energies

Article
Finite Control Set Model-Free Predictive Current Control of a
Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
Mingmao Hu 1,2 , Feng Yang 1 , Yi Liu 3,4, * and Liang Wu 1

1 School of Mechanical Engineering, Hubei University of Automotive Technology, Shiyan 442002, China;
hu@huat.edu.cn (M.H.); 202010005@huat.edu.cn (F.Y.); 202011038@huat.edu.cn (L.W.)
2 Hubei Key Laboratory of Automotive Power Train and Electronic Control, Hubei University of Automotive
Technology, Shiyan 442002, China
3 State Key Laboratory of Advanced Electromagnetic Engineering and Technology, School of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
4 High-Efficiency and Energy-Saving Electrical Machine R&D Center of HUST at Zibo High-Tech Development
Zone, Zibo 255039, China
* Correspondence: liuyi82@hust.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-139-7162-4049

Abstract: In this paper, a finite control set model-free predictive current control (FCS-MFPCC) of a
permanent magnet synchronous motor is presented. The control scheme addresses the problems of
large current fluctuation and decline of the motor system performance during parameter perturba-
tion for the traditional finite control set model predictive current control (FCS-MPCC). Firstly, the
mathematical model of the motor is analyzed and derived during parameter perturbation, and a new
hyperlocal model of the motor is established based on this mathematical model. Secondly, a finite
control set model-free predictive current controller is designed based on the new hyperlocal model,
and a current error correction factor is introduced to correct the prediction error. Meanwhile, the
stability of the observer is demonstrated via the Lyapunov theory. The simulation results show that



the proposed control strategy reduces current fluctuation compared with the FCS-MPCC strategy,


and the system is robust during parameter perturbation.
Citation: Hu, M.; Yang, F.; Liu, Y.;
Wu, L. Finite Control Set Model-Free
Predictive Current Control of a
Keywords: permanent magnet synchronous motor; hyperlocal model; parameter perturbation;
Permanent Magnet Synchronous sliding mode observer
Motor. Energies 2022, 15, 1045.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031045

Academic Editor: Paulo José da

1. Introduction
Costa Branco
Permanent magnet synchronous motors (PMSMs) have numerous advantages, such
Received: 20 December 2021 as small size, a flexible structure, high reliability, and high power density; they have been
Accepted: 24 January 2022
widely adopted in many applications, e.g., aerospace, robotics, electric vehicles, etc. [1–3].
Published: 30 January 2022
At present, in traditional PMSM speed control systems, a PI controller is generally used to
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral adjust the speed; the algorithm is simple, and the parameters are easy to adjust. However,
with regard to jurisdictional claims in the PMSM is a complex research target; its complexity is reflected in its nonlinearity,
published maps and institutional affil- multiple targets, strong coupling, etc. Therefore, the PI controller can only meet the control
iations. requirements within a certain range. During the running of the PMSM, when the internal
parameters are perturbed and the system is disturbed on the outside, it is difficult for the
PI controller to meet the application’s requirements in high-performance occasions [4,5].
Vector control technology has produced a classic control scheme, which is widely used
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
in the electric drive industry. According to whether or not it is desirable to decouple, the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
vector control technology can be further divided into field-oriented control (FOC) [6], direct
This article is an open access article
torque control (DTC) [7,8], etc. Over the years, motor systems have required fast current
distributed under the terms and
response and small fluctuation for PMSMs in high-precision, high-performance control
conditions of the Creative Commons
problems; therefore, many scholars have carried out research at home and abroad, and
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
various advanced control methods have been applied to the field of motor control, e.g.,
4.0/).
model predictive control (MPC) [9–11], sliding mode control [12,13], fuzzy control [14,15],

Energies 2022, 15, 1045. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15031045 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 1045 2 of 18

neural network control [16,17], etc. MPC has attracted the attention of many scholars due
to its fast response speed and its ability to achieve multiple nonlinear objectives; this has
become a hot topic in the field of motor control.
MPC is divided into finite control set MPC (FCS-MPC) and continuous control set MPC
(CCS-MPC) [18,19]. FCS-MPC mainly uses the discrete switch state of electronic devices,
and predicts the next-moment state of the motor by the state at the current moment, based
on the mathematical model of the motor. A reasonable cost function is designed, and the
cost function is used to compare each predicted state quantity. The principle of minimum
value is to select the optimal voltage vector and apply it to the inverter. In the actual
digital control system, there is a fundamental problem of one-beat delay because of the
calculation time of the algorithm and other factors. As a solution to the problem of one-beat
delay, many scholars have proposed deadbeat control [20,21]. The authors of [20] proposed
a robustness MPCC strategy based on predictive error compensation for the robustness
of the system. In this strategy, the error between the real value of the current and the
predicted value of the current is used as feedback to the current prediction. At the same
time, the current errors corresponding to each voltage are obtained in a given period,
ensuring the accuracy of error feedback and reducing current fluctuation. The authors
of [21] proposed a static error elimination algorithm that superimposes the d-axis voltage
on the d-axis current static difference integral value, and the controller’s flux linkage value
is adjusted by the q-axis current’s static difference integral value in order to eliminate
current fluctuations. The author of [22] proposed a method of error feedback compensation
based on the application of vector prediction to further improve deadbeat control. The
authors of [23] proposed a fast online current loop tuning method to solve the problem
of accurate current control. In [24], current ripples of a surface-mounted PMSM were
effectively reduced by applying two voltage vectors during the control period, instead
of one voltage vector, as in conventional MPCC. The authors of [25] proposed a two-step
CCS-MPCC strategy that was adopted to complete the PMSM mathematical model; the
predictive currents could be obtained without the estimated rotor position, and a new
proportional cost function was designed to obtain the optimal voltage vector.
MPC depends heavily on mathematical modeling, while model-free control is pro-
duced in theories that do not rely on mathematical models of the system. French scholar M.
Fliess summarized model-free control, and proposed a PID intelligent algorithm based on
a hyperlocal model on the basis of model-free control [26]. The authors of [27,28] proposed
a new type of hyperlocal model in the classic model-free predictive control, which divides
the parameter-unknown part into a linear part and a nonlinear part; at the same time,
an extended sliding mode observer is used to solve the parameter-unknown part. The
authors of [29] used the method of differential algebra to estimate the unknown part of the
parameters; this method has non-incremental features, and cannot be analyzed via classical
stability theory. The authors of [30,31] estimated the unknown part of the parameters in
model-free control based on the extended observers of the arctangent function and the fal
function, respectively, to improve system robustness. The authors of [32] proposed a com-
pensated scheme with an extended sliding mode observer. The authors of [33] proposed a
robust nonlinear predictive current control method for PMSM drives, which can optimize
the current control loop performance of the PMSM system via PMSM parameter perturba-
tion. The authors of [34,35] used different methods to solve the problem of robustness of
the control system; ref. [34] proposed a method based on a hyperlocal model to solve the
problem, the unknown part of which was estimated using an active disturbance rejection
control algorithm; meanwhile, ref. [35] proposed an improved MPCC algorithm based on
the incremental model for surface-mounted PMSM drives.
Therefore, for the traditional FCS-MPCC strategy, the performance of the motor
system is reduced and the current fluctuation is large because of parameter perturbation.
This paper combines model-free control with deadbeat model predictive current control,
and proposes an FCS-MFPCC strategy; this control strategy does not need to know the
exact mathematical model of the motor, and it can achieve good control effects under the
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 3 of 18

conditions of motor parameter perturbation. Firstly, it analyzes the PMSM in detail in

the event of parameter perturbation, the mathematical model of the PMSM is deduced,
and a new hyperlocal model is established. Secondly, a discrete sliding mode observer is
designed to accurately estimate the unknown part of the new hyperlocal model. Finally, the
effectiveness of the algorithm is verified by simulation and, compared with the traditional
FCS-MPCC, the current fluctuation and torque fluctuation are significantly reduced.

2. PMSM System Model Description

2.1. Mathematical Model of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motor
Assuming that the PMSM is running in an ideal state, the permanent magnet delay
phenomenon, eddy current loss, magnetic circuit, and stator core saturation are ignored;
the magnetic circuit is considered to be linear, and factors such as perturbation of the motor
parameters are not considered. Thus, the voltage equation of the PMSM on the dq-axis can
be obtained [36]:
ud = Rso id + Ldo didtd − ωre Lqo iq
(

di (1)
uq = Rso iq + Lqo dtq − ωre Ldo id + ωre ψ f
where, ud and uq represent the stator voltages of the dq-axis, respectively, Rso is the nominal
value of the stator resistance, Ldo and Lqo are the nominal values of the stator dq axis
inductance, respectively, id and iq represent the stator current of the dq-axis, respectively,
ω re represents the rotor electrical angular speed, and Ψf represents the nominal value of
the permanent magnet flux linkage.
When the motor is in actual operation, it is influenced by the saturation of the magnetic
circuit and the electronic core, which will cause the motor resistance, inductance, and flux
linkage to be perturbed. Therefore, in order to make sure that the motor maintains high
performance during operation, the PMSM model under parameter perturbation can be
given as follows:

ud = Rso id + Ldo didtd − ωre Lqo iq + ∆ud

(

diq (2)
uq = Rso iq + Lqo dt − ωre Ldo id + ωre ψ f + ∆uq

where ∆ud and ∆uq represent the voltage disturbances when the motor parameters are
perturbed; ∆ud and ∆uq can be expressed as follows:

∆ud = ∆Rso id + ∆Ldo didtd − ωre ∆Lqo iq

(

diq (3)
∆uq = ∆Rso iq + ∆Lqo dt − ωre ∆Ldo id + ωre ∆ψ f

where ∆Rso , ∆Ldo , and ∆Lqo are the perturbation of the motor parameters Rso , Ldo , and Lqo ,
respectively, and ∆ψ f is the disturbance of the permanent magnet flux linkage when the
flux linkage ψ f changes.
When Formula (3) is substituted into Formula (2), the state current equation of the
dq-axis of the PMSM can be listed as follows:
Lqo +∆Lqo

 did = ud Rso +∆Rso
dt Ldo +∆Ldo − Ldo +∆Ldo id + ωre Ldo +∆Ldo iq
Rso +∆Rso Ldo +∆Ldo ψ f +∆ψ f (4)
 diq = uq
− i q + ω re i + ω re
dt Lqo +∆Lqo Lqo +∆Lqo Lqo +∆Lqo d Lqo +∆Lqo

When transforming Formula (4), the state current equation of the dq-axis of the motor
under the perturbation of parameters is:

L +∆L ∆Ldo
u − L∆R(s LLd −+∆R

did ud Rso qo qo s Ld
= − Ldo id + ωre Ldo +∆Ldo iq − Ldo ( Ldo +∆Ldo ) d
id
dt Ldo do do ∆Ldo )

diq uq uq +∆Ldo ∆ψ ∆L ∆Rs Lq −∆Rs Lq
(5)

dt = Lqo − Rso
Lqo iq − Lqo +∆Lqo + ωre LLdo
qo + ∆Lqo d
f
i + ωre Lqo +∆L qo
− Lqo ( Lqo +qo∆Lqo ) uq − i
Lqo ( Lqo +∆Lqo ) q
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 4 of 18

The electromagnetic torque equation of the PMSM in the dq-axis is as follows:

3
Te = n p [ψ f + ( Ldo − Lqo )id ]iq (6)
2
The mechanical motion equation of the PMSM in the dq-axis can be expressed as follows:

dωe np
= ( Te − TL − Bm ωre ), (7)
dt J

where Te represents the electromagnetic torque of the motor, TL represents the mechanical
load torque applied, J represents the rotor inertia, Bm is the nominal value of the damping
coefficient, and n p is the number of motor poles.

2.2. PMSM Hyperlocal Model

The single-input single-output nonlinear control system for the traditional hyperlocal
model can be expressed as follows:
 .
x = g( x ) + αu
(8)
y=x

where x represents the state variable of the system, α is the non-physical constant gain, αu
.
and x are kept at the same order of magnitude, g( x ) is the known part of the system and
the uncertain part of the parameters., and y and u are the output and input of the system,
respectively.
According to the theory of the new hyperlocal model, g( x ) in Equation (8) can be
decomposed into a linear part and a nonlinear part, so the new hyperlocal model is given
as follows:  .
x = αu + βx + F
(9)
y=x
where β represents the system state gain, and F represents the unknown nonlinear part,
which satisfies Lipschitz boundedness and Lebesgue measurability.
According to Equations (5) and (9), the PMSM model can be expressed as follows:
did
(
dt = αd id + β d ud + Fd
diq (10)
dt = αq iq + β q uq + Fq

where αd = − RL so ; αq = − RLqoso ; β d == L1 ; β q = 1
Lqo ; Fd , Fq are the unknown parts of
do do
the system.

3. PMSM Model-Free Predictive Current Control

3.1. Model-Free Deadbeat Prediction Current Control Algorithm
In the traditional FCS-MPCC method, the motor mathematical model is used to predict
the future value of the current. When the motor parameters are perturbed, if the model is
used to predict the future value of the current, there will be deviation between the ideal
model and the actual model, and the motor performance will be decreased. Therefore, this
paper combines the traditional FCS-MPCC and the hyperlocal model in the model-free
PCC, and the FCS-MPCC algorithm is proposed.
Discretization of Equation (10) by the forward Euler method is given as follows:
(
id P (k + 1) = (αd id (k) + βud (k) + Fd (k)) Ts + id (k)
(11)
iq P (k + 1) = (αq iq (k) + βuq (k) + Fq (k)) Ts + iq (k )

where id P (k + 1) and iq P (k + 1) are the predicted current values of the dq-axis at the next
sampling time, Ts is the sampling time period, and Fd (k) and Fq (k) represent updates in
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 5 of 18

real time in each sampling period—including the unknown part—due to perturbation of

the motor parameters.
The current control objective used in this paper is that the current of the motor dq-axis
can follow its given reference value, as well as the difference between the stator current of
the dq-axis and the reference value. The sum of the absolute values is a cost function. The
cost function of Equation (12) is as follows:

J = i∗ q − iq p (k + 1) + |i∗ d − id p (k + 1)| (12)

where J represents the cost function, i∗ q represents the reference stator current of the q-axis,
and i∗ d represents the reference stator current of the d-axis.
In a given sampling time period, there are eight switch states to choose from, including
two zero vectors and six effective vectors. Under the action of the i-th (i = 0,1,2...7) voltage
vector, combined with voltage reconstruction, the dq-axis current value at the next moment
is predicted by the value function.
In theoretical research, i (k + 1) can accurately track the reference value i∗ (k) in a
sampling period; however, in the actual running of the motor system, the motor current
actually lags behind the change in the motor current. The schematic diagram of one-beat
delay is shown in Figure 1. The state variable of the motor x k is obtained at the moment tk ;
the time at this point is t1 , and after the filter delay time in the digital system, the optimal
voltage vector will be chosen at the moment t2 , or it will have an effect on the motor6 of
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW t3 ,
at20
k k + 1
and the state of the motor will change from x to x , but in the ideal state, the optimal
voltage vector should be applied to the motor at tk , and will cause one-beat delay.

t1 t2 t3
x
Ts Ts
k 1
x
*
x
xk xk 2
tk t k 1 t k 2 t
Schematicdiagram
Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure diagramofofone-beat
one-beatdelay.
delay.

In order to solve the problem of one-beat delay, this article adopts the delay com-
In order to solve the problem of one-beat delay, this article adopts the delay compen-
pensation method based on the two-step operation to compensate for the system delay.
sation method based on the two-step operation to compensate for the system delay. Spe-
Specifically, the state parameters at time k are substituted into Equation (11), the current
cifically, the state parameters at time k are substituted into Equation (11), the current value
value is predicted at time k + 1, and the current value is obtained at time k + 2 using
is predicted at time k + 1, and the current value is obtained at time k + 2 using Equation
Equation (13). The corresponding current expression can be given as follows:
(13). The corresponding current expression can be given as follows:
(
P η ( k + 1) + βu ( k + 1) + F ( k )) T + i η ( k + 1)
id P (ikd (k2)+2)(=d i(dαd(ikd +1)   ud (k +1)
d  Fd (k ))dTs  ids (k d 1) (13)
 P iq (k + 2) = (α q iq (k + 1) + βuq (k + 1) + Fq (k)) Ts + iq (k + 1)
P η η
(13)
iq (k  2)  ( q iq (k +1)   uq (k +1)  Fq (k ))Ts  iq (k  1)
where idP + 2) and iqPP (k + 2) represent the current prediction value of the dq-axis at
P (k

(k + 2)iTs,
where d ( kwhile
 2) and id η (k i+
q (1
k)and
2) represent
iq η (k + 1)the current the
represent prediction
estimatedvalue
valuesof theof dq-axis at
the actual

(current
k  2)Ts of the dq-axis
, while id  (k +1) and kiq+(1,
at time k +1)
respectively.
represent Calculating
the estimated thevalues
predicted
of the current
actualvalue
cur-
i P ( k + 1 ) , i P ( k + 1 ) at time k + 1 by Formula (11), i P ( k + 1 ) and i P ( k + 1 ) are used
q
rent of the dq-axis at time k +1 , respectively. Calculating the predicted current value
d d q
P P
id P (k  1) , iq (k 1) at time k +1 by Formula (11), id P (k  1) and iq (k  1) are used in-

stead of id  (k +1) and iq (k +1) . Therefore the predicted current value after two-step pre-
diction can be expressed as follows:

id P ( k  2)  ( d id p ( k +1)   d ud ( k  1)  Fd ( k +1))Ts  id p ( k +1)

 P p p
(14)
iq ( k  2)  ( q iq ( k +1)   q uq ( k  1)  Fq ( k +1))Ts  iq ( k +1)
 Energies 2022, 15, 1045 6 of 18

instead of id η (k + 1) and iq η (k + 1). Therefore the predicted current value after two-step
prediction can be expressed as follows:
(
id P (k + 2) = (αd id p (k + 1) + β d ud (k + 1) + Fd (k + 1)) Ts + id p (k + 1)
(14)
iq P (k + 2) = (αq iq p (k + 1) + β q uq (k + 1) + Fq (k + 1)) Ts + iq p (k + 1)

It should be noted that the predicted current value at k + 2 represents the predicted
current value calculated in the first step, and the first and second steps use the same
voltage vector. When the sampling period Ts is very small, it can be considered that
Fd (k + 1) = Fd (k ), Fq (k + 1) = Fq (k).

3.2. Predicted Current Error Feedback Compensation

If id p (k + 1) = id η (k + 1) and iq p (k + 1) = iq η (k + 1) are used directly in Formula (14),
it will cause the system to generate a larger prediction error. Thereby, the accuracy of
current tracking is reduced, and the predicted current correction links are introduced to
correct the predicted current, as follows:
(
id η (k + 1) = id p (k + 1) + k1 ∆id (k)
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 20(15)
iq η (k + 1) = iq p (k + 1) + k2 ∆iq (k)

where ∆id (k) and ∆iq (k ) are the respective current difference values generated when
p
iq each
(k )=iqvoltage
(k )  i(kis) ,applied
and k1 to, kthe motor at tk , and the expressions are ∆id (k)respectively.
2 are the difference coefficients of the dq-axis,
= i d p ( k ) − i ( k ),
∆iq (2k)shows
Figure
p
= iq (an − i (k), anddeadbeat
k) improved k1 , k2 arecurrent
the difference coefficients
prediction of the dq-axis, respectively.
control diagram.
Figure 2 shows an improved deadbeat current prediction control diagram.

F (k )

i (k ) i p (k  1) i (k  1) i p (k  2)

ie (k )
i p (k )

Figure 2. Block
Figure diagram
2. Block of improved
diagram deadbeat
of improved current
deadbeat prediction
current control.
prediction control.

Through
Through deadbeat
deadbeat current
current predictive
predictive control,
control, the the corresponding
corresponding value
value function
function ex- ex-
pression can be written as follows:
pression can be written as follows:

J  Ji*= i∗ qp − iq p (k +*2) +p|i∗ − i p (k + 2)| (16) (16)

q  iq (k  2)  i d  id (kd 2) d

4. Design of the Extended Sliding Mode Observer

4.1. Design
4. Design of the
of the Sliding Sliding
Extended Mode Observer
Mode Observer
Theofaccurate
4.1. Design the Slidingestimation of F plays a vital role in the control performance of the system.
Mode Observer
InThe
thisaccurate
paper, the following sliding
estimation of F plays modea observer
vital roleisinused
the to estimate
control ofFthe
the value of
performance [30]:
system. In this paper, the following
. sliding mode δobserver is used to
estimate the value of
F [30]: î = α î + βu + γ i − î sgn(i−î) + k i−î (17)

 
iˆ  −iˆξ
where k is the coefficient
| x
of the exponential
| i - iˆ )+k（
 u   i  iˆ sgn(term; - iˆ）
k>i 0, δ is the exponent of the power
(17)
term; δ = σ +(λ − σ )e ; x is the state variable, and x = i−î is taken as the state variable
below; lim | x | = 0, and
where k is the coefficient ofσ the
λ are the δ parameter
exponential term; cank reach
 0 , the is
minimum and maximum
the exponent of the
t→∞
values;
power 0 < =λ<
term; +(1,σ >
 x
x the
)e 0, ;ξ is is thecoefficient of the constant
state variable, i - iˆ isthat
and x =term adjusts
taken thestate
as the rate of
.
change
variable of δ; ξlim
below; > x0,γ0 ,=diagand(fl1 ), γthe
, γ2are  γparameter
1 > 0, 2 > 0 are the
canparameters and î
to be designed;
reach the minimum
t   T
represents
maximum the observed
values; 0    1 values
,   0 of
, î, îis=the coefficient
îd îq of the; sgn (·) is the
constant symbolic
term function;
that adjusts
 T  T
rateuof=change
the and ud uofq  ,; i = 0 i,d  =iqdiag (. ,  ) ,   0 ,   0 are the parameters to be
1 2 1 2
̂ T
designed; i represents the observed values of iˆ , iˆ = iˆd iˆq  ; sgn() is the symbolic
T T
function; and u  ud uq  , i  id iq  .
The observer error is defined as follows:
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 7 of 18

The observer error is defined as follows:

e = i − î (18)
 T
where e = ed eq , ed = id − îd , eq = iq − îq .
Through Equations (10) and (17), the observer error equation can be written as follows:
. −ξ |e|
e = αe + F − γ|e|σ+(λ−σ)e sgn(e) − ke (19)

This paper selects the sliding mode surface s = e and selects the appropriate matrix γ.
It can be proven that the observer error equation can converge to zero by Equation (19).
Proof: choose the following Lyapunov function to prove the stability of Equation (17):

1 2
V= s (20)
2
The derivative of Equation (20) is taken, then Equation (19) is substituted, and it can
be obtained through the following calculations:
.
V = ss
−ξ |e|
= s(αs+F − γ|s|σ+(λ−σ)e sgn(s) − ks)
σ +(λ−σ)e−ξ |e|
= sαs + sF − sγ|s| sgn(s) − sks
−ξ |e| (21)
≤ kskkαkksk + kskkFk − γksk|s|σ+(λ−σ)e −
kskkkkksk
σ+(λ−σ )e−ξ |e|
≤ ksk(kαkksk + kFk − γ|s| )

where k·k represents the matrix norm or the vector norm; although ksk and kFk are
unknown, they are considered to be bounded in the actual application process. Therefore,
kαkksk+kFk
if γ ≥ σ+(λ−σ)e−ξ |e| + η, η > 0, it can be determined from Equation (21) that:
|s|
.
V ≤ − η kek < 0 (22)

According to the stability judgment of the Lyapunov function and the reachable con-
dition of the sliding mode, the error e will gradually converge to zero in a finite time.
Therefore, the sliding mode observer Equation (17) designed in this paper is asymptoti-
cally stable.

4.2. Discretization of Sliding Mode Observer

In the actual digital control system, the sliding mode observer designed in this paper
needs to run in a discrete digital control system. Therefore, the designed sliding mode
observer must be discretized. For small Ts  1, Equation (17) can be discretized as follows:
−ξ |e|
î(k + 1) = (α + I)î(k) + βu(k) + γ|e(k)|σ+(λ−σ)e sgn(e(k)) − ke(k) (23)

where î(k + 1) refers to the current observation

 value at time (k + 1)Ts, î(k
 ) is the current

observation value at time kTs, î(k + 1) = îd (k + 1) îq (k + 1) , î(k) = îd (k ) îq (k) ,
 
u(k) is the voltage value at time kTs, u(k) = ud (k) uq (k ) , e(k) is the current error
variation at time k, e(k) = ed (k) eq (k) , and I is the identity matrix.
.
According to the principle of sliding mode equivalence e = e = 0, the unknown
quantity F can be obtained from Equation (19).
− β|e(k)|
F̂(k) = γ|e(k)|α+(λ−α)e sgn(e(k)) + ke(k) (24)
 Energies 2022, 15, 1045 8 of 18

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

In order to effectively reduce the vibration caused by the sign function of the sliding
mode observer, the arctangent function is used instead of the sign function. Equation (24)
can be rewritten as Equation (25). Figure 3 shows a block diagram for solving unknown
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20
quantity F.
− β|e(k)|
F̂(k) = γ|e(k)|α+(λ−α)e arctan(e(k)) + ke(k) (25)
 1
s

u (k )
 

 1
iˆ s
F̂
 F̂
u (k )
 
i 
ˆi
 F̂
 diagram F̂
Figure 3. Block of solving unknown quantity F̂ .
i
In summary, the block diagram of the FCS-MPFCC strategy is shown in Figure 4. The
specific
Figure 3.steps are
Block as follows:
diagram of solving unknown quantity F̂.
1. According
Figure to Equations
3. Block diagram (17)
of solving and (18),
unknown F̂ . error variable e(k ) is solved at
the current
quantity
In summary,
time k; the block diagram of the FCS-MPFCC strategy is shown in Figure 4. The
2.specific
InThe steps
summary, arethe
unknown as follows:
quantity F is observed
block diagram through thestrategy
of the FCS-MPFCC is shown
sliding mode in Figure
observer 4. The
(Equation
specific
1. (25)); steps are as
According to follows:
Equations (17) and (18), the current error variable e(k) is solved at time k;
3. The
1. 2. According current
The unknown value of the Fpresent
quantity
to Equations andperiod
is observed
(17) is predicted
(18),through
the through
the sliding
current error theobserver
mode
variablevoltage value and (25));
e(k ) (Equation
is solved at
actual
3. time current
Thekcurrent value
value at
of time
the k 1
present; period is predicted through the voltage value and
; 
2.4. The actual
The unknown current
predicted valuevalue
current
quantity atFtime k − 1; according
is corrected
is observed through the to Equation obtain id(Equation
(15) toobserver
sliding mode (k +1)
4. , The  predicted current value is corrected according to Equation (15) to obtain i η ( k + 1),
iq (k +1) ;
(25)); d
i q η ( k + 1);
3.5. The The observed F is substituted into Equations (11) and (13) to obtain the predictedand
current value of the present period is predicted through the voltage value
5. The observed Fp is substitutedp into Equations (11) and (13) to obtain the predicted
actual current value at 2)
time k 1;
current
currentvalues valuesidid(pk(k + ) andiqiq (pk(k +
2and 2) 2)atat timek k+
time 2 ;2;
4.6.6. The predicted
According
According totocurrent
thethe value
principle
principle is corrected
of the minimum
of the according
minimum value to Equation
of the
value of value (15)function,
to obtain
function,
the value
i  (k +1)
the optimal
thed optimal

ivoltage
q (k +1) ;vector corresponding to the minimum value of Equation (16) is selected to be
, voltage vector corresponding to the minimum value of Equation (16) is selected to be
5. The used
used ininthe
observed theinverter.
inverter.
F is substituted into Equations (11) and (13) to obtain the predicted
p
current values id (k*  2) and iq p ( k  2) at time k  2 ;
* id  0 Sa
6. According
re to the principle of the minimum valueS b of the value function, the optimal
voltage vector corresponding*
Sc
to the minimum value of Equation (16) is selected to be

used in the inverter. iq
re
i p (k  2) ua ub uc
i*d  0 Sa id (k ) dq ia
re* u0~7 Sib( k )
Sc
iq* i (k ) abc
q ib
re p ua ub uc
iˆ ((kk)  2)
F 
u0~7 i (k ) i
ui((kk)) udd (k ) dq uaba
dq
FCS  MFPCC abcu
uiqq((kk)) abc i
bc
b
Fˆ (k ) d 

u (k ) ud (k ) dq uab
dt

BlockFCS
Figure4.4.Block
Figure ofMFPCC
diagram
diagram of FCS-MPFCC.
FCS-MPFCC. uq (k ) abc ubc

d
dt

Figure 4. Block diagram of FCS-MPFCC.

 5. Simulation Results and Discussion
In order to verify the feasibility and effectiveness of FCS-MFPCC, the simulation was
carried out in MATLAB/Simulink, and the traditional FCS-MPCC simulation model was
Energies 2022, 15, 1045
simulated under the same conditions. 9 of 18
*
Table 1 shows the nominal parameters of the PMSM. The control strategy of i d =0
was adopted in the simulation. The speed rating was 300 r/min, the current rating was 10
A, and the torque
5. Simulation rating
Results was 10 N.m. The sampling period was set to 10 us or 50 us, and
and Discussion
the PI parameters were k
In order to verify the feasibility ki  20
p  2 , and ; in model-free
effectiveness control, the
of FCS-MFPCC, thevalues
simulation d , q ,  d
of was
carried out in MATLAB/Simulink, and the traditional FCS-MPCC
R simulation model was
1
Rso 1
and q under
,simulated are determined by  d = 
the same conditions. ,  q =  so ,  d == , and q = , respec-
Lq The control
Ld of the PMSM.
Table 1 shows the nominal parameters Ldostrategy of i∗ L=
qo 0
d
tively. The parameters
was adopted of the sliding
in the simulation. mode
The speed observer
rating  =1.5
arer/min,
was 300  = =0.5
, current
the rating 15 , k  10
,  was
10 A, and the torque rating was 10 N.m. The sampling
. In the current error correction, k1  k2  0.92 . period was set to 10 us or 50 us,
and the PI parameters were k p = 2, k i = 20; in model-free control, the values of αd , αq , β d ,
and β are determined by αd = − RLso , αq = − RLsoq , β d == L1 , and β q = L1qo , respectively. The
Tableq1. Nominal parameters of PMSM.
d do
parameters of the sliding mode observer are σ = 1.5, λ = ξ = 0.5, γ = 15, k = 10. In the
current error correction, k1 = k2 = −0.92.
Parameters Numerical Value
Flux induced by magnets Ψf/Wb 0.129
Table 1. Nominal parameters of PMSM.
Stator inductance Ls/mH 2.4
d-axis Parameters
inductance Ld/mH 2.4
Numerical Value
Fluxq-axis
inducedinductance Ψf /Wb
by magnets Lq/mH 0.129 2.4
Stator inductance Ls/mH
Motor stator resistance Rs/Ω 2.4 0.369
d-axis inductance Ld/mH 2.4
Number
q-axis of poles
inductance Lq/mHnp 2.4 5
MotorRotor
statorinertia Rs/ Ω2
J/kgm
resistance 0.3690.001916
Number of poles np 5
Damping coefficient Bm/Nm·rad/s
2 0.00464
Rotor inertia J/kgm 0.001916
Damping coefficient Bm/Nm·rad/s 0.00464
5.1. Simulation Results and Discussion of PMSM under Normal Parameters
In the simulation
5.1. Simulation Results andconditions, the
Discussion of reference
PMSM under speed
Normalwas 300 r/min, the motor is no-load
Parameters
whenIn starting, the load
the simulation torquethewas
conditions, increased
reference speedto was10300 N·m at 0.6
r/min, the s, andisthe
motor load torque
no-load
changed to 5 the
when starting, N·m at 0.8
load s. The
torque wasmotor
increased parameters
to 10 N·m at were
0.6 s,all
andnominal
the loadvalues.
torque changed
·m at 0.85s.and
to 5 NFigures The 6motor
showparameters
the d-axiswere all nominal
current values. and FCS-MPFCC, Figures 7
of FCS-MPCC
and 8Figures
show5theandq-axis the d-axis
6 showcurrent ofcurrent
FCS-MPCC of FCS-MPCC and FCS-MPFCC,
and FCS-MPFCC. It canFigures 7 and
be seen 8
in Figures 5
show the q-axis current of FCS-MPCC and FCS-MPFCC. It can be seen
and 6 that the d-axis current fluctuation has decreased. Although FCS-MFPCC has a cer- in Figures 5 and 6
that the d-axis current fluctuation has decreased. Although FCS-MFPCC has a certain
tain overshoot when the motor starts, it is still smaller than the fluctuation of FCS-MPCC.
overshoot when the motor starts, it is still smaller than the fluctuation of FCS-MPCC.
Comparing Figure
Comparing Figure 7 with
7 with Figure
Figure , it can
8, it8can be clearly
be clearly seen seen
that thethat the current
current fluctuation
fluctuation of the of the
q-axis has decreased significantly. At the same time, in the case of
q-axis has decreased significantly. At the same time, in the case of 0.6 s and 0.8 s torque 0.6 s and 0.8 s torque
mutation,
mutation, thetheovershoot
overshoot is also
is also significantly
significantly reduced,
reduced, and theand the response
response can quickly
can quickly reach reach
the corresponding
corresponding reference
reference value.
value.

Figure
Figure 5.5.d-axis
d-axiscurrent
current of FCS-MPCC.
of FCS-MPCC.
Energies 2022,
Energies
Energies 2022, 15, xx FOR
15,15,
2022, FOR PEER
1045 PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 10 of 18 12
12 of
of 20
20

Figure 6.d-axis
Figure 6.
Figure 6. d-axiscurrent
d-axis current
currentof of
FCS-MFPCC.
of FCS-MFPCC.
FCS-MFPCC.

Figure 7.q-axis
7.
Figure 7.
Figure q-axis current
q-axiscurrent
currentof of
of FCS-MPCC.
FCS-MPCC.
FCS-MPCC.

Figure
Figure 8. q-axis
8.q-axis
Figure 8. current
q-axiscurrent
currentof of
of FCS-FMPCC.
FCS-FMPCC.
FCS-FMPCC.

Figures
Figures999and and1010showshow thethe rotation speed
rotation waveform
speed waveform of theofFCS-MPCC
the FCS-MPCCand FCS- and FCS-
MPFCC; Figures
MPFCC; Figures 11 11 and
and 12 show
12 show the torque
the torquewaveform
waveform of the
of FCS-MPCC
the FCS-MPCCand FCS-MFPCC,
and FCS-MFPCC,
11 12 FCS-MFPCC
while Figure 13 shows the waveforms of FCS-MFPCC unknown quantities Fd and Fq.
while Figure 13 13 shows the waveforms of FCS-MFPCC unknown quantities Fd and Fq. Fq
Comparing Figures 9 and 10, it can clearly be seen that the speed response is similar and
Comparing Figures 9 and
can reach the reference9value 10 10 , it can clearly be seen that the speed
quickly, but under the control of FCS-MFPCC, the overshoot response is similar and
can reach the
is changed fromreference
316 r/minvalue
to 326quickly,
r/min when but under
the motor thestarts,
controlandofthe
FCS-MFPCC, the overshoot
overshoot increases
is changed from 316 r/min to 326 r/min when the motor starts,
by 10 r/min, but the overshoot changes from 291.2 r/min to 292.3 r/min in 0.6 s, becoming and the overshoot increases
by 10 r/min,
smaller, but the
and when the overshoot
torque changes changes
at t = from 291.2
0.8 s, the r/min tochanges
overshoot 292.3 r/min in 0.6r/min
from 302.7 s, becoming
to 301.9 r/min.
smaller, and when As canthebe torque
seen from Table 2,at
changes the t =speed
0.8 s,fluctuation of FCS-MFPCC
the overshoot is smaller,
changes from 302.7 r/min
and the fluctuation of FCS-MPCC
to 301.9 r/min. As can be seen from Table 2, in 0~0.6 s is greater than that of FCS-MFPCC, which is
2, the speed fluctuation of FCS-MFPCC is
caused
smaller,by the larger overshoot when the motor starts. Comparing Figure 11 with Figure 12,
smaller, and
and the the fluctuation
fluctuation of of FCS-MPCC
FCS-MPCC in in 0~0.6
0~0.6 ss is
is greater
greater than
than that
that of
of FCS-MFPCC,
FCS-MFPCC
it can be seen that the torque ripple is reduced, the overshoot is reduced, and the response
which is caused by the larger overshoot when the motor starts. Comparing Figure 11 11 with
Figure
Figure 12, it can be seen that the torque ripple is reduced, the overshoot is reduced, and
12 , it can be seen that the torque ripple is reduced, the overshoot is reduced, and
the response speed is similar. It can be seen from Figure 13 13 that the unknown quantities
Fd
Fd and
and Fq
Fq change
change at
at 0.6
0.6 ss and
and 0.8
0.8 s,
s, respectively,
respectively, providing
providing an
an accurate
accurate prediction
prediction for
for the
the
observer.
 Energies 2022, 15, 1045 11 of 18

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20
speed is similar. It can be seen from Figure 13 that the unknown quantities Fd and Fq
change at 0.6 s and 0.8 s, respectively, providing an accurate prediction for the observer.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Rotation
Rotation speed
speed of FCS-MPCC.
FCS-MPCC.
Figure 9. Rotation speed ofof
FCS-MPCC.
Figure 9. Rotation speed of FCS-MPCC.

Figure 10.Rotation
Figure 10.
Figure 10. Rotationspeed
Rotation speed
speed of
ofof FCS-MFPCC.
FCS-MFPCC.
FCS-MFPCC.
Figure 10. Rotation speed of FCS-MFPCC.

Figure 11. Torque of FCS-MPCC.

Figure 11.
Figure 11. Torque
Torque of
of FCS-MPCC.
FCS-MPCC.
Figure 11. Torque of FCS-MPCC.
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 12 of 18
Figure 11. Torque of FCS-MPCC.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20

Figure 12.Torque
Figure 12. Torqueof FCS-MFPCC.
of FCS-MFPCC.

Figure13.
Figure Observedvalues
13. Observed valuesof
ofunknown
unknownquantities Fd and
quantities Fd Fq.
and Fq.

Errors of
Table 2. Errors
Table of different
different control methods.

Error (Standard Deviation)

Error (Standard Deviation)
Parameters Ts (us) No
Ts (us)
ParametersNo Load (0 s~0.6 s) Load (0.6 s~0.8 s) Load Load (0.8 Load
Load s~1 s)
(0 s~0.6 s) (0.6 s~0.8 s) (0.8 s~1 s)
FCS-MPCC 10 0.2619 0.2726 0.2848
id (A) FCS-MFPCC 10 FCS-MPCC
0.1283 10 0.2619
0.1255 0.2726 0.2848
0.1264
id (A) FCS-MFPCC 10 0.1283 0.1255 0.1264
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.1471 50
FCS-MFPCC 0.1458
0.1471 0.1458 0.1442
0.1442
FCS-MPCC 10 0.8521 0.4387 0.3135
FCS-MPCC 10 0.8521 0.4387 0.3135
iq (A) FCS-MFPCC 10
iq (A) 0.8111 10
FCS-MFPCC 0.2970
0.8111 0.2970 0.1900
0.1900
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.9054 50
FCS-MFPCC 0.3827
0.9054 0.3827 0.1921
0.1921
FCS-MPCC 10 0.7954 10
FCS-MPCC 0.4244
0.7954 0.4244 0.3033
0.3033
Te (N·m) FCS-MFPCC Te (N · m)
10 FCS-MFPCC
0.7443 10 0.7443
0.2874 0.2874 0.1838
0.1838
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.8302 0.3703 0.1859
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.8302 0.3703 0.1859
FCS-MPCC 10 FCS-MPCC
11.4357 10 11.4357
1.1430 1.1430 0.3226
0.3226
Nr (r/min) FCS-MFPCC 10 12.4856 1.1408 0.3188
Nr (r/min) FCS-MFPCC 10 12.4856 1.1408 0.3188
FCS-MFPCC 50 13.5178 1.3176 0.4598
FCS-MFPCC 50 13.5178 1.3176 0.4598

Figure 14
Figure 14shows
showsthethesimulation
simulationresults
resultsof
ofFCS-MFPCC
FCS-MFPCCwhen whenthe
the sampling
sampling period
period is
is
50 us. It can be seen from Figure 14 that the simulation still maintains good results.
50 us. It can be seen from Figure 14 that the simulation still maintains good results.
 FCS-MPCC 10 11.4357 1.1430 0.3226
Nr (r/min) FCS-MFPCC 10 12.4856 1.1408 0.3188
FCS-MFPCC 50 13.5178 1.3176 0.4598

Energies 2022, 15, 1045

Figure 14 shows the simulation results of FCS-MFPCC when the sampling period13isof 18
50 us. It can be seen from Figure 14 that the simulation still maintains good results.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Figure 14. FCS-MPCC
Figure 14. FCS-MPCC simulation results
simulation under
results normal
under parameters
normal when
parameters the sampling
when period
the sampling is 50is 50
period
us: (a)
us:dq-axis current
(a) dq-axis of FCS-MPCC;
current of FCS-MPCC;(b) (b)
speed of FCS-MPCC;
speed of FCS-MPCC; (c)(c)
torque of of
torque FCS-MPCC;
FCS-MPCC;(d)(d)torque
torque of
of FCS-MFPCC;
FCS-MFPCC;(e) (e)observed
observedvalues
valuesofofunknown
unknownquantities
quantitiesFdFdand
andFq.Fq.

Through analysis,
Through it can
analysis, bebeseen
it can seenthat
thatthe
the FCS-MFPCC
FCS-MFPCC algorithmalgorithmaffords
affordsimprovements
improve-
ments over
over thethe FCS-MPCC
FCS-MPCC algorithm;
algorithm; notnot
onlyonly does
does it not
it not affect
affect thethe dynamic
dynamic performance
performance when
whenthethe motor
motor parameters
parameters are are unchanged,
unchanged, but but its dynamic
its dynamic performance
performance is improved.
is improved. The fast
Theresponse
fast response characteristic
characteristic of theoftraditional
the traditional algorithm
algorithm is maintained.
is maintained.
Table 2 shows
Table the quantitative
2 shows the quantitative comparison
comparison results of the
results of FCS-MPCC
the FCS-MPCC algorithm when
algorithm when
the the
sampling
samplingperiod is 10isus,
period 10 along withwith
us, along the the
quantitative
quantitative comparison
comparisonresults of the
results of FCS-
the FCS-
MFPCC
MFPCC algorithm when
algorithm whenthe the
sampling
samplingperiod is 10isus
period 10and 50 us,
us and 50 including
us, including qd-axis
qd-axis current
current
ripple,
ripple, average
average torque,
torque, andand speed
speed ripple,
ripple, as calculated
as calculated by Equation
by Equation (26).(26).

 (x s
2
 )
i (26)
= ∑ i − µ)
(x2
σ =N (26)
N
where  is the average pulsation,  is the average value of the sampled data, xi is
the where
sampled value,
σ is and N pulsation,
the average is the numberµ isofthe
adopted data.
average value of the sampled data, xi is the
sampled value, and N is the number of adopted data.
5.2. Simulation Results and Discussion of PMSM under Parameter Perturbation
The control performance of the FCS-MPCC algorithm and the FCS-MFPCC algorithm
was compared when the motor parameters were perturbed. The simulation conditions
were set as follows: the reference speed was 300 r/min, the motor was no-load when start-
ing, the load torque was increased to 10 N·m in 0.6 s, and the load torque was suddenly
changed to 5 N·m in 0.8 s. Rs = 0.738 Ω; Ld = Lq = 0.0012 Mh; other motor parameters were
nominal values.
Figures 15 and 16 show the simulation results of the two control methods in the event
of parameter perturbation. Figures 15a and 16a show the dq-axis current waveforms of the
two control methods; Figures 15b and 16b show the motor speed waveforms of the two
 Energies 2022, 15, 1045 14 of 18

5.2. Simulation Results and Discussion of PMSM under Parameter Perturbation

The control performance of the FCS-MPCC algorithm and the FCS-MFPCC algorithm
was compared when the motor parameters were perturbed. The simulation conditions
were set as follows: the reference speed was 300 r/min, the motor was no-load when
starting, the load torque was increased to 10 N·m in 0.6 s, and the load torque was suddenly
changed to 5 N·m in 0.8 s. Rs = 0.738 Ω; Ld = Lq = 0.0012 Mh; other motor parameters were
nominal values.
Figures 15 and 16 show the simulation results of the two control methods in the event
of parameter perturbation. Figures 15a and 16a show the dq-axis current waveforms of
the two control methods; Figures 15b and 16b show the motor speed waveforms of the
two control methods; Figures 15c and 16c show the torque waveforms of the two control
methods; Figure 16d shows the waveform of the unknown quantities Fd and Fq.
Comparing Figure 15 with Figure 16, it can be seen that in the event of motor parameter
perturbation, the dq-axis current of the FCS-MPCC algorithm fluctuates greatly, and the load
torque also fluctuates greatly, causing unstable speed, and the actual speed deviates from
the reference speed. FCS-MFPCC also shows better control performance. Compared with
FCS-MFPCC, the traditional FCS-MPCC has a larger overshoot of q-axis current and torque,
indicating that the proposed FCS-MFPCC algorithm is more robust than FCS-MPCC. From
Figure 16d, it can be seen that FCS-MFPCC shows high performance, and the unknown
quantities Fd and Fq are accurately estimated as being closely related.
Figure 17 shows the simulation results of FCS-MFPCC under parameter perturbation
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 20
when the sampling period is 50 us. It can be seen from Figure 17 that the simulation results
of the sampling periods of 10 us and 50 us are similar, both of which can maintain good
steady-state performance and robustness.

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 15. FCS-MPCC
Figure simulation
15. FCS-MPCC results
simulation under
results parameter
under perturbation:
parameter perturbation:(a)
(a)dq-axis
dq-axiscurrent
current of
of FCS-
FCS-
MPCC; (b) speed of FCS-MPCC; (c) torque of FCS-MPCC.
MPCC; (b) speed of FCS-MPCC; (c) torque of FCS-MPCC.
 (c)
Figure 15. FCS-MPCC simulation results under parameter perturbation: (a) dq-axis current of FCS-
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 15 of 18
MPCC; (b) speed of FCS-MPCC; (c) torque of FCS-MPCC.

(a) (b)

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 20

ates from the reference speed. FCS-MFPCC also shows better control performance. Com-
pared with FCS-MFPCC, the traditional FCS-MPCC has a larger overshoot of q-axis cur-
rent and torque, indicating that the proposed FCS-MFPCC algorithm is more robust than
FCS-MPCC. From Figure 16d, it can be seen that FCS-MFPCC shows high performance,
and the unknown quantities Fd and Fq are accurately estimated as being closely related.
Figure 17 shows(c) the simulation results of FCS-MFPCC under (d) parameter perturbation
when the sampling period is 50 us. It can be seen from Figure 17 that the simulation results
Figure
of the 16.
Figure FCS-MFPCC
16. FCS-MFPCC
sampling simulation
periods of 10 usresults
simulation
and under
results
50 parameter
usunder
are perturbation
parameter
similar, both whenwhen
perturbation
of which the sampling
can period
the sampling
maintain goodperiod
is 10 is
us:10(a) dq-axis
us: (a) current
dq-axis of FCS-MFPCC;
current of (b)
FCS-MFPCC; speed
(b) of FCS-MFPCC;
speed of (c)
FCS-MFPCC;torque
(c) of FCS-MFPCC;
torque of (d)
FCS-MFPCC;
steady-state performance and robustness.
observed values of
(d) observed the unknown
values quantities
of the unknown Fd and Fq
quantities Fd under
and Fqparameter perturbation.
under parameter perturbation.

Comparing Figure 15 with Figure 16, it can be seen that in the event of motor param-
eter perturbation, the dq-axis current of the FCS-MPCC algorithm fluctuates greatly, and
the load torque also fluctuates greatly, causing unstable speed, and the actual speed devi-

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 17. FCS-MFPCC
Figure 17. FCS-MFPCCsimulation results
simulation under
results parameter
under perturbation
parameter when
perturbation the sampling
when period
the sampling period
is 50isus:
50(a)
us:dq-axis current
(a) dq-axis of FCS-MFPCC;
current (b) speed
of FCS-MFPCC; (b) of FCS-MFPCC;
speed (c) torque
of FCS-MFPCC; (c) of FCS-MFPCC;
torque (d)
of FCS-MFPCC;
observed values of
(d) observed the unknown
values quantities
of the unknown Fd and Fq
quantities Fd under
and Fqparameter perturbation.
under parameter perturbation.

Through the analysis above, it can be determined that the control performance of the
traditional FCS-MPCC is more affected when the motor is perturbed by resistance and
inductance; under the same simulation conditions, the steady-state error of the dq-axis
current and torque becomes worse, as does the response. This proves that once some un-
known disturbances occur, the FCS-MPCC control method cannot guarantee that the mo-
tor can maintain a high performance.
Table 3 shows the quantitative comparison results of the FCS-MPCC algorithm when
the sampling period is 10 us, and the quantitative comparison results of the FCS-MFPCC
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 16 of 18

Through the analysis above, it can be determined that the control performance of the
traditional FCS-MPCC is more affected when the motor is perturbed by resistance and
inductance; under the same simulation conditions, the steady-state error of the dq-axis
current and torque becomes worse, as does the response. This proves that once some
unknown disturbances occur, the FCS-MPCC control method cannot guarantee that the
motor can maintain a high performance.
Table 3 shows the quantitative comparison results of the FCS-MPCC algorithm when
the sampling period is 10 us, and the quantitative comparison results of the FCS-MFPCC al-
gorithm when the sampling period is 10 us and 50 us under parameter perturbation, includ-
ing qd-axis current ripple, average torque, and speed ripple, as calculated by Equation (26).

Table 3. Errors of different control methods under parameter perturbation.

Error (Standard Deviation)

Parameters Ts (s) No Load Load Load
(0 s~0.6 s) (0.6 s~0.8 s) (0.8 s~1 s)
FCS-MPCC 10 0.7288 0.7304 0.7218
id (A) FCS-MFPCC 10 0.4465 0.4471 0.4373
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.2964 0.3208 0.3215
FCS-MPCC 10 1.0583 0.7536 0.7332
iq (A) FCS-MFPCC 10 0.8622 0.4474 0.4299
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.8558 0.4289 0.3552
FCS-MPCC 10 1.0273 0.7291 0.7094
Te (N·m) FCS-MFPCC 10 0.8126 0.4328 0.4160
FCS-MFPCC 50 0.8044 0.4150 0.3437
FCS-MPCC 10 10.9208 1.2563 0.4608
Nr (r/min) FCS-MFPCC 10 11.5466 1.2491 0.4588
FCS-MFPCC 50 12.1640 1.2579 0.4589

6. Conclusions
There are always a large current ripple and parameter perturbation problems that
cause the mismatch between the prediction model and the actual model during the opera-
tion of the motor. To overcome this problem, an effective FCS-MFPCC algorithm is pro-
posed. This algorithm combines model-free control, deadbeat control, and the FCS-MPCC
algorithm, and then the finite control set model-free predictive current controller is de-
signed on the basis of the new hyperlocal model. The deadbeat two-step current predictive
control method with predictive current error correction is applied to the current inner
loop, the accuracy and stability of the system are improved, and a new reaching-law-based
sliding mode control algorithm is used to precisely estimate the unknown part of the
new hyperlocal model, and the stability of the sliding mode observer is demonstrated
using the Lyapunov theory. Compared with the traditional FCS-MPCC algorithm, the
simulation results show that the FCS-MFPCC algorithm can reduce the steady-state error
of the current, and it also has better transient performance and greater robustness when
the motor parameters are perturbed. Quantitatively, the improvements this makes to the
MPCC include reducing the current fluctuation by 51.01%, 53.96%, and 55.61% and the
torque fluctuation by 0.9%, 32.30%, and 39.39% in 0–0.6 s, 0.6–0.8 s, and 0.8–1 s, respectively,
when the motor parameters are the nominal values. In addition, the FCS-MFPCC algorithm
not only retains the fast response characteristic of the traditional FCS-MPCC algorithm, but
also decreases the dependence of the motor on the mathematical model.

Author Contributions: The FCS-MFPCC algorithm was suggested and designed by F.Y., M.H. and
Y.L. The writing of the original draft was carried out by F.Y. Writing, reviewing, and editing were
carried out by M.H., Y.L., F.Y. and L.W. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: For this work, no external funding was received.
Energies 2022, 15, 1045 17 of 18

Acknowledgments: This work was supported by Key R&D Projects in Hubei Province: 2020BAA005;
the Industrial Internet Innovation and Development Project of the Ministry of Industry and Infor-
mation Technology: TC200802C, TC200A00W; the Outstanding Youth Fund Project of Shandong
Provincial Natural Science Foundation: ZR2020YQ40; and the Ministry of Education’s Coordinates
Education Project: 201802240009.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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