conduct by the delivery driver, then deliveries may cease until a safe, alternative method
of delivery can be agreed. Should the customer be unable to resolve the incident with the haulier, then it should be reported to
Marshalls who will attempt to resolve any issues.

APPROVED HAULIERS
• Regular hauliers who consistently operate from any Marshalls factory, and who deliver materials on its behalf, are obliged to
comply with the requirements of this Health & Safety Data Sheet. Marshalls will also ensure that, where practical, any
customer-owned, franchised or indirectly employed vehicle also conform to these requirements.

Although Marshalls does its best to ensure that any advice, recommendation or information it may give is accurate, no liability
of any kind (including liability for negligence) is accepted in this respect by the Company, its servants or agents.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
 Marshalls.co.uk

QUESTIONS
& ANSWERS

47
Marshalls BRICKS
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

Below is a list of some of the more Frequently Asked Questions relating to our bricks products, together with our responses,
supported by the more detailed information contained in our Technical Manual, Brick Technical Bulletins and Brick Technical Data
Sheets. Please note the information and guidance only relates to Marshalls bricks and should not be read as generic advice for
any other concrete brick.

1. What is a concrete brick?

A Concrete Brick is a masonry unit produced by compacting a semi-dry concrete mix using a combination of selected aggregates,
cement and various admixtures along with synthetic pigments to produce a brick with low water absorption and minimal
efflorescence. The resultant product is a dense unit with proven durability and frost resistance. This manufacturing process is easily
and accurately repeated ensuring each unit has the same properties and appearance.

2. What are the main benefits of concrete bricks?

• Concrete Bricks will gain strength with age.
• Concrete Bricks are extremely durable and frost resistant with minimal efflorescence. Ref. Marshalls BTB 6: Durability.
• Concrete Bricks are dimensionally accurate.
• Concrete Facing Bricks are through coloured.
• The superior strength and performance of a Concrete Brick means that Facing Bricks to 35N/mm2 strength are suitable for use
in free standing and earth retaining boundary walls, in foundations and below dpc.
• The manufacturing process requires minimal energy input, resulting in a very low environmental impact. Ref. Marshalls BTB 3:
Environmental Characteristics.

3. How are concrete bricks environmentally friendly?

• Concrete Bricks are an inherent CO2 absorber
• Concrete Bricks are 100% recyclable and are suitable for use as crushed aggregates
• The aggregates used utilise materials that in some instances are classed as a waste product of quarrying
• Most aggregates used are from sources local to our plants and our delivery points are typically within 100 miles therefore
reducing our impact and associated carbon footprint
• Marshalls Bricks are manufactured in the UK and have no adverse environmental impacts associated with imported products
• The high energy firing of kilns in clay production processes is not required for the curing of our Concrete Bricks. We simply use
the natural exothermic reaction of the cement with no additional energy input. This means no additional natural resources are
consumed and emissions are reduced.
• Concrete Brick has a BRE A+ Rating for brickwork.

4. What is the difference between Marshalls concrete bricks and clay bricks?
Fundamentally they are both small element masonry units designed to fulfil the same purpose, although they are made by different
processes and have slightly different properties. The appropriate product standards specify the characteristics and performance
requirements but give no detail as to where or in what conditions they can be used. These are covered by other standards such as
BS 5628 and the superseded version PD 6697. Generally speaking both clay and concrete bricks may be used for the same
purposes and in the same areas of construction. Ref. Marshalls BTB 2: Product Comparison.

5. What is the difference between Marshalls concrete bricks and other concrete bricks?
Marshalls has over 60 years’ experience of manufacturing and developing concrete bricks. This wealth of knowledge ensures that
Marshalls bricks are produced and tested to exacting standards giving users the confidence that the product will comfortably last
the lifetime of the building. Marshalls bricks have been tested for frost resistance over 100 cycles and are classed as fully frost
resistant (similar to the ‘F’ classification for clay). Marshalls bricks are manufactured from carefully selected and sourced raw
materials that are precisely blended for maximum performance.
Many other concrete brick producers manufacture bricks as a secondary product line to their main field of knowledge and
experience, eg. blocks and pavers. It is important to recognise that bricks are not the same as other concrete products, particularly
in relation to their performance characteristics and requirements. Users should satisfy themselves that the product meets all the
standards, practical application and performance requirements before selecting alternative brick suppliers. Particular areas to
focus on are: durability; strength; movement characteristics and susceptibility to shrinkage cracks; and colour integrity including
efflorescence control. Ref. Marshalls Technical Manual.
6. What is the lifespan of Marshalls bricks and how long are they guaranteed for?
Concrete is a building material that has been used since the days of the Romans and in the form of precast masonry units since the
beginning of the last century. Marshalls bricks in the UK have been produced since the 1950s and indeed were used in the construction
of the original Calder Hall nuclear complex now Sellafield, which was opened in 1956. Since then the product has evolved and developed
to a stage where it is now the preferred medium for a large number of developers and contractors. One of the prime benefits is their
inherent frost resistance and durability derived from their increased strength as they age. Consequently, provided they have been used in
the appropriate manner and location they should be suitable for use in excess of 60 years.

7. What coloured mortars can be used to match Marshalls facing bricks?

Most of the major pre-mixed mortar suppliers can supply colour swatches or samples of different coloured mortars. These are a better
option than trying to select off a printed page. Site batching using pigments rarely gives satisfactory results unless it is for small quantities
where one batch of mix will suffice. Reproduction of consistent coloured mixes on site is difficult due to changes in moisture content, mix
time or dosage rates. Typically the advice is to choose between a complimentary or contrasting mortar, the latter tending to give a more
dramatic impact but is less forgiving on the quality of the brickwork. Ref. Marshalls BTB 4: Mortars for Concrete Masonry Products.

8. What are the preferred mortar joint profiles for Marshalls bricks?
Choice of mortar and its finished profile can have a profound effect on the final appearance and performance of a finished wall. The
choice of joint should be considered in respect not only of the finished appearance but also the brick type and level of exposure. For
example, a heavily recessed or stripped joint may give the desired aesthetic effect but it is not recommended in areas of high exposure
or where full cavity fill is used. By comparison a flush joint is hard to compact fully and should only be used in sheltered or internal
locations. In all cases full bedding of the mortar bed and complete filling of the perpends is essential due to the low-medium absorption
of the bricks which tends to throw water towards the joints. Ref. Marshalls BTB 4: Mortars for Concrete Masonry Products.

9. What are the differences between using silo batched or pre-mixed mortars compared with site batching and mixing?
Silo based and pre-mixed factory produced “tub” mixes offer consistency and convenience of mix. The silo based mixes can have their
workability adjusted on site to suit the suction of the masonry whilst the retarded tub mixes may require additional time to stiffen before
final tooling of the joint can be carried out.
Site batching and mixing on site can be suitable for smaller works but can also be variable in consistency, especially if coloured mixes
are required.
In all cases it is important that the correct specification of mortar is used. Under the latest standards the old volumetric method of
specifying mortars, eg. 1:1:6, has been superseded by a nominated mortar grade, eg. M4 (4N/mm2 strength). Due to the safety factors
in manufacturing the mortar suppliers may offer a mortar with a strength of 5-6N/mm2. Strong mortars can contribute to potential
cracking risk and it may be prudent for the customer to confirm the likely actual strengths whilst specifying the mortar. Ref. Marshalls
BTB 4: Mortars for Concrete Masonry Products.

10. How can I best achieve a clean, even joint in the brickwork?
The key to achieving good quality brickwork is to ensure that the mortar consistency is adjusted to reflect the characteristics of the brick.
As Edenhall’s bricks tend to have low-medium absorption characteristics they are suited by a “stiffer” mortar similar to that required for
Clay Engineering Bricks. If the mortar is too wet there is a tendency for the excess to be squeezed out and this could lead to “smearing”
when striking off with a trowel. To assist in all areas of jointwork the main areas to focus on are to ensure that the bricks and brickwork
are kept dry and protected and that the workability of the mortar is correctly adjusted. Ref. Marshalls BTB 4: Mortars for Concrete
Masonry Products.

11. How important is mortar quality within a wall?

The grade and quality of mortar has a crucial part in the performance of a brick wall particularly in relation to its durability, weather
fastness and resistance to any potential cracking. Mortar consists of over 17% of the wall area and the correct choice is crucial.
Under the old Standards, mortar was specified by volume eg. 1:1:6, that is one part of cement, one part of lime and six parts of sand.
This traditionally gave a mortar strength of around 4N/mm2. Mortars now are designated by strength category, eg. M4, which in theory is
equivalent to 4N/mm2. In practice, because that is a minimum strength requirement, pre-mixed mortar suppliers have to take
account of strength variations and hence average strengths maybe 6N/mm2 so that there are no results less than 4N/mm2. The same
analogy applies to Marshalls bricks. In order to claim a minimum strength of 22.5N/mm2 the actual brick average strength may run at
28-32N/mm2. The strength of mortar therefore is particularly important in relation to a risk of cracking within a wall.
As well as constituting 17% of the overall area, mortar differs from bricks in three ways:
• Mortar has a higher mix water content than bricks
• Mortar has a higher cement content than bricks
• Mortar is made with finer aggregate than bricks
Consequently mortar has a higher shrinkage and moisture movement value than Marshalls bricks. The stronger the mortar the greater
the risk of cracking.
Lime based mortars are more flexible and accommodate movement better than pure sand:cement mixes. In addition they have the
capacity for autogenous healing whereby any micro cracks self seal themselves over a period of time.
Experience from sites has shown therefore that if properties are built with no facility for accommodating movement in the form of
joints or bed joint reinforcement in the appropriate locations and strong mortars are used then there is a risk of cracking around the
openings.

12. Do I have to use any special techniques or make any allowances when building with Marshalls bricks?
Building with concrete bricks should pose no more problems than using any other masonry products. If anything the dimensions and
consistency of a concrete brick can help with the laying out and maintenance of brick courses.
The product should be dealt with in the same way as if building with dense concrete blocks or reconstructed split walling stone.
The number of courses achievable per day should be between 15-20. Bricks should be kept dry and in accordance with BS 8000-3.
The height of lifts should not exceed 1.5 metres or 20 courses each day.

13. How should movement be accommodated within the structure?

As with all other building materials Concrete Bricks can and will move when subjected to thermal, moisture or structural effects.
In practical terms the shape and height:length ratio of the masonry panels is the major factor in accommodating movement. From
experience we find that vertical movement control measures in the range of 7.5 – 9m in length will be adequate. Ref. Marshalls BTB
5: Movement Control.

14. I know that I may have to install vertical movement joints into my elevations but do I also need to incorporate
horizontal joints?
The degree of horizontal movement can be classed as the same as vertical movement, although due to panels being more heavily
loaded “horizontally” the requirement is likely to be less than for vertical movement control which Marshalls recommends at 7.5 –
9m. Generally speaking horizontal joints are not required on two storey buildings, but in buildings that exceed 4 storeys or 12 metres
in height they should be installed at every second storey. Particular attention should be given to low level parapet walls at the top of
a building which may be relatively lightly loaded and are long and slender. Should “horizontal support” be under consideration then
Marshalls would suggest reference to a suitably qualified engineer or specialist fixing company. Ref. Marshalls BTB 5:
Movement Control.

15. How cost effective is bed joint reinforcement and is it really necessary?
Bed joint reinforcement (BJR) can be used to control movement and supplement any movement joints. It is not intended to fully
replace movement joints but the manufacturers claim that it allows joint spacing to be increased by up to 50%. It should be of the
lattice or ladder type which consists of two parallel flat stainless steel bars cross-linked at intervals by wires. In essence it looks like a
model railway track. The wire is generally oval in shape, compressed down to 3mm, and 60 mm wide. It is inserted into the mortar
bed and is therefore hidden. It should not be confused with lightweight mesh which is sometimes used to bond internal walls
together.
The purpose of BJR is to increase the tensile strength of a wall and dissipate any internal stresses over a wider area, thus reducing
the risk of cracking. It is mainly used above and below openings and should extend some 600mm either side of the opening.
Generally speaking we recommend it for openings greater than 1.5 metres. Normally two courses are installed at the first and third
course above the opening. The use of BJR is not restricted to concrete bricks or blocks - the Brick Development Association also
recommends its use with clay bricks.
The cost of BJR varies between £1.20 and £1.50 per linear metre depending on manufacturer. This equates for example to under
£10 to install it above a large patio door. It is particularly effective in examples such as front elevations where installation of a
movement joint would be neither practical nor visually attractive. The cost overall for a full house can be set off against the savings in
forming movement joints and the cost of remedying or replacing any cracked bricks and should be viewed within the context of the
whole build cost.

16. What key characteristics change dependent on the form (solid, frogged, perforated) of Marshalls bricks?
The main differences that the form makes relate to weight and density of the brick and brickwork. Ref. Marshalls BTDS 1: Facing
Bricks and BTDS 4: Dense Common Bricks.

17. Can I use Edenhall’s Frogged or Perforated bricks as coursing units?

Coursing bricks are normally used in conjunction with blocks to make up course heights; fill gaps within blockwork and for use in
reveals. They may be subject to being cut or drilled and although in theory the bed face mortar will make a frogged or perforated
brick “solid”, this mortar typically has an average strength which is less than the blocks or bricks. NHBC requires that infill units
have to be compatible with the background block so therefore a solid brick is ideally suited to a solid block of similar performance
characteristics. Ref. Marshalls BTB 10: Coursing Brick Applications.
18. Do Marshalls coursing bricks need to have a certain texture?
Bricks with a very smooth, dense face may, in some circumstances, cause adhesion problems if plastered or rendered. NHBC
recommendations are that coursing bricks should have properties similar to that of the background block, ie. dense or lightweight
aggregate and in terms of density, finish, absorption etc. Block textures tend to vary depending on the particular manufacturer but
generally speaking standard Marshalls commons have similar properties to aggregate blocks and are therefore acceptable as a
coursing brick with blocks. Ref. Marshalls BTB 10: Coursing Brick Applications.

19. What are the sound reduction properties of Marshalls bricks and is the heavier weight of the bricks an advantage or
disadvantage?
Dense bricks and blocks both offer high degrees of sound reduction or attenuation where increased mass gives higher degrees of
reduction. They can be used in party wall construction to satisfy the current Building Regulations. Dense facing bricks in particular
are suitable for use in lightweight constructions such as timber framed housing for reducing external noise and flanking transmission.
Ref. Marshalls BTB 14: Sound Insulation.

20. What is the maximum strength of Marshalls bricks that are available?
This depends on brick types. For example an Engineering Quality brick has a compressive strength of 50N/mm2 which is achieved
by a significant increase in cement content and compaction which may not be possible in many facing bricks. The minimum
suggested strength of 22.5N/mm2 covers the majority of applications except for areas of high exposure or areas of high loads.
Higher strength brick requirement, for example, for use in lift shafts may require units that have to be specifically made but generally
speaking a facing brick would only be available with a maximum strength of 40N/mm2. It is usually only special situations/
circumstances that require loading strengths > 22.5N/mm2 and this characteristic also ensures the durability of the brick.
Ref. Marshalls BTB 6: Durability.

21. What is the correlation between water absorption and absorption by capillarity?
The traditional method of measuring the water absorption of bricks was to dry the bricks completely, then soak for 24 hours
and measure the percentage increase in weight. This gives a value of the total absorption from oven dry to saturation but
gives no indication of the rate of absorption. The alternative, current method, involves measuring the increase in weight by
partial immersion in water over a ten minute period. As such it measures the rate of absorption per second per square metre.
Consequently there is no real correlation between the two sets of results. Both sets of results are therefore quoted in the relevant
product Technical Data Sheets.
For concrete bricks the degree of absorption is different to that of clay bricks. Whereas in the latter case high absorption figures
may indicate low levels of frost resistance, with Marshalls bricks the low-medium values allow a degree of bond with the mortar but
at the same time reduce the risk of dirt absorption on the faces and ensure resistance to frost. Ref. Marshalls Technical Manual.

22. What is the difference between Category I and Category II masonry?

The relevant standard allows for two categories of manufacturing control.
Category I, which replaced the old Special Category, covers units where the probability of the unit failing to reach its declared
compressive strength is less that 5%. This normally involves independent third party assessment of the manufacturing and quality
control process.
Category II involves any process not covered by Category I.
In Edenhall’s case, although there is an internal quality system, it is not independently audited. However in practice the actual
compressive strength levels achieved tend to be in excess of the minimum standards. All Marshalls bricks are regularly checked and
tested.

23. Can Marshalls bricks be used below dpc?

Yes. Marshalls bricks (with the exception of medium density lightweight coursing bricks) are eminently suitable for use above and
below dpc, but not as an actual dpc. The relevant standards BS 5628 and PD 6697: 2010 recommend a minimum compressive
strength of 22.5N/mm2 for the majority of locations . Marshalls Bricks comply in terms of both strength and frost resistance.
Ref. Marshalls BTDS 1: Facing Bricks.

24. Can I use Marshalls facing bricks in areas of high exposure/sensitivity?

The majority of dense facing and common bricks are suitable for use in most external and internal locations as well as below dpc.
However in areas of high exposure such as steps, copings, cappings and in marine environments higher strength units of at least
35N/mm2 are recommended. In particular, in footpaths and steps where de-icing salts are present facing bricks may not be fully frost
resistant without extra protection measures. Provided the higher strength bricks are specified they are suitable in most situations, for
example in areas such as flood protection walls. Ref. Marshalls BTB 6: Durability.
25. Are Marshalls bricks resistant to sulphate attack?
Sulphates exist in certain ground conditions and can attack both concrete and clay bricks. The amount of sulphates in the ground
determines the class of ground sulphate level. Due to their cement content and density Edenhall’s bricks are durable and suitable for
use in ground sulphate levels up to and including Class 2. If conditions are Class 3 (higher sulphate levels) then the Marshalls
Engineering Quality brick is suitable for use due to its cement content having specialist sulphate resisting properties. Any ground
conditions above Class 4, eg. acid, effluent tanks, are severe and Marshalls bricks are not suitable and therefore very specialist
bricks and mortar should be used.

26. What is the sulphate/soluble salts content of Marshalls bricks and how does it compare to clay bricks?
Sulphate content is present in clay bricks predominantly in the form of sodium, magnesium and potassium sulphates, all derived
from the raw clay content. If they are soluble (which the soluble salts test on clay bricks is derived to establish) then they can migrate
to the surface of the brick and form a hard, white deposit known as efflorescence, which can be very difficult to remove.
In Edenhall’s concrete bricks there are no soluble salts leaching out of the raw material. The only leaching that can occur is from
free calcium ions emanating from the cement content and Marshalls controls the migration (speed and particle size) of such to
minimise their impact which tends to be a milky white deposit of calcium carbonate on the surface. This can be easily removed by
the careful application of a proprietary mild brick acid. Hence the amount of soluble salts in Marshalls bricks is classed as “minimal”.

27. What is the carbon footprint of Marshalls bricks?

The embodied CO2 of dense concrete masonry products is estimated as 84Kg CO2/tonne. With their low cement content, use of
cement replacements, natural exothermic curing regime, and ability to be recycled, Marshalls bricks are environmentally friendly.
Clay bricks by comparison have an embodied carbon content of 244Kg CO2/tonne (quarry to site), three times that of concrete.
(Data derived from the Concrete Centre and Brick Development Association publications).

28. Are packaging materials recyclable?

All packaging materials, which are mainly in the form of plastic banding, shrink wrapping and timber pallets/skids, are responsibly
sourced and suitable for recycling.

29. How consistent is the colour on Marshalls bricks?

Concrete bricks are produced from natural aggregates and Portland cement and incorporate where applicable synthetic iron oxide
pigments. The pigments are inert and colour stable.
As the aggregates are from natural sources they may vary in colour from time to time, but careful selection and batching during
manufacture will minimise these variations and the base colour of aggregates is carefully selected for use with the appropriate
brick type.
In accordance with good practice it is recommended that when building, bricks are taken from different packs and blended from
different deliveries.

30. I’ve seen examples of concrete bricks where the colour has washed out – does that happen now?
Many years ago, at the start of concrete facing brick production, the pigments used were often soluble over a period of time and
consequently the colours washed out of the bricks. However, in the last thirty years or so synthetic pigments have been used which
are colour stable and hence retain the original colour.
At the same time significant progress has been made in the development of integral admixtures and surface coatings which have
inhibited the effect of efflorescence or lime bloom which can mask the colour of concrete units.
All Marshalls facing bricks are treated to minimise efflorescence and thus maintain the original colours and finishes of the product.

31. We have some bricks that are built in and the colours don’t match. How do we resolve this?
Marshalls bricks can be tinted when on the odd occasion there is colour banding. Initially the risk of banding can be reduced by
working from multiple packs and good management of stocks and deliveries. Permanent stains are popular which react with the
cement within the matrix resulting in a permanent tint. Marshalls would recommend the use of suitably referenced speciality
remedial experts to carry out such work.

32. The brickwork looks different and dries out after rainfall – why?
The manufacture of all concrete masonry involves a balance between producing a unit with a reasonable level of absorption to
provide a degree of suction for good mortar bond and adhesion, but also with a degree of weatherproofing to reduce the effect of
pollution and ensure durability.
Differential drying rates and their visual impact tend to be purely cosmetic and although may appear unsightly will have no
detrimental impact on the overall integrity or performance of the outer leaf of brickwork. Full cavity fill, by rendering the outer leaf
colder and wetter, can lead to longer periods of time for drying out. Additionally as concrete hardens with age colour variations tend
to reduce over time and more importantly the water absorption (and therefore water retention) on the face also reduces. This has
been proven and demonstrated on Marshalls bricks by examining different aged bricks from 2 weeks to 12 months using a reactive
indicator solution such as phenolphthalein. This demonstrates the rate of change from unhydrated cement in the matrix to hard,
carbonated, recalcified cement over time.
If the aesthetics are deemed unacceptable there are options to tint the affected brickwork using a reputable remedial specialist and/
or applying a proprietary waterproof coating in accordance with the manufacturer’s guidelines.

33. I have cracked bricks in the wall of my house – how serious is this?
Although cracked brickwork is unsightly and emotionally disturbing it is normally not a major issue unless the cracks are wide
and are replicated through to the inner leaf. In these cases the problem may be structural and the opinion of a qualified structural
engineer should be sought.
Most cracks involving brickwork, whether concrete or clay, tend to be caused either by moisture or thermal movement and as such
can be classed as micro cracks which either run through the bricks themselves and/or the bricks and mortar. The strength of the
mortar is critical in that too strong a mortar will not allow sufficient flexibility within the structure.
Action to remedy cracks can basically fall into three categories:
• If the cracks are very fine, virtually unobtrusive and are limited to a few affected bricks then it may be more practical to leave
them alone as a repair may appear to be more obvious that the actual cracked bricks.
• For slightly wider cracks then repairs may be possible in-situ whereby any cracked mortar is raked out and repointed and the
cracks within the bricks repaired, filled and tinted if necessary.
• If necessary, bricks and mortar can be cut out and replaced. This should be carried out by trained technician and it should be
acknowledged that such repairs can appear unsightly as it is difficult to match colours of mortar.
It should be stressed that ALL building materials move in some form or other. This movement is normally accommodated for by
the provision of movement joints or bed joint reinforcement in all brick faced structures. Ref. Marshalls BTB 5: Movement Control.

34. What is the best way to clean down my bricks?

Cleaning techniques depend on the degree and type of dirt or stain that needs to be removed. In all cases a trial area should be
tested first and the necessary health and safety measures implemented before commencement. Ref. Marshalls BTB 8: Cleaning,
Maintenance and Repair.

35. I have “scratches” on the face of my bricks – how do I get rid of them?
The majority of Marshalls bricks are produced from crushed limestone and other aggregates, the colours of which can vary from
dark grey to a light buff/grey. The colours are normally pigmented all the way through and so if the bricks are broken in two or
chipped then the basic colour will still show through. Any lighter coloured flecks would stem from broken aggregate. However as the
largest stone within the brick is typically < 3mm then the visual impact is generally low, especially if viewed from the recommended 3
metres distance. This is unlike some clay bricks which only have a surface coated finish which when chipped or spalled can expose
a totally different sub-base material colour and texture.
Scratches on the face are normally caused where bricks have been dragged across the faces of each other or where a trowel has
been used excessively to strike off the mortar extrusions. Although initially unsightly, in practice we find the effect of the scratches
tends to diminish as the bricks weather. Should an acceleration of the process be required then the application of an acrylic type
clear matt finish may help mask the scratches, however always follow the manufacturer’s guidelines and test a small, less
sensitive area first. Ref. Marshalls BTB 8: Cleaning, Maintenance and Repair.

36. I’ve got green staining and mould on my bricks – how do I get rid of it?
This tends to occur where bricks are kept in a particularly damp condition often not exposed to sunshine and therefore not having
the chance to dry out completely. It can be removed by using an appropriate mould cleaning material or a domestic chlorine based
cleaner (bleach) using all necessary safety precautions following the manufacturer’s guidelines. It is common sense and good
practice to test a small, less sensitive area first. Ref. Marshalls BTB 8: Cleaning, Maintenance and Repair.

37. Can I paint Marshalls bricks?

Marshalls bricks of all types are suitable for painting. They do not contain any salts that would have a negative effect on paint
finishes. Standard bricks can be painted with emulsion or alkali resistant paints. Plastic emulsions are also suitable. In most cases it
is important for the moisture content of the brickwork to be low and consistent before application and it is generally advisable to
seek the advice of a paint manufacturer and test a small, less sensitive area first. In all cases the brick background should be free
from dust or lime bloom. Ref. Marshalls BTB 1: Good Site Practice Guide.
38. Can I render or plaster on top of Marshalls bricks?
Marshalls bricks are classed as having a low-medium water absorption. This absorption is measured through an immersion of the
brick. Occasionally the durable nature of the brick face can have very low absorption levels and in these cases should a wall of facing
bricks need to be plastered or rendered then the mortar joints need to be raked out and a PVA bonding agent or cement spatterdash
finish applied to the face of the wall before plastering. Reference should be made to the appropriate standard (BS EN 13914-1: 2005)
or the Mortar Industry Association Specifications. Ref. Marshalls BTB 1: Good Site Practice Guide.

39. How do I fix pistol bricks to a structure?

Because of potential movement due to moisture or thermal changes, the fixing of pistol bricks or slips needs to be carried out
using a flexible adhesive rather than a cement/sand mortar. There are a number of suitable, proprietary materials available and the
manufacturer’s advice and guidelines should be sought and followed.

40. Do concrete bricks float?

Building with Concrete Bricks should not differ from using any other building product. However, it is important that the correct grade of
mortar is used and its consistency is adjusted to allow for the density and relatively low suction rate of the bricks. If this is done and
bricks are kept dry then as Concrete Bricks are solid this can lead to savings of up to 15% on mortar use. Marshalls is also able to
offer a range of frogged and perforated bricks that provide a “mechanical key” when laying. Ref. Marshalls BTB 4: Mortars for
Concrete Masonry Products.

41. My bricks on site are wet. Can I still use them?

Marshalls bricks should only be laid when dry and it is important to keep them protected prior to use. Wet or soaked bricks will be
difficult to lay, may not achieve a good bond with the mortar and may ultimately shrink significantly, potentially leading to cracks in the
finished brickwork. Opened packs should be protected as should any stacked out bricks on the scaffold. If bricks are wet then the
packs should be opened up and the bricks spaced out to allow air to circulate and the bricks to dry out. Ref. Marshalls BTB 1: Good
Site Practice Guide.

42. The inside walls of my garage are damp after heavy rain, why is this happening?
Garages are frequently built using only a single skin of brickwork, 100mm wide. In these cases any masonry material will allow ingress
of water, especially during heavy rain accompanied by winds. This is why walls are generally constructed with cavities that prevent
the transfer of moisture from the external skin to internal surfaces. To reduce the extent and likelihood of water penetrating single skin
brickwork a proprietary heavy duty masonry sealant can be applied to the exterior wall. Ref. Marshalls BTB 9: Resistance to Rain
Penetration.

43. Can I use brick on edge coping and if so how effective is it?
Brick on edge coping/capping is frequently used to finish off the top of a wall. When the brick is flush (the same width) with the wall
below it will not “throw” water away from the surface, which can lead to unsightly staining and leaching from the mortar joints. Ideally
the coping/capping should project from the wall and contain a drip groove to shed water more effectively. Some practical tips to follow
include: capping bricks to have a minimum strength of 35N/mm2; install a high bond dpc below the coping/capping; include fixings to
prevent the displacement of bricks; and use a higher grade mortar, eg. Class M6, to maximise frost resistance.

For further information please visit our website and reference our Brick Technical Manual.

The information and guidance contained in our Technical Bulletins, Technical Data Sheets and Technical Manual are regularly reviewed as part of Edenhall’s continuous development and
improvement programme. Updates and amendments can be made without notice and the Company cannot accept liability for any errors or omissions. The content of this document
and the referenced data sheets and bulletins, including tables, diagrams and images, are subject to copyright.
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