Applied Electronics

Điện tử ứng dụng

1
Contents
• Chapter 1: Semiconductor components
• Chapter 2: PCB Assembly and soldering techniques
• Chapter 3: Several applied circuits

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References
• T. Floyd, Electronic devices – Conventional Current Version, 9th edition, Prentice
Hall, 2012
• Boylestad, Electronic devices and circuit theory, 11th edition

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Chapter 1: Semiconductor components

4
Current in semiconductors
• Creation of electron-hole pairs in a
silicon crystal.
• Electrons in the conduction band are
free electrons.
• Electron current in intrinsic silicon is
produced by the movement of
thermally generated free electrons.

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PN Junction
• N-Type Semiconductor
• The electrons are the majority carriers and the holes are the minority. This is done by
doping process.
• P-Type Semiconductor
• The holes are the majority carriers and the electrons are the minority.

• The basic silicon structure at the

instant of junction formation showing • electrons diffuse and a depletion
only the majority and minority carriers. region is formulated
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1.1 Diode - Basic

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1.1 Diode - Basic
• A diode is made from a small piece of semiconductor material, usually
silicon, in which half is doped as a p region and half is doped as an n
region with a pn junction and depletion region in between.

Basic structure Symbol

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1.1 Diode - Packages

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1.1 Diode - Forward & ReverseBias
• To bias a diode, you apply a dc voltage across it.
• Forward bias is the condition that allows current through the pn
junction.
• Reverse bias is the condition that essentially prevents current
through the diode.

Forward bias Reverse bias

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1.1 Diode - Voltage-Current characteristic of a diode
• V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias

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1.1 Diode - Voltage-Current characteristic of a diode
• V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias

• Complete V-I

Temperature Effect
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1.1 Diode - Diode models
• Bias Connections

• The Ideal Diode Model

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1.1 Diode - Diode models
• 2. The Practical Diode Model

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1.1 Diode - Diode models
3. The Complete Diode Model

IR : Reverse (leakage) current  diode datasheet

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VR = IR r’R

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1.1 Diode - Diode applications
• Rectifiers Half-wave

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1.1 Diode - Diode applications
• Half-wave RectifierOperation

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1.1 Diode - Diode applications
• Average Voltage & PIV
• Average Value of the Half-Wave
Output Voltage

• Effect of the Barrier Potential

• The peak inverse voltage (PIV) equals the

peak value of the input voltage

The diode must be capable of withstanding this amount

of repetitive reverse voltage.
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1.1 Diode - Transformer Coupling

n : turns ratio
Vsec: secondary voltage
Vpri : primary voltage

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1.1 Diode – Rectifiers Full-wave Rectifiers

• Center-tapped Full-wave
Rectifier

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1.1 Diode - Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation

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1.1 Diode - Datasheet

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1.1 Diode - Testing

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1.1 Diode - Troubleshooting

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1.1 Diode - Troubleshooting

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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply
• Specs:

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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply
• Design Rectifier Circuit

Rectifier Diodes

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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply
• Simulation

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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply

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1.1 Diode - Application: DC Power Supply
• PCB

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - The Zener Diode
• A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for
operation in the reverse-breakdown region.
• The breakdown voltage of a zener diode is set by carefully controlling the
doping level during manufacture.

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - The Zener Diode
• Zener EquivalentCircuits
• Zener is used as Regulator
• Two Models
• Ideal Model
• Practical Model

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes
The Light-Emitting Diode(LED)
• Basic operation :
• When the device is forward-biased, electrons cross the pn junction from the n-type
material and recombine with holes in the p-type material.
• The difference in energy between the electrons and the holes corresponds to the
energy of visible light.
• When recombination takes place, the recombining electrons release energy in the
form of photons.

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes
The Light-Emitting Diode(LED)
• LightEmission:
• An LED emits light over a specified range of wavelengths.

• Examples of typical spectral output curves for LEDs:

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes
The Light-Emitting Diode(LED)
• Typical LEDs

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes
The Light-Emitting Diode(LED)
• LEDApplication - 7-Segment Display

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes
The Light-Emitting Diode(LED)
• LEDApplication LED Displays
• The concept of an RGB pixel used
in LED display screens

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - Optical Diodes
• The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias where I is the
reverse light current.
• The photodiode has a small transparent window that allows light to strike
the pn junction.
• Internal Resistance changes by the amount of light.

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1.1 Diode - Special purpose diodes - Tunnel Diodes

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1.1 Diode – Practical Applications
• 12v regulated PowerSupply

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1.1 Diode – Practical Applications
• 12v regulated PowerSupply

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1.1 Diode – Practical Applications
• Battery charger

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1.1 Diode – Practical Applications
• Battery charger

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1.2 Transistors - Bipolar junction transistor (BJT) structure

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1.2 Transistors - Packages

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1.2 Transistors - Basic Operation
• Biasing & Operation

• Transistor Currents

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1.2 Transistors - BJT Configurations
Configuration Input Output
Common Emitter Base Collector
Common Base Emitter Collector
Common Collector Base Emitter

• Base terminal can’t be output

• Collector terminal can’t be input

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1.2 Transistors - BJT Parameters
• The dc current gain of a transistor is the ratio of the dc
collector current (IC) to the dc base current (IB) and is
designated dc beta (βDC).

• Typical values of βDC range from less than 20 to 200 or higher.

• βDC is usually designated as an equivalent hybrid (h)
parameter, hFE, on transistor datasheets.

• The ratio of the dc collector current (IC) to the dc

emitter current (IE) is the dc alpha (ɑDC).

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1.2 Transistors - Transistor DC Model

Ic= βIB

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1.2 Transistors - Collector characteristic curves
Operation Regions
• Active
• Cut-off
• Saturation

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1.2 Transistors - BJT as an Amplifier

re = 26 mv/ IE
IE = IC + IB

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1.2 Transistors - BJT as a Switch

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1.2 Transistors - The Phototransistor

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1.2 Transistors - Phototransistor Application
• Relay circuits driven by a phototransistor

• A relay is an electrically operated switch.

• relays use an electromagnet to
mechanically operate a switch
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1.2 Transistors - Transistor Bias Circuit
• What’s Biasing?
• Bias establishes the dc operating point (Q-point) for proper linear operation of an amplifier.
• Why?
• If an amplifier is not biased with correct dc voltages on the input and output, it can go into saturation or cutoff when an
input signal is applied.

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1.2 Transistors - Q-point Adjustment

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1.2 Transistors - DC Load Line

• Variations in collector current and collector-to-emitter voltage as a result of a variation

in base current.

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1.2 Transistors - Waveform Distortion

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1.2 Transistors - Voltage-Divider bias

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1.2 Transistors - Loading Effects of Voltage-Divider Bias

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1.2 Transistors - Thevenin’s Theorem Applied to
Voltage-Divider Bias

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1.2 Transistors – other Bias Circuits
Base Bias Emitter Bias

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1.2 Transistors – other Bias Circuits
Emitter Feedback Bias Collector Feedback Bias

Note:
Different bias circuits has different stability levels against beta
and/or temperature changes

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1.2 Transistors - Linear Amplifier

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1.2 Transistors - C.E. AC Analysis
•DC Analysis: Capacitors  Open
Circuit (See before)

•AC Analysis: Capacitors  short

Circuit DC supply  ground

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1.2 Transistors - AC r-parameter Model

Input resistance

Output resistance

Voltage gain

Current gain

Power gain

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1.2 Transistors - Multistage Amplifier

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1.2 Transistors – FET vs. BJT

 One of the most important characteristics of the FET is its high input impedance.
 Typical ac voltage gains for BJT amplifiers are a great deal more than for FETs.
 FETs are more temperature stable than BJTs, and FETs are usually smaller than BJTs, making them particularly
useful in integrated-circuit (IC) chips.

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1.2 Transistors - FET vs. BJT

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1.2 Transistors - FET Constructions

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1.2 Transistors - FET Characteristics

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1.2 Transistors - JFET & MOSFET Symbol

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1.2 Transistors - Other MOSFETS
• VMOS AND UMOS POWER MOSFETs • CMOS

• MESFET

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1.2 Transistors - Testing with DMM

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1.2 Transistors -Testing with DMM

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1.2 Transistors -Testing with DMM

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1.2 Transistors - Voltage Divider circuit

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1.2 Transistors - 2-stage Amplifier

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1.2 Transistors - FET circuits

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Relay Driver

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Light Control

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Alarm System

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Logic gates

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Voltage level indicator

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Audio mixer

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Security Alarm System

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Security Alarm System

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1.2 Transistors - Practical applications
• Temperature to Voltage Converter

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1.3 Op-amp - Introduction
• Early operational amplifiers (op-amps)
were used primarily to perform
mathematical operations such as
addition, subtraction, integration, and
differentiation—thus the term
operational.
• These early devices were constructed with
vacuum tubes and worked with high
• voltages.
• Today’s op-amps are linear integrated circuits
(ICs) that use relatively low dc supply
voltages and are reliable and inexpensive.

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1.3 Op-amp - Ideal & Practical Op-Amp

• Internal Block Diagram of an Op-Amp

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1.3 Op-amp - 741 Op-Amp Internal Circuit

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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters
• Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
• The common-mode rejection ratio, CMRR:
It’s the ratio of the open-loop differential voltage gain, Aol, to the common- mode gain, Acm.

• Open-loop voltage gain can range up to 200,000 (106 dB) and is not a well- controlled parameter.
• Datasheets often refer to the open-loop voltage gain as the large-signal voltage gain.
• A CMRR of 100,000, for example, means that the desired input signal (differential) is amplified 100,000
times more than the unwanted noise (common-mode).

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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters
• Maximum Output Voltage Swing (VO(p-p))
• With no input signal, the output of an op-amp is ideally 0 V. This is called the quiescent output voltage.
• When an input signal is applied, the ideal limits of the peak-to-peak output signal are ±Vcc.
• In practice this ideal can be approached but never reached.
• Vopp varies with the load connected to the op-amp and increases directly
with load resistance.
Example:
Fairchild KA741

• Input Offset Voltage

• The ideal op-amp produces zero volts out for zero volts in.
• In a practical op-amp, a small dc voltage, VOUT(error), appears at the output when no differential input voltage is
applied.
• Its primary cause is a slight mismatch of the base-emitter voltages of the differential amplifier input stage of an op-
amp.
• The input offset voltage, Vo, is the differential dc voltage required between the inputs to force the output to zero volts
• Typical values VOS, are in the range of 2 mV or less.

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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters
• Input Bias Current • The input bias current is the dc current
required by the inputs of the amplifier to
properly operate the first stage.
• Input bias current is the average of the two
op-amp input currents

• Input Impedance
• The differential input impedance is the total resistance between the inverting and the non-inverting inputs.
• The common-mode input impedance is the resistance between each input and ground and is measured by determining
the change in bias current for a given change in common-mode input voltage.

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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters
• Input Offset Current • Ideally, the two input bias currents are equal, and thus their difference is
zero.
• In a practical op-amp, the bias currents are not exactly equal.
• The input offset current, IOS, is the difference of the input bias currents,
expressed as an absolute value.

• Output Impedance
• The output impedance is the
resistance viewed from the
output terminal of the op-amp

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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters
• Slew Rate • The maximum rate of change of the output voltage in response to a step
input voltage is the slew rate of an op-amp.
• The slew rate is dependent upon the high-frequency response of the
amplifier stages within the op-amp.

• Slew-rate measurement

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1.3 Op-amp - OP-AMPS parameters
• Frequency Response
• The internal amplifier stages that make up an op-amp have voltage gains
limited by junction capacitances.
• An op-amp has no internal coupling capacitors, however; therefore, the low-frequency response extends down to dc (0
Hz).
• Noise Specification
• Noise has become a more important issue !
• Noise is defined as an unwanted signal that affects the quality of a desired
signal.
• There are two basic forms of noise.
• At low frequencies, noise is inversely proportional to the frequency; this is called
1/f noise or “pink noise”.
• Above a critical noise frequency, the noise becomes flat and is spread out
equally across the frequency spectrum; this is called “white noise”.
• The power distribution of noise is measured in

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1.3 Op-amp - Op-amps with negative feedback
• Why Use Negative Feedback?
• Negative feedback is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that
opposes (or subtracts from) the input signal.
• Open-loop voltage gain of a typical op-amp is very high.
• Therefore, an extremely small input voltage drives the op-amp into its saturated output states.
• In fact, even the input offset voltage of the op-amp can drive it into saturation.

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1.3 Op-amp - Op-amps with negative feedback
• An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to stabilize the gain and
increase frequency response.
• The closed-loop voltage gain is the voltage gain of an op-amp with external
feedback.
• The closed-loop voltage gain is determined by the external component values
• and can be precisely controlled by them.

• Non-inverting Amplifier

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1.3 Op-amp - Op-amps with negative feedback
• Voltage-Follower

• Inverting Amplifier

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1.3 Op-amp - Bias current and offset voltage
• Certain deviations from the ideal op-amp must be recognized because of their
effects on its operation
• Transistors within the op-amp must be biased so that they have the correct
values of base and collector currents and collector-to-emitter voltages.
• The ideal op-amp has no input current at its terminals; but in fact, the practical
op-amp has small input bias currents typically in the nA range.
• Also, small internal imbalances in the transistors effectively produce a small
offset voltage between the inputs.

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1.3 Op-amp - Effect of Input Bias Current

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1.3 Op-amp - Bias Current Compensation
• To compensate for the effect of
bias , a resistor Rc is added.
• Use of a BIFET Op-Amp to
Eliminate the Need for Bias
Current Compensation

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1.3 Op-amp - Effect of Input Offset Voltage

Input Offset Voltage Compensation

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS
• Zero Level Detection
• Operational amplifiers are often used as comparators to compare the
• amplitude of one voltage with another.
• In this application, the op-amp is used in the open-loop configuration, with the input voltage on one input and a reference voltage on the
other.
• The output is always at either one of two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs.
• Comparators provide very fast switching times.
• Comparators are often used to interface between an analog and digital circuit ( output is in one of two states).

• One application of a
comparator is to determine
when an input voltage
exceeds a certain level.

• If the level is Zero (Ground)  Zero Level Detection

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS
• Effects of Input Noise on Comparator
Operation
• To make the comparator less sensitive to noise, a technique uses positive
feedback, called hysteresis, can be used.
• Hysteresis means that there is a higher reference level when the input
voltage goes from a lower to higher value than when it goes from a higher
to a lower value.
• A good example of hysteresis is a common house-hold thermostat that
turns the
• furnace on at one temperature and off at another.

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS
• Reducing Noise Effects with Hysteresis

• A comparator with built-in

hysteresis is sometimes known
as a Schmitt trigger.
• The amount of hysteresis is
defined by the difference of
the two trigger levels.

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS
• Output Bounding
• The process of limiting the
output range is called
bounding.

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS
• Comparator Applications - Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion
• The simultaneous, or flash,
method of A/D conversion
uses parallel comparators to
compare the linear input
signal with various reference
voltages developed by a
voltage divider.
• When the input voltage
exceeds the reference voltage
for a given comparator, a high
level is produced on that
comparator’s output.

2n- 1 comparators are required for

conversion to an n-digit binary number.

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1.3 Op-amp -

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1.3 Op-amp - COMPARATORS
• Comparator Applications - Over-Temperature Sensing Circuit

Specific Comparators
• The LM111 and LM311 are examples of specific comparators that exhibit high switching speeds and other features not
normally found on the general type of op-amp.
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1.3 Op-amp -

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1.3 Op-amp - TROUBLESHOOTING

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1.3 Op-amp - TROUBLESHOOTING

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1.3 Op-amp - TROUBLESHOOTING

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1.3 Op-amp- Practical applications
• Op-Amp Audio Amplifier

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1.3 Op-amp- Practical applications
• Sine/Pulse Waveform Generator

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1.3 Op-amp- Practical applications
• Sine/Pulse Waveform Generator..

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