Organisation - Biology Paper 1

The Digestive System

A tissue is a group of cells with a similar structure and function.
An Organ is a group of tissues working together to perform a specific function
Organs are grouped into organ Systems which work together to form organisms

Food Contains 3 main nutrients :

- Carbohydrates (eg starch)
- Protein
- Lipids (fats)

All of these are large molecules. They are too large to be absorbed into the bloodstream. So
they have to be digested. During digestion large food molecules are broken down into small
molecules by enzymes. The small molecules can then be absorbed into the bloodstream.

First the food is chewed in the mouth. Enzymes in the saliva begin to digest the starch into
smaller sugar molecules. The food then passes down the oesophagus into the stomach. In the
stomach enzymes begin the digestion of proteins. The stomach also contains hydrochloric acid
which helps the enzymes to digest proteins. The food spends several hours in the stomach. The
churning action of the stomach muscles turns the food into a fluid increasing the surface area
for enzymes to digest. The fluid now passes into the small intestine. At this point chemicals are
released into the small intestine from the liver and the pancreas. The pancreas releases
enzymes which continue the digestion of starch and protein. They also start the digestion of
lipids. The liver releases bile which helps to speed up the digestion of lipids. Bile also neutralizes
the acid released from the stomach. The walls of the small intestine release enzymes to
continue the digestion of lipids and protein. In the small intestine the small food molecules
produced by digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream either by diffusion or active transport.
Now the fluid makes its way through the large intestine where water is absorbed into the
bloodstream. Finally faeces is released from the body

In the digestive system large food molecules are digested into smaller molecules and then the
products of digestion are absorbed into the bloodstream
Now the products of digestion are then used in the body to create new carbohydrates, proteins
and lipids. Some of the glucose is used in respiration
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Digestive Enzymes
Large food molecules are digested by enzymes into smaller molecules. These products of
digestion are then absorbed into the bloodstream.
Enzymes catalyse chemical reactions. Enzymes are large protein molecules and they have a
groove on their surface called the active site. The active site is where the substrate attaches to.
The substrate fits perfectly into the active site. The enzyme now breaks down the substrate into
the products. If the substrate does not fit into the active site the enzyme cannot break down the
substrate. Enzymes are specific. The substrate must fit perfectly into the active site (the lock
and key theory)

Proteins are broken down by enzymes called proteases. Proteins are long chains of chemicals
called amino acids. When we digest proteins the protease enzymes convert the protein back to
the individual amino acids which are then absorbed into the bloodstream. When the amino acids
are absorbed by the body cells they are joined together in a different order to make human
proteins.

Starch consists of a chain of glucose molecules. Carbohydrates are broken down by enzymes
called carbohydrases. In the case of starch this is called amylase. When carbohydrates like
starch are digested we produce simple sugars. Amylase is found in the saliva and pancreatic fluid

A lipid molecule consists of a molecule of glycerol attached to three molecules of fatty acids.
Lipids are digested by the enzyme lipase. This produces glycerol and fatty acids. We find lipase in
the pancreatic fluid and also in the small intestine. Bile helps to speed up the digestion of lipids
but bile is not an enzyme. Bile converts large lipid droplets into smaller droplets. Bile
emulsifies the lipid. This massively increases the surface area of the lipid droplets. This
increases the rate of lipid breakdown by lipase. Bile is also alkaline allowing it to neutralize
stomach acid creating alkaline conditions in the small intestine. This increases the rate of lipid
digestion by lipase.

Effect Of Temperature And PH On Enzymes

As we increase the temperature the activity of the enzyme increases (the reaction gets faster).
As the temperature increases the enzyme and the substrate are moving faster so there are
more collisions per second between the substrate and the active site. At a certain temperature
the enzyme is working at the fastest possible rate that's called the optimum temperature.
At this point there is the maximum frequency of successful collisions between the substrate and
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

the active site. As we increase the temperature past the optimum then the activity of the
enzyme rapidly decreases to zero. At higher temperatures the enzyme molecule vibrates and
the shape of the active site changes. Now the substrate no longer fits perfectly in the active
site. The active site is denatured. The enzyme can no longer catalyze the reaction.
The enzyme has an optimum PH where the activity is maximum. If we make the PH more acidic
or more alkaline then the activity drops to zero. The active site denatured if the conditions are
too acidic or too alkaline.

Required Practical 4 : Food Tests

1. Take the food sample and grind this with distilled water using a mortar and pestle. We
want to make a paste
2. Transfer the paste to a beaker and add more distilled water. Stir so the chemicals in the
food dissolve in the water
3. Filter the solution to remove suspended food particles

Testing For Starch

1. Place 2cm3 of food solution into a test tube
2. Add a few drops of iodine solution (which is an orange colour)
3. If starch is present then the iodine solution will turn blue-black. However if there is no
starch present then the iodine solution will stay orange.

Testing For Sugar

1. Place 2cm3 of food solution into a test tube
2. Add 10 drops of benedict’s solution which is a blue colour.
3. Place the test tube containing our solution into a beaker and half fill the beaker with hot
water from the kettle. We now leave this for around 5 minutes.
4. If sugars are present the benedict's solution will change colour. The color of the solution
gives us an approximate idea of the amount of sugar present. :
- A green colour tells us that there is a small amount of sugar present
- A yellow colour tells us that there is more sugar present
- A brick-red color tells us that there is a lot of sugar present
This test only works for certain sugars e.g. glucose. Scientists call these reducing sugars. The
benedict’s test will not work for sugars which are non-reducing, for example sucrose.
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

Testing For Protein

1. We take 2cm3 of the food solution and we add 2cm3 of biuret solution which is a blue
colour
2. If protein is present then the biuret solution will change from blue to a lilac or purple
colour

Testing For Lipids

1. In this test just like before we grind our food with distilled water using a mortar and
pestle. However unlike the other tests we do not filter the solution when testing for
lipids. This is because lipid molecules can stick to filter paper.
2. First we transfer 2cm3 of our food solution to a test tube and then add a few drops of
distilled water. And a few drops of ethanol.
3. We then gently shake the solution. If lipids are present then a white cloudy emulsion will
form.

Required Practical 5 : Effect Of PH On Amylase

Amylase breaks down starch molecules into simple sugars
1. Place one drop of iodine solution into each well of a spotting tile
2. Then we get 3 test tubes labelled S,A,B in the S tube there is 2cm3 starch solution. In the
A tube there is 2cm3 amylase solution and in the B tube there is 2cm3 of PH buffer
solution
3. Place all 3 test tubes in a water bath at 30 degrees celsius. Leave them for 10 minutes to
allow the solutions to reach the correct temperature.
4. Now combine the three solutions into one test tube and mix with a stirring rod. Return
to the water bath and start a stopwatch
5. After 30 seconds use the stirring rod to transfer one drop of solution to a well in the
spotting tile which contains iodine. The iodine should turn blue/black to show that starch
is present. We now take a sample every 30 seconds and we continue until the iodine
remains orange.
6. When the iodine remains orange this tells us that starch is no longer present.
7. We now repeat the whole experiment multiple times using several different PH buffers
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

Problems
- We are only taking samples every 30 seconds. This means that we only have an
approximate time for the reaction to complete. We could address this by taking samples
every 10 seconds
- We are looking for the time when the iodine does not go blue back. This is not always obvious.
The colour change tends to be gradual. Some wells might have a small amount of
blue-black mixed with orange so it can be difficult to see when the reaction has finished.
- One way to address the problem is to ask several people to look at the spotting tile and
decide when the reaction has completed

Absorption In The Small Intestine

During digestion large food molecules are broken down into smaller molecules by enzymes. The
products of digestion are then absorbed into the bloodstream in the small intestine.

Absorption In The Small Intestine

- The human small intestine has a length of around 5m
- This provides a very large surface area for absorption of the products of digestion.

Villi in the small intestine

The interior of the small intestine is covered with millions of villi. Villi massively increases the
surface area for the absorption of molecules. Microvilli on the surface increase the surface area
even further. Villi have a very good blood supply so the bloodstream rapidly removes the
products of digestion. The thin membrane ensures a short diffusion path. All of these features
mean there is a rapid rate of diffusion. Any molecules which cannot be absorbed by diffusion are
absorbed by active transport.

The Heart And Circulation

The heart is an organ consisting mainly of muscle tissue. The heart pumps blood around the
body. The heart has four chambers: the right atrium, the left atrium, the right ventricle and the
left ventricle. The atria are separated from the ventricles by valves.
- The vena cava brings in deoxygenated blood from the body
- The blood passes from the heart to the lungs in the pulmonary artery
- Oxygenated blood passes from the lungs to the heart in the pulmonary vein
- Oxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the body in the aorta
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

- First blood enters the left atrium and the right atrium. The atria now contract and the
blood is forced into ventricles. The ventricles now contract and force blood out of the
heart. Valves stop the blood from flowing backwards into the atria when the ventricles
contract. The left side of the heart has a thicker muscular wall than the right side (this
is because the left ventricle pumps blood to the rest of the body).
- The coronary arteries branch out of the aorta and spread out into the heart muscle. The
purpose of the coronary arteries is to provide oxygen to the muscle cells of the heart.
The oxygen is used in respiration to provide the energy for contraction.
- The natural resting heart rate is controlled by the pacemaker. Sometimes the
pacemaker stops working correctly. In this case doctors can plant an artificial
pacemaker. An artificial pacemaker is a small electrical device and it corrects
irregularities in the heart rate

Arteries,Veins And Capillaries

Arteries - carry very high pressure blood from the heart to the organs in the body. Arteries
have very thick muscular walls. This allows them to withstand the very high pressure of the
blood. Blood travels through the artery in surges every time the heart beats. Elastic fibres
stretch when the surge of blood passes through and recoil in between surges, which keep the
blood moving.
Capillaries - when blood passes through capillaries substances such as glucose and oxygen
diffuse from the blood to the cells. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells back to the blood.
Capillaries have very thin walls so the diffusion distance is very short. This allows substances to
diffuse rapidly between the blood and the body cells. Once the blood has passed through the
organs, it now makes its way back to the heart in veins
Veins - the blood is now travelling slowly and at low pressure. That means it could stop or even
go backwards. Veins have a thin wall. The blood pressure is low so the wall doesn’t need to be
thick. Many veins contain valves. The job of valves is to stop blood flowing backwards. When the
blood flows in the correct direction then the valves open to allow blood through. When the blood
starts to flow backwards, the valves shut.
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

The Blood
There are 4 important components of the blood :
- The blood plasma
- Red Blood Cells
- White blood cells
- Platelets
Blood Plasma
Transports :
- Soluble digestion products ( glucose,amino acids)
- Carbon Dioxide
- The waste product urea from the liver to the kidneys to be excreted in urine

Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells transport oxygen from the lungs to the body cells. They contain the
oxygen-carrying molecule haemoglobin. Haemoglobin + Oxygen → (lungs) oxyhaemoglobin.
Oxyhaemoglobin → (organs) Haemoglobin + Oxygen. Red blood cells have no nucleus which
means they have more room for haemoglobin. In the center of the cell there are dimples
scientists call this shape a biconcave disc. This shape gives the cells a greater surface area so
that oxygen diffuses in and out quickly.

White Blood Cells

White blood cells form part of the immune system for example by making antibodies. White
blood cells contain a nucleus that contains DNA which encodes the instructions that a white blood
cells need to do their job.

Platelets
Platelets are tiny fragments of cells and their job is to help the blood to clot

Donated Blood
Donated blood has many uses in medicine :
1. To replace blood lost during injury
2. Some people are given platelets extracted from blood to help in clotting
3. Some proteins extracted from blood can also be useful for example antibodies
In a blood transfusion we have to make sure that the donated blood type is the same blood type
as the patient’s. Otherwise the body's immune system will reject the blood and the patient could
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

die. Lots of different diseases can be transmitted via blood. In the UK blood is screened for
infections so the risk is extremely low.

Cardiovascular Diseases
Cardiovascular diseases are diseases of the heart and blood vessels. Cardiovascular diseases are
non-communicable. They are not infectious and cannot be passed from person to person.
The coronary arteries branch out of the aorta and spread out into the heart muscle. The purpose
of the coronary arteries is to provide oxygen to the muscle cells of the heart. The oxygen is
used in respiration to provide the energy for contraction.

In CHD (coronary heart disease) layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries.
This causes the coronary arteries to narrow. The effect of this is to reduce the flow of blood
through the coronary arteries. This results in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle. In extreme
cases this can result in a heart attack where the heart is starved of Oxygen.
Statins are drugs which reduce the level of cholesterol in the blood. This slows down the rate
that fatty materials build up in the arteries. Statins have been proven to reduce the risk of CHD
Statins have unwanted side effects e.g. liver problems. In some people CHD can cause almost a
total blockage of a coronary artery. These people can be treated using a stent. A stent is a tube
which can be inserted into the coronary artery to keep it open. The advantage of inserting a
stent is that the blood can flow normally through the artery. A stent will not prevent other
regions of the coronary arteries from narrowing. It does not treat the underlying causes of the
disease. Sometimes the heart valves do not fully open so the heart has to pump extra heart to
get the blood through. This can cause the heart to enlarge.

Other times the valves are leaky which can cause the patient to feel weak and tired. When heart
valves are faulty we can replace them either with a mechanical valve made of metal or a valve
from an animal such as a pig. Mechanical valves can last a lifetime but they increase the risk of
blood clots. Patients have to take anti-clotting drugs. Valves from animals do not last as long
and may need to be replaced. However patients do not need to take drugs. In some patients with
cardiovascular disease. The heart cannot pump enough blood around the body. These patients are
sometimes given a donated heart or a donated heart and lungs. There are not enough donated
hearts to treat every patient. The patient must take drugs to stop the donated heart from
being rejected by the bodies immune system. Sometimes a patient can be given an artificial
heart as a temporary solution while waiting for a heart transplant or to allow their damaged
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

heart to rest. Artificial hearts increase the risk of blood clotting. They are not a long term
solution to heart failure.

Gas Exchange In The Lungs

Air passes into the lungs through a tube called the trachea. Rings of cartilage prevent the
trachea from collapsing during inhalation. The trachea now splits into 2 smaller tubes called
bronchi with one passing to each lung. Further into the lung the bronchi subdivide into many
smaller tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles end in small air sacs called alveoli. Alveoli are
where gases diffuse in and out of the bloodstream. Oxygen diffuses into the alveoli and carbon
dioxide diffuses out of the alveoli.
- The millions of alveoli mean that the lungs have a large surface area
- The alveoli have very thin walls so the diffusion path is very short.
- The alveoli have a very good blood supply
Once the oxygen diffuses into the blood it is rapidly removed this ensures that the
concentration gradient is as steep as possible.

Breathing
By breathing we also increase the rate of diffusion. Breathing brings fresh oxygen into the
alveoli and takes away carbon dioxide. This makes the concentration gradient higher for these
gases. That increases the rate of diffusion.

Cancer
In mitosis one cell is copied into two cells. Cell division by mitosis occurs all over the body
especially during growth and during repair. Mitosis is extremely tightly controlled. Genes in the
nucleus tell cells when to divide and when to stop dividing. Sometimes changes take place in
those genes and that leads to uncontrolled growth and mitosis. This produces a tumor. Benign
tumors are growths of abnormal cells which are found in one area. Benign tumors are usually
contained within a membrane. Benign tumors do not invade other parts of the body. They stay in
one place. Malignant cells invade neighboring tissues and move into the bloodstream. Malignant
tumor cells are classed as cancer. Once in the bloodstream, the malignant cells spread different
parts of the body and they form new tumors. Scientists call these new tumors secondary
tumors.
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

Cancers Linked To Genetics

- Certain types of breast cancer
- Prostate cancer
- Cancer of the large intestine

Cancers Linked To Lifestyle

- Smoking : lung cancer
- UV light : skin cancer
- Alcohol : mouth and throat cancer
Radon is a radioactive gas which increases your risk of developing lung cancer. Radon releases
ionising radiation which damages the DNA in our cells. This can cause our cells to undergo
uncontrolled cell division leading to cancer.

Communicable And Non Communicable Diseases

Communicable diseases can be spread from person to person. Communicable diseases are
spread by pathogens such as bacteria or viruses. Non-communicable diseases cannot be passed
from person to person.
- Health is defined as the state of physical and mental well-being
- Ill health can be caused by both communicable and non-communicable diseases
- It can also be caused by poor diet high levels of stress and other life situations

Tuberculosis (TB) is a communicable lung disease. TB can be fatal. However some people have a
defective immune system, for example people with HIV. people with a defective immune system
are much more likely to suffer from infectious diseases

Human Papillomavirus
HPV is extremely common. In most people it is essentially harmless. In some people HPV can
cause cervical cancer. Around 3000 women are diagnosed with cervical cancer every year in the
UK. Most cervical cancers are caused by the Human Papilloma virus which infects the cells of the
cervix. Sometimes a disease can be triggered by the immune system. The body is infected with a
pathogen which the immune system fights off but the person is then left with an allergy.
Sometimes a mental illness can be triggered by a physical illness.
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

Correlating Risk Factors

In the 1930’s rates of lung cancer began to increase sharply and scientists could not explain
this. Scientists could not carry out experiments on humans to try and work out what causes lung
cancer. That would be unethical. Scientists looked very closely at people's lifestyle habits to see
if they could link any of these with lung cancer. Studying the patterns of disease to determine
risk factors is called epidemiology. Scientists noticed that lung cancer is much more common
among cigarette smokers than among non smokers.scientist looked at how many cigarettes
people smoked each day and then how many of these people developed lung cancer. Scientists
were looking to see if there was a correlation between lung cancer and smoking. As the number
of cigarettes smoked each day increases the risk of developing lung cancer also increases. This
is a positive correlation. A correlation does not prove cause.

Causal mechanism
Scientists began to look at how cigarette smoking could cause cancer. They discovered that the
cigarette smoke contains chemicals which damage DNA and increase the risk of cancer. These
are called carcinogens.

Lifestyle And Disease

Risks of CHD :
- A diet high in fat and low in vegetables increases the levels of types of cholesterol in
the blood. This increases the rate that fatty materials build up in the arteries.
- The risk of developing cardiovascular diseases is also massively increases in people who
smoke
- But the risk is decreased in people who exercise regularly
Risks of lung cancer/disease:
- Smokin massively increases the risk of lung cancer
- Cigarette smoke contains a number of chemicals which can trigger cancer. These are
called carcinogens.
- Smoking also increases the risk of other lung diseases eg.emphysema. These diseases
are extremely unpleasant and lead to are poor quality of life
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Effects of smoking and alcohol on unborn baby :

- Smoking when pregnant increases the risk of miscarridge and premature birth.
- It can also lead to the baby being born with a low body mass
- Drinking alcohol when pregnant can cause fetal alcohol syndrome
- Children born with fetal alcohol syndrome can have learning difficulties and other
mental or physical problems
Effects of drinking on adults :
- Adults who drink alcohol excessively increase their risk of liver cirrhosis and liver
cancer
- Alcohol can also affect the brain leading to addiction and memory loss.
Type 2 Diabetes :
- People with type 2 diabetes struggle to control their blood glucose levels.
- Type 2 diabetes can lead to blindness or require the amputation of a limb
- Obese people have a much higherrisk of developing type 2 diabetes.
- Risk factors can interact- drinking excess alcohol can lead to obesity and that increases
the risk of type 2 diabetes

Plant Tissues
Like any organ, the leaf contains different tissues.
The top and bottom of the leaf are covered with a layer of very thin cells. These are called
epidermal cells and they form epidermal tissue. The epidermis protects the surface of the leaf.
The upper epidermis is transparent. This allows light to pass through to the photosynthetic cells
below. The upper epidermis is also covered by a thin layer of oily material called the waxy
cuticle. The waxy cuticle reduces the evaporation of water from the surface of the leaf. This
helps to prevent the leaf from drying out. The lower epidermis has tiny pores called stomata.
Stomata allow carbon dioxide to enter the leaf and oxygen to leave. Stomata also help to control
the amount of water vapour that can pass out of the leaf. On either side of the stomata we find
guard cells. The palisade mesophyll consists of palisade cells. Palisade cells are packed full of
chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain chlorophyll which absorbs the light energy needed for
photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll is full of air spaces. The air spaces allow carbon dioxide to
diffuse from the stomata through the spongy mesophyll the palisade cells. Oxygen also diffuses
from the palisade cells through the spongy mesophyll to the stomata. Xylem tissue transports
water from the roots to the stem and leaves. Some of the water is used in photosynthesis. The
xylem also transports dissolved mineral ions. These include magnesium which is used to make
Organisation - Biology Paper 1

chlorophyll. Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars produced by photosynthesis from the
leaves to the rest of the plant. These sugars can be used immediately. The sugars can also be
stored. The movement of sugar and other molecules through the phloem tissue is called
translocation.

Meristem Tissue
We find meristem tissue at growing tips. Meristem tissue contains different stem cells. These
can differentiate into different types of plant tissue

Transpiration
Water enters the roots through root hair cells. Water is constantly evaporating from the
surfaces of leaves. This process is called transpiration. Transpiration first starts with the
evaporation of water from cells inside the leaf. The water vapour then diffuses through the air
spaces in the spongy mesophyll and out of the leaf through the stomata. Now water pases from
the xylem into the leaf to replace the water that has been lost. Finally water is drawn up through
the root hair cells and up the xylem vessels to the leaf. Scientists call this whole process the
transpiration stream.

Transpiration brings water to the leaf. Water is required for photosynthesis. The transpiration
stream transports dissolved mineral ions such as magnesium which play important roles in the
plant. The evaporation of water from the leaf cools the leaf down especially in warm weather.
The rate of respiration is greater in higher temperatures. Transpiration is also faster under
dry conditions when the air is not humid. That is because evaporation takes more quickly under
dry conditions. The rate of transpiration increases in windy conditions. That is because wind
removes any water vapour allowing more water to evaporate. The rate of transpiration increases
when the light intensity increases. This is because high light intensity increases the rate of
photosynthesis. The stomata can now open to allow carbon dioxide in. Once the stomata have
opened water vapour can now pass out of the leaf.

When the light intensity is high for example during the day the guard cells swell and change
their shape. This causes the stomata to open. Now carbon dioxide can diffuse into the leaf and be
used in photosynthesis. Under hot conditions the plant closes the stomata to reduce water loss
by transpiration. That means that the plant cannot photosynthesise.