Methods of Psychology
Methods of Psychology
Methods of Psychology
DPSY512
Edited by
Dr. Mohammad Amin Wani
Dr. Jotika Judge
Research Methods in
Psychology
Edited By:
Dr. Mohammad Amin Wani
Dr. Jotika Judge
CONTENT
Objectives
After completion of this unit, the students will be able to:
Introduction
Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge. (The advance learner’s dictionary of current English) Research is a systematic,
formal,
rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret
new facts and relationships (Waltz & Bussell, 1981).
Research is the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973).
Research is the pursuit of truth through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a
problem (Kothari, 2004). (Niangua, 2013)
Scientific researches are studies that should be systematically planned before performing them. In
this review, classification and description of scientific studies, planning stage randomization and
bias are explained.
Social science research is focused on finding reasons for human behavior. Social science research is
conducted using the scientific method: ask a question, form a hypothesis, conduct empirical
research, draw a conclusion, and evaluate the conclusion.
Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn about people and
societies so that they can design products/services that cater to various needs of the people.
Different socio-economic groups belonging to different parts of a county think differently. Various
aspects of human behavior need to be addressed to understand their thoughts and feedback about
the social world, which can be done using Social Research. Any topic can trigger social research –
new feature, new market trend or an upgrade in old technology.
Social Research is conducted by following a systematic plan of action which includes qualitative
and quantitative observation methods.
Qualitative methods rely on direct communication with members of a market, observation, text
analysis. The results of this method are focused more on being accurate rather than generalizing to
the entire population.
Quantitative methods use statistical analysis techniques to evaluate data collected via surveys, polls
or questionnaires.
Social Research contains elements of both these methods to analyze a range of social occurrences
such as an investigation of historical sites, census of the country, detailed analysis of research
conducted to understand reasons for increased reports of molestation in the country etc.
A survey to monitor happiness in a respondent population is one of the most widely used
applications of social research. The happiness survey template can be used by researchers an
organization to gauge how happy a respondent is and the things that can be done to increase
happiness in that respondent.
The Probationary Imperative: For more ideas on this topic Steve Fuller's books are a good place to
start.
2. Social science can help us make sense of our finances.
Social science is not just important for the future but for what’s happening now. We all resent
paying to withdraw our money from cash machines. Charges can amount to £120 per year. Social
scientists working on behalf of the Runnymede Trust found that this doesn’t just this depend on
where we live, but that black and minority ethnic people are more likely to live in areas where
they’re forced to pay.
This put pressure on banks to ensure we all have access to machines that don’t charge. A range of
social scientists – not just economists but also psychologists, sociologists and political scientists, for
example ‐ can help us understand the economic crisis and weigh up decisions we make for
ourselves and those which governments make on our behalf. Without this kind of analysis, we may
feel like pawns in a global game of chess.
With the knowledge and understanding that social science offers us, we will feel empowered to act
for ourselves, and to influence decisions being made on our behalf.
Unequal Ageing in Europe: explores the gender pension gap across the 28 member states of the
European Union, plus Iceland and Norway
3. Social scientists contribute to our health and well‐being.
From sports sociologists to public health experts, from those interpreting medical statistics to those
evaluating policies for our care in old age, social scientists are working hard to make sure that our
health, leisure and social care services work to best effect.
Social geographers at the University of Sheffield, for example, have shown that those of us who
don’t follow eating advice are not simply weak‐willed or ignorant. Our eating habits are
influenced by a whole range of circumstances. Some apparently unhealthy choices may seem
rational: if the person doing the shopping knows that others will simply not eat the healthy option
and it will just go to waste, they may simply not buy it.
So, it’s no good just giving people a booklet on healthy eating. Effective nutritional advice needs to
be tailored to people’s everyday lives and contexts.
Long-Term Care in Europe: analyzes the key issues at stake in developing long-term care systems
for older people in Europe.
4. Social science might save your life.
Psychologists at the University of Liverpool spent time in a steel factory to work out what needs
doing to create a safer environment. Accidents at work happen even in the best regulated
companies that provide staff training and take all necessary precautions.
A top‐down imposed safety regime simply doesn’t work. It’s when people see unsafe work
practices as unacceptable and take decisions as teams that workplaces become safer. Employers
need to see people as individuals who take their lead from those with whom they identify. These
principles have also been shown to work in crowd control.
When those responsible for crowd management at football matches are trained in techniques which
take this into account, there’s virtually no trouble.
Adjudicating Employment: Rights compares and analyses institutions for resolving employment
rights disputes in ten countries.
5. Social science can make your neighborhood safer.
One common myth is that if you take measures to reduce crime in one neighborhood the criminals
simply move on, leading to increased crime in another area. Sociologists at Nottingham Trent
University worked closely with police to reduce crime through a method involving scanning for
crime patterns.
They were able to identify patterns that regular police work had not picked up, so avoiding guess
work and lost time. A technique called situational crime prevention developed by the same team is
now regularly used by the police, working with the public and private sectors to prevent crime.
Together they make things more difficult for would‐be criminals.
For example, in one area there was a serious problem of lead being stolen from community
building roofs. By working with dealers in the scrap metal market, and persuading them to keep
records, it then became too risky to buy what might be stolen lead.
The Handbook of Security, 2nd edition: is the most comprehensive analysis of scholarly security
debates and issues to date.
6. We need social scientists as public intellectuals.
British society is sometimes said to be anti‐intellectual. Yet in our fast-changing world, there is a
place for the social scientist as public intellectual. This doesn’t have to be a succession of boring
grey talking heads, such as you can find on French TV any night. That’s enough to cause anyone to
start channel surfing. Social scientists have a duty to make their work interesting and engaging to
the rest of us.
They need to explain not only why social science is relevant but do it in a compelling way. Then we
will want to listen, read and find out more. Perhaps more social scientists will have to become
active listeners, talking more often to the public, each other and to scientists.
Then we can get all the disciplines around the table together. In a knowledge‐based world, we
need people who can integrate a variety of different types of knowledge, and that come from
different intellectual roots and from a range of institutions to work together.
The Price of Public Intellectuals: is an historically-informed survey critically outlining sociological,
psychological, political, and economic approaches to the role of public intellectuals.
7. Social science can improve our children’s lives and education.
All societies and all governments want to show they are dong the best for children. Yet too often
education reform seems to take place without regard for the best interests of the learners. Education
research shows that many parents, particularly parents of younger children, are more concerned
that their children enjoy school, than that they are academic stars.
By working with students of all ages to understand their perspectives on schooling, researchers at
the universities of Cambridge and Leeds have discovered new insights into what makes effective
schools, and what makes for effective school leadership.
We just need to listen to children, provide structured opportunities for them to give their views,
and prepare adults to really listen. Today even OFSTED, the school inspection service, has to listen
to children’s viewpoints.
Informal Education, Childhood and Youth: emphasizes how geography – space and place – matter
to informal education practices, through a range of examples.
8. Social science can change the world for the better.
We can generally agree that world needs to be a safer place where all people can enjoy basic dignity
and human rights. This is the case even when we can’t always agree on what we should do to make
this happen. Social scientists working in interdisciplinary teams have made their mark in the area
of human welfare and development.
They are concerned with the social and economic advancement of humanity at large. They work
with government institutions, UN organizations, social services, funding agencies, and with the
media.
They are influencing the work of strategists, planners, teachers and program me officers in
developing and growing economies, like India, to influence development so that it impacts on the
lives of the poorest members of society. For example, social scientists from the Delhi School of
Economics are cooperating with colleagues at SOAS, University of London to explore the impact of
legislation in India to guarantee minimum wages for rural unskilled manual labourers on the loves
of women.
They found the new law provided opportunities for some women to become wage earners where
none had existed before, reducing the risk of hunger and the chances of avoiding hazardous work.
But they also identified barriers to women benefitting from the changes, including harassment at
the worksite.
Those working in development studies are then able to support women’s ability to benefit by
looking for creative solutions to such problems.
Why the Social Sciences Matter: provides an illuminating look at topics of concern to everyone at
the beginning of the twenty-first century.
9. Social science can broaden your horizons.
For debates about feminism, peace, ecology, social movements, and much more, social science
offers each of us new perspectives and new ways of understanding. Whether your idea of
relaxation is visiting a museum, watching soaps, or chatting online, social science encourages a
fresh look at our everyday activities and culture.
Social scientists at the University of Leicester are making an impact on museums across the world,
with the goal of making them more inclusive, abler to challenge prejudices, inspire learning and be
more relevant in contemporary society.
One example is their work with the Gallery of Modern Art in Glasgow to involve local communities
and international visitors alike in engaging with exhibitions on a range of social justice issues from
sectarianism to gay rights, through programs including arts workshops and residencies.
Radical Feminism: is a radical and pioneering feminist manifesto for today's modern audience
written by one of the cornerstones of today's feminist scene.
10. We need social science to guarantee our democracy.
Social science offers multiple perspectives on society, informs social policy and supports us in
holding our politicians and our media to account.
The Centre for the Study of Global Media and Democracy at Goldsmith’s College, London is
monitoring how transformation from traditional to digital media is examining the move away from
traditional journalism and politics to where we as citizens try to be community journalists,
presenting our own accounts on‐line. The work brings together specialists in media and
communications, sociology and politics.
Individual citizens may feel empowered by this but there are risks in turning away from traditional
journalism, including fewer opportunities for in‐depth analysis and critique of powerful interests.
This work by social scientists is critical in protecting a modern and transparent democracy. Just
think what might happen without it!
illiterate African American men in Tuskegee, Alabama. The men had syphilis, for which no cure
then existed, and were studied to determine its effects. After scientists found a decade later that
penicillin could cure this disease, the government scientists decided not to give penicillin to the
Tuskegee men because doing so would end their research. As a result, several of the men died from
their disease, and some of their wives and children came down with it. The study did not end until
the early 1970s, when the press finally disclosed the experiment. Several observers likened it to
experiments conducted by Nazi scientists. If the subjects had been white and middle class, they
said, the government would have ended the study once it learned that penicillin could cure syphilis
(Jones, 1Fortunately, sociological research does not have this potential for causing death or serious
illness, but it still can cause other kinds of harm and thus must follow ethical standards. The federal
government has an extensive set of standards for research on human subjects, and the major
sociology professional society, the American Sociological Association, has a code of ethics for
psychological research.
One of the most important ethical guidelines in sociological and other human-subject research
concerns privacy and confidentiality. When they do research, sociologists should protect the
privacy and confidentiality of their subjects. When a survey is used, the data must be coded
(prepared for computer analysis) anonymously, and in no way should it be possible for any
answers to be connected with the respondent who gave them. In field research, anonymity must
also be maintained, and aliases (fake names) should normally be used when the researcher reports
what she or he has been observing.
Some psychologists consider the privacy and confidentiality of subjects so important that they have
risked imprisonment when they have refused to violate confidentiality. In one example, a graduate
student named Mario Brajuha had been doing participant observation as a restaurant waiter on
Long Island, New York, when the restaurant burned down. When the police suspected arson, they
asked Brajuha to turn over his field notes. When Brajuha refused, he was threatened with
imprisonment. Meanwhile, two suspects in the case also demanded his field notes for their legal
defense, but again Brajuha refused. The controversy ended 2 years later when the suspects died and
the prosecutor’s office abandoned its effort to obtain the notes (Brajuha & Hallowell, 1986).
In another case, a graduate student named Rik Scarce refused to turn over his field notes on radical
environmentalists after one of the groups he was studying vandalized a university laboratory.
Scarce was jailed for contempt of court when he refused to tell a grand jury what he had learned
about the group and spent several months behind bars (Monaghan, 1993).
A third example aroused much discussion among sociologists when it came to light. Laud
Humphreys studied male homosexual sex that took place in public bathrooms. He did so by acting
as the lookout in several encounters where two men had sex; the men did not know Humphreys
was a researcher. He also wrote down their license plates and obtained their addresses and a year
later disguised himself and interviewed the men at their homes. Many sociologists and other
observers later criticized Humphreys for acting so secretly and for violating his subjects’ privacy.
Humphreys responded that he protected the men’s names and that their behavior was not private,
as it was conducted in a public setting (Humphreys, 1975).981).
Another ethical issue concerns consent. Before a researcher can begin obtaining data, the subjects of
the research must normally sign an informed consent form. This form summarizes the aims of the
study and the possible risks of being a subject. If researchers want to study minors (under age 18),
they normally must obtain a signature from a parent or legal guardian. Informed consent is a
requirement for most “real” research these days, but ethical issues arise over the meaning of
“consent.” For consent to have any real meaning, potential research subjects must have the right to
refuse to take part in a research project without any penalties whatsoever. Otherwise, they may feel
pressured to participate in the project without really wanting to do so. This result would violate
what “consent” is supposed to mean in the research process. Sometimes subjects are promised a
small reward (often between $5 and $20) for taking part in a research project, but they are still
utterly free to refuse to do so, and this small inducement is not considered to be undue pressure to
participate.
Informed consent becomes a particular problem when a researcher wants to include certain
populations in a study. Perhaps the clearest example of such a problem is when a study involves
prisoners. When prisoners are asked to be interviewed or to fill out a questionnaire, they certainly
can refuse to do so, but they may feel pressured to participate. They realize that if they do
participate, they may be more likely to be seen as a “model” prisoner, which helps them win “good
time” that reduces their sentence or helps them win a release decision from a parole board.
Conversely, if they refuse to participate, they not only lose these advantages but also may be seen
as a bit of a troublemaker and earn extra scrutiny from prison guards. Scholarly societies continue
to debate the ethical issues involved in studies of prisoners and other vulnerable populations (e.g.,
offenders in juvenile institutions, patients in mental institutions), and there are no easy answers to
the ethical questions arising in such studies.
As all these examples of ethical issues demonstrate, it is not always easy to decide whether a
particular research project is ethically justifiable. Partly for this reason, colleges and universities
have committees that review proposed human-subject research to ensure that federal guidelines are
followed.
1.7 Positivism
Positivism is a philosophy in which people believe the goal of knowledge is only to describe what
people experience, and that science should only study that which is measurable. Anything that is
not measurable or experienced is irrelevant. They also believe that knowledge should be obtained
through using the scientific method. For example, emotions are not measurable so they are
irrelevant. Likewise, introspection is rejected.
Positivism adopted David Hume’s theory of the nature of reality (i.e., philosophical ontology).
Hume believed that reality consists of atomistic (micro-level) and independent events. He believed
in the use of the senses to generate knowledge about reality (i.e., scientific method). He thought that
philosophical and logical reasoning could lead us to “see” nonexisting links between events
occurring simultaneously. However, positivism also adopted Rene Descartes’s epistemology (i.e.,
theory of knowledge). Descartes believed that reason is the best way to generate knowledge about
reality. His deductive method implies that events are ordered and interconnected, and therefore
reality is ordered and deducible. This internal inconsistency eventually undermined the validity of
positivism.
1.8 Empiricism
In the philosophy of science, empiricism is a theory of knowledge which emphasizes those aspects
of scientific knowledge that are closely related to experience, especially as formed through
deliberate experimental arrangements. It is a fundamental requirement of scientific method that all
hypotheses and theories must be tested against observations of the natural world, rather than
resting solely on a priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation. Hence, science is considered to be
methodologically empirical in nature.
The term "empiricism" has a dual etymology. It comes from the Greek word εμπειρισμός, the Latin
translation of which is experiential, from which we derive the word experience. It also derives from
a more specific classical Greek and Roman usage of empiric, referring to a physician whose skill
derives from practical experience as opposed to instruction in theory.
1.9 Ontology
Ontology is described as the study of being, the nature of reality or existence, as well as the
structure of reality (Michael Crotty, 2005). Researcher's position regarding ontology will determine
how answers questions about the nature both social and political reality to be investigated
(Jonathan Grix, 2002), this means that a researcher's ontological view of the task ahead of him goes
a long way to determine the focus of his study, the chosen methods and how data is gathered,
interpreted or analyzed.
According to Blaikie, 2007, ontological claims are 'claims and assumptions that are made about the
nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how
these units interact with each other. In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what we
believe constitutes social reality' (Blaikie, 2007,). Ontological positions can be expressed in terms of
objectivism and constructivism also known as subjectivism; the objectivism is of the opinion that
social phenomena and their meanings exist in a way that is independent of social actors while
subjectivism is the other ontological argument affirming that social phenomena and their meanings
are determined by social actors. (Jonathan Grix, 2002).
Blaike (2007) suggests that while carrying out research, a researcher has to choose from being a
shallow realist, conceptual realist, cautious realist, depth realist, idealist realist or subtle realist
which are the six categories of ontological assumptions that are available for him. A researcher who
is subjective in his ontological assumption believes that awareness of our social condition can be
achieved through experience and interaction with the environment and as such tends to gather
qualitative information for his research, meanwhile, a researcher with objective assumption
believes that there are certain principles that guide the occurrence of events and as such, they can
only be tested through quantitative approach; by using data, measurement, statistics and
calculation to test the theory and hypothesis governing the principle.
1.10 Logic
Logic has often been described as the study of laws of thought, and logicians say things like “If the
argument is valid then, if the premises are true, you are bound to think that the conclusion is true
as well” or “If you deny the law of non-contradiction, then you are trying to think the unthinkable.”
This way of talking suggests that the laws of logic are grounded in laws about how we think, and
therefore that there is a psychological basis to logic. The theory that logic is based on psychology
was called psychologism.
Gottlob Frege, often regarded as the founder of modern logic, argued against psychologism, and
his arguments are usually accepted as definitive. Frege pointed out that people make mistakes in
logic all the time, and when you make such mistakes, you’re thinking breaks those laws that
logicians call the laws of thought. This does not show that logicians have got the Laws of Thought
wrong: logicians are concerned not with laws that describe the way we do think, but with laws that
describe the way we ought to think, if we want to get at the truth. Psychology looks at the way we
think, including fallacies that everyone is prone to, and tries to figure out why we think that way.
Logic tries to improve our thinking. When you fail to follow a law of logic, you haven’t thought the
unthinkable, you were thinking something that could be thought, but it was an irrational thought.
1.11 Rationalism
Rationalism, in Western philosophy, the view that regards reason as the chief source and test of
knowledge. Holding that reality itself has an inherently logical structure, the rationalist asserts that
a class of truths exists that the intellect can grasp directly. There are, according to the rationalists,
certain rational principles—especially in logic and mathematics, and even in ethics and
metaphysics—that are so fundamental that to deny them is to fall into contradiction. The
rationalists’ confidence in reason and proof tends, therefore, to detract from their respect for other
ways of knowing.
Rationalism has long been the rival of empiricism, the doctrine that all knowledge comes from, and
must be tested by, sense experience. As against this doctrine, rationalism holds reason to be a
faculty that can lay hold of truths beyond the reach of sense perception, both in certainty and
generality. In stressing the existence of a “natural light,” rationalism has also been the rival of
systems claiming esoteric knowledge, whether from mystical experience, revelation, or intuition,
and has been opposed to various irrationalism that tend to stress the biological, the emotional or
volitional, the unconscious, or the existential at the expense of the rational.
Summary
The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural or
social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. It is important to understand that
this knowledge may be imperfect or even quite far from the truth.
Social science research is the systematic understanding of social facts or phenomena. It gathers
information about the social world, interpreting it in order to make decisions on a course of actions
and/or to develop new knowledge. It attempts to discover cause-and-effect relationships between
social problems and answer or solve social problems.
“Social Research may be defined as a scientific undertaking which by means of logical and
systematized techniques, aims to discover new factor verify a test old facts, analyze their sequence,
interrelationship and causal explanation which were derived within an appropriate theoretical
frame of reference, develop new scientific tolls, concepts and theories which would facilities reliable
and valid study of human behavior. A researcher’s primary goal distant and immediate is to
explore and gain an understanding of human behavior and social life and thereby gain a greater
control over time”.
Keywords
Social research,
Empirical,
Self Assessment
1. Research is a systematic process
A. True
B. False
5. Researcher has to get the informed consent from the respondent to utilize their data in
Research.
A. True
B. False
11. ------ research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that has not been
clearly defined.
A. Exploratory
B. Descriptive
C. Explanatory
D. None of them
14. ------- is based on the proven scientific methods derived from real life observations and
experimentation.
A. Empirical
B. Cyclic
C. Logical
D. None of them
15. -------- research begins with a question & ends with a question.
A. Empirical
B. Cyclic
C. Logical
D. None of them
6. A 7. C 8. A 9. C 10. B
Review Questions
1. What is Social Research? State its objectives.
2. What are the needs of Social Research?
3. What are the purposes of Research?
4. What are the characteristics of research?
5. What do you mean by research process?
6. Briefly discuss the ethical issues of Social Research.
7. What are the different types of Research?
8. What are the methods of Research?
9. State different stages of Research Process.
10. What are the examples of steps of Research?
Further Readings
The Practice of Psychological Research by Earl, R. Babbie-13th ed. Wadsworth
Publishing Co.inc.2011
• Methods of Psychological Research by Paul, K. Hatt & William, J. Goode. Surjeet
Publication. 2018.
Objectives
After completion of this unit, the students will be able to:
Introduction
Research is a careful investigation or inquiry especially through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge. (The advance learner’s dictionary of current English) Research is a systematic,
formal,
rigorous and precise process employed to gain solutions to problems or to discover and interpret
new facts and relationships (Waltz & Bussell, 1981).
Research is the systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena (Kerlinger, 1973).
Research is the pursuit of truth through objective and systematic method of finding solutions to a
problem (Kothari, 2004). (Niangua, 2013)
Scientific researches are studies that should be systematically planned before performing them. In
this review, classification and description of scientific studies, planning stage randomization and
bias are explained.
Social science research is focused on finding reasons for human behavior. Social science research is
conducted using the scientific method: ask a question, form a hypothesis, conduct empirical
research, draw a conclusion, and evaluate the conclusion.
Social Research is a method used by social scientists and researchers to learn about people and
societies so that they can design products/services that cater to various needs of the people.
Different socio-economic groups belonging to different parts of a county think differently. Various
aspects of human behavior need to be addressed to understand their thoughts and feedback about
the social world, which can be done using Social Research. Any topic can trigger social research –
new feature, new market trend or an upgrade in old technology.
Social Research is conducted by following a systematic plan of action which includes qualitative
and quantitative observation methods.
Qualitative methods rely on direct communication with members of a market, observation, text
analysis. The results of this method are focused more on being accurate rather than generalizing to
the entire population.
Quantitative methods use statistical analysis techniques to evaluate data collected via surveys, polls
or questionnaires.
Social Research contains elements of both these methods to analyze a range of social occurrences
such as an investigation of historical sites, census of the country, detailed analysis of research
conducted to understand reasons for increased reports of molestation in the country etc.
A survey to monitor happiness in a respondent population is one of the most widely used
applications of social research. The happiness survey template can be used by researchers an
organization to gauge how happy a respondent is and the things that can be done to increase
happiness in that respondent.
Social science is not just important for the future but for what’s happening now. We all resent
paying to withdraw our money from cash machines. Charges can amount to £120 per year. Social
scientists working on behalf of the Runnymede Trust found that this doesn’t just this depend on
where we live, but that black and minority ethnic people are more likely to live in areas where
they’re forced to pay.
This put pressure on banks to ensure we all have access to machines that don’t charge. A range of
social scientists – not just economists but also psychologists, sociologists and political scientists, for
example ‐ can help us understand the economic crisis and weigh up decisions we make for
ourselves and those which governments make on our behalf. Without this kind of analysis, we may
feel like pawns in a global game of chess.
With the knowledge and understanding that social science offers us, we will feel empowered to act
for ourselves, and to influence decisions being made on our behalf.
Unequal Ageing in Europe: explores the gender pension gap across the 28 member states of the
European Union, plus Iceland and Norway
3. Social scientists contribute to our health and well‐being.
From sports sociologists to public health experts, from those interpreting medical statistics to those
evaluating policies for our care in old age, social scientists are working hard to make sure that our
health, leisure and social care services work to best effect.
Social geographers at the University of Sheffield, for example, have shown that those of us who
don’t follow eating advice are not simply weak‐willed or ignorant. Our eating habits are
influenced by a whole range of circumstances. Some apparently unhealthy choices may seem
rational: if the person doing the shopping knows that others will simply not eat the healthy option
and it will just go to waste, they may simply not buy it.
So, it’s no good just giving people a booklet on healthy eating. Effective nutritional advice needs to
be tailored to people’s everyday lives and contexts.
Long-Term Care in Europe: analyzes the key issues at stake in developing long-term care systems
for older people in Europe.
4. Social science might save your life.
Psychologists at the University of Liverpool spent time in a steel factory to work out what needs
doing to create a safer environment. Accidents at work happen even in the best regulated
companies that provide staff training and take all necessary precautions.
A top‐down imposed safety regime simply doesn’t work. It’s when people see unsafe work
practices as unacceptable and take decisions as teams that workplaces become safer. Employers
need to see people as individuals who take their lead from those with whom they identify. These
principles have also been shown to work in crowd control.
When those responsible for crowd management at football matches are trained in techniques which
take this into account, there’s virtually no trouble.
Adjudicating Employment: Rights compares and analyses institutions for resolving employment
rights disputes in ten countries.
5. Social science can make your neighborhood safer.
One common myth is that if you take measures to reduce crime in one neighborhood the criminals
simply move on, leading to increased crime in another area. Sociologists at Nottingham Trent
University worked closely with police to reduce crime through a method involving scanning for
crime patterns.
They were able to identify patterns that regular police work had not picked up, so avoiding guess
work and lost time. A technique called situational crime prevention developed by the same team is
now regularly used by the police, working with the public and private sectors to prevent crime.
Together they make things more difficult for would‐be criminals.
For example, in one area there was a serious problem of lead being stolen from community
building roofs. By working with dealers in the scrap metal market, and persuading them to keep
records, it then became too risky to buy what might be stolen lead.
The Handbook of Security, 2nd edition: is the most comprehensive analysis of scholarly security
debates and issues to date.
6. We need social scientists as public intellectuals.
British society is sometimes said to be anti‐intellectual. Yet in our fast-changing world, there is a
place for the social scientist as public intellectual. This doesn’t have to be a succession of boring
grey talking heads, such as you can find on French TV any night. That’s enough to cause anyone to
start channel surfing. Social scientists have a duty to make their work interesting and engaging to
the rest of us.
They need to explain not only why social science is relevant but do it in a compelling way. Then we
will want to listen, read and find out more. Perhaps more social scientists will have to become
active listeners, talking more often to the public, each other and to scientists.
Then we can get all the disciplines around the table together. In a knowledge‐based world, we
need people who can integrate a variety of different types of knowledge, and that come from
different intellectual roots and from a range of institutions to work together.
The Price of Public Intellectuals: is an historically-informed survey critically outlining sociological,
psychological, political, and economic approaches to the role of public intellectuals.
7. Social science can improve our children’s lives and education.
All societies and all governments want to show they are dong the best for children. Yet too often
education reform seems to take place without regard for the best interests of the learners. Education
research shows that many parents, particularly parents of younger children, are more concerned
that their children enjoy school, than that they are academic stars.
By working with students of all ages to understand their perspectives on schooling, researchers at
the universities of Cambridge and Leeds have discovered new insights into what makes effective
schools, and what makes for effective school leadership.
We just need to listen to children, provide structured opportunities for them to give their views,
and prepare adults to really listen. Today even OFSTED, the school inspection service, has to listen
to children’s viewpoints.
Informal Education, Childhood and Youth: emphasizes how geography – space and place – matter
to informal education practices, through a range of examples.
8. Social science can change the world for the better.
We can generally agree that world needs to be a safer place where all people can enjoy basic dignity
and human rights. This is the case even when we can’t always agree on what we should do to make
this happen. Social scientists working in interdisciplinary teams have made their mark in the area
of human welfare and development.
They are concerned with the social and economic advancement of humanity at large. They work
with government institutions, UN organizations, social services, funding agencies, and with the
media.
They are influencing the work of strategists, planners, teachers and program me officers in
developing and growing economies, like India, to influence development so that it impacts on the
lives of the poorest members of society. For example, social scientists from the Delhi School of
Economics are cooperating with colleagues at SOAS, University of London to explore the impact of
legislation in India to guarantee minimum wages for rural unskilled manual labourers on the loves
of women.
They found the new law provided opportunities for some women to become wage earners where
none had existed before, reducing the risk of hunger and the chances of avoiding hazardous work.
But they also identified barriers to women benefitting from the changes, including harassment at
the worksite.
Those working in development studies are then able to support women’s ability to benefit by
looking for creative solutions to such problems.
Why the Social Sciences Matter: provides an illuminating look at topics of concern to everyone at
the beginning of the twenty-first century.
Individual citizens may feel empowered by this but there are risks in turning away from traditional
journalism, including fewer opportunities for in‐depth analysis and critique of powerful interests.
This work by social scientists is critical in protecting a modern and transparent democracy. Just
think what might happen without it!
1. Selecting the research area. You are expected to state that you have selected the research area
due to professional and personal interests in the area and this statement must be true. The
importance of this first stage in the research process is often underestimated by many students. If
you find research area and research problem that is genuinely interesting to you it is for sure that
the whole process of writing your dissertation will be much easier. Therefore, it is never too early to
start thinking about the research area for your dissertation.
2. Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions or developing hypotheses.
The choice between the formulation of research questions and the development of hypotheses
depends on your research approach as it is discussed further below in more details. Appropriate
research aims and objectives or hypotheses usually result from several attempts and revisions and
these need to be mentioned in Methodology chapter. It is critically important to get your research
questions or hypotheses confirmed by your supervisor before moving forward with the work.
3. Conducting the literature review. Literature review is usually the longest stage in the research
process. Actually, the literature review starts even before the formulation of research aims and
objective; because you have to check if exactly the same research problem has been addressed
before. Nevertheless, the main part of the literature review is conducted after the formulation of
research aim and objectives. You have to use a wide range of secondary data sources such as books,
newspapers, magazines, journals, online articles etc.
4. Selecting methods of data collection. Data collection method(s) need to be selected on the
basis of critically analyzing advantages and disadvantages associated with several alternative data
collection methods. In studies involving primary data collection, in-depth discussions of
advantages and disadvantages of selected primary data collection method(s) need to be included in
methodology.
5. Collecting the primary data. Primary data collection needs to be preceded by a great level of
preparation and pilot data collection may be required in case of questionnaires. Primary data
collection is not a compulsory stage for all dissertations and you will skip this stage if you are
conducting desk-based research.
6. Data analysis. Analysis of data plays an important role in the achievement of research aim and
objectives. Data analysis methods vary between secondary and primary studies, as well as, between
qualitative and quantitative studies.
7. Reaching conclusions. Conclusions relate to the level of achievement of research aims and
objectives. In this final part of your dissertation, you will have to justify why you think that
research aims and objectives have been achieved. Conclusions also need to cover research
limitations and suggestions for future research.
answering the "So What" question requires a commitment on your part to not only show that you
have researched the material, but that you have thought about its significance.
To survive the "So What" question, problem statements should possess the following attributes:
● Clarity and precision [a well-written statement does not make sweeping generalizations
and irresponsible statements],
● Demonstrate a researchable topic or issue [i.e., feasibility of conducting the study is based
upon access to information that can be effectively acquired, interpreted, synthesized, and
understood],
● Identification of what would be studied, while avoiding the use of value-laden words and
terms,
● Identification of an overarching question or small set of questions accompanied by key
factors or variables,
● Identification of key concepts and terms,
● Articulation of the study's boundaries or parameters or limitations,
● Some generalizability in regards to applicability and bringing results into general use,
● Conveyance of the study's importance, benefits, and justification [i.e., regardless of the
type of research, it is important to demonstrate that the research is not trivial],
● Does not have unnecessary jargon or overly complex sentence constructions; and,
● Conveyance of more than the mere gathering of descriptive data providing only a
snapshot of the issue or phenomenon under investigation.
Bryman, Alan. “The Research Question in Social Research: What is its Role?” International Journal
of Social Research Methodology 10 (2007): 5-20; Castellanos, Susie. Critical Writing and Thinking.
The Writing Centre. Dean of the College. Brown University; Ellis, Timothy J. and Yair Levy Nova
Framework of Problem-Based Research: A Guide for Novice Researchers on the Development of a
Research-Worthy Problem. Informing Science: the International Journal of an Emerging Trans
discipline 11 (2008); Thesis and Purpose Statements. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Centre.
University of Wisconsin, Madison; Thesis Statements. The Writing Centre. University of North
Carolina; Tips and Examples for Writing Thesis Statements. The Writing Lab and the OWL. Purdue
University.
Mixed-methods studies
Mixed-methods studies typically require a set of both quantitative and qualitative research
questions. Separate questions are appropriate when the mixed-methods study focuses on the
significance and differences in quantitative and qualitative methods and not on the study’s
integrative component (Tashakkori& Teddlie, 2010).
Researchers also have the option to develop a single mixed-methods research question. According
to Tashakkori and Teddlie (2010), this suggests an integrative process or component between the
study’s quantitative and qualitative research methods.
questions include brainstorming and concept mapping. These techniques can organize your
thoughts so you can identify connections and relevant themes within a broad topic.
When searching for a topic, it’s wise to choose an area of study that you are genuinely interested in,
since your interest in a topic will affect your motivation levels throughout your research. It’s also
wise to consider the interests being addressed recently by the research community, as this may
affect your paper’s chances of getting published.
Research questions should be structured properly to ensure clarity. There are a number of
frameworks that you can use for properly constructing a research question. The two most
commonly used frameworks are explained below.
PICOT Framework
The PICOT framework was first introduced in 1995 by Richardson et al. Using the PICOT
framework; research questions can be constructed to address important elements of the study,
including the population to be studied, the expected outcomes, and the time it takes to achieve the
outcome. With these elements, the framework is more commonly used in clinical research and
evidence-based studies.
P – population, patients, or problems.
I – intervention or indicator being studied.
C – comparison group.
O – outcome of interest.
T – timeframe of the study affects your paper’s
chances of getting published.
PEO framework
Like the PICOT framework, the PEO framework is commonly used in clinical studies as well.
However, this framework is more useful for qualitative research questions. This framework
includes these elements:
P – population being studied
E – exposure to preexisting conditions
O – outcome of interest
Casuist Research Problem -- this type of problem relates to the determination of right and wrong in
questions of conduct or conscience by analyzing moral dilemmas through the application of general
rules and the careful distinction of special cases.
Difference Research Problem -- typically asks the question, “Is there a difference between two or
more groups or treatments?” This type of problem statement is used when the researcher compares
or contrasts two or more phenomena.
Descriptive Research Problem -- typically asks the question, "what is...?" with the underlying
purpose to describe a situation, state, or existence of a specific phenomenon.
Relational Research Problem -- suggests a relationship of some sort between two or more variables
to be investigated. The underlying purpose is to investigate qualities/characteristics that are
connected in some way.
● A problem statement in the social sciences should contain:
● A lead-in that helps ensure the reader will maintain interest over the study,
Interdisciplinary Perspectives
Identifying a problem that forms the basis for a research study can come from academic
movements and scholarship originating in disciplines outside of your primary area of study. A
review of pertinent literature should include examining research from related disciplines that can
reveal new avenues of exploration and analysis. An interdisciplinary approach to selecting a
research problem offers an opportunity to construct a more comprehensive understanding of a very
complex issue that any single discipline may be able to provide.
Interviewing Practitioners
The identification of research problems about particular topics can arise from formal or informal
discussions with practitioners who provide insight into new directions for future research and how
to make research findings more relevant to practice. Discussions with experts in the field, such as,
teachers, social workers, health care providers, lawyers, business leaders, etc., offers the chance to
identify practical, “real world” problems that may be understudied or ignored within academic
circles. This approach also provides some practical knowledge which may help in the process of
designing and conducting your study.
Personal Experience
Your everyday experiences can give rise to worthwhile problems for investigation. Think critically
about your own experiences and/or frustrations with an issue facing society, your community,
your neighborhood, your family, or your personal life. This can be derived, for example, from
deliberate observations of certain relationships for which there is no clear explanation or witnessing
an event that appears harmful to a person or group or that is out of the ordinary.
Relevant Literature
The selection of a research problem can be derived from an extensive and thorough review of
pertinent research associated with your overall area of interest. This may reveal where gaps exist in
our understanding of a topic. Research may be conducted to: 1) fill such gaps in knowledge; 2)
evaluate if the methodologies employed in prior studies can be adapted to solve other problems; or,
3) determine if a similar study could be conducted in a different subject area or applied to different
study sample [i.e., different groups of people]. Also, authors frequently conclude their studies by
noting implications for further research; this can also be a valuable source of new problems to
investigate.
Compelling topic
Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study. The problem that you
choose to explore must be important to you, your readers, and to a larger community you share.
The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to address it.
Supports multiple perspectives
The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead supports the
generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule of thumb is that a good
research problem is one that would generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience
made up of reasonable people.
Researchable
It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in the midst of investigating a complex
research project and realize that you don't have much to draw on for your research. Choose
research problems that can be supported by the resources available to you. Not sure? Seek out help
from a librarian!
NOTE: Do not confuse a research problem with a research topic. A topic is something to read and
obtain information about whereas a problem is something to be solved or framed as a question that
must be answered.
Mistakes to Avoid
Beware of circular reasoning! Don’t state that the research problem as simply the absence of the
thing you are suggesting. For example, if you propose the following: "The problem in this
community is that there is no hospital."
• This only leads to a research problem where:
• The need is for a hospital
• The objective is to create a hospital
• The method is to plan for building a hospital, and
• The evaluation is to measure if there is a hospital or not.
This is an example of a research problem that fails the "So What?" test. In this example, the problem
does not reveal the relevance of why you are investigating the fact there is no hospital in the
community [e.g., there's a hospital in the community ten miles away]; it does not elucidate the
significance of why one should study the fact there is no hospital in the community [e.g., that
hospital in the community ten miles away has no emergency room]; and, the research problem does
not offer an intellectual pathway towards adding new knowledge or clarifying prior knowledge
[e.g., the county in which there is no hospital already conducted a study about the need for a
hospital].
Conclusion
A research question is usually the first step in any research project. Basically, it is the primary
interrogation point of your research and it sets the pace for your work.
Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and hypothesis,
and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research questions, you will
be able to gather useful information for your investigation.
Summary
The goal of scientific research is to discover laws and postulate theories that can explain natural or
social phenomena, or in other words, build scientific knowledge. It is important to understand that
this knowledge may be imperfect or even quite far from the truth.
Social science research is the systematic understanding of social facts or phenomena. It gathers
information about the social world, interpreting it in order to make decisions on a course of actions
Keywords
Social research,
Empirical,
Cyclic, research area,
Literature review,
Ethical issues,
Informed consent.
Self Assessment
1. Research is a systematic process
A. True
B. False
5. Researcher has to get the informed consent from the respondent to utilize their data in
Research.
A. True
B. False
A. 4
B. 6
C. 8
D. 10
11. ------ research is the first research to be conducted around a problem that has not been
clearly defined.
A. Exploratory
B. Descriptive
C. Explanatory
D. None of them
14. ------- is based on the proven scientific methods derived from real life observations and
experimentation.
A. Empirical
B. Cyclic
C. Logical
D. None of them
15. -------- research begins with a question & ends with a question.
A. Empirical
B. Cyclic
C. Logical
D. None of them
6. A 7. C 8. A 9. C 10. B
Review Questions
1. What is Social Research? State its objectives.
2. What are the needs of Social Research?
3. What are the purposes of Research?
4. What are the characteristics of research?
5. What do you mean by research process?
6. Briefly discuss the ethical issues of Social Research.
7. What are the different types of Research?
8. What are the methods of Research?
9. State different stages of Research Process.
10. What are the examples of steps of Research?
Further Readings
The Practice of Psychological Research by Earl, R. Babbie-13th ed. Wadsworth
Publishing Co.inc.2011
• Methods of Psychological Research by Paul, K. Hatt& William, J. Goode. Surjeet
Publication. 2018.
Objectives
After completion of this Unit, the students will be able to:
Introduction
Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem
using scientific methods. “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control
the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”- Earl Robert Babbie
Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify
the observed event.
Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive methods are
more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.
3.1. Research
Definition
Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data; documentation of critical
information; and analysis and interpretation of that data/information, in accordance with suitable
methodologies set by specific professional fields and academic disciplines.
Objectives of Research
To find out the real facts
To achieve the new thoughts
To evaluate the information
To test a hypothesis
To design or implement the research
To improve the understanding
In general, research objectives describe what we expect to achieve by a project.
Research objectives are usually expressed in lay terms and are directed as much to the client as to
the researcher. Research objectives may be linked with a hypothesis or used as a statement of
purpose in a study that does not have a hypothesis.
Even if the nature of the research has not been clear to the layperson from the hypotheses, s/he
should be able to understand the research from the objectives.
The final part of clarifying your research project involves thinking in more detail about your
research objectives. Research objectives should be closely related to the statement of the problem
and summarize what you hope will be achieved by the study. , if the problem identified is low
utilization of antenatal care services, the general objective of the study could be to identify the
reasons for this low uptake, in order to find ways of improving it.
Objectives can be general or specific. The general objective of your study states what you expect to
achieve in general terms. Specific objectives break down the general objective into smaller, logically
connected parts that systematically address the various aspects of the problem.
Goals of Research
The primary goal or purpose of research in any field of inquiry; is to add to what is known about
the phenomenon under investigation through the application of scientific methods.
Though each research has its own specific goals, yet we may enumerate the following 4 broad goals
of scientific research:
Exploration.
Description.
Causal explanation.
Prediction.
The link between the 4 goals of research and the questions raised in reaching these goals.
Research Approaches
There are two main approaches to doing research.
The first is the basic approach, which mostly pertains to academic research. Many people view this
as pure research or fundamental research.
The research implemented through the second approach is variously known as applied research,
action research, operations research, or a contract research approach.
Also, the third category of research, called evaluative research, is of importance in many
applications. All these approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the
respective research.
Lastly, precautions in research are required for thorough research.
Basic Research.
Applied Research.
Evaluative Research.
Precautions in Research
Areas of Research
The most important fields of research, among others, are;
Social Research.
Health Research.
Population Research.
Business Research.
Marketing Research.
Agricultural Research.
Biomedical Research.
Clinical Research.
Outcomes Research.
Internet Research.
Archival Research.
Empirical Research.
Legal Research.
Education Research.
Engineering Research.
Historical Research
Precautions in Research
Whether a researcher is doing applied or basic research or research of any other form, he or she
must take necessary precautions to ensure that the research he or she is doing is relevant, timely,
efficient, accurate, and ethical.
The research is considered relevant if it anticipates the kinds of information that will be required by
decision-makers, scientists, or policymakers.
Timely research is completed in time to influence decisions.
Research is efficient when it is of the best quality for the minimum expenditure, and the study is
appropriate to the research context.
Research is considered accurate or valid when the interpretation can account for both consistencies
and inconsistencies in the data.
Research is ethical when it can promote trust, exercise care, ensure standards, and protect the rights
of the participants in the research process.
Importance of Research
It's a tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning.
It's a means to understand issues and increase public awareness.
It helps us succeed in business.
It allows us to disprove lies and support truths.
It is a means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities.
It promotes a love of and confidence in reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing valuable
information.
It provides nourishment and exercise for the mind.
only policymaking but also policy implementation. We agree with Carol Weiss, who argued “…this
process—bringing new perspectives to attention and formulating issues for resolution—may be the
most important contribution that social research makes to government policy.”
Benefits of Research
The benefits for students engaged in research and creative work are numerous.
Educational Benefits
Professional Benefits
Personal Benefits
Characteristics of Research
Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to
practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
Real-time data and knowledge are derived from actual observations in natural settings.
There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to
practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research
opportunities.
It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate
and correct. laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy
is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the
experiment’s result.
Purpose of Research
3.2. Exploratory Research:
As the name suggests, researchers conduct exploratory studies to explore a group of questions. The
answers and analytics may not offer a conclusion to the perceived problem. It is undertaken to
handle new problem areas that haven’t been explored before. This exploratory process lays the
foundation for more conclusive data collection and analysis.
and validating the findings. a study conducted to know if top-level management leaders in
the 21st century possess the moral right to receive a considerable sum of money from the company
profit.
An excellent example for illustrating the difference is by using pure and applied mathematics.
Pure math is concerned with understanding underlying abstract principles and describing them
with elegant theories. Applied math, by contrast, uses these equations to explain real life
phenomena, such as mechanics, ecology and gravity.
Qualitative methods
Qualitative research is a method that collects data using conversational methods, usually open-
ended questions. The responses collected are essentially non-numerical. This method helps a
researcher understand what participants think and why they think in a particular way.
Research methods are broadly classified as Qualitative and Quantitative.
Both methods have distinctive properties and data collection methods.
One-to-one Interview
Focus Groups
Ethnographic studies
Text Analysis
Case Study
Quantitative methods
Quantitative methods deal with numbers and measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It answers questions to justify relationships with measurable variables
to either explain, predict, or control a phenomenon.
Survey research
Descriptive research
Correlational research
Summary
Research is the organized and systematic method of finding answers to questions.
It is systematic because it is a process broken up into clear steps that lead to conclusions.
Research is organized because there is a planned structure or method used to reach the
conclusion.
Research is only successful if we find answers, whether we like these answers or not.
Development research is focused on relevant, useful and important questions. If there are
no questions, there can be no research.
Research is the organized and systematic method of finding answers to questions. It is
systematic because it is a process broken up into clear steps that lead to conclusions. Research
is organized because there is a planned structure or method used to reach the conclusion.
Research is only successful if we find answers, whether we like these answers or not.
Development research is focused on relevant, useful and important questions. If there are no
questions, there can be no research.
Keywords
Philosophical roots, objectives, goals, purpose, characteristics, conceptual use, importance,
approaches, types, precautions.
Self Assessment
1. Research is a process of systematic enquiry.
A. True
B. False
2. There are seven objectives in a Research.
A. True
B. False
3. There are four goals of Research.
A. True
B. False
4. The research is considered relevant if the findings will be required by the policy makers or
scientists.
A. True
B. False
5. Research is ethical when it promotes trust.
A. True
B. False
6. Inductive Research method----------
A. Verify an observed event
B. Analyze an observed event
C. Correlate an observed event
D. None of them
12. ------------- research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through data
collection.
A. Exploratory
B. Descriptive
C. Explanatory
D. None of them
Review Questions
1. Define Research. Explain its goals.
2. Explain the characteristics of Research.
3. Briefly discuss the conceptual use of Research.
4. What are the precautions of doing Research?
5. What are the benefits of Research?
6. What are the different types of Approaches to Research?
7. What are the objectives of Research?
8. Narrate the purposes of Research.
9. What do you mean by pure Scientific research?
10. What do you mean by Applied Scientific research?
Further Readings
The Practice of Psychological Research by Earl, R. Babbie-13th ed. Wadsworth
Publishing Co.inc.2011
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
4.1. Experimental Research
4.2. Correlational Research
4.3. Case Study Research
4.4. Observational Research
4.5. Quasi-Experimental Research
4.6. Survey Research
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
After completion of this Unit, the students will be able to:
Introduction
Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem
using scientific methods. “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and control
the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”- Earl Robert Babbie
Inductive research methods analyze an observed event, while deductive methods verify
the observed event.
Inductive approaches are associated with qualitative research, and deductive methods are
more commonly associated with quantitative analysis.
Objectives of Research
To find out the real facts
To achieve the new thoughts
To evaluate the information
To test a hypothesis
and summarize what you hope will be achieved by the study. , if the problem identified is low
utilization of antenatal care services, the general objective of the study could be to identify the
reasons for this low uptake, in order to find ways of improving it.
Objectives can be general or specific. The general objective of your study states what you expect to
achieve in general terms. Specific objectives break down the general objective into smaller, logically
connected parts that systematically address the various aspects of the problem.
Goals of Research
The primary goal or purpose of research in any field of inquiry; is to add to what is known about
the phenomenon under investigation through the application of scientific methods.
Though each research has its own specific goals, yet we may enumerate the following 4 broad goals
of scientific research:
Exploration.
Description.
Causal explanation.
Prediction.
The link between the 4 goals of research and the questions raised in reaching these goals.
Research Approaches
There are two main approaches to doing research.
The first is the basic approach, which mostly pertains to academic research. Many people view this
as pure research or fundamental research.
The research implemented through the second approach is variously known as applied research,
action research, operations research, or a contract research approach.
Also, the third category of research, called evaluative research, is of importance in many
applications. All these approaches have different purposes which influence the nature of the
respective research.
Lastly, precautions in research are required for thorough research.
Basic Research.
Applied Research.
Evaluative Research.
Precautions in Research
Areas of Research
The most important fields of research, among others, are;
Social Research.
Health Research.
Population Research.
Business Research.
Marketing Research.
Agricultural Research.
Biomedical Research.
Clinical Research.
Outcomes Research.
Internet Research.
Archival Research.
Empirical Research.
Legal Research.
Education Research.
Engineering Research.
Historical Research
Precautions in Research
Whether a researcher is doing applied or basic research or research of any other form, he or she
must take necessary precautions to ensure that the research he or she is doing is relevant, timely,
efficient, accurate, and ethical.
The research is considered relevant if it anticipates the kinds of information that will be required by
decision-makers, scientists, or policymakers.
Timely research is completed in time to influence decisions.
Research is efficient when it is of the best quality for the minimum expenditure, and the study is
appropriate to the research context.
Research is considered accurate or valid when the interpretation can account for both consistencies
and inconsistencies in the data.
Research is ethical when it can promote trust, exercise care, ensure standards, and protect the rights
of the participants in the research process.
Importance of Research
It's a tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning.
It's a means to understand issues and increase public awareness.
It helps us succeed in business.
It allows us to disprove lies and support truths.
It is a means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities.
It promotes a love of and confidence in reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing valuable
information.
It provides nourishment and exercise for the mind.
Findings from research can help broaden or narrow understandings about the kinds of
solutions should be considered and are most appropriate to pursue
Research can also provide a framework to guide action
The conceptual use of research is a potentially powerful way to inform policy. When used
conceptually, research serves to introduce new ideas, help people identify problems and
appropriate solutions in new ways, and provide new frameworks to guide thinking and action.
What’s more, the conceptual use of research can have long-term consequences. Rather than
influencing a single decision, it shapes how people see the world, how they respond to problems
they encounter in their everyday work, and how they design and manage solutions. It touches not
only policymaking but also policy implementation. We agree with Carol Weiss, who argued “…this
process—bringing new perspectives to attention and formulating issues for resolution—may be the
most important contribution that social research makes to government policy.”
Benefits of Research
The benefits for students engaged in research and creative work are numerous.
Educational Benefits
Professional Benefits
Personal Benefits
Characteristics of Research
Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to
practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
Real-time data and knowledge are derived from actual observations in natural settings.
There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
Good research follows a systematic approach to capture accurate data. Researchers need to
practice ethics and a code of conduct while making observations or drawing conclusions.
The analysis is based on logical reasoning and involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
Real-time data and knowledge is derived from actual observations in natural settings.
There is an in-depth analysis of all data collected so that there are no anomalies associated
with it.
It creates a path for generating new questions. Existing data helps create more research
opportunities.
It is analytical and uses all the available data so that there is no ambiguity in inference.
Accuracy is one of the most critical aspects of research. The information must be accurate
and correct. laboratories provide a controlled environment to collect data. Accuracy
is measured in the instruments used, the calibrations of instruments or tools, and the
experiment’s result.
as non-experimental because the variables are neither controlled nor manipulated. The results are
both qualitative and quantitative in nature.
Ethical
Sometimes it would be unethical to provide or withhold a treatment on a random basis, so a true
experiment is not feasible. In this case, a quasi-experiment can allow you to study the same causal
relationship without the ethical issues.
The Oregon Health Study is a good example. It would be unethical to randomly provide some
people with health insurance but purposely prevent others from receiving it solely for the purposes
of research.
However, since the Oregon government faced financial constraints and decided to provide health
insurance via lottery, studying this event after the fact is a much more ethical approach to studying
the same problem.
Practical
True experimental design may be infeasible to implement or simply too expensive, particularly for
researchers without access to large funding streams.
At other times, too much work is involved in recruiting and properly designing an experimental
intervention for an adequate number of subjects to justify a true experiment.
In either case, quasi-experimental designs allow you to study the question by taking advantage of
data that has previously been paid for or collected by others (often the government).
Surveys allow researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period.
Surveys are less expensive than many other data collection techniques.
Poor survey construction and administration can undermine otherwise well-designed studies.
The answer choices provided in a survey may not be an accurate reflection of how the participants
actually feel.
While random sampling is generally used to select participants, response rates can bias the results
of a survey.
The social desirability bias6 can lead people to respond in a way that makes them look better than
they really are. For example, a respondent might report that they engage in more healthy behaviors
than they do in real life.
Summary
Research is the organized and systematic method of finding answers to questions.
It is systematic because it is a process broken up into clear steps that lead to conclusions.
Research is organized because there is a planned structure or method used to reach the
conclusion.
Research is only successful if we find answers, whether we like these answers or not.
Development research is focused on relevant, useful and important questions. If there are
no questions, there can be no research.
Research is the organized and systematic method of finding answers to questions. It is
systematic because it is a process broken up into clear steps that lead to conclusions. Research
is organized because there is a planned structure or method used to reach the conclusion.
Research is only successful if we find answers, whether we like these answers or not.
Development research is focused on relevant, useful and important questions. If there are no
questions, there can be no research.
Keywords
Philosophical roots, objectives, goals, purpose, characteristics, conceptual use, importance,
approaches, types, precautions.
Self Assessment
1. Research is a process of systematic enquiry.
A. True
B. False
2. There are seven objectives in a Research.
A. True
B. False
3. There are four goals of Research.
A. True
B. False
4. The research is considered relevant if the findings will be required by the policy makers or
scientists.
A. True
B. False
5. Research is ethical when it promotes trust.
A. True
B. False
6. Inductive Research method----------
A. Verify an observed event
B. Analyze an observed event
C. Correlate an observed event
D. None of them
12. ------------- research focuses on expanding knowledge on current issues through data
collection.
A. Exploratory
B. Descriptive
C. Explanatory
D. None of them
Review Questions
1. Define Research. Explain its goals.
2. Explain the characteristics of Research.
3. Briefly discuss the conceptual use of Research.
4. What are the precautions of doing Research?
5. What are the benefits of Research?
6. What are the different types of Approaches to Research?
7. What are the objectives of Research?
8. Narrate the purposes of Research.
9. What do you mean by pure Scientific research?
10. What do you mean by Applied Scientific research?
Further Readings
The Practice of Psychological Research by Earl, R. Babbie-13th ed. Wadsworth
Publishing Co.inc.2011
Methods of Psychological Research by Paul,K. Hatt& William, J. Goode. Surjeet
Publication. 2018.
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
5.1. Experimental and Non-Experimental Research
5.2. Between and Within Group Design
5.3. Longitudinal Design
5.4. Cross Sectional Design
5.5. Correlational Design
5.6. Summary
5.7. Key Notes
5.8. Self-Assessment
5.9. Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
This unit will enable you to:
Know different types of research designs;
Understand difference between experimental and non-experimental research;
Understand how longitudinal design works
Introduction
Research design is the research process that comes after defining the research problem. Research
design is a blueprint for doing research. It can guide us on which kind of design is suitable for our
study. It refers to the framework of any research person's research methods and techniques. It
allows researchers to utilize the appropriate methods for research and set up their studies
successfully in the future. The research design topic explained the types of research such as
experimental, survey research, correlational, semi-experimental, review and subtype of research
such as experimental design, research problem, descriptive case study.
There are three main types of research design following:
Data collection,
Measurement
Analysis
Good research usually confirms minimum bias levels in the data collection method to improve
internal and external research validity.
In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is conducted; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. The design includes
an outline of what the researcher will do, from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final data analysis.
1. Flexible
2. Appropriate,
3. Efficient,
4. Economical
5. Which minimizes bias and maximizes the reliability of the data collection and analysis.
A research design appropriate for a particular research problem usually involves the consideration
of the following factors:
1. Principle of replication- while doing research, the experiment should be repeated several
times. As a result, each treatment is used in multiple experimental units rather than just
one. The statistical accuracy of the experiments is improved as a result. Randomization
allows the later use of probability theory and gives a solid foundation for statistical
analysis.
3. Principle of Local Control- it will help eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors
from the experimental error.
The experimental research design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment. Further, it
categorizes into 2 broad categories:
Before-and-after without control design: In this design, a single test group hasSelected and the
dependent variable is measured before the introduction of the treatment. The treatment has
beenintroduced, and the dependent variable is measured again after the treatment has
beenintroduced. The treatment effect would be equal to the level of the phenomenon after
thetreatment, minus the level of the phenomenon before the treatment. The design can be
represented thus:
After-only with control design: In this design, two groups or areas (test area and control area) are
selected, and the treatment is introduced into the test area only. The dependent variable is then
measured in both areas at the same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of
the dependent variable in the control area from its importance in the test area. This can be exhibited
in the following form:
EXPERIMENTAL
DESIGN
Informal Formal
Expeimental Experimental
Designs Designs
Before-and-after with control design: In this design two areas are selected and the dependent
variable is measured in both the areas for an identical time-period before the treatment. The
treatment is then introduced into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both
for an identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment effect is
determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in the control area from the change
in the dependent variable in test area. This design can be shown in this way:
Completely randomized design (C.R. design): Involves only two principles viz., the principleof
replication and the principle of randomization of experimental designs. It is the simplest possible
design and its procedure of analysis is also easier. The essential characteristic of the design is that
subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments (or vice-versa). For instance, if we have
10 subjects and if we wish to test 5 under treatment A and 5 under treatment B, the randomization
process gives every possible group of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an equal opportunity of
being assigned to treatment A and treatment B. One-way analysis of variance (or one-way
ANOVA) * is used to analyze such a design. Even unequal replications can also work in this design.
It provides maximum number of degrees of freedom to the error. Such a design is generally used
when experimental areas happen to be homogeneous.
Randomized block design (R.B. design)- In the Randomized Block design, subjects are first
divided into groups, known as blocks, such that withineach group the subjects are relatively
homogeneous in respect to some selected variable. The variableselected for grouping the subjects is
one that is believed to be related to the measures to be obtainedin respect of the dependent variable.
The number of subjects in a given block would be equal to thenumber of treatments and one subject
in each block would be randomly assigned to each treatment.
Blocks are the levels at which we hold the extraneous factor fixed, so that its contributionto the total
variability of data can be measured. The main feature of the R.B. design is that in thiseach treatment
appears the same number of times in each block. The R.B. design is analysed by thetwo-way
analysis of variance (two-way ANOVA) * technique.
Latin square design (L.S. design) is an experimental design very frequently used in agricultural
research. The conditions under which agricultural investigations are carried out are different from
those in other studies for nature plays an important role in agriculture.
Factorial designs: Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more
than one factor is to be determined. They are especially important in several economic and social
phenomena where usually a large number of factors affect a particular problem. Factorial designs
can be of two types: (i) simple factorial designs and (ii) complex factorial designs.
Nonexperimental research design-this research design has lacks of the independent variable and
manipulation of the independent variable. This is used to measure variables as they occur naturally
in the lab or real world. There is huge distinction between experimental research design and
nonexperimental research design.Experimental research can provide strong evidence that changes
in an independent variable cause differences in a dependent variable, nonexperimental research
generally cannot.
This is the part of experimental design in which between group design emphasize that we use
it when a different group of subjects is assigned to each level of independent variable. Further,
it divided into two-partrandomization and matched group.
1. Randomized group: randomly assign subjects to each level of independent variable.
Number of groups in experiment should have equal the number of levels of independent
variable.
Advantages:
Simple to carry out only small groups of subjects needed.
No pre-testing or categorization of subjects is needed.
The statistical analysis is straight-forward.
Disadvantages:
It could provide only limited information on the effect of the IV on the DV, if there are
only 2 or 3 levels of the IV.
It may not be sensitive to the effect of the IV, because subjects may vary wildly on
other characteristics that influence the DV. This makes it difficult to test the influence
of the IV on the DV.
2. Matched group: When the subjects are matched by a set of characteristics that may
influence the DV and distributed evenly across each level of the IV. It attempts to control
for subject characteristics that influence the DV. Thus, it may be more likely that the
influence of the IV on the DV will be observed.
Advantages:
Allows us to control for nuisance variables that may otherwise obscure the effect of
the IV on the DV.
Disadvantages:
It requires pre-testing and matching of subjects.
Critical that the measures us use to match subjects are reliable and valid.
Itis observational study, so researchers are not allowed to interfere with their subjects. In this
study, researchers are conducted several observations of the same subject or the participants
over a period of time, sometimes lasting many years.
Most of the longitudinal studies examine associations between exposure to known or
suspected causes of disease and subsequent morbidity or mortality.
Advantages
The ability to identify and relate events to particular exposures, and to further define
these exposures with regards to presence, timing chronicity.
Establishing sequence of events.
Following change over time in particular individuals within the cohort.
Ability to correct for the "cohort effect" – that is allowing for analysis of the individual
time components of cohort (range of the birth dates), period (current time), and age
(at point of measurement)- and to account for the impact of each individually.
Disadvantages:
Incomplete and interrupted follow-up of individuals, in view of the potentiation of
one by the other:
The potential for inaccuracy in conclusionif adopting statistical techniques that fail to
account for the intra-individual correlation of measure,
Increased financial demands associated with this approach.
Advantages:
It allows researcher to compare many different variables at the same time. (Ex.-look at
age, gender, income and educational level in relation to do exercise and blood
pressure levels.)
Disadvantages:
It may not providefactual information about cause-and-effect relationships.
It only providesa snapshot of a single moment in time.
This research design measures the relationship between two or more variables. Variable may
be presented on a scatter plot to visually show the relationship or association. The Pearson
correlation coefficient ® is a measure of the strength of linear relationship between two
variables.
Correlation can be strong or weak and positive or negative and sometime, there is no
correlation. Numerical value called the correlation coefficient.
Positive correlations: both the variable increase or decrease at the same time. It close to +1.00
indicates a strong positive correlation.
Negative correlations: it shows that amount of one variable will increase then another variable
will decrease. And it is close to -1.00 indicates a strong negative correlation.
5.8. Self-assessments
a. Within group
b. Randomize block design
c. Longitudinal research design
d. Cross-cultural research design
5. In which research design, researchers are supposed to record information about their subjects
without having any manipulating the study environment?
a. Within group
b. Randomize block design
c. Longitudinal research design
d. Cross-cultural research design
6. What do we callcorrelation-coefficient?
a. Alphabetical values
b. Numerical values
c. Social values
d. Cultural values
7. Which one is not correct advantages of longitudinal research design?
a. The ability to identify and relate events to particular exposures, and to further define
these exposures with regards to presence, timing chronicity
b. Establishing sequence of events:
c. Following change over time in particular individuals within the cohort
d. Subjects are "matched" across all levels of the IV.
8. The amount of one variable will increase then another variable will decrease, have shown
that____________.
a. Negative correlation
b. Positive correlation
c. Double correlation
d. Zero correlation
9. How would you indicate, If there is no correlation or relationship between the two variables?
a. +1
b. -1
c. 0
d. .81
10. Which are the types of formal experimental design except one?
a. Latin square
b. Randomized Block design
c. Between group design
d. Factorial design
Answer key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
d a b c d b d a c c
Unit 06:Reliability
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
6.1. Meaning and Concept
6.2. Inter-Rater Reliability
6.3. Parallel Forms Reliability
6.4. Internal Consistency Reliability
6.5. Split-Half Reliability
Summary
Key Words
Self-Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
After the completion of this Unit, the students will be able to:
● understand the concept of Sampling
● know different components of Reliability and Validity
● familiarize with the use of Sampling, Reliability and Validity in Social
Research
Introduction
A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population by using a predefined selection method. These elements are known as sample points,
sampling units, or observations.
Creating a sample is an efficient method of conducting research. In most cases, it is impossible or
costly and time-consuming to research the whole population. Hence, examining the sample
provides insights that the researcher can apply to the entire population.
Reliability and validity are concepts used to evaluate the quality of research. They indicate how
well a method, technique or test measure something. Reliability is about the consistency of a
measure, and validity is about the accuracy of a measure.
It’s important to consider reliability and validity when you are creating your research design,
planning your methods, and writing up your results, especially in quantitative research.
Ensuring reliability
Reliability should be considered throughout the data collection process. When you use a tool or
technique to collect data, it’s important that the results are precise, stable and reproducible.
Apply your methods consistently
Plan your method carefully to make sure you carry out the same steps in the same way for each
measurement. This is especially important if multiple researchers are involved.
For example, if you are conducting interviews or observations, clearly define how specific
behaviors or responses will be counted, and make sure questions are phrased the same way each
time.
For example, in an experimental setup, make sure all participants are given the same information
and tested under the same conditions.
we can now define reliability more precisely. Reliability is a ratio or fraction. In layperson terms we
might define this ratio as:
true level on the measure
You might think of reliability as the proportion of “truth” in your measure. Now, we don’t speak of
the reliability of a measure for an individual – reliability is a characteristic of a measure that’s taken
across individuals. So, to get closer to a more formal definition, let’s restate the definition above in
terms of a set of observations. The easiest way to do this is to speak of the variance of the scores.
Remember that the variance is a measure of the spread or distribution of a set of scores. So, we can
now state the definition as:
We might put this into slightly more technical terms by using the abbreviated name for the variance
and our variable names:
We’re getting to the critical part now. If you look at the equation above, you should recognize that
we can easily determine or calculate the bottom part of the reliability ratio – it’s just the variance of
the set of scores we observed (You remember how to calculate the variance, don’t you? It’s just the
sum of the squared deviations of the scores from their mean, divided by the number of scores). But
how do we calculate the variance of the true scores. We can’t see the true scores (we only see X)!
Only God knows the true score for a specific observation. And, if we can’t calculate the variance of
the true scores, we can’t compute our ratio, which means we can’t compute reliability! Everybody
got that? The bottom line is… we can’t compute reliability because we can’t calculate the variance
of the true scores.
Great. So where does that leave us? If we can’t compute reliability, perhaps the best we can do is to
estimate it. Maybe we can get an estimate of the variability of the true scores. How do we do that?
Remember our two observations, X1 and X2? We assume (using true score theory) that these two
observations would be related to each other to the degree that they share true scores. So, let’s
calculate the correlation between X1 and X2. Here’s a simple formula for the correlation:
where the Sd stands for the standard deviation (which is the square root of the variance). If we look
carefully at this equation, we can see that the covariance, which simply measures the “shared”
variance between measures must be an indicator of the variability of the true scores because the
true scores in X1 and X2 are the only thing the two observations share! So, the top part is essentially
an estimate of var(T) in this context. And, since the bottom part of the equation multiplies the
standard deviation of one observation with the standard deviation of the same measure at another
time, we would expect that these two values would be the same (it is the same measure we’re
taking) and that this is essentially the same thing as squaring the standard deviation for either
observation. But, the square of the standard deviation is the same thing as the variance of the
measure. So, the bottom part of the equation becomes the variance of the measure (or var(X)). If you
read this paragraph carefully, you should see that the correlation between two observations of the
same measure is an estimate of reliability.
It’s time to reach some conclusions. We know from this discussion that we cannot calculate
reliability because we cannot measure the true score component of an observation. But we also
know that we can estimate the true score component as the covariance between two observations of
the same measure. With that in mind, we can estimate the reliability as the correlation between two
observations of the same measure. It turns out that there are several ways we can estimate this
reliability correlation. These are discussed in Types of Reliability.
There’s only one other issue I want to address here. How big is an estimate of reliability? To figure
this out, let’s go back to the equation given earlier:
Characteristics of Reliability
Stability Characteristic
• variations in Powerfulness, i.e., variations in capacity or responsiveness.
• variations in Efficiency, i.e., variations in resource usage.
• It produces measurements about a tested system's ability to deliver its services with
constant performance figures over time.
• It usually runs for long periods at high load to produce significant results.
Availability Characteristics
• probability of service delivery such as acceptable number of failed services per million
service requests or equivalent.
• availability time or up-time of a system, hardware and software, such as 99.999% of
scheduled production time.
• availability measurements usually run for very long periods of time at high load rates to
produce significant results.
• availability measurements can be combined with stability measurements.
Robustness Characteristics
• There are two types of extreme conditions tested:
• external conditions
• internal conditions
• Robustness measurements can be combinations of external and internal conditions.
• variations in Powerfulness.
• variations in Efficiency.
Recovery Characteristics
• Recovery characteristics are measurements of time to perform recovery and maintain
service levels during recovery procedures.
• There are two types of simulated recovery situations:
• system outages.
• service outages.
• recovery time from various types of outages.
• powerfulness during various types of outages.
Accuracy Characteristics
• Accuracy characteristics are measurements of correctness in service delivery especially
under heavy load or extreme conditions.
• The objectives are to identify and eliminate wrong delivery or incorrect results.
Components of Reliability
• Reliability refers to the dependability or consistency or stability of the test scores. It does
not go beyond it.
• Reliability is concerned with the stability of test scores-self correlation of the test.
• Every reliable test is not necessarily valid. A test having high correlation with itself may
not have equally high correlation with a criterion.
• Reliability is a prerequisite of validity. A highly reliable test is always a valid measure of
some functions. Thus, reliability controls validity.
• Reliability may be said as the dependability of measurement.
• Maximum reliability is found in case of homogeneous items.
• Maximum reliability requires items of equal difficulty and high inter- correlation among
test items.
• Validity coefficient does not exceed the square root of reliability coefficient.
• The Reliability Is the Proportion of True Variance and Error Variance.
• We Cannot Claim That a Reliable Test Is Also Valid. This May or May Not Be True. A Test
Measures Consistency, But It May Not Measure What It Intends to Measure. For Example,
When A Man Wrongly Reports His Date Of Birth Consistently, It May Be Reliable But Not Valid.
Reliability is the consistency of results of a test whenever the latter is repeated on the same sample
or individual under identical conditions. Reliability of a test is indicated by the close similarity or
identity of test scores when the same test is repeated or when an equivalent form of test is
administered. Reliability indicates the dependability of a test used in guidance, prediction.
Reliability coefficient is not free from errors of measurement, but ranges from -1 to +1 and its
magnitude depends on the type and objectives of the test as also the nature of the group tested.
One way of avoiding the difficulties encountered in test-retest is through the use of alternate forms
of the test. The same person can thus be tested with one form on the first occasion and with another
comparable form on the second occasion. Thus, the alternate form of reliability estimate is based on
the comparison of two sets of scores for the same persons but is obtained by the administration of
two equivalent forms of the same test. Such a reliability is a measure of both temporal stability and
consistency of response in different item samples.
The alternate form method is satisfactory when sufficient time has intervened between
administration of the two forms to weaken or eliminate memory of practice effect. When the second
form of a test follows the first closely, scoring on the second form of test will often increase because
of familiarity. If such increments are appropriately constant the reliability coefficient of the test will
not be affected.
Split-Half Method
Instead of making up alternate forms, a compromised procedure has been developed to obtain
‘part-scores’ for different sections within the same test. The most popular of such procedures is the
split-half method. In this method, the test is broken into two equivalent parts and correlation of
these half tests is compared. From the half test correlation, the self-correlation of the whole test is
estimated. Spearman-Brown Formula is used for the split-half method.
Advantages
The split-half method is employed when it is not possible to construct an alternate form of the test.
Its main advantage is that all of the data are obtained upon one occasion, hence variation
introduced by differences between the two testing situations are eliminated. This method is
regarded by many as the best method for measuring test reliability.
Disadvantages
A marked disadvantage of the split-half method lies in the fact that chance errors on the two halves
of the test are in the same way, thus tending to make the reliability coefficient too high. The longer
the test, the less the probability that the effect of temporary and variable disturbances will be
cumulative in one direction, and the more accurate the estimate of score reliability. Another
objection is that a test can be divided into two parts in a number of ways, so that the reliability
obtained by this method is not a unique value.
Conclusion
Reliability in qualitative research is very important to understand because we do not have any
measurable statistical yardstick for that. The success of qualitative research is solely depending on
the explorative capacity of the researcher and also it is important to the depth analysis of the topic
which gives internal consistency of the research.
Reliability is the consistency in measurement. It gives the same result every time on the respondent
in an instrument to measure a variable. This makes reliability very important for both Social and
Physical Sciences.
Summary
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations
are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population
depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple random sampling or
systematic sampling.
In statistics and psychometrics, reliability is the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said
to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions:
hat is reliability? We hear the term used a lot in research contexts, but what does it really mean? If
you think about how we use the word “reliable” in everyday language, you might get a hint. For
instance, we often speak about a machine as reliable: “I have a reliable car.” Or, news people talk
about a “usually reliable source”. In both cases, the word reliable usually means “dependable” or
“trustworthy.” In research, the term “reliable” also means dependable in a general sense, but that’s
not a precise enough definition. What does it mean to have a dependable measure or observation in
a research context? The reason “dependable” is not a good enough description is that it can be
confused too easily with the idea of a valid measure (see Measurement Validity). Certainly, when
we speak of a dependable measure, we mean one that is both reliable and valid. So we have to be a
little more precise when we try to define reliability.
In research, the term reliability means “repeatability” or “consistency”. A measure is considered
reliable if it would give us the same result over and over again (assuming that what we are
measuring isn’t changing!).
Let’s explore in more detail what it means to say that a measure is “repeatable” or “consistent”.
We’ll begin by defining a measure that we’ll arbitrarily label X. It might be a person’s score on a
math achievement test or a measure of severity of illness. It is the value (numerical or otherwise)
that we observe in our study. Now, to see how repeatable or consistent an observation is, we can
measure it twice. We’ll use subscripts to indicate the first and second observation of the same
measure. If we assume that what we’re measuring doesn’t change between the time of our first and
second observation, we can begin to understand how we get at reliability. While we observe a score
for what we’re measuring, we usually think of that score as consisting of two parts, the ‘true’ score
or actual level for the person on that measure, and the ‘error’ in measuring it
Keywords
Sampling, Probability sampling, Simple random sampling, Cluster sampling, Systematic sampling,
Stratified random sampling, Non-probability sampling, Convenience sampling, Purposive
sampling, Snowball sampling, Quota sampling, Confidence interval, Reliability, Stability
characteristics, Availability characteristics, Robustness characteristics, Recovery characteristics,
Accuracy characteristics, Test-retest method, Alternate or parallel form method, Split-half method,
Method of rational equivalence, Validity, Content validity, Construct validity, Concurrent validity,
Predictive validity, Criterion- related validity.
SelfAssessment
1. A sample is a smaller set of data.
A. True
B. False
2. Sampling is of four types.
A. True
B. False
3. There are four methods of estimating reliability.
A. True
B. False
4. Sampling can reduce cost and time of research.
A. True
B. False
5. A valid test measures what it purports to measure.
A. True
B. False
6. Method of Rational Equivalence is based on----------
a. Kuder-Richardson Formula
b. Spearman- Brown Formula
c. Pearson product moment Formulae
d. None of these
a. Validity
b. Reliability
c. Predictability
d. None of these
11. When the researcher collects samples purely on the basis of his/her own discretion---------
a. Random sampling
b. purposive sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. None of these
c. Proportional
d. None of these
15. In -------- sampling, each member has the same probability of being selected.
a. random
b. quota
c. Snowball
d. None of these
Review Questions
1. Briefly describe different types of Sampling.
2. What are the different methods of estimating Reliability? Describe them.
3. What are the components of Reliability?
4. Narrate different methods of estimating Validity.
5. What is Sampling? How to determine a sample size?
6. What are the different types of Sampling?
7. What are the characteristics of Reliability?
8. What are the components and characteristics of Validity?
9. What are the characteristics of Sampling?
10. Define Sampling? What are the advantages of Sampling?
Further Readings
Fundamentals of Statistics by S.C. Gupta. Himalaya Publishing House.2018
Statistics for Psychology by R. GudmundIversen. W.C. Brown. 2016
Unit 7Validity
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
7.1. Meaning and Concept
7.2. Face Validity
7.3. Content Validity
7.4. Construct Validity
7.5. Internal and External Validity
7.6. Criterion Related Validity
7.7. Summary
7.8. Key Notes
7.9. Self-Assessment
7.10. Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
After the completion of this Unit, the students will be able to:
● understand the concept of Validity
● know different components of Validity
● familiarize with the use of Validity in Psychological Research
Introduction
Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure.1 It is vital for a test to be
valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.
Psychological assessment is an important part of both experimental research and clinical treatment.
One of the greatest concerns when creating a psychological test is whether or not it actually
measures what we think it is measuring.
For example, a test might be designed to measure a stable personality trait but instead, it measures
transitory emotions generated by situational or environmental conditions. A valid test ensures that
the results are an accurate reflection of the dimension undergoing assessment.
Validity isn’t determined by a single statistic, but by a body of research that demonstrates the
relationship between the test and the behavior it is intended to measure. There are four types of
validity.
7.1 Validity
Meaning of Validity
• A test is said to be valid when it measures what it purports to measure.
• The concept of validity was formulated by Kelly (1927) who stated that a test is valid if it
measures what it claims to measure.
if it measures what it claims to measure.
Components of Validity
• Validity is concerned with the extent to which the purpose of the test is being served.
• It studies how truthfully the test measures what it purports to measure.
• On the other hand, validity is the correlation of the test with some outside external criteria.
• A test to be valid, has to be reliable. A test which possesses poor reliability is not expected
to yield high validity.
• To be valid a test must be reliable. Tests with low reliability cannot be highly valid.
• Validity may be said as correctness of measurement.
• If a test is heterogeneous, it has low reliability and high validity.
• The validity of a test may not be higher than the reliability index.
• On the other hand, maximum validity requires items differing in difficulty and low inter-
correlation among items.
• Validity is the proportion of common factor variance.
• A valid test is always reliable. If a test truthfully measures what it purports to measure is
both valid and reliable.
A direct measurement of face validity is obtained by asking people to rate the validity of a test as it
appears to them. This rater could use a likert scale to assess face validity. For example:
the test is extremely suitable for a given purpose
the test is very suitable for that purpose;
the test is adequate
the test is inadequate
the test is irrelevant and therefore unsuitable
It is important to select suitable people to rate a test (e.g., questionnaire, interview, IQ test etc.). For
example, individuals who actually take the test would be well placed to judge its face validity.
Also, people who work with the test could offer their opinion (e.g., employers, university
administrators, employers). Finally, the researcher could use members of the general public with an
interest in the test (e.g., parents of testees, politicians, teachers etc.).
The face validity of a test can be considered a robust construct only if a reasonable level of
agreement exists among raters.
It should be noted that the term face validity should be avoided when the rating is done by "expert"
as content validity is more appropriate.
Having face validity does not mean that a test really measures what the researcher intends to
measure, but only in the judgment of raters that it appears to do so. Consequently, it is a crude and
basic measure of validity.
A test item such as 'I have recently thought of killing myself' has obvious face validity as an item
measuring suicidal cognitions, and may be useful when measuring symptoms of depression.
However, the implications of items on tests with clear face validity is that they are more vulnerable
to social desirability bias. Individuals may manipulate their response to deny or hide problems, or
exaggerate behaviors to present a positive image of themselves.
It is possible for a test item to lack face validity but still have general validity and measure what it
claims to measure. This is good because it reduces demand characteristics and makes it harder for
respondents to manipulate their answers.
For example, the test item 'I believe in the second coming of Christ' would lack face validity as a
measure of depression (as the purpose of the item is unclear).
This item appeared on the first version of The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory
(MMPI) and loaded on the depression scale.
Because most of the original normative sample of the MMPI were good Christians only a
depression Christian would think Christ is not coming back. Thus, for this particular religious
sample the item does have general validity, but not face validity.
A test has a content validity to the extent that the items in the test are judged to constitute a
representative sample of some clearly specified universal knowledge of scales. This type of validity
is most relevant to achievement tests. A well-constructed achievement test should cover the
objectives of instructions, not just its subject-matter.
Content must therefore be broadly defined to include major objectives, such as the application of
principles and interpretation of data as well as factual knowledge. It depends on the relevance of
the individual’s test response to the behaviors under consideration.
Content validity should not be confused with face validity. Later is not valid in technical sense;
which refers not to what the test actually measures, but to what it appears superficially measures.
To produce valid results, the content of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all
relevant parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are missing from the measurement
(or if irrelevant aspects are included), the validity is threatened.
In-other-words there is a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variable.
Internal validity can be improved by controlling extraneous variables, using standardized
instructions, counter balancing, and eliminating demand characteristics and investigator effects.
External validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other
settings (ecological validity), other people (population validity) and over time (historical validity).
External validity can be improved by setting experiments in a more natural setting and using
random sampling to select participants.
Concurrent validity
It reflects only the status score at a particular time. Under appropriate circumstances data obtained
in a concurrent study may be used to estimate the predictive validity of a test. However, concurrent
validity should not be used as a substitute for predictive validity without any appropriate
supporting rationale.
This is the degree to which a test corresponds to an external criterion that is known concurrently
(i.e. occurring at the same time).
If the new test is validated by a comparison with a currently existing criterion, we have concurrent
validity.
Very often, a new IQ or personality test might be compared with an older but similar test known to
have good validity already.
7.7. Summary
In the field of psychology, researchers are looking to gather data about the mind and human
behavior. To collect this data, researchers create tests in which participants will answer questions
and be observed completing particular tasks. When it comes to psychological testing, the most
critical aspect of a test is validity. What is validity in psychology, and why is it important?
If something is described as valid, it means that the thing in question is logical and factually sound,
but it is slightly different in psychology. The validity definition in psychology assumes that the test
in question measures precisely what it aims to measure, meaning the data collected is accurate and
represents some truth compared to others outside of the study. If it does, then the test is valid.
For example, if a person takes an IQ test, one would assume the test will accurately measure the
person's level of intelligence. However, IQ tests have questions that connect to vocabulary, pattern
recognition, memory, and more, meaning researchers have to ensure the test measures precisely
what it aims to measure. In an IQ test, the person's ability to reason and not simply their ability to
recall information and find patterns.
Validity is important because it determines what survey questions to use and helps ensure that
researchers are using questions that truly measure the issues of importance. The validity of a
survey is considered to be the degree to which it measures what it claims to measure.
7.8. Keywords
Sampling, Probability sampling, Simple random sampling, Cluster sampling, Systematic sampling,
Stratified random sampling, Non-probability sampling, Convenience sampling, Purposive
sampling, Snowball sampling, Quota sampling, Confidence interval, Reliability, Stability
characteristics, Availability characteristics, Robustness characteristics, Recovery characteristics,
Accuracy characteristics, Test-retest method, Alternate or parallel form method, Split-half method,
Method of rational equivalence, Validity, Content validity, Construct validity, Concurrent validity,
Predictive validity, Criterion- related validity.
7.9. Self-Assessment
1. A sample is a smaller set of data.
A. True
B. False
2. Sampling is of four types.
A. True
B. False
3. There are four methods of estimating reliability.
A. True
B. False
4. Sampling can reduce cost and time of research.
A. True
B. False
5. A valid test measures what it purports to measure.
A. True
B. False
6. Method of Rational Equivalence is based on----------
a. Kuder-Richardson Formula
b. Spearman- Brown Formula
c. Pearson product moment Formulae
d. None of these
a. Validity
b. Reliability
c. Predictability
d. None of these
11. When the researcher collects samples purely on the basis of his/her own discretion---------
a. Random sampling
b. purposive sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. None of these
15. In -------- sampling, each member has the same probability of being selected.
a. random
b. quota
c. Snowball
d. None of these
Further Readings
Fundamentals of Statistics by S.C. Gupta. Himalaya Publishing House.2018
Statistics for Psychology by R. GudmundIversen. W.C. Brown. 2016
Unit-08: Variables
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
Types of Variables
8.1 Independent variables
8.2 Dependent variables
8.3 Intervening variables
8.4 Moderating variables
8.5 Control variables
8.6 Extraneous variables
8.7 Quantitative variables
8.8 Qualitative variables
8.9 Confounding variables
8.10 Composite variables
Keywords
Self Assessment
Answers for Self-Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
After completion of this unit, the students will be able to:
● understand the concept of Variable
● know different types of Variables
● familiarize with the application of different Variables
Introduction
A variable is any characteristics, number, or quantity that can be measured or counted. A variable
may also be called a data item. Age, sex, business income and expenses, country of birth, capital
expenditure, class grades, eye colour and vehicle type are examples of variables. It is called a
variable because the value may vary between data units in a population, and may change in value
over time.
For example; 'income' is a variable that can vary between data units in a population (i.e. the people
or businesses being studied may not have the same incomes) and can also vary over time for each
data unit (i.e. income can go up or down).
A variable is any entity that can take on different values. OK, so what does that mean? Anything
that can vary can be considered a variable. For instance, age can be considered a variable because
age can take different values for different people or for the same person at different times.
Similarly, country can be considered a variable because a person’s country can be assigned a value.
Variables aren’t always ‘quantitative’ or numerical. The variable city consists of text values like
New York or Sydney. We can, if it is useful, assign quantitative values instead of (or in place of) the
text values, but we don’t have to assign numbers in order for something to be a variable. It’s also
important to realize that variables aren’t only things that we measure in the traditional sense. For
instance, in much social research and in program evaluation, we consider the treatment or program
to be made up of one or more variables (i.e., the ‘cause’ can be considered a variable). An
educational program can have varying amounts of ’time on task’, ‘classroom settings’, ‘student-
teacher ratios’, and so on. So even the program can be considered a variable (which can be made up
of a number of sub-variables).
Another important distinction having to do with the term ‘variable’ is the distinction between an
independent and dependent variable. This distinction is particularly relevant when you are
investigating cause-effect relationships. It took me the longest time to learn this distinction. (Of
course, I’m someone who gets confused about the signs for ‘arrivals’ and ‘departures’ at airports –
do I go to arrivals because I’m arriving at the airport or does the person I’m picking up go to
arrivals because they’re arriving on the plane!). I originally thought that an independent variable
was one that would be free to vary or respond to some program or treatment, and that a dependent
variable must be one that depends on my efforts (that is, it’s the treatment). But this is entirely
backwards! In fact the independent variable is what you (or nature) manipulates – a treatment or
program or cause. The dependent variable is what is affected by the independent variable – your
effects or outcomes. For example, if you are studying the effects of a new educational program on
student achievement, the program is the independent variable and your measures of achievement
are the dependent ones.
Finally, there are two traits of variables that should always be achieved. Each variable should be
exhaustive, it should include all possible answerable responses. For instance, if the variable is
“religion” and the only options are “Protestant”, “Jewish”, and “Muslim”, there are quite a few
religions I can think of that haven’t been included. The list does not exhaust all possibilities. On the
other hand, if you exhaust all the possibilities with some variables – religion being one of them –
you would simply have too many responses. The way to deal with this is to explicitly list the most
common attributes and then use a general category like “Other” to account for all remaining ones.
In addition to being exhaustive, the attributes of a variable should be mutually exclusive, no
respondent should be able to have two attributes simultaneously. While this might seem obvious, it
is often rather tricky in practice. For instance, you might be tempted to represent the variable
“Employment Status” with the two attributes “employed” and “unemployed.” But these attributes
are not necessarily mutually exclusive – a person who is looking for a second job while employed
would be able to check both attributes! But don’t we often use questions on surveys that ask the
respondent to “check all that apply” and then list a series of categories? Yes, we do, but technically
speaking, each of the categories in a question like that is its own variable and is treated
dichotomously as either “checked” or “unchecked”, attributes that are mutually exclusive.
Researchers and statisticians use variables to describe and measure the items, places, people or
ideas they are studying. Many types of variables exist, and you must choose the right variable to
measure when designing studies, selecting tests and interpreting results. A strong understanding of
variables can lead to more accurate statistical analyses and results. In this article, we describe the
types of variables and answer some frequently asked questions.
Types of Variables
used are mainly such physical and psychological characteristics of the subjects. Such independent
variables can rarely be manipulated or fixed by the investigator; for example, the latter cannot
directly manipulate the intelligence, personality, age or sex of a subject. So, such independent
variables are liable to random changes and may be considered as classification variables.
Nevertheless, such a variable can be manipulated indirectly through a selection procedure like the
choice of subjects with specific required levels of intelligence.
b) Stimulus variables consist of such environmental events both physical and social variables,
which stimulates specific receptors of the subjects to affect the dependent variables, viz, a specific
behavior of the subject. The investigator can directly manipulate or fix the stimulus variable chosen
as the independent variable, such as changes in the intensity of the stimulating light, in the number
of syllables offered in memory experiments, in the color of the light stimulus in an experiment of
after images, in the pitch of a sound stimulus or in the decibels of noise used as the independent
variable in experiments of attention, or in the instructions for reaction time experiments. Such
stimulus variables, being under the manipulative control of the investigator, are not liable to
random changes and may be considered as, ‘fixed’ treatment variables.
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the other variables in your experiment
cannot change. Age is an example of an independent variable. Where someone lives, what they eat
or how much they exercise are not going to change their age. Independent variables can, however,
change other variables. In studies, researchers often try to find out whether an independent
variable causes other variables to change and in what way.
A variable that is not affected by anything that you, the researcher, does. Usually plotted on the x-
axis.
An Independent variable is a variable based on which the dependent variable is predicted. This
variable is chosen, manipulated and measured by the researcher aimed at figuring out its
relationship with other variables.
The independent variable might have a positive or negative effect on the dependent variable; that
is, any kind of change in the independent variable might result in a change in the dependent
variable. Accordingly, the reason behind the dependent variable’s change can be looked for in the
change which has been applied to the independent variable. In non-experimental research, the
independent variable is not manipulated, and intact groups are chosen assuming that the
independent variable has an effect on the dependent variable.
It’s important to understand the variable importance in order to achieve high accuracy. The
independent variables used in a model are meant to explain the maximum variance in dependent
variable.
For example: We have a data set with 100 variables. We build a model using those 100 variables
and get adjusted R2 as 80%. Adjusted R2 is nothing but explained variance in the dependent
variable from independent variable.
Now, we did variable importance check and found that only 20 out of 100 are highly important. We
build another model. This time we get adjusted R2 as 84%. This means, only 20 variables are
sufficient enough to explain 84% variance in dependent variable.
In regression, you can find variable importance in many ways. In linear regression, you can do
forward selection, backward selection, stepwise selection etc. This helps in improving better and
accurate models.
In logistic regression, you can check the significance of individual variables.
In SPSS, this metric is available in “Variables in the Equation Table”. In this table, focus on “Sig.”
column which shows the significance of a variable in the model.
With 95% confidence interval, if Sig < 0.05, the variable will significant, else it won’t be significant.
The image shown below will help you to understand it better.
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the experimenter. For example, in
an experiment on the impact of sleep deprivation on test performance, sleep deprivation would be
the independent variable. The experimenters would have some of the study participants be sleep-
deprived while others would be fully rested.
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other components. A grade on an exam is an
example of a dependent variable because it depends on factors such as how much sleep you got
and how long you studied. Independent variables can influence dependent variables, but
dependent variables cannot influence independent variables. For example, the time you spent
studying (dependent) can affect the grade on your test (independent) but the grade on your test
does not affect the time you spent studying.
When analyzing relationships between study objects, researchers often try to determine what
makes the dependent variable change and how.
Defendant variable is a variable in which the researcher is interested and in contrary to the
independent variable, the dependent variable is not in the control of the researcher, and he/she is
not able to manipulate it. In its definition, it could be stated that it is a variable which is affected by
the independent variable, it is changed based on the independent variable’s changes and the
researcher’s goal is predicting and describing its changeability.
The dependent variable is the variable that is measured by the experimenter. In the previous
example, the scores on the test performance measure would be the dependent variable.
So how do you differentiate between the independent and dependent variables? Start by asking
yourself what the experimenter is manipulating. The things that change, either naturally or through
direct manipulation from the experimenter, are generally the independent variables. What is being
measured? The dependent variable is the one that the experimenter is measuring.
intervening variable that plays a role in how much sleep people get, which may then influence how
well they perform on exams.
B) Irrelevant Variables-
These are such variables which do not perceivably affect the dependent variable, for example, hair
color, eye color, skin complexion, or economic condition of the subjects may be considered
irrelevant variables in an experiment to study the effectof practice on memory.
Extraneous variables are factors that affect the dependent variable but that the researcher did not
originally consider when designing the experiment. These unwanted variables can unintentionally
change a study's results or how a researcher interprets those results. Take, for example, a study
assessing whether private tutoring or online courses are more effective at improving students'
Spanish test scores. Extraneous variables that might unintentionally influence the outcome include
parental support, prior knowledge of a foreign language or socioeconomic status.
Discrete: Any numerical variables you can realistically count, such as the coins in your wallet or the
money in your savings account.
Continuous: Numerical variables that you could never finish counting, such as time.A variable with
infinite number of values, like “time” or “weight”.
Conclusion
Psychological variables include such variables, many of which cannot be observed directly from
outside, can only be inferred from expressions, behaviors and verbal reports of the individuals, and
consequently depend on proper evaluation on the cooperation of the subjects involved. They
include intelligence, memory, aptitude, ability, attitude, aspirations, anxiety, emotions, personality
and motivation. Many of them are hypothetical and abstract in nature, cannot be precisely
measured on quantitative scales and can only be assessed qualitatively. Even when quantitatively
measurable, some of these variables have an interval scale with an arbitrary zero point instead of a
real zero; however, some psychological variables such as the ratios of psychophysical stimuli and
calory expenditure in job activities in Industrial Psychology, are measured quantitatively in ratio
scale with real zero points.
Psychological experiments involve variables such as dependent, independent, extraneous, relevant
and intervening variables.
Keywords
Independent variable, dependent variable, extraneous variable, relevant variable, irrelevant
variable, composite variable, confounding variable, qualitative variable, quantitative variable,
intervening variable, control variable, moderating variable.
Self-Assessment
1. Variables vary according to the experimental situation.
A. True
B. False
2. Independent variables are not required in research.
A. True
B. False
3. In research, we have to control extraneous variables.
A. True
B. False
4. We see the changes of dependent variables.
A. True
B. False
5. Independent variables vary according to the experimental situation.
A. True
B. False
b. accidentally
c. deliberately
d. None of them
Review Questions
1. What is the importance of Independent Variables in Psychological Research?
2. What is the relation between Independent and dependent Variables?
3. Write in details about extraneous variable.
4. What is the significance of Variable in Psychological Research?
5. Briefly narrate the relation between quantitative and qualitative variables.
Further Readings
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
9.1. Primary data
9.2. Secondary data
9.3. Qualitative Data
9.4. Quantitative Data
9.5. Self-Assessment
9.6.. Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
This unit will enable you to:
Know about different types of data;
Understand role of primary and secondary data
Understand how qualitative data works
Acquire knowledge about quantitative data
Introduction
Data: Data can be defined as a systematic record of a particular quantity. It is the different
values of that quantity represented together in a set. It is a collection of facts and figures
to be used for a specific purpose such as a survey or analysis. When arranged in an
organized form, can be called information. The source of data (primary data, secondary
data) is also an important factor.
Types of Data
Data may be qualitative or quantitative. Once you know the difference between them,
you can know how to use them.
Qualitative data is data concerned with descriptions, which can be observed but cannot
be computed. On the contrary, quantitative data is the one that focuses on numbers and
mathematical calculations and can be calculated and computed.
So, for the collection and measurement of data, any of the two methods discussed
above can be used.
Although both have its merits and demerits, i.e. while qualitative data lacks
reliability, quantitative data lacks a description.
Both are used in conjunction so that the data gathered is free from any errors.
Further, both can be acquired from the same data unit only their variables of interest
are different, i.e. numerical in case of quantitative data and categorical in qualitative
data.
Primary data is obtained from first-hand sources. In most cases, primary data is collected
from the source, i.e. where it originates from and is regarded as the best of its kind.
Researchers usually select and tailor the sources of primary data to the needs of their
particular study, which allows for adopting a more focused approach to the exploration
of the research phenomenon. Hence, issues such as the research aim and objectives as
well as the target population and sampling need to be considered.
- This is the data collected from human participants through interviews or surveys.
Interviews provide you with the opportunity to collect detailed insights from industry
participants about their company, customers, or competitors.
Questionnaire surveys allow for obtaining a large amount of data from a sizeable
population in a cost-efficient way.
This is usually cross-sectional data (i.e. the data collected at one point of time from
different respondents). Time-series are found very rarely or almost never in primary data.
Nonetheless, depending on the research aims and objectives, certain designs of data
collection instruments allow researchers to conduct a longitudinal study.
- The main characteristic of secondary data is that it has previously been collected for
some other purpose and can be accessed by researchers.
- Although often employed to supplement primary data (e.g. to increase the sample size
of studies), many researchers rely on secondary data as the main source of evidence.
- This data is more relevant for economic and financial research but it can also be found in
management and marketing research.
- This is the data collected from databases or websites; it does not involve human
participants.
- This can be both cross-sectional data (e.g. an indicator for different countries/companies
at one point of time) and time-series (e.g. an indicator for one company/country for
several years). A combination of cross-sectional data and time-series data is panel data.
They represent some characteristics or attributes. They depict descriptions that may be
observed but cannot be computed or calculated. For example, data on attributes such as
intelligence, honesty, wisdom, cleanliness, and creativity collected using the students of
your class a sample would be classified as qualitative. They are more exploratory than
conclusive in nature.
These can be measured and not simply observed. They can be numerically represented
and calculations can be performed on them. For example, data on the number of students
playing different sports from your class gives an estimate of how many of the total
students play which sport. This information is numerical and can be classified as
quantitative.
1. These are data that deal with These data, on the other hand, deals
Definition
quantities, values, or numbers. with quality.
2.
Measurability Measurable. They are generally not measurable.
4. Research
Conclusive Exploratory
Methodology
7.
Approach Objective Subjective
8.
Data Structure Structured Unstructured
9.
Determines Level of occurrence Depth of understanding
11. Data Collection Quantitative surveys, Interviews, Qualitative surveys, Focus group
Techniques Experiments methods, Documental revision, etc.
9.5. Self-assessment
a. True
b. False
2. What type of approach we used in qualitative data?
a. Subjective
b. Objective
c. Imaginary
d. None of the above
3. What type of approach we used in quantitative data?
a. Subjective
b. Objective
c. Imaginary
d. None of the above
4. Which type of data is less reliable and objective?
a. Primary data
b. Secondary data
c. Qualitative data
d. Quantitative data
a. Primary data
b. Secondary data
c. Qualitative data
d. Quantitative data
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a a b c c a c b b d
Further Readings
Objectives
After the completion of this Unit, the students will be able to:
● understand the concept of Sampling
● know different types of Sampling
● familiarize with the use of Sampling Techniques
Introduction
A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population by using a predefined selection method. These elements are known as sample points,
sampling units, or observations.
Creating a sample is an efficient method of conducting research. In most cases, it is impossible or
costly and time-consuming to research the whole population. Hence, examining the sample
provides insights that the researcher can apply to the entire population.
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations
are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population
depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple random sampling or
systematic sampling.
10.1 Sampling
Characteristics of Sampling
Goal Oriented
Sampling is done on the basis of the Objectives of Research. The Researcher should have a clear-cut
objective for certain sampling techniques. So Sampling is always goal oriented according to the
purpose of research.
Proportional
Sample should be proportional to the population. All segments of the population should come in
the sample in a proportional manner.
Random Selection
Sample should be selected randomly, i.e., each member of the population should have equal
opportunity to be selected in the sample. It is also free from any bias of the researcher and other
means so that the characteristics of the population can be equally distributed in the sample size.
Economical
Sample size to be taken should be economical to the purpose of the research. Very lengthy samples
may create problems to the effectiveness and feasibility of the research.
Practical
Sample should be practical as to the objectives of the research. Any fictitious sample or sample of
any type or number which cannot be taken on a practical basis can be avoided.
Probability Sampling
• Probability sampling is a method of deriving a sample where the objects are
selected from a population-based on the theory of probability.
• This method includes everyone in the population, and everyone has an equal
chance of being selected. Hence, there is no bias whatsoever in this type of sample.
• Each person in the population can subsequently be a part of the research. The
selection criteria are decided at the outset of the market research study and form an
important component of research.
Probability Sampling can be classified into the followings-
, if a university dean would like to collect feedback from students about their perception of the
teachers and level of education, all 1000 students in the University could be a part of this sample.
Any 100 students can be selected at random to be a part of this sample.
Cluster Sampling
Cluster sampling is a type of sampling method where the respondent population is divided
into equal clusters.
Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on defining demographic parameters
such as age, location, sex, etc.
This makes it extremely easy for a survey creator to derive practical inferences from the
feedback.
, if the FDA wants to collect data about adverse side effects from drugs, they can divide
the mainland US into distinctive clusters, like states. Research studies are then administered to
respondents in these clusters.
Systematic Sampling
Systematic sampling is a sampling method where the researcher chooses respondents at equal
intervals from a population.
The approach to select the sample is to pick a starting point and then pick respondents at a pre-
defined sample interval.
while selecting 1,000 volunteers for the Olympics from an application list of 10,000
people, each applicant is given a count of 1 to 10,000. Then starting from 1 and selecting each
respondent with an interval of 10, a sample of 1,000 volunteers can be obtained.
Block Sampling
Block sampling takes a consecutive series of items within the population to use as the sample.
For example, a list of all sales transactions in an accounting period could be sorted in various
ways, including by date or by dollar amount. An auditor may request that the company's
accountant provide the list in one format or the other in order to select a sample from a specific
segment of the list. This method requires very little modification on the auditor's part, but it is
likely that a block of transactions will not be representative of the full population.
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling, in easy terms, stands for the convenience of a researcher accessing a
respondent.
There is no scientific method of deriving this sample. Researchers have nearly no authority over
selecting the sample elements, and it’s purely done on the basis of proximity and not
representativeness.
This non-probability sampling method is used when there are time and cost limitations in collecting
feedback.
Purposive/Judgmental Sampling
The judgmental or purposive sampling method is a method of developing a sample purely on the
basis and discretion of the researcher purely on the basis of the nature of study along with his/her
understanding of the target audience. In this sampling method, people who only fit the research
criteria and end objectives are selected, and the remaining are kept out.
Snowball Sampling
Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-probability sampling technique in
which the samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a sampling technique, in which existing
subjects provide referrals to recruit samples required for a research study.
, while collecting feedback about a sensitive topic like AIDS, respondents aren’t forthcoming
with information. In this case, the researcher can recruit people with an understanding or
knowledge of such people and collect information from them or ask them to collect information.
Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a method of collecting a sample where the researcher has the liberty to select
a sample based on their strata. The primary characteristic of this method is that two people
cannot exist under two different conditions.
Advantages of Sampling
1. Reduced cost & time: Since using a sample reduces the number of people that have to
be reached out to, it reduces cost and time.
3. Accuracy of data: Since the sample is indicative of the population, the data collected is
accurate. Also, since the respondent is willing to participate, the survey dropout rate is
much lower, which increases the validity and accuracy of the data.
4. Intensive & exhaustive data: Since there are lesser respondents, the data collected
from a sample is intense and thorough. More time and effort are given to each
respondent rather than having to collect data from a lot of people.
Population size: The population size is all the people that can be considered for the research
study. This number, in most cases, runs into huge amounts. For example, the population of
the United States is 327 million. But in market research, it is impossible to consider all of them for
the research study.
The margin of error (confidence interval): The margin of error is depicted by a percentage
that is a statistical inference about the confidence of what number of the population depicts the
actual views of the whole population. This percentage helps towards the statistical analysis in
selecting a sample and how much error in this would be acceptable.
Confidence level: This metric measures where the actual mean falls within a confidence interval.
The most common confidence intervals are 90%, 95%, and 99%.
Standard deviation: This metric covers the variance in a survey. A safe number to consider is .5,
which would mean that the sample size has to be that large.
Conclusion
In research terms a sample is a group of people, objects, or items that are taken from a larger
population for measurement. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that
we can generalize the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.
A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the study is not representative of the
whole population.
Sampling is an analysis performed by selecting a number of observations from a larger
population.
Even randomized samples will have some degree of sampling error because a sample is
only an approximation of the population from which it is drawn.
The prevalence of sampling errors can be reduced by increasing the sample size.
Random sampling is an additional way to minimize the occurrence of sampling errors.
In general, sampling errors can be placed into four categories: population-specific error,
selection error, sample frame error, or non-response error.
Population-Specific Error
A population-specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't understand who to survey.
Selection Error
Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those participants who are
interested in the survey respond to the questions. Researchers can attempt to overcome selection
error by finding ways to encourage participation.
Non-response Error
A non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from the surveys because
researchers were unable to contact potential respondents (or potential respondents refused to
respond).
Summary
Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in which a predetermined number of observations
are taken from a larger population. The methodology used to sample from a larger population
depends on the type of analysis being performed, but it may include simple random sampling or
systematic sampling.
A sample is defined as a smaller set of data that a researcher chooses or selects from a larger
population by using a pre-defined selection method. These elements are known as sample points,
sampling units, or observations. Creating a sample is an efficient method of conducting research. In
most cases, it is impossible or costly and time-consuming to research the whole population. Hence,
examining the sample provides insights that the researcher can apply to the entire population.
Keywords
Sampling, Probability sampling, Simple random sampling, Cluster sampling, Systematic sampling,
Stratified random sampling, Non-probability sampling, Convenience sampling, Purposive
sampling, Snowball sampling, Quota sampling, Confidence interval, Reliability, Stability
characteristics, Availability characteristics, Robustness characteristics, Recovery characteristics,
Accuracy characteristics, Test-retest method, Alternate or parallel form method, Split-half method,
Method of rational equivalence, Validity, Content validity, Construct validity, Concurrent validity,
Predictive validity, Criterion- related validity.
SelfAssessment
1. A sample is a smaller set of data.
A. True
B. False
2. Sampling is of four types.
A. True
B. False
3. There are four methods of estimating reliability.
A. True
B. False
4. Sampling can reduce cost and time of research.
A. True
B. False
5. A valid test measures what it purports to measure.
A. True
B. False
6. Method of Rational Equivalence is based on----------
a. Kuder-Richardson Formula
b. Spearman- Brown Formula
c. Pearson product moment Formulae
d. None of these
a. Validity
b. Reliability
c. Predictability
d. None of these
11. When the researcher collects samples purely on the basis of his/her own discretion---------
a. Random sampling
b. purposive sampling
c. Quota sampling
d. None of these
15. In -------- sampling, each member has the same probability of being selected.
a. random
b. quota
c. Snowball
d. None of these
Review Questions
1. Briefly describe different types of Sampling.
2. What are the different methods of estimating Reliability? Describe them.
3. What are the components of Reliability?
4. Narrate different methods of estimating Validity.
5. What is Sampling? How to determine a sample size?
6. What are the different types of Sampling?
7. What are the characteristics of Reliability?
8. What are the components and characteristics of Validity?
9. What are the characteristics of Sampling?
10. Define Sampling? What are the advantages of Sampling?
Further Readings
Fundamentals of Statistics by S.C. Gupta. Himalaya Publishing House.2018
Statistics for Psychology by R. Gudmund Iversen. W.C. Brown. 2016
Objectives
After completion of this Unit, the students will be able to:
● understand different facets of Observational Method
● know different components of Case Study Method
Introduction
The observation method is described as a method to observe and describe the behavior of a subject.
As the name suggests, it is a way of collecting relevant information and data by observing. It is also
referred to as a participatory study because the researcher has to establish a link with the
respondent and for this has to immerse himself in the same setting as theirs. Only then can he use
the observation method to record and take notes.
Observation method is used in cases where you want to avoid an error that can be a result of bias
during evaluation and interpretation processes. It is a way to obtain objective data by watching a
participant and recording it for analysis at a later stage.
The observation method is most commonly used especially in studies relating to behavioral
sciences. Observation becomes a scientific tool when it serves a formulated research purpose, is
systematically planned and recorded, and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and
reliability.
Observation can thus be defined as methodologically controlled non-random purposive
examination of the actions of one or several individuals in order to discover some distinct
characteristics of personality.
11.1Observation Method
Observation is Specific
Though Observation is a universal method, In Research when we are using the Observation
method as a technique, we can record specific observations relating to the objective of the research.
Specific behavior of the individual is being observed and accordingly that will be analyzed. So, for
data collection, observation is done in a specific way.
Observation is Objective
Observation methods can be applied on an objective basis. Each and every observation which has
been recorded can be objectively defined and analyzed in statistical procedure. Behavior of the
individual can be categorized in numbers and subsequently statistical analysis can be done for
interpretation of those data.
Observation is Quantitative
Observation method can be used as quantitative analysis where each and every observation can be
put in numbers and those numbers are being analyzed through statistical methods to give the
research findings an authenticity and also the reliability of the results.
Definite Aim
Observation method has a definite aim to collect the specific behavior of the respondents. Before
observing the individual, the researcher should go for a definite plan of recording those details in
specific forms. Data collection is being done on that procedure only. The aim of observation is
related to the objectives of the research study.
Observation is Verifiable
The recording of the respondent can be verified by other researchers. Verification is required to
show the reliability of the occurrence of the response. Verification also proves that the prediction of
the research findings can be checked and it may be generalized for the whole population.
Types of Observation
● Structured Observation
● Unstructured Observation
● Participant Observation
● Non-Participant Observation
● Controlled Observation
● Uncontrolled Observation
Structured Observation: -
Here the units to be observed are carefully defined in advance, the style of recording is definite,
conditions standardized and pertinent data recorded.
It is appropriate for Descriptive studies.
Unstructured Observation: -
Observation is said to be unstructured when it takes place without any characteristic thought in
advance.
This type of observation is best suited for exploratory studies.
Participant Observation: -
If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is observing so
that he can experience the happenings around him, the observation is called participant
observation.
Non-Participant Observation: -
When the observer is observing the group not being a part of it then we talk of non-participant
observation. It can also take the form of disguised observation.
Controlled Observation: -
When observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans, involving experimental
procedures, the same is then termed as controlled observation.
Uncontrolled Observation: -
When observation takes place in a neutral setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled observation.
The main drawback of it is subjective interpretation.
If the observation is done accurately, subjective bias is eliminated. The information obtained using
the observation method relates to what is currently happening. This method is independent of the
respondent's willingness to respond.
Simplest Method
Observation method is the simplest method. Here the research has to observe the behavior of the
individual in the direct setting. No need of controlling the set up as it is seen in the Experimental
method. Very few recording devices are required for the effective fulfillment of the procedure. Here
the researcher has to observe the specific behavior along with other aspects in a single setting.
Greater Accuracy.
In the natural setting, the respondents are giving the response spontaneously. So, whatever the
expected outcome of the research, that can be elicited in its fullest strength. If the researcher will be
equipped enough, he/she can record all the possible natural responses of the individual and in that
manner the purpose of the research will be fulfilled in its highest values and accuracy which cannot
be elicited in the experimental situation.
A Universal Method
Observation method is a universal method because observing others behavior is the oldest and
universally accepted technique for assessment. For many years, when there is very little scope of
instrumentation, observation technique is highly reliable as it requires very few recording devices
to assess the behavior of the individuals. In different other methods, observation is the tool for
recording the responses, like in experiments also, we are observing the responses under controlled
conditions.
Not all occurrences open to observation, can be observed when the observer is at hand.
There is a certain situation where the researcher cannot observe the behavior of the individual,
like fits in Epilepsy, where the person can be observed when the scissure attachment occurs
to him. In such cases, observation cannot be organized because the scissure attacks depend on
certain conditions to happen.
Faulty perception
Sometimes, direct observation becomes faulty in a sense that people may hide his original
responses due to some personal reasons and give the fake response in the presence of others. In this
case, the observer may judge the person in a wrong way. As it is happening in a natural setting, and
people are not aware of the fact that he/she is being judged, they may give responses according to
their own judgement to the demand of the situation.
Slow investigation
The investigation in the observation method is very slow in progress. The researcher has to take
many sessions to get the desired response of the individual. In this way, the total research process is
becoming very slow. If any quick and approximate result of the research is expected then the
observation method is not the right one to be chosen.
Expensive
As the Observation method is very slow and it takes several sessions to conduct, it is very
expensive in nature. For many individuals, many persons are to be deployed to get the result. The
cost of the research sometimes also be a hindrance for taking this method in research.
Inadequate method
This is also termed as inadequate method because it is solely depending on the behavior of the
individual in the natural settings, in many ways, the observation may be faulty, disguised, and like
other techniques, it is solely not independent enough to carry on. In many cases, for this reason,
other controlled techniques are employed to get the systematic results.
There should be only one main purpose for your survey, which should be supported by up to three
goals. Goals are smaller, actionable objectives that help you get the most out of your data.
There are many good survey purposes, but some of the more common include:
• Identifying improvement opportunities
• Monitoring customer satisfaction
• Measuring market perception
• Collecting persona data about your existing customers
As you plan your survey, really think about what kind of information you are looking for and how
you plan on using it once the results have been collected. Once you’ve decided on a primary
purpose and a few supporting goals, it’s time to think about how they tie into and influence your
survey design.
Types of Survey: -
Survey can be divided into two broad categories-
Questionnaire
Interview.
Types of Survey: -
Survey can be divided into two broad categories-
Questionnaire
Interview.
11.3 Interviews
An interview is a survey research method where the researcher facilitates some sort of conversation
with the research participant to gather useful information about the research subject. This
conversation can happen physically as a face-to-face interview or virtually as a telephone interview
or via video and audio-conferencing platforms.
During an interview, the researcher has the opportunity to connect personally with the research
subject and establish some sort of relationship. This connection allows the interviewer (researcher)
to gain more insight into the information provided by the research participant in the course of the
conversation.
An interview can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured. In a structured interview, the
researcher strictly adheres to a sequence of premeditated questions throughout the conversation.
This is also known as a standardized interview or a researcher-administered interview and it often
results in quantitative research findings.
In a semi-structured interview, the researcher has a set of premeditated interview questions but he
or she can veer off the existing interview sequence to get more answers and gain more clarity from
the interviewee. The semi-structured interview method is flexible and allows the researcher to work
outside the scope of the sequence while maintaining the basic interview framework.
Just as the name suggests, an unstructured interview is one that doesn't restrict the researcher to a
set of premeditated questions or the interview sequence. Here, the researcher is allowed to leverage
his or her knowledge and to creatively weave questions to help him or her to get useful information
from the participant. This is why it is also called an in-depth interview.
Advantages of Interviews
Interviews, especially face-to-face interviews, allow you to capture non-verbal nuances that provide
more context around the interviewee’s responses. For instance, the interview can act in a certain
way to suggest that he or she is uncomfortable with a particular question.
Interviews are more flexible as a method of survey research. With semi-structured and
unstructured interviews, you can adjust the conversation sequence to suit prevailing circumstances.
Disadvantages of Interviews
It is expensive and time-consuming; especially when you have to interview large numbers of
people.
It is subject to researcher bias which can affect the quality of data gathered at the end of the process.
5.2 Questionnaire Method: -
Questionnaire method describes a variety of instruments and techniques. It consists of a printed
form containing a structured set of questions, all of which the subject is required to answer –usually
in writing, sometimes orally as in public opinion.
Important Aspects of Questionnaire making: -
1. Answers can only be as good as your questions
When preparing a questionnaire, you need to think at length about the aspect of the subject you
want to investigate, and go in knowing what you need to find out. Generalized questions, or being
vague on the topic, won’t give useful data, and so it’s important to make sure the questions are
actually asking relevant things. , if you wanted to find out about… the most popular aisles in
Sainsbury’s, asking questions about whether people prefer the supermarket to its rivals wouldn’t
get closer to this goal. Also, we all know it’s the cereal aisle. So, know what you want to find out
from the questionnaire.
2. The questions need to cover the areas in depth.
When getting opinions, it helps to be specific. Don’t just ask ‘did you like this’, but follow it
up with either a question asking for reasons why, or (if you’re after a data set that can be analyzed
more uniformly), ask them to rate on a number of scales why they did or didn’t like it (i.e. “to what
extent did the look of the webpage affect your opinion of it”). Not doing this will lead to closed
answers (Did you like this? “no”), when it would be possible to get a much richer set of data from
the participant. Whether you select an open question ‘why’ or a closed question (based on scales),
depends on whether you are after purely quantitative data, or also want to include qualitative data
as well.
3. Changing the questions mid-implementation taints your qualitative data
Halfway through a study, the results may start to show interesting trends that you’d want to find
more about. Take caution when altering the questionnaire to investigate these trends. Adding more
questions should be fine (except for the tired participants!), but when editing a question that
already exists (i.e. from ‘did you like the look and feel of the website’ to ‘did you like the look and
feel of the first page of the website’), keep in mind that this will invalidate getting a quantitative
response (i.e. ‘85% of people liked the look and feel of the first page of the website’) from the entire
dataset for that question, as the participants have been answering different questions.
4. Subjective answers need to be standardized
Remember, when asking whether something was ‘easy’ or ‘hard’, that answers to these questions
are going to be subjective. People are likely to have a wide range of expectations about how a
system should be, and a wide range of experience, and so will be judging on separate scales.
Dr Graham McAllister tells a story related to this. When doing usability testing, he asked ‘did
anyone have any problems with the program’… no reply. So he asked instead ‘did anyone think
that someone else may have problems with this program’, and a whole host of replies were given
from the same people.
Don’t forget that pride can be a factor preventing people from saying they found tasks hard.
Shifting the focus of the questions from the participant to the medium can help prevent this.
Also, terms such as ‘often’ or ‘rarely’ mean different things to different people. Try and replace
them with specific terms ‘every day’, ‘every week’ etc.
5. The questions reflect your opinion
Because of the close controlled environment that a questionnaire creates (i.e. the participants can
only answer the questions they have been asked) it is important to make sure that the researchers
opinions do not show through the questions. For example, leading questions, which make it easier
to answer one way than the other. I saw an advert recently, for some sort of Christian business, that
asked ‘Does god exist?’ with tick boxes for ‘Yes’ ‘Probably’ and ‘No’. This is a leading question –
the only indefinite reply implies agreement. Where is ‘probably not’, ‘neither agree or disagree’ or
‘don’t know’? (Answer: not on an advert paid for by the church)
6. You need to give people a reason to participate
Before I go on with this list, I was wondering if you’d be happy to answer 25 questions on your
opinions of southern English fauna and shrubbery. Please click here to fill it out.
Did I mention that filling out the survey gets you a £25 amazon voucher? Do you want that link
again?
The point, as I’m sure you guessed, was that you need to offer an incentive for people to participate
in your questionnaire, otherwise only people really interested in the subject will reply. Suitable
incentives would be discounts, free products, a prize draw, or something related to the field you are
investigating.
7. The data can be skewed towards extreme opinions
Failing to give a good enough incentive or no incentive at all, will end up with unrepresentative
data – only people who feel so strongly about the subject matter to reply will bother to. In practice
this will either be people who are really angry about it, or people who love it, and this will skew
your data towards the extremes. To ensure you get a natural selection of participants, steps need to
be taken, such as pre-selecting participants, or offering incentives as covered above.
Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire: -
• know what needs to be measured – Having a clear picture and understanding of what
data needs to be collected contributes to the quality of data collection.
• Understand how to word/frame question – Words should be neutral and should not be
leading. Whatever your opinion may be, own opinion should never be reflected in the questions.
This is done both intentionally and unintentionally but should be taken care of.
• Emphasis on right word/phrase should be kept in mind – The language should be clear so
that the required data can be received. This also makes the question and the requirement of survey
easy to understand and thus help in getting a better response and answer.
• Define and qualify terms – This is most essential when a technical survey or a field specific
survey is being done. If you think that the audience being surveyed might not know about some
terms than they must be defined to get any proper response. This will increase the quality and
decrease the bounce rate or number of questions which were left unanswered.
• Avoid double negatives or more than 1 negative word in question – Use of negative word
has a psychological effect and can influence the answer.
• Sufficient or adequate alternatives should be provided – Available options should have
the most expected answers.
• Multiple questions in question should be avoided – One question should have one answer.
If more than one question needs to be asked than it should be made a separate question to improve
clarity of questions.
• Word requiring emphasis should be emphasized – It helps in making a point and question
clear.
• Options like good/bad/fair/average should be quantified through photographs or other
mean – These are very vague terms and interpretations of these varies from person to person.
• Unwanted assumptions should be avoided – A survey is about getting factual data and
assumptions should be avoided.
Types of Questionnaires: -
4 Types of Questionnaires
1. Online Questionnaire
An online questionnaire is a set of standardized questions that are put together and distributed via
online channels. It gathers data from respondents through a set of questions that are administered
via online data-collection platforms like Form plus.
Form plus is an easy-to-use tool that supports seamless online and offline data collection. It has a
form builder that allows you to create different types of questionnaires for research. You can also
find a variety of questionnaire templates that can be edited for unique research needs.
There are more than 30 form fields on Form plus that you can add to your questionnaire for data
collection including text fields, numerical fields, and rating fields. Respondents can easily provide
answers to questions created in the form of simple checkboxes or dropdown menus.
Form plus has multiple form-sharing options including email sharing, form embed, and direct
social media sharing buttons. This means that respondents can receive online questionnaires via
various mediums such as email, on your website, and on social media platforms.
11.4 Schedule
A schedule is a structure of a set of questions on a given topic which are asked by the interviewer
or investigator personally. The order of questions, the language of the questions and the
arrangement of parts of the schedule are not changed. However, the investigator can explain the
questions if the respondent faces any difficulty. It contains direct questions as well as questions in
tabular form.
Schedule include open-ended questions and close-ended questions. Open-ended questions allow
the respondent considerable freedom in answering. However, questions are answered in details.
Close-ended questions have to be answered by the respondent by choosing an answer from the set
of answers given under a question just by ticking.
Following are the different types of schedules used by social scientists and anthropologists.
Village or community schedule: It is used by census researchers who collect general information on
populations, occupations, etc.
Family or Household schedule: It gives full demographic details of households, the status of
individuals, data on education, age, family relations, etc.
Opinion or attitude schedule: To schedule the views of the population regarding an issue.]
Multiple-case design, or collective case design, refers to case study research in which several
instrumental bounded cases are selected to develop a more in-depth understanding of the
phenomena than a single case can provide.
An intrinsic case study is the study of a case (e.g., person, specific group, occupation,
department, organization) where the case itself is of primary interest in the exploration.
term “case” is used in a claim, an argument, or a proposition; it can be the subject of a litany of
research methods. A case study will involve quantitative and qualitative methods of research.
Researchers, on the other hand, are always spoilt for choice when they are determining the tools to
use in dealing with their research question. This is because there is an array of both qualitative and
quantitative research tools. They can be based on in-depth case studies or desk-based literature
reviews. When using case study, the researcher will get an in-depth investigation of a phenomenon,
individual, or an event. They help in investigating and understanding the underlying principles in
an occurrence within a real-life context.
Wider relevance.
A common criticism of the case study is that the findings can’t be generalized. However, we’ve
found when they’re part of broader research a case study can look to explore common problems in
greater detail. In the district heating research, we used the broader background research to identify
areas of particular interest and then used the case studies to further investigate the causes and
impacts. Furthermore, the case study participants were carefully selected to ensure a good spread
of locations, technologies and management arrangements.
Permissions.
In social research, maintaining participants’ anonymity helps to provide a true picture of what is
happening. Studies have shown that participants are more open with the research team in
situations where they are confident that their identity will not be disclosed1. However, maintaining
anonymity can be challenging given the detailed nature of the case study. For in-depth case studies
it may be appropriate to seek confirmation that the lead participant agrees that the material is
anonymous and accurate, enabling confidence on both the part of the researcher and the
participant. However, the process of gaining permission can take time and result in additional
iterations of the published research.
Time.
Case studies can be time consuming. Planning multiple interviews, waiting to receive data and
possibly coordinating focus groups can take a considerable amount of time. Especially if you are
relying on a case study participant who is often acting in a voluntary capacity and busy fulfilling
their day-to-day tasks. Yet these issues can be overcome by offering participants incentives,
outlining what is required from the participant at the outset and sending notification of deadlines
well in advance.
I believe that case studies enable a researcher to gain a more detailed, unbiased understanding of a
complex situation, through the use of a range of research tools. This real-life view, places the
research organization in a stronger position to confidently recommend practical solutions to
challenges. While there are some difficulties associated with the delivery of case studies, these can
be overcome through forward planning, background research and informed participant selection.
11.6 Ethnography
Ethnographic research is perhaps the most common applicable type of qualitative research method
in psychology and medicine. In ethnography studies, the researcher immerses himself in the
environment of participants to understand the cultures, challenges, motivations, and topics that
arise between them by investigating the environment directly. This type of research method can last
for a few days to a few years because it involves in-depth monitoring and data collection based on
these foundations. For this reason, the findings of the current study stimuli the researchers in
psychology and medicine to conduct studies by applying ethnographic research method to
investigate the common cultural patterns: language, thinking, beliefs, and behavior for groups of
addicts, the bullies and their bullies, hospitalized psychiatric patients, psychiatric nursing groups,
psychologists, counselors and psychotherapists, elderly residents of care homes, abused persons,
orphans, persons with special needs, groups of gifted students in gifted schools and centers, and
family with special needs children. The ethnographic approach is a very important method in
medicine to investigate the health case of the patients with chronic diseases, such as heart diseases,
cancer, diabetes, blood pressure, and others. And examine the effectiveness of the treatment plan
and take a decision to continue this plan, or change it, in the treatment of a particular disease
group. As well as detection of the side effects of drugs and treatment plan for certain groups of
patients, and learning about the common culture of pregnant women about the process of
pregnancy and childbirth.
Keywords
Descriptive studies, Exploratory studies, Structured observation, Unstructured observation,
Controlled observation, Uncontrolled observation, Participant observation, non-participant
observation, Exploratory case studies, Explanatory case studies, Intrinsic case studies, Instrumental
case studies.
SelfAssessment
1. There are five types of subjects in Case Study.
A. True
B. False
2. We have six types of Case Study
A. True
B. False
3. There are six types of Observation
A. True
B. False
4. Case Study does not help in formulating hypotheses
A. True
B. False
5. Observation is an inadequate method
A. True
B. False
d. None of them
Review Questions
1. What is an Observation method? Briefly describe its characteristics.
2. Elaborate different types of Observation methods.
3. What are the advantages of the Observation method?
4. What is the Case Study method? Briefly narrate its characteristics.
5. Briefly state different types of Case Study.
6. What are the characteristics of the Observation method?
7. What is the significance of Case Study?
8. What are the limitations of the Observation method?
9. What are the limitations of Case Study?
10. What is the importance of Case Study in Social Research?
Further Readings
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
12.1. Descriptive Statistics
12.2. Inferential Statistics
12.3. Tools for Hypothesis testing
12.3.1. Scales of Measurement
12.3.2. Chi Square
12.3.3.Shapes of Distribution
12.3.4. Mean, Median, Mode
12.3.5.Pearson Correlation Coefficient
12.3.6. t-test
Summary
Key Notes
Self-Assessment
Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
Introduction
12.1. Descriptive statistics
It help us summarize data so they can be easily comprehended. For example, suppose we
administered a test to all 362 freshmen enrolled in a university. An unordered list of the scores
would be difficult to process mentally. However, if we prepare a frequency distribution such as
that in Table 1, we can easily see how the scores are distributed. For example, the figure clearly
indicates that a majority had scores of 14 through 16, with a scattering above and below these
levels.
20 5 1.4
19 9 2.5
18 24 6.6
17 35 9.7
16 61 16.9
15 99 27.3
14 68 18.8
13 29 8.0
12 21 5.8
11 11 3.0
The frequencies in Table 1 are descriptive statistics; they describe how many
students earned each score. The percentages are also descriptive; they describe
how many students per one hundred had each score. These and other descriptive
statistics such as averages are described in this part of the book. Now let's
suppose that for the sake of efficiency, instead of testing all 362 freshmen, we
sampled at random (by drawing names out of a hat) only 100 to be tested. Would
we obtain exactly the same results as we would if we tested all freshmen? In all
likelihood, no. As you probably recall from Topics 17 through 19, random
sampling produces random errors called sampling errors.
and 54% (that is, within two points of the 52% observed in the sample). An
important family of inferential statistics consists of significance tests, which help
us decide whether differences that we observe (such as differences in the reading
achievement of samples of boys and girls) are reliable. The next topic will help
you understand the general purpose of significance testing, and in later sections,
we will consider three popular tests of significance. Because inferential statistics
help us evaluate results in light of sampling errors, it follows that if we do not
sample, we do not need inferential statistics. For example, if we conduct a census
(a study in which all members of a population are included), the descriptive
values that we obtain such as percentages are values that are free of sampling
errors.
We distinguish between values obtained from a sample and values obtained from
a census by using the terms parameters for values from a census and statistics for
values from studies in which samples were examined. Thus, percentages,
averages, and frequencies are classified as parameters when they result from a
census, but they are classified as statistics when they are based on a sample.
Remember the first letters: Samples yield Statistics, and Populations yield
Parameters.
to measure. Thus, weights an example of the ratio scale because it has an absolute
zero that we can measure.
The interval scale, while having equal intervals like the ratio scale, does not have
an absolute zero. The most common examples of interval scales are scores
obtained using objective tests such as multiple-choice tests of achievement. It is
widely assumed that each multiple-choice test item measures a single point's
worth of the trait being measured and that all points are equal to all other
points—making it an interval scale (just as all pounds are equal to all other
pounds of weight). However, such tests do not measure at the ratio level because
the zero on such tests is arbitrary— not absolute. To see this, consider someone
who gets a zero on a multiple-choice final examination. Does the zero mean that
the student has absolutely no knowledge of or skills in the subject area? Probably
not. He or she probably has some knowledge of simple facts, definitions, and
concepts, but the test was not designed to measure at the skill level at which the
student is operating. Thus, a score of zero indicates only that the student knows
nothing on that test—not that the student has zero knowledge of the content
domain.
In this topic, we have considered the use of chi square in a univariate analysis in
which weclassify each subject in only one way (such as which candidate each
prefers). In the next topic, we'll consider its use in bivariate analysis in which we
classify each subject in two ways (such as which candidate each prefers and the
gender of each) in order to examine a relationship between the two.
12.3.3. Shapes of Distributions
One way to describe quantitative data is to prepare a frequency distribution. It is
easier to see the shape of the distribution if we prepare a figure called a
frequency polygon. This figure is a frequency polygon for the data:
The smooth, bell-shaped curve 2 has a special name; it is the normal curve. As
the name "normal" suggests, it is the common shape that is regularly observed.
Many things in nature are normally distributed—the weights of grains of sand on
a beach, the heights of women (or men), the annual amounts of rainfall in most
areas, and so on. The list is almost limitless. Many social and behavioural
scientists also believe that mental traits of humans probably are also normally
distributed.
Some distributions are skewed—that is, they have a tail to the left or right. shows
a distribution that is skewed to the right (that is , the tail is to the right); it is said to
have a positiveskew. An example of a distribution with a positive skew is
income. Most people earn relatively small amounts, so the curve is high on the
left. Small numbers of rich and very rich people create a tail to the right.
misunderstanding the directions for marking their answers, not feeling well the
day the test was administered, and so on.
While there are other shapes, the three shown here are the ones you are most
likely to encounter. Whether a distribution is basically normal or skewed affects
how quantitative data at the interval and ratio levels are analyzed, which we will
consider in the next topic.
12.3.4. THE MEAN MEDIAN, AND MODE
The most frequently used average is the mean, which is the balance point in a
distribution.
Its computation is simple—just sum (add up) the scores and divide by the
number of scores. The most common symbol for the mean in academic journals is
M (for the mean of a population) or m (for the mean of a sample). The symbol
preferred by statisticians is X which is pronounced "X-bar." Because the mean is
very frequently used as the average, let's consider its formal definition, which is the
value around which the deviations sum to zero.
Note that if you take any set of scores, compute their mean, the sum of the
deviations will always equal zero.1 Considering the formal definition, you can
see why we also informally define the mean as the balance point in a distribution.
The positive and negative deviations balance each other out.
A major drawback of the mean is that it is drawn in the direction of extreme
scores. Consider the following two sets of scores and their means.
Scores for Group A: 1,1,1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 8
M-4.ll
Scores for Group B: 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 7, 9, 25, 32
Mf=9.44
Notice that in both sets there are nine scores and the two distributions are very
similar except for the scores of 25 and 32 in Group B, which are much higher than
the others and, thus, create a skewed distribution.
Notice that the two very high scores have greatly pulled up the mean for Group
B; in fact, the mean for Group B is more than twice as high as the mean for Group
A because of the two high scores.
When a distribution is highly skewed, we use a different average, the median,
which is defined as the middle score. To get an approximate median, put the scores
in order from low to high as they are for Groups A and B above, and then count
to the middle. Since there are nine scores in Group A, the median (middle score)
is 3 (five scores up from the bottom). For Group B, the median (middle score) is 4
(five scores up from the bottom), which is more representative of the center of
this skewed distribution than the mean, which we noted was 9.44. Thus, one use
of the median is to describe the average of skewed distributions. Another use is
to describe the average of ordinal data, A third average, the mode, is simply the
most frequently occurring score. For Group B, there aremore scores of 2 than any
other score; thus, 2 is the mode. The mode is sometimes used in informal
reporting but is very seldom used in formal reports of research.Because there is
more than one type of average, it is vague to make a statement such as, "The
average is 4.11." Rather, we should indicate the specific type of average being
reported with statements such as, "The mean is 4.11."+ score for Group B, and the
differences among the scores for Group B (0 vs. 5 vs. 7 vs. 10 vs. 15, scores for
Group A (1 vs. 1 vs. 1 vs. 1 vs. 2, etc.) etc.).
12.3.5. THE PEARSON CORRELATION COEFFICIENT
When we want to examine the relationship between two quantitative sets of
scores (at the interval or ratio levels), we compute a correlation coefficient. The
most widely used coefficient is the Pearson product-moment correlation
coefficient, whose symbol is r. It is usually called simply Pearson's r. As you can
see, theemployment test scores put subjects in roughlythe same order as the
ratings by supervisors. Inother words, those who had high employment
testscores (such as Joe and Jane) tended to have high supervisors' ratings, and
those who had low test scores (such as John and Jake) tended to have
lowsupervisors' ratings. This illustrates what wemean by a direct relationship
(also called a positiverelationship).
Being less than perfect, its actual value is .89. As you can see in Figure 1, this
value indicates a strong, direct relationship. In an inverse relationship (also
called a negative relationship), those who are high on one variable are low on
the other. Such a relationship exists between the scores. Those who are high on
self-concept (such as Joe and Jane) are low on depression while those who are
low on self-concept (such as Jake and John) are high on depression. However, the
relationship is not perfect.
Contents
Objectives
Introduction
13.1. Content Analysis
13.2. Narrative Analysis
13.3. Discourse Analysis
13.4. Framework Analysis
13.5. Grounded Theory
13.6. Summary
13.7. Key Notes
13.8. Self-Assessment
13.9. Review Questions
Further Readings
Objectives
This unit will enable you to:
Know about different types of qualitative data analysis;
Understand role of content analysis;
Understand how to apply discourses analysis;
Acquire knowledge about grounded theory;
Introduction
Qualitative data might be observed and recorded.Some qualitative researchers put primary energy
into data collection for weeks, months, or even years and then retire from the field to “work over
their notes.” We believe this is a big mistake. It rules out the possibility of collecting new data to fill
in gaps or to test new hypotheses that emerge during analysis. It discourages the formulation of
rival hypotheses that question a field-worker’s routine assumption. And it makes analysis into a
giant, sometimes overwhelming, task that frustrates the researcher and reduces the quality of the
work produced.
This is non-numerical data in nature which collected through methods of observations, one to one
interviewand conducting focus groups.In other words, we can say that Qualitative data refers to
non-numeric information such as interview transcripts, notes, video and audio recordings, images
and text documents. Thus, qualitative data is typically generated through:
Interview transcripts
Surveys with open-ended questions
Contact center transcripts
Texts and documents
Audio and video recordings
Observational notes
As compared to quantitative data, which has been captured structured information, qualitative
data is unstructured and has more depth. It can also be answered our questions and could help
formulate hypotheses and build understanding.
There is not a single way to analysis data. There are different method and we choose
based on nature and objective of the study.
1. Content analysis
2. Narrative analysis
3. Discourse analysis
4. Framework analysis
5. Grounded analysis
6. Phenomenology or heuristic analysis
It refers to the process of categorizing verbal or behavioural data to classify, summarize and
tabulate the data.Other analysis techniques may fit within the broad scope of content analysis.
Thematic analysis is a part of the content analysis. Content analysis is used to identify the patterns
that emerge from text by grouping content into words, concepts, and themes. Content analysis is
useful to quantify the relationship between all of the grouped content.
This method involves the reformulation of stories presented by respondents taking into account
context of each case and different experiences of each respondent. In other words, narrative
analysis is the revision of primary qualitative data by researcher and focuses o the stories which
peopletell and the language they use to make sense of them. It is particularly useful for getting a
deep understanding of customers’ perspectives on a specific issue. A narrative analysis might
enable us to summarize the outcomes of a focused case study.
A method of analysis of naturally occurring talk and all types of written text.It is used to get a
through understanding of the political, cultural and power dynamics that exist in specific
situations. The focus here is on the way people express themselves in different social contexts. It is
commonly used by brand strategists who hope to understand why a group of people feel the way
they do about a brand or product.
Discourse is simply a fancy word for written or spoken language or debate. So, discourse analysis is
all about analysing language within its social context. In other words, analysing language – such as
a conversation, a speech, etc – within the culture and society it takes place in. For example, you
could analyse how a janitor speaks to a CEO, or how politicians speak about terrorism.
To truly understand these conversations or speeches, the culture and history of those involved in
the communication is important. For example, a janitor might speak more casually with a CEO in a
company that emphasises equality among workers. Similarly, a politician might speak more about
terrorism if there was a recent terrorist incident in the country.
So, as you can see, by using discourse analysis, you can identify
how culture, history or power dynamics (to name a few) have an effect on the way concepts are
spoken about. So, if your research aims and objectives involve understanding culture or power
dynamics, discourse analysis can be a powerful method.
Because there are many social influences in how we speak to each other, the potential use of
discourse analysis is vast. Of course, this also means it’s important to have a
very specific research question (or questions) in mind when analysing your data and looking for
patterns and themes, or you might land up going down a winding rabbit hole.
Discourse analysis can also be very time consuming as you need to sample the data to the point of
saturation – in other words, until no new information and insights emerge. But this is, of course,
part of what makes discourse analysis such a powerful technique. So, keep these factors in mind
when considering this QDA method.
This is more advanced method that consists of several stages such as familiarization,
identifying a thematic framework, coding, charting, mapping and interpretation.
This method of qualitative data analysis starts with an analysis of a single case to
formulate a theory then; additional cases are examined to see if they contribute to the
theory. Grounded theory is useful approach when little is known about a subject. It starts
by formulating a theory around a single data case. This means that the theory is
“grounded”. It’s based on actual data and not entirely speculative. Then additional cases
can be examined to see if they are relevant and can add to the original theory.
Grounded Theory is powerful qualitative analysis method where the intention is to create
a new theory (or theories) using the data at hand, through a series of “tests” and
“revisions.” For example, you could try to develop a theory about what factors influence
students to read watch a YouTube video about qualitative analysis… The important thing
with grounded theory is that you go into the analysis with an open mind and let the data
speak for itself – rather than dragging existing hypotheses or theories into your analysis.
In other words, your analysis must develop from the ground up (hence the name).
In Grounded Theory, you start with a general overarching question about a given
population – for example, graduate students. Then you begin to analyse a small sample –
for example, five graduate students in a department at a university. Ideally, this sample
should be reasonably representative of the broader population. You’d then interview
these students to identify what factors lead them to watch the video.
After analysing the interview data, a general hypothesis or pattern could emerge. For
example, you might notice that graduate students are more likely to read a post about
qualitative methods if they are just starting on their dissertation journey, or if they have
an upcoming test about research methods.
From here, you’ll look for another small sample – for example, five more graduate
students in a different department – and see whether this pattern or this hypothesis holds
true for them. If not, you’ll look for commonalities and adapt your theory accordingly. As
this process continues, the theory develops. What’s important with grounded theory is
that the theory develops from the data – not from some preconceived idea. You need to
let the data speak for itself.
So, what are the drawbacks of grounded theory? Well, some argue that there’s a
tricky circularity to Grounded Theory. For it to work, in principle, you should know
as little as possible regarding the research question and population, so that you reduce
the bias in your interpretation. However, in many circumstances, it’s also thought to
be unwise to approach a research question without knowledge of the current literature. In
other words, it’s a bit of a “chicken or the egg” situation.
Regardless, grounded theory remains a popular (and powerful) option. Naturally, it’s a
very useful method when you’re researching a topic that is completely new or has very
little existing research about it, as it allows you to start from scratch and work your
way from the ground up.
Objectives
After completion of this unit, the students will be able to:
Introduction
Social responsibility is an ethical theory in which individuals are accountable for fulfilling their
civic duty, and the actions of an individual must benefit the whole of society. In this way, there
must be a balance between economic growth and the welfare of society and the environment. If this
equilibrium is maintained, then social responsibility is accomplished.
The theory of social responsibility is built on a system of ethics, in which decisions and actions must
be ethically validated before proceeding. If the action or decision causes harm to society or the
environment, then it would be considered to be socially irresponsible.
The theory of social responsibility and ethics applies in both individual and group capacities. It
should be incorporated into daily actions/decisions, particularly ones that will have an effect on
other persons and/or the environment. In the larger, group capacity, a code of social responsibility
and ethics is applied within said group as well as during interactions with another group or an
individual.
Responsible conduct of research speaks to the professional responsibility of scientists and
researchers regarding the best practices in their field for conducting research. These responsibilities
include, but are not limited to, rigorous study design, accurate data collection, secure, backed-up
data storage, accurate and comprehensive data analysis and reporting, and responsible and fair
allocation of credit. In addition to these internally-focused responsibilities are responsibilities that
scientists and researchers have to society, particularly when the results of the research they conduct
directly impact human health, public policy, specific segments of a population, or the environment.
These externally-focused responsibilities are often referred to collectively as the social responsibility
of scientists.
One of the most important ethical guidelines in sociological and other human-subject research
concerns privacy and confidentiality. When they do research, sociologists should protect the
privacy and confidentiality of their subjects. When a survey is used, the data must be coded
(prepared for computer analysis) anonymously, and in no way should it be possible for any
answers to be connected with the respondent who gave them. In field research, anonymity must
also be maintained, and aliases (fake names) should normally be used when the researcher reports
what she or he has been observing.
Some sociologists consider the privacy and confidentiality of subjects so important that they have
risked imprisonment when they have refused to violate confidentiality. In one example, a graduate
student named Mario Brajuha had been doing participant observation as a restaurant waiter on
Long Island, New York, when the restaurant burned down. When the police suspected arson, they
asked Brajuha to turn over his field notes. When Brajuha refused, he was threatened with
imprisonment. Meanwhile, two suspects in the case also demanded his field notes for their legal
defense, but again Brajuha refused. The controversy ended 2 years later when the suspects died and
the prosecutor’s office abandoned its effort to obtain the notes (Brajuha& Hallowell, 1986).
In another case, a graduate student named Rik Scarce refused to turn over his field notes on radical
environmentalists after one of the groups he was studying vandalized a university laboratory.
Scarce was jailed for contempt of court when he refused to tell a grand jury what he had learned
about the group and spent several months behind bars (Monaghan, 1993).
A third example aroused much discussion among sociologists when it came to light. Laud
Humphreys studied male homosexual sex that took place in public bathrooms. He did so by acting
as the lookout in several encounters where two men had sex; the men did not know Humphreys
was a researcher. He also wrote down their license plates and obtained their addresses and a year
later disguised himself and interviewed the men at their homes. Many sociologists and other
observers later criticized Humphreys for acting so secretly and for violating his subjects’ privacy.
Humphreys responded that he protected the men’s names and that their behavior was not private,
as it was conducted in a public setting (Humphreys, 1975).981).
Another ethical issue concerns consent. Before a researcher can begin obtaining data, the subjects of
the research must normally sign an informed consent form. This form summarizes the aims of the
study and the possible risks of being a subject. If researchers want to study minors (under age 18),
they normally must obtain a signature from a parent or legal guardian. Informed consent is a
requirement for most “real” research these days, but ethical issues arise over the meaning of
“consent.” For consent to have any real meaning, potential research subjects must have the right to
refuse to take part in a research project without any penalties whatsoever. Otherwise, they may feel
pressured to participate in the project without really wanting to do so. This result would violate
what “consent” is supposed to mean in the research process. Sometimes subjects are promised a
small reward (often between $5 and $20) for taking part in a research project, but they are still
utterly free to refuse to do so, and this small inducement is not considered to be undue pressure to
participate.
Informed consent becomes a particular problem when a researcher wants to include certain
populations in a study. Perhaps the clearest example of such a problem is when a study involves
What ethical steps are required to respect intellectual property (IP) in research?
Ethical consideration of IP in research includes the following:
Appropriate referencing and acknowledging sources of IP inputs.
To the greatest extent possible, parties to the research should document consent regarding
how IP may be used, how it will be safeguarded and who owns it. This applies in particular to
IP as research objects including:
1. Proprietary knowledge, which is knowledge which has potential for commercial
advantage.
2. Confidential knowledge, which is valuable or sensitive information which a reasonable
person would regard as confidential.
3. Cultural knowledge, which is "insider" knowledge that is known only by people within a
particular culture or by people who have learned about the culture through some kind of
interaction with it.
Appropriate recognition of contributions to the research output such as publications, artefacts
or commercially valuable items. Ownership rights to research outputs should be agreed
before the research begins. It is recommended that a written agreement be developed,
particularly in cases between students and their supervisor(s).
Responsible Publication:
Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication.
14.2 Plagiarism
Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s work or ideas as your own, with or without their consent,
by incorporating it into your work without full acknowledgement. All published and unpublished
material, whether in manuscript, printed or electronic form, is covered under this definition.
Plagiarism may be intentional or reckless, or unintentional. Under the regulations for examinations,
intentional or reckless plagiarism is a disciplinary offence.
Some examples of plagiarism:
• a sequence of words incorporated without quotation marks
• an unacknowledged passage paraphrased from another's work
• the use of ideas, sound recordings, computer data or images created by others as though it were
one’s own"
2. Use Quotations
Use quotes to indicate that the text has been taken from another paper. The quotes should be
exactly the way they appear in the paper you take them from.
3. Cite your Sources – Identify what does and does not need to be cited
The best way to avoid the misconduct of plagiarism is by self-checking your documents using
plagiarism checker tools.
Any words or ideas that are not your own but taken from another paper need to be cited.
Cite Your Own Material—If you are using content from your previous paper, you must cite
yourself. Using material, you have published before without citation is called self-plagiarism.
The scientific evidence you gathered after performing your tests should not be cited.
Facts or common knowledge need not be cited. If unsure, include a reference.
Turnitin Software
Turnitin is an originality checking and plagiarism prevention service that checks your writing for
citation mistakes or inappropriate copying. When you submit your paper, Turnitin compares it to
text in its massive database of student work, websites, books, articles, etc.
iThenticate Software
iThenticate is a plagiarism prevention tool that compares documents (including journal article
manuscripts, proposals, research reports, thesis, and dissertations, etc.) against millions of
published works available through the Internet and subscription databases.
APA Abbreviations
APA style has acceptable abbreviations for editions, volumes, and so forth. Use these abbreviations
in your reference entries:
Source: Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Sixth Edition.
• ed. edition
• Rev. ed. Revised edition
• 2nd ed. second edition
• Ed. (Eds.) Editor (Editors)
• Trans. Translator(s)
• n.d. no date
• Vol. Volume (ex: Vol. 8)
• Vols. Volumes (ex: Vols. 3-8)
• No. Number
Steps to Referencing
• Record- At the time of reading a document, record all of the information (descriptive
elements) necessary to create a citation. The data you record should include the page numbers for
direct quotations and for journal articles or book chapters.
The descriptive elements for a variety of document types are listed below. These lists will help you
to keep the information necessary to create your references. Be careful with photocopied articles
from journals or chapters from books. You must keep a record of the journal where the article was
published or the book where you found the chapter.
• Author’s surname and initials or given name
• Title of publication
• Title of series, if applicable
• Volume number or number of volumes, if applicable
• Edition, if not the first
• Editor, reviser, compiler or translator, if other than the author
• Publisher
• Year of publication
• Page number(s), if applicable
• Parts of books (chapters, sections, conference papers, etc.)
• In addition to the details for the Whole Book (see above) record the following information
specific to the part:
• Author's surname and initials or given name (of the part)
• Title of the part
• Inclusive page numbers of the part
Steps to Referencing
• Please note: Not all electronic documents have an obvious author or title, so you will
sometimes need to use your own judgment to determine these details. Be aware that pagination
may not be present or appropriate for many electronic publications.
• Organize- File or store this information, and the source documents if you have them, in a
manner and format that can be easily accessed at a later date. You may wish to write all the details
on the print copy of an article you are using; or you may wish to keep a system of filing cards for
each reference item you use.
• Alternatively, you may decide to maintain a master reference list on your computer, which
you add details to as required. There are a number of software packages now available. One
example is EndNote, which you can use to manage your references. These programs can be used to
produce reference or works cited lists in a specified style.
• Cite- Construct your citations within the text of your essay, using the appropriate
guidelines for the style of citation you are using.
• List-Create either a reference or works cited list at the end of your essay or thesis. Titles of
books and journal titles should be italicized. The use of capitals and punctuation should be
consistent and will vary according to the citation style being used.
• The usual arrangement for a reference list in APA style is a single sequence in alphabetical
order by author, with the author's surname preceding the initials. Where an item has no author, it is
usual to list it alphabetically by title in the reference list in sequence by the first significant word of
the title. Email address
Conclusion
When you are writing a piece of work and use someone else's words or ideas, you must reference
them.
This means that you need to include detailed information on all sources consulted, both within
your text (in-text citations) and at the end of your work (reference list or bibliography).
14.4 Bibliography
Definition
A bibliography is a list of words (such as books and articles) written on a particular subject or by a
particular author.
A bibliography may appear at the end of a book, report, online presentation, or research paper.
Students are taught that a bibliography, along with correctly formatted in-text citations, is crucial to
properly citing one's research and to avoiding accusations of plagiarism. In formal research, all
sources used, whether quoted directly or synopsized, should be included in the bibliography.
Annotated Bibliography
An annotated bibliography includes a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the annotation)
for each item in the list. These annotations often give more context about why a certain source may
be useful or related to the topic at hand.
Bibliographical Sourcing
Chicago bibliographies are a good general style. It also works for different fields like history,
anthropology, theology and philosophy. Chicago is good for web sources, along with audio-visual
sources, lectures and even recordings. Examples of formatting for a Chicago bibliography include:
Heck, Jim. “About the Philosophical Gourmet Report.” Last modified July 8, 2011.
http://rgheck.frege.org/philosophy/aboutpgr.php.
Example – Facebook:
Chicago Manual of Style. “Is the world ready?” Facebook, April 19, 2017.
https://www.facebook.com/ChicagoManual/posts/10152906193679151.
Beyoncé. “Sorry.” Directed by Kahlil Joseph and Beyoncé Knowles. June 22, 2016. Music
video, 4:25. https://youtu.be/QxsmWxxouIM.
Perfect Citations
Since MLA helps format sources that might not have a publication date, like web pages, using an
author-page format makes it easy for people to find the information. Formatting citations for an
MLA works cited looks like:
Example – Image:
Klee, Paul. Twittering Machine. 1922. Museum of Modern Art, New York. The Artchive,
www.artchive.com/artchive/K/klee/twittering_machine.jpg.html. Accessed 9 January 2019.
Example – Email:
Properties of Bibliography
• Make research more efficient.
• Separate reliable, peer-reviewed sources from the unreliable or out-of-date.
• Establish classic, foundational works in a field.
• Provide a guide for independent study.
• Structure a class syllabus.
• Create a course reading and supplemental reading list.
• Assist with student advisory.
• Help with collection development
• Support research advisory
• Stimulate ideas for events and displays
A bibliography is a list of cited works--journal articles, films, books--on a particular topic.
Bibliographies are also referred to as 'References', 'Works Cited' or 'Works Consulted'.
Keywords
Target Audience, Abstract, footnotes, headnotes, endnotes, Bibliography, Linkage, Master Linkage
Map.
SelfAssessment
1. There are five types of Research report.
A. True
B. False
2. Footnotes are of three types.
A. True
B. False
3. Headnotes are used as introduction of legal documents.
A. True
B. False
4. Endnotes are placed on every page.
A. True
B. False
5. There are three popular styles of Bibliography.
A. True
B. False
6. What is the full form of MLM?
a. Material Loading Matrices
b. Master Linkage Map
c. Marital Law Monitor
d. None of them
Review Questions
1. Briefly discuss different types of Research Report.
2. Elucidate different reference guidelines.
3. What are the different steps of referencing?
4. Write the importance of footnotes.
5. Write different reference styles in Bibliography.
Further Readings