J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Review
REVIEW

Review: Textile-based natural fibre-reinforced

polymeric composites in automotive lightweighting
Sandeep Olhan1, Vikas Khatkar1, and B. K. Behera1,*

1
Department of Textile and Fibre Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, Hauz Khas, New Delhi 110016, India

Received: 30 June 2021 ABSTRACT

Accepted: 6 September 2021 Environmental stringent norms, weight reduction, and the ever-depleting mode
Published online: of petroleum resources have stimulated the use of textile-based natural fibres as
21 September 2021 reinforcement in polymeric composites. Natural fibres play a significant role in
the sustainability of an environmentally friendly future. Natural fibres-based
! The Author(s), under composites have fulfilled the environmental norms and contribute to develop-
exclusive licence to Springer ing lightweight materials with improved mechanical properties in the auto-
Science+Business Media, LLC, motive sector. The automotive industry is yielding substantial steps towards a
part of Springer Nature 2021 more environmentally friendly product by adopting textile fibres as a rein-
forcement for making various automotive parts, such as door panels, boot lin-
ing, instrument panel support, sun visor, wheel box, interior insulation, trunk
panel, roof cover, and bumper. The growth rate of natural fibre production is
increasing day by day. Each year, high energy-consuming products and syn-
thetic fibres-based composites are being replaced by natural fibre-reinforced
polymeric composites because natural fibre-based composites have excellent
mechanical properties, relatively low cost (one-third of the cost of glass fibre),
low density, and recyclability. This review analysis contributes an overview of
the concept of vehicle weight reduction, properties required for composite
materials to be used for automotive, most commercially used natural fibres and
their use for automotive applications focusing on the matrices for the natural
fibre composites (NFCs), natural fibre properties and potential challenges cou-
pled with the use of natural fibres, surface modification methods of some nat-
ural fibres being used in the automotive industry and recent advancements in
textile fibre-reinforced composites. Thermal properties and processing tech-
niques of natural fibre-reinforced composites (NFRC) are also studied.

Handling Editor: Stephen Eichhorn.

Address correspondence to E-mail: behera@textile.iitd.ac.in

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-021-06509-6
18868 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Introduction used in luxury cars (F1 cars) and aerospace applica-

tions. Apart from the aerospace industry, where
payload capacity and engine efficiency are the most
The shortage of fossil fuel is increasing rapidly, while important concerns, the high-mass production of the
their supply is irresolute and the new necessity of automotive sector results in the paramount consid-
environmental sustainability to counter global eration of being cost beneficial that overwrites any
warming has employed much enforcement on technical factors [8]. Cost-cutting is one of the major
researchers to develop new materials and manufac- tasks which is being continuously faced by automo-
turing processes for distribution of goods via air, sea, tive manufacturers while fuel-saving and technology
and land. Lightweight with strength is the biggest transformation is also becoming more important [9].
challenge for structures, which results in lower NFRC are emerging as a feasible alternative to
energy consumption from the vehicles. While textile- GFRPC, especially in the automotive sector. Natural
based composite materials and plastic are being used fibre-based composites have recently attracted the
in automotive nowadays, they contribute just about researcher’s attention because of their various
7.5% of the vehicle’s total mass, and their applications advantages over GFRPC. Advantages of natural
are not for the primary vehicle structure [1]. Sub- fibres over conventional reinforcement are
stantial reasons for the rapid espousal of polymeric biodegradability, low cost, superior thermal proper-
matrix composites (PMC) [2] are the light weight ties, low density, comparable specific mechanical
(31–40% lighter than aluminium parts of equal properties, recyclability, high toughness, lower
strength, 40–60% lighter than metallic components of energy consumption, non-irritation to the skin,
equal strength), high specific stiffness, and specific reduced tool wear, and carbon dioxide sequestration.
strength compared to metals, improved safety and Natural fibres are economical and promising as
crashworthiness, corrosion resistance, excellent compared to traditional synthetic fibres. This is why
energy absorbing capability by mass, no machining NFRC are attracting significant interest due to their
and welding, better damage resistance, reduced potential to reduce carbon emission by replacing
tooling cost, part consolidation opportunities, design conventional synthetically produced materials, such
flexibility, improved internal damping, and material as glass fibre, which costs more and is also harmful to
anisotropy, etc. Although the substantial edge of the planet. For developing countries like India, nat-
polymer matrix composites has been recognized by ural fibres provide a possibility to utilize their own
the automotive manufacturing sector, there are sev- natural resources in their various composite pro-
eral crucial defiances before their wide application in cessing industries. Industrial ecology, sustainability,
primary vehicle structures. Challenges like recycla- green chemistry, and eco-efficiency are forcing auto-
bility, slow production rates, high material costs, and motive manufacturers to seek alternative materials
the lack of experience of the auto industries with that are eco-friendlier for automotive applications.
composite materials are the main issues that auto Many environmental issues will need to be solved for
engineers are facing currently [3–5]. Glass and carbon composites fabricated using natural fibres with
fibres are the most demanding reinforcements for biopolymers (plastics). Embedding natural fibres
PMC. Das et al. [5] reported that the glass fibre-re- with biopolymers such as starch plastic, cellulosic
inforced polymeric composites (GFRPC) contribute plastic, soy-based plastic, and corn-based plastic are
1% of total vehicle mass, and its use as structural continuously being developed by researchers [10].
parts could reduce vehicle weight by 20–36%; more Textile structural reinforced polymeric composites
significantly, the carbon fibre-reinforced polymeric (TSRPC) are reinforced by textile structures commit-
composites (CFRPC) contribute 0.007% of total vehi- ted for load-bearing applications. These textile
cle mass (except special vehicles like F1 cars), and its structural composites (TSC) must have a textile-based
use could reduce vehicle weight by 40– 60%. While in structure (act as a preform for composites) along with
the automotive industry, the use of GFRPC has been a matrix and must have the potential to withstand
increased to replace conventional metals [6, 7], the primary and secondary load in automotive. The
usage rate for CFRPC, which are light in weight, principal objective of (TSC) envisions the utilization
stiffer, and stronger than GFRPC, remains low of textile-based structures in composite fabrication in
because of its high cost; that’s why CFRPC are only order to achieve lightweight composites, advanced
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18869

composites, and load-bearing composites. In textile

structural reinforced polymeric three-dimensional
(3D) composites, constituent yarns are arranged in
such a manner that they make a right angle to each
other in three mutually perpendicular planes, in
which two yarns (i.e., warp and weft) are positioned
in X and Y directions, whereas the third yarn binds
the weft (transverse set of yarns in the fabric) and
warp (longitudinal set of yarns in the fabric) yarns in
Z direction which provides better structural integrity,
having substantial thickness higher than yarn diam-
eter, higher fibre volume fraction (45–50%) without
any crimp in the yarns [11]. A minimal effort has Figure 1 Market consumption of NFRC [12]. Re-drawn from
been put up so far towards textile fibre-reinforced [12].
aluminium metal matrix composites (TFRAMMC) by
the scientific community. TFRAMMC are those performance have grown, attracting other markets
which are reinforced by textile fibre in aluminium towards the idea of NFRC to replace man-made fibre-
matrix committed for load-bearing applications. based composites. The production of synthetic fibres
These composites must have textile fibre (acting as depends heavily on the petrochemical-based resour-
reinforcement) and aluminium matrix; they must ces that are quickly draining as well; they produce
have the potential to withstand primary and sec- harmful by-products and waste, which are also a
ondary load in automotive. Aluminium-based metal bearing force on the sustainability aspect of landfills
matrix composites reinforced with textile fibre in the [13, 14]. Other sectors, such as the construction sector,
aluminium matrix have many advantages such as are also currently using natural fibre-based compos-
superior strength to weight ratio, high modulus, ites as well. The market has quickly grown with faster
excellent creep, wear, and fatigue properties. Alu- production, increasing demand while maintaining
minium-based composite materials have high similar properties has attracted the need for sustain-
potential applications in the automotive sector (pis- able products. Flooring, decking, siding, and railings
ton rod, valve train, piston pin, crankshaft, cylinder are examples of products in the construction sector
head, cylinder blocks, and engine blocks). that began to use NFCs successfully in the commer-
cial market. Even though various industries and
manufacturers are using more eco-friendly materials
Recent market trends of NFRC nowadays, the auto industry is the most influential.
The automotive industry has involved other compa-
Currently, many industries use composites for vari- nies in producing NFRC. The processing methods
ous products. Initiatives and stringent environmental involved in the manufacturing of natural fibre-based
regulations have been put in place in many countries composites are comparable to that of synthetic com-
to push many markets towards more eco-friendly posites. Extrusion and injection moulding can be
materials and processing. The market sectors that use used, so no new processing methods need to be
natural fibre-based composites cover a majority of developed to manufacture actual final products [15].
products. In Fig. 1, market consumption of NFCs in By combining these techniques, many auto producers
various sectors shows the variety of areas where such as Daimler Chrysler have been able to acquaint
NFRC are being used. Currently, the biggest market large-scale production lines using natural fibres. A
which uses bio-composite materials is the construc- line has been started by Daimler Chrysler that pro-
tion sector. duces exterior body panels for the Mercedes A-class
The automotive industry has always been a large that consumes 40 MT of NFRC a year. Their product
driving force to create natural fibre-based compos- lines provide panels that reduce weight by approxi-
ites. With advancements in natural fibre-based com- mately 8% and decrease costs by 6% from their syn-
posite and bio-composites developed by the thetic counterparts [13].
automotive industry in the 1990s, the awareness and
18870 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Vehicle weight reduction analysis automotive components like dashboards, bumpers,

door trims, etc. But nowadays, the challenge is to
The CO2 emission regulation and fuel efficiency of substitute metals in structural and load-bearing
passenger cars are two prime concerns nowadays. To components. The use of TFRC materials in structural
address rising concerns about fuel consumption and and load-bearing components is very limited to date.
greenhouse gas emission (GHG) by passenger vehi- For automotive structural applications, textile fibre-
cles, vehicle weight reduction (VWR) is a well-known reinforced structural composite materials (TFRSCM)
strategy. The best way to enhance a car’s fuel effi- are an excellent substitute due to their resistance to
ciency without sacrificing safety is to incorporate corrosion, high specific strength, low maintenance,
textile-based fibre-reinforced composite materials in and especially fatigue resistance. TFRSCM reinforced
the car body panels because textile fibre-reinforced with integrated preform structure made of natural
composite (TFRC) materials have higher specific fibres, high-performance fibres (glass, basalt, carbon,
mechanical properties than those of conventional etc.) provide an effective solution to substitute the
materials like steel. Vehicle weight reductions can be metals in automotive in the near future.
achieved in three ways:
Theoretical analysis of weight reduction
(i) Material substitution
in vehicles
(ii) Vehicle redesign
(iii) Vehicle downsizing. It is a known fact that there is a reduction in vehicle’s
Weight reduction in a vehicle can be achieved by fuel consumption by reducing the vehicle’s weight,
material substitution; it involves substituting steel which results in an improvement in fuel efficiency of
and iron used in automotive vehicles with lighter the vehicle because as the vehicle mass reduces, the
weight-saving materials like polymer composites, vehicle’s engine has to overcome less tractive forces
plastics, aluminium, and magnesium. By maintaining during acceleration, resulting in a lesser amount of
the same passenger space, vehicle weight reduction work which is needed to be done to run the vehicle.
can also be achieved by redesigning the vehicle to The mathematical Eq. (1), which explains the rela-
optimize the engine size and other parts or to reduce tionship between vehicle fuel consumption and
exterior vehicle dimensions, followed by improving tractive forces, is given below [19].
! "
the vehicle’s packaging. Finally, downsizing can also Ft :v
r be:Pdt r be: g dt
provide further vehicle weight reduction; it involves FC ¼ ¼ ð1Þ
the transition of vehicles from larger and heavier size r vdt r vdt
segments to compact and lighter segment vehicle where FC: Vehicle fuel consumption (L/km), be:
categories. The use of composite materials has been Engine Specific fuel consumption (L/kWh), P: Engine
increasing rapidly in the automotive sector nowa- power output (kW), V: Vehicle instantaneous speed
days. The use of composite materials consists of the (m/s, km/hr), Ft: Tractive force (KN), g: Drive Train
bumper, chassis parts, A-pillar, B-pillar, C-pillar, seat Efficiency, T: Time (hr or s).
frame, engine hoods, driveshafts, doors, rooftop, For a vehicle given time-speed trace and presum-
floor pan, leaf springs, brake discs, fuel tanks, lift ing that the engine efficiency and specific fuel con-
gates, and so on. It was reported that a 10% reduction sumption which are the functions of load and speed
in weight from the vehicle’s total weight results in an are known, the variable that affects the amount of
improvement in fuel consumption by 6–7% [16, 17]. power output needed from an engine is the amount
Ishikawa et al. [18] reported that 50% weight reduc- of tractive forces or resistive forces which the vehicle
tion could be achieved by using carbon fibre-rein- has to overcome. The total tractive force is the sum of
forced composite materials instead of conventional tire rolling resistance, braking or acceleration resis-
materials in chassis and car body panels. Further- tance, climbing resistance, and aerodynamics drag.
more, about 20 g/km of CO2 emission reduction For an accelerating vehicle, total resistive or trac-
occurs for every 100 kg of vehicle’s weight reduction tive force is given by Eq. 2.
[18]. In current times, various automotive industries
are trying to shift towards composites. Some of these
have been using semi-structural and non-structural
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18871

Ft ¼ FRoll þ FAcc þ FDrag having a thickness (t2) so that the bending stiffness of
# $
1 both the materials is maintained to be same. In this
¼ ðf:mgÞ þ ðmaÞ þ CD :qair :v2 :A ð2Þ
2 case, so as to maintain the bending stiffness constant,
the volume of the component will change. If the
where FRoll = Rolling resistance [N]. length and breadth of the rectangular bar are unal-
FAcc = Acceleration resistance [N] tered, then the change in total volume will be
FDrag = Aerodynamic drag [N] reflected in the thickness of the component.
f = Coefficient of rolling resistance Let,
m = Vehicle and payload mass [kg] q1 and q2 be the density of the component before
g = Gravitational acceleration [m/s2] and after replacement.
a = Vehicle acceleration [m/s2] l and b be its length and breadth, respectively,
CD = Drag coefficient t1, v1, and m1 be the thickness, volume, and mass
Qair = Density of air [kg/m3] of the component before replacement.
A = Frontal area of vehicle [m2] t2, v2, and m2 be the thickness, volume, and mass
v = Vehicle instantaneous speed [m/s] of the component after replacement.
From the above mathematical expression, we can E1 and E2 be the modulus of elasticity of the two
identify how a vehicle’s mass has a direct impact on materials before and after replacement.
lowering the total resistive or traction force and thus The volume and mass of the component before
the fuel consumption. However, weight appears in replacement will be,
acceleration and rolling components of total tractive v1 ¼ l % b % t1
forces. The national research council reported a 10% ð3Þ
m1 ¼ l % b % t1 % q1
reduction in vehicle weight could enhance fuel con-
sumption by 7–8% [20]. Many automotive industries According to the assumption, the bending stiffness
are trying to explore the possibility of reducing the of the component should be the same before and after
vehicle’s weight by material substitution, and it replacement. Then the ratio of thickness can be given
involves substituting heavier steel and iron used in by Eq. (4).
vehicles with TFRC materials. # $13
t2 E1
¼ ð4Þ
t1 E2
Weight reduction analysis for automotive components
The volume of the component after replacement
On the component level, the amount of mass savings
can be given by,
resulting from using composite materials in any
# $13
vehicle element depends on the design intent and E1
v2 ¼ l % b % t1 % ð5Þ
application. For instance, let us assume that a com- E2
ponent in the shape of a rectangular bar is made of a
particular material (shown in Fig. 2) having a thick- Mass of the component after replacement,
ness (t1) and it is replaced with another material m2 ¼ v2 % q2
# $13 ð6Þ
E1
m2 ¼ l % b % t1 % %q2
E2

Dividing Eq. 6 by Eq. 3,

# $13 # $
E1 q2
m2 ¼ m1 % % ð7Þ
E2 q1

Equation 7 gives the mass of the component after

replacing material 1 with material 2.

Figure 2 Two components in the shape of a rectangular bar of

different thickness.
18872 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Properties required in composite materials pulled out apart, plastic flow or elastic deformation
to be used in automotive of the matrix phase exerts shear forces, which results
in a slow build-up of stresses into the fragments.
There are three prime factors that need to be looked Because of this type of load transfer, the reinforcing
upon before adopting a material for design in the fibres continue to provide some strength to the
automotive sector. These are: composite. So, the composite can withstand more
stresses without fracturing. The synergy effect
Performance of material
between fibres and matrix can thus toughen and
Government regulations
strengthen the composite by increasing the work
Customer requirements
done required to fracture it [21].
The material should be selected in such a manner
that it should have the following properties: high
strength, low density, stiffness, corrosion resistance, Vehicle mass breakdown
damage tolerance, fatigue resistance, resistance to
impact, temperature resistance, toughness, chemical Figure 3 shows the break-up of an automotive com-
resistance, electrical resistance, and processability. ponent-wise weight, and Table 1 represents the var-
Furthermore, government regulations (lightweight, ious systems and their sub-components. The mass of
fuel efficiency, crash performance, and CO2 emission) a given vehicle can be reduced by its functional
and customer requirements (quality features and vehicle system or by its material composition. An
cost) should also be considered while selecting com- approximate mass breakdown of different vehicle
posite materials. The mechanical performance of the systems and variation seen in the various existing
composites is a function of the reinforcing phase, but designs of vehicles. The vehicle’s body is one of the
the matrix phase also makes its own significant con- vehicle’s vital systems, or sometimes it is named as
tribution to properties. The selection of the resin the ‘‘Body-in-White’’. The body of the vehicle repre-
influences the ability to conduct heat and current by sents the core structural frame of the vehicle, con-
the composites. The mechanical strength of the tributing about a quarter mass of the overall vehicle
composite materials is not governed by the reinforc- weight. The other two well-known vehicle categories
ing phase alone, but the synergistic effect of both the are the suspension and the powertrain system; both
matrix and reinforcing phase plays a significant role. systems contribute about 1/5th to 1/4th of the total
The behaviour of matrix material is usually ductile in vehicle weight. After these systems, the interior, clo-
nature. As the fragmented ends of the fibres are sures, and other miscellaneous (including lighting,

Figure 3 Break-up of the

component wise weight of an
automotive [22]. Re-drawn
from [22].
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18873

Table 1 Various systems and their sub-components [22]

S.No System Vital components in a system

1 Body-in- Passenger compartment frame, dash panel assembly, floor and underbody, front-end structure, body sides, pillars,
white roof assembly, front structure, fenders
2 Powertrain Engine, transmission, fuel tank exhaust system
3 Chassis Chassis, brakes, suspension, wheels, tires, steering
4 Interior Seats, airbags, instrument panel, insulation, trim
5 Closures Front and rear doors, hood, liftgate (decklid)
6 Miscellaneous Electrical, glazing, lighting, thermal, windows

electronic, thermal, etc.) contribute to the remaining mechanical properties of the fibre are controlled by
vehicle systems. its thickness [25, 26]. The primary cell wall is made
up of a cellulosic amorphous microfibril network
arranged in a disorganized manner. The secondary
Properties of natural fibres and their walls are made up of three different layers in which
potential cellulosic crystalline microfibrils having a length of
10–30 nm are helically arranged in a well-organized
Figure 4 shows the general structural configuration manner. The microfibrillar angle is the angle between
of natural fibre, and it covers mainly three structural the fibre axis and the microfibrils that varies from one
elements, i.e., cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose fibre to another. The mechanical properties and
[23, 24]. Plant fibres consist of hollow cellulose crys- quality (dexterity, smoothness) of any fibre are
talline microfibrils held together by the lignin and influenced by microfibrillar angle [27]. In the cell
hemicellulose as a matrix; thus, they are considered wall, an amorphous matrix is made up of hemicel-
as composites. Each category of plant fibres has its lulose, lignin, and pectin. There is a hydrogen bond
own distinct fibre attributes where the cell wall is not between the cellulose molecule and hemicellulose,
homogenous, and they possess complex structural and this acts as a cementing matrix between the cel-
configurations made up of several layers. It consists lulose crystalline microfibrils to form the major
of four walls, i.e., the primary wall at the circumfer- structural element, which is known as the hemicel-
ence and three secondary walls located at the inner- lulose-cellulose network arrangement. Due to the
most side followed by lumen at the core since hydrophilic behaviour of natural fibres and

Figure 4 A schematic structure of a natural fibre. Adapted with permission from [23]. Copyright 2012, Elsevier.
18874 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

hydrophobic behaviour of the polymer matrix inter- fibres are of great importance. For example, the
facial adhesion is poor between them so natural fibres strength of the composite can significantly be affected
require some chemical treatment so as to reduce their by the aspect ratio of fibres (length/diameter ratio);
hydrophilic feature. high aspect ratios lead to more strength.
Natural fibres are continuous filaments that are
employed in the manufacture of rope, yarn, fabric,
cords, and carpets. Natural fibres can be compressed Other properties
into sheets to produce paper or used as a reinforce-
ment phase in composites. Ahmad et al. [28] catego- Thermal properties of NFCs
rized textile fibres into two types: natural and man-
made. Natural fibres are obtained mainly from three Thermal conductivity
subcategories: animals, plants, and minerals. Plant
In industries such as automotive, packaging, and
fibres are subdivided into stem or bast, leaf or grass,
construction, the use of heat insulating materials is an
seed, stalk, and fruit fibres, and these are obtained
effective way to cut energy costs and increase
from the vegetative parts of the plants. Animal fibres
industrial efficiency [33]. Lumens, or hollow spaces
are subdivided into wool or hair and silk fibres.
filled with air are found in natural fibres. These
Mineral fibre like asbestos is used for housing
results, as the fibre content in composite increases,
applications, while animal fibres like wool and silk
the thermal conductivity of the composite material
are widely studied. To get a crystal-clear idea, the
decreases. Several researches have been conducted to
classification of textile fibres is presented in Fig. 5.
examine the thermal conductivity of NFCs. Pujari
The chemical composition and physical properties of
et al. [34] investigated the thermal conductivity of
various natural fibres and synthetic fibres are shown
chopped banana and jute fibres/epoxy composites
in Tables 2 and 3. The physical properties of natural

Figure 5 A basic classification of textile fibres [28]. Re-drawn from [28].

J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18875

Table 2 Chemical composition of different natural fibres [29–31]

Fibre Cellulose Lignin Hemi-cellulose Pectin Wax Moisture Ash Micro-fibrillar

name [wt%] [wt%] [wt%] [wt%] [wt%] [wt%] [wt%] angle

Abaca 55–62 7–12 16–19 .2-.9 .2 – 1.1–3 21–24

Bamboo 25–47 11–32 13–71.3 0.38 – 9.16 1.5–6 –
Banana 45–61 13.4–21.9 10.1–14.9 2.2–4.4 2–6 10.71 3.1 11.1–12
Coir 20–36.5 33.7–52.3 12.9–15.3 4.5–8 – 11.36 – 30.46
Cotton 82.7–90.5 0.6–28 1.5–5.5 0–5.6 0.6 7.85–8.5 0.7–2.1 –
Curaua! 73.5 7.6 9.8 – – – – –
Flax 64.2–71.5 2–2.2 16.5–20.4 1.7–2.4 1.4–1.7 8–1.2 13.2 5.5–10
Hemp 54–78.9 2.7–13.5 13.9–22.4 0.9–3.2 0.3–0.8 6.2–1.2 0.4–0.8 2–6.3
Jute 45.7–71.5 0.3–26.5 12.9–22.4 0.2–11.7 0.5 12.5–13.7 0.5–7.9 9
Kenaf 32–57 8.5–21.5 18.5–23.5 3–8.8 0.6 6.2–12 2–5.2 2–6.3
Rachis 42.76 26 – – – – – 27–36
Ramie 68.4–91.5 0.5–0.7 5–16.6 1.9 0.4 – 5.2 68–82
Rice husk 37–45.5 – 12–20.5 – – – 21 –
Sea grass 57.5 5.2 39 11 – – – –
Sisal 47.5–78 8–14.5 10–23 0.8–11 0.4–2 11 0.5–4.3 –

Table 3 Physical and mechanical properties of natural and high-performance fibres [29–32]

Fibre name Density (g /cm3) Diameter (lm) Tensile strength (MPa) Tensile modulus (GPa) Elongation at break (%)

Abaca 1.5 10.5–30 400–820 31.3–33.5 2.8

Bamboo 1.2 85–122 145–230 12–18 1.42
Banana 0.9 105–250 165.5 8.85 2.36
Coconut 1.15 105–450 500 2.5 20
Coir 1.2 155–257 175.5 4–7 32
Cotton 1.62 – 288–598 5.6–12.6 7.1–8.2
Curaua! 1.4 – 158–729 – 5
Flax 1.5 24 600–1500 27.5–85 2.8–3.2
Hemp 1.49 24–575 550–800 70 2–5
Jute 1.48 30–260 393–800 12–28 1.17–1.6
Kenaf 1.45 930 53 1.6
Ramie 1.5 22–90 405–938 62–128 3.4–3.8
Sisal 1.33 45–200 540–710 9.4–22 2–5
Softwood 1.5 – 1 000 40 4.4
E-glass 2.54 17 3 300 72 0.4–3.2
S-glass 2.5 – 4 575 84 2.7
Aramid (Std.) 1.43 11.9 3 100 70 2.6–3.5
HS carbon 1.81 8.2 3670 260 1.5

fabricated by hand lay-up technique and found that increase in fibre loading decreased the thermal con-
the banana and jute fibre chopped composites had ductivity of a chopped flax fibre/high density poly-
thermal conductivities of 0.227 and 0.230 W/m K in ethylene (HDPE) composite fabricated by extrusion
the range of -20 "C to 300 "C and at the maximum moulding method. Osugi et al. [36] and Ramanaiah
fibre volume fraction, respectively. The thermal con- et al. [37] found the same result for unidirectional
ductivity of NFCs with varying fibre percentage is hemp fibre/epoxy composite fabricated by com-
shown in Fig. 6 [34]. Li et al. [35] reported that an pression moulding method and unidirectional fish
18876 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Heating the intumescent materials beyond a certain

temperature causes foaming and expansion to form a
cellular and charred surface, which protects the
underlying surface from heat and flames. The fire
resistance of the composites can be increased by the
addition of talc and nanoparticles as filler to the
NFCs by forming heat barriers. The behaviour of
NFCs at higher temperature has been investigated by
several researchers. Some studies have been reported
that natural fibre starts to degrade at about 220 "C
[42–45]. However, lignin degrades at around 200 "C,
while cellulose and hemicellulose degrades at higher
Figure 6 Thermal conductivity of epoxy resin and different NFCs temperature [46]. Table 4 shows the temperature at
with varying fibre percentage [34]. Re-drawn from [34]. which major natural fibres decompose, and Table 5
shows melting point and glass transition of some
tail palm fibre/polyester composites fabricated by resin used in NFCs.
hand lay-up technique, respectively. The thermal
conductivity of chopped banana fibre/polypropylene
(PP) composite fabricated by compression moulding Matrices for NFCs
method was assessed by Paul et al. [38]. The results
revealed that when the fibre percentage in composite In composites, a matrix is used to bind the reinforcing
increased, the thermal conductivity of the composite phase together. The main functions of the matrix are
decreased. Agarwal et al. [39] studied the effect of the environmental tolerance, surface appearance, and
chemical treatment of fibre on the thermal conduc- overall durability of the composites, while most of
tivity of oil palm fibre/phenolic reinforced compos- the structural loads are carried by the fibrous rein-
ite. The results revealed that alkali and silane forcement phase, thus imparting strength and stiff-
treatment improved the thermal conductivity of ness to the composite. In composites, stress
composite material than acetylation treatment, distribution from a matrix to fibres directly affects
implying that acetylation treatment is more suit- mechanical properties [49, 50]. The distribution of
able than alkali and silane treatment to improve the fibres and interfacial adhesion across the matrix and
thermal insulation properties of composite materials. reinforcing phases are required to assure good stress
transfer in the composites [51]. In previous years, a
Fire resistance lot of research has been carried out to find an alter-
native to the traditional petrochemical-based matrix
When exposed to heat, polymer matrix degrades because of the shortage of fossil fuel resources and
quickly [40]. At high temperatures, fibre reinforce-
ment may improve the thermal stability of polymeric Table 4 Decomposition temperature of some natural fibres
composites. The loss of strength and stiffness of NFCs [44, 47]
at high temperature is one of their weakness [41]. Natural Fibre Decomposition temperature ("C)
When NFCs are subjected to fire, they undergo
thermal decomposition and combustion. The Pina 242
flammability of NFCs varies with different types of Bagasse 230
natural fibres because their microstructures and Cotton 231
Hemp 218
chemical compositions are different. The fire resis-
Jute 218
tance of NFCs can be improved by lowering the cel-
Kenaf 230
lulose content of fibre, improving crystallinity, and
Rice straw 237
lowering polymerization of composites [41]. The fire Rice husk 233
resistance of NFCs can also be improved by using Bamboo 225
coatings and additives, such as ceramics, silicone,
intumescents, ablation, phenolics, and glass mats.
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18877

Table 5 Melting point and

glass transition of some resin Resin Melting point ("C) Glass transition temperature ("C)
used in NFCs [48]
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) 162–176 3–14
Polylactic acid (PLA) 152–163 57
Epoxy – 72–170
Starch 109–116 59
Phenolic – 172
PP 158–175 0.8–1.54
Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 104–115 118
HDPE 122–142 78
Polystyrene (PS) – 102–134
Nylon 6 220 42
Nylon 6,6 248–270 52
Polyester 252–298 62
Vinyl ester – 102–120

the adverse effect on the environment [52]. Classifi- Thermosets

cation of matrices for NFRC is presented in Fig. 7.
When natural fibres are used with petroleum-based Thermoset matrices are insoluble and infusible
polymers, then it is called partially biodegradable materials that are cured by a catalyst or heat [54].
composites. When they are used with a fully Thermosets cannot be reshaped and melted by heat-
degradable matrix, then it is known as green com- ing [55]. Polymer chains are connected by a three-
posites. Load transfer takes place uniformly from a dimensional covalent bond; this type of matrix has
matrix to the fibres [33]. higher thermal stability, higher modulus, higher
chemical resistance, and improved creep resistance
Petroleum-based matrix than thermoplastic resins [52]. At room temperature,
they are brittle and show low fracture toughness. The
A petroleum-based resin is a chemical product advantages and disadvantages of the thermoset
obtained from fossil fuels like natural gas and coal matrix are presented in Table 7.
[52]. Thermosets and thermoplastics are used as
petroleum matrices for NFRC. Epoxy, polyester, Thermoplastics
phenolic (phenol–formaldehyde), and vinyl ester are
utilized as thermoset matrices, whereas PS, poly- Thermoplastic matrix is based on polymers that can
ethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and PP are be reshaped and melted by heating (physical change)
used for thermoplastic matrices [33, 52]. The [60]. Thermoplastic resins have higher viscosity (ap-
mechanical properties of different thermoplastic and proximately 500–1000 times) as compared to the
thermosetting polymers are presented in Table 6. uncured thermoset resins in the melted condition.
They can be reshaped and reformed without chemi-
cal reaction by applying heat, and they are solid at
room temperature [52]. These resins have more
reform-ability, higher impact resistance, higher pro-
cessing temperature, and high damage tolerance than
thermoset resins [33]. The advantages and disad-
vantages of the thermoplastic matrix are presented in
Table 8.

Bio-based resins

These matrices are polymers that are partially or fully

Figure 7 Classification of polymeric matrices for NFRC [33]. Re- biodegradable and obtained from sustainable
drawn from [33].
18878 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Table 6 Mechanical properties of different thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers [53]

Resin Type Specific Tensile strength Yield strength Tensile modulus Elongation at
gravity (MPa) (MPa) (GPa) break (%)

PVC Thermoplastic 1.28–1.56 40.5–52 40.5–14.6 2.3–4 41–81

HDPE Thermoplastic 0.951–0.964 22.2–31.1 26.1–33.2 1.05–1.08 11–1200
LDPE Thermoplastic 0.916–0.933 8.2–31.5 8.9–14.6 0.16–0.29 101–652
PP Thermoplastic 0.91–0.92 31.1–41.5 31.1–41.5 1.15–1.56 101–602
Polytetrafluoroethylene Thermoplastic 2.13–2.21 20.6–34.4 – 2.15–2.21 201–400
(Teflon)
PS Thermoplastic 1.03–1.05 35.8–51.6 – 2.27–3.29 1.1–2.4
Polycarbonate Thermoplastic 1.19 62.6–72.3 62.4 2.37 111–151
Nylon 6,6 Thermoplastic 1.12–1.14 75.7–94.3 44.6–82.7 1.57–3.82 14–305
Polyester (PET) Thermosetting 1.28–1.41 48.2–72.2 59.2 1.28–1.42 32–301
Phenolic (phenol– Thermosetting 1.22–1.31 34.4–62.3 – 2.75–4.82 1.4–2.1
formaldehyde)
Epoxy Thermosetting 1.12–1.18 41–84 – 2.2–5.4 4
Vinyl ester Thermosetting 1.02–1.05 16–94 – 3–3.8 2.4–9

Table 7 Advantages and disadvantages of thermoset matrix [56–59]

Matrix Advantages Disadvantages

Polyester Lowest cost and easy to use The range of working times are limited, and high curing
shrinkage
Epoxy High mechanical and thermal properties, low curing Expensive than vinyl ester, difficult to process, and corrosive
shrinkage, high resistance to moisture absorption, and long amine hardener
working time ability
Phenolic High fire resistance Difficult to process
Vinyl Higher mechanical properties than phenolic and high High styrene content, more expensive than phenolic, high
ester environmental and chemical resistance curing shrinkage, and required post-curing for good
mechanical properties

Table 8 Advantages and disadvantages of thermoplastic matrix [61]

Matrix Advantages Disadvantages

PP High dielectric resistance, high-temperature resistance, high fatigue resistance, Difficult to process, limited availability, and
and chemical resistance comparatively expensive
PE Lightweight, excellent fatigue resistance, high impact resistance and ductility, High thermal expansion, flammable and poor
low cost, and low moisture absorption weathering resistance
PVC Good chemical resistance, high impact resistance, flame retardant, good Poor resistance at high temperature and poor
dimensional stability, versatility, and low cost resistance to UV
PS High resistance to stress cracking, low moisture absorption, weather resistance, Low impact resistance, brittle and flammable
and excellent chemical resistance

resources [33]. Bio-based resins are obtained from polyethylene terephthalate, PP, and PLA) [52]. Bio-
plants (e.g., cellulose and starch) or through the based resins are of three types: fully biodegradable,
polymerization of plant-based oils and sugars (e.g., e.g., starch, PHA, partially biodegradable, e.g., PLA,
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18879

cellulose, and non-biodegradable, e.g., bio- performance, and weak interfacial bonding between
polypropylene, bio-polyethylene, and bio-poly- fibre and matrix [68–70]. The presence of impurities
ethylene terephthalate [33, 52]. The advantages and such as hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and wax in
disadvantages of bio-based resins are presented in natural fibres deteriorate its mechanical properties
Table 9. In 2011, approximately 236 million tons of because the presence of these impurities on the fibre
petroleum-based polymers were produced, whereas surface hampers the interfacial adhesion between
the production of bio-based polymers was 3.5 million matrix and reinforcing phase. Advantages and dis-
tons in the same year. The estimated growth rate of advantages of natural fibres in automotive applica-
bio-based polymers production will reach 12 million tions are presented in Table 10. For instance, natural
tons annually by 2022 [33]. However, this amount is fibres are sensitive to moisture and temperature,
lower than the petroleum-based polymers produc- which restricts their use to interior parts (e.g., door
tion, and it is required to increase this amount to panels, trim in dashboards, seat cushions, parcel
lower the adverse effect of petrochemical-based shelves, cabin lining, and backrests). Water degra-
polymers on the environment. Fully biodegradable dation is the biggest challenge associated with NFCs.
matrices contain regenerative carbon, which has been They absorb moisture in the external environment
drawn from the atmosphere, followed by reverting to due to their hydrophilic nature. The main constituent
the environment as the polymer decays [52]. Bio- in the natural fibre is hemicellulose, which absorbs
based resins like bio-polyethylene, bio-polyethylene moisture. The fibre shrinks when it dries and swells
terephthalate, and bio-polypropylene, which are when it absorbs moisture, which ultimately results in
chemically similar to petroleum-based resins, can be cracks within the composites [71]. Absorbed water by
conventionally reprocessed [33]. Bio-based polymers fibres makes a bond with the OH- group of fibre,
offer various advantages over petroleum-based which weakens the interfacial bonding of matrix and
polymers: they are completely renewable, energy-ef- fibre, causing poor mechanical properties of the
ficient during production, safe (non-toxic), and composite [72]. In natural fibres, the amount of
environmentally friendly [62]. However, their pro- moisture content could be revealed in terms of
duction cost is 10–11% higher than petroleum-based moisture regain [73]. Thickness swelling of the com-
resins [63]. posite samples is measured as per mathematical
Eq. 8, water absorbency by Eq. 9 and moisture regain
by Eq. 10 [74].
Challenges of using natural fibres Tw & Td
as reinforcement Ts ¼ ð8Þ
Td

Presence of impurities on the fibre surface and water where Ts represents thickness swelling, Td is the
degradation are the biggest challenge associated with initial thickness swelling of sample before being
NFCs. Although there are various advantages of immersed in water, Tw is the final thickness of
using natural fibre-based polymeric composites, swelled sample after being immersed in water.
there are also many negative aspects of using NFCs Ww & Wd
like moisture absorption, poor mechanical Wa ¼ ð9Þ
Wd

Table 9 Advantages and disadvantages of bio-based resins [64–67]

Matrix Advantages Disadvantages

PLA High strength, high modulus and nontoxic Poor impact strength and brittle in nature
Cellulose Moderate impact resistance, low cost, abundant, moderate heat Low decomposition temperature and high moisture
resistance, and ease to modify absorption
PHA Completely biodegradable, high molecular weight Low decomposition temperature, brittle in nature, and
low dimensional stability
Starch Completely biodegradable and low cost Difficult to process, brittle in nature, and water sensitive
18880 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Table 10 Advantages and disadvantages of natural fibres in automotive applications [78, 79]

Advantages Disadvantages

Low density leads to the mass reduction of 12–35% in Moisture absorption causes swelling of fibres
automotive parts
Higher specific mechanical properties than glass Mechanical properties are lower than glass fibre composites, especially
impact strength
Good acoustic and thermal insulating properties The degradation process causes odour generation
Non-abrasive effect over metallic parts and screws The maximum acceptable temperatures are limited as compared to glass
fibre
Sustainable and renewable resource Due to weathering and fungus attack relatively less durable
Low energy consumption (1/3 of glass fibres) Price fluctuations due to agricultural policies
Biodegradable High variability in properties

where Wa represents water absorbency, Wd is the Surface treatment of natural Fibre

initial weight of sample before being immersed in
The main drawbacks of using natural fibres as rein-
water, Ww is the weight of sample after being
forcement in composites include high moisture
immersed in water.
absorption by the fibres and poor adhesion at the
The moisture regain is defined as the amount of
matrix and fibre interface. The presence of non-cel-
moisture present in a dried material at standard
lulosic compounds such as hemicellulose, lignin,
conditions of humidity and temperature compared to
pectin, wax, etc., in natural fibres deteriorate its
the weight of dried material. The value of moisture
mechanical properties because the presence of these
regain must be known to evaluate the moisture
non-cellulosic compounds on the fibre surface ham-
regain or moisture absorption of natural fibres.
pers the interfacial adhesion between matrix and
Hence, the mathematical Eq. (10) to evaluate mois-
reinforcing phase. Therefore, modifications of natural
ture regain for natural fibres can be given as
fibres surface properties are necessary to improve
100MC their bonding with various matrices. There are two
MR ¼ ð10Þ
ð100 & MCÞ methods by which the surface of natural fibres can be
modified to enhance the adhesion at the matrix and
or
fibre interface.
A
MR ¼ ' 100% 1. Physical method
B
2. Chemical method
where MC represents the percentage of moisture
content, MR is moisture regain; A is the mass of
water, and B is the dry mass. The moisture absorp- Physical treatment method
tion behaviour of NFCs limits their use for exterior
parts of automotive. Several chemical treatment The surface conditions of natural fibres are changed
techniques are used to reduce the water absorption by physical treatment methods without influencing
content and impurities present on the natural fibre their chemical composition. Physical treatments
surface and to enhance their mechanical properties. It involve laser treatment, argon treatment, heat and
was reported that lower moisture content in fibres plasma treatment [80]. The advantages of using
results in higher mechanical properties of natural physical treatments over chemical treatment methods
fibre-based composites [28, 75–77]. In the next sec- are improved mechanical, thermal, and physical
tion, surface treatment methods are reviewed. properties of surface-modified natural fibres. Nowa-
days, the scientific community gives more preference
to chemical treatment methods over physical treat-
ment methods because physical treatment methods
are expensive than chemical treatment methods [81].
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18881
Table 11 Recent works on the effect of alkaline-treated fibre-reinforced polymeric composites on thermal and mechanical properties
[96–99]

Fibre-matrix Treatment methods Effects on thermal and mechanical properties

composites

Hemp fibre 8% NaOH treatment 5% increment in thermal stability was observed

Coir- 5% NaOH treatment for 70 h Impact and flexural strength was increased by 50% as compared to the untreated
polyester fibre-reinforced composites
Sisal- 0.5%, 1%, 2%. 4%, 8% NaOH Maximum tensile strength was reported for 4% alkaline-treated sisal-polyester
polyester treatment at ambient temperature composite
Flax-epoxy Alkaline treatment 28% increment in tensile modulus and strength with the removal of wax and
pectin
Jute-vinyl 6% NaOH for 5, 7, and 9 h 5 h alkaline-treated fibre-reinforced composite accounted for 20% and 19%
ester increase in interlaminar shear strength and flexural properties

Chemical treatment methods for a different period of time [85], (b) keeping con-
stant NaOH solution concentration for a different
The main problem with NFRC arises from the period of time [86–88], (c) using constant NaOH
hydrophilic nature of the fibre and the hydrophobic solution concentration for a constant time period
nature of the matrix. The incompatibility between [89–91], (d) using different NaOH solution concen-
natural fibre and polymer matrix results in poor tration for a constant time period [92]. The first and
interfacial bonding. The hydrophilicity of reinforcing second methods are the most commonly used treat-
natural fibres can be reduced by giving chemical ments to evaluate the most favourable states for
treatments, which improves interfacial adhesion with natural fibre modification. By using different NaOH
the matrix phase [82, 83]. Much research has been solution concentrations for a constant time period,
conducted to enhance the interfacial adhesion the natural fibres need to be treated with NaOH
between the matrix and reinforcing phase through solution (2%-6% by wt./ by vol.), maintaining tem-
various chemical treatments. Various chemical treat- perature around 24 "C for a constant period of time
ment methods used in order to reduce the hydro- that permits to eradicate lignin, hemicellulose, and
philic nature of the fibre and their effects on wax. After this chemical treated process, the fibres
composite properties are presented as follows. are dried, neutralized, and cleaned [92, 93]. By using
(i) Alkaline treatment constant NaOH solution concentration for different
(ii) Silane treatment time periods, the fibres are treated with NaOH
(iii) Acetylation solution (5% by wt./ by vol.) by varying the time (i.e.,
(iv) Maleated coupling 16, 31, 45, 65, 75, and 95 min.) [86, 87, 94]. After this
(v) Benzoylation treatment chemical process, the treated fibres are cleaned with
(vi) Enzyme treatment deionized water by incorporating a few drops of
0.2 N hydrochloric acid to separate the surplus
impurities [85, 88, 95]. Table 11 summarizes the effect
Alkaline treatment of alkaline treatment on the thermal and mechanical
performance of composites.
In the alkaline treatment method, natural fibres are
Fibre & OH þ NaOH ! Fibre & O & Na þ H2 O ð11Þ
treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution so
as to remove non-cellulosic compounds such as lig-
nin, pectin, hemicellulose, wax, and oils which are Silane treatment
covering the outer surface of the fibre cell wall and
hence modify its cellulosic molecular structure when The hydrophilic nature of the fibre is associated with
used to reinforce with thermosets and thermoplastics. the surface energy of fibres. Some investigations
Alkaline reaction on fibre is given in Eq. 11 [84]. This reported the methods to decrease the hydrophilic
treatment can be done in four different ways, such as nature of fibre. Silane acts as a coupling agent, a
(a) taking different concentrations of NaOH solution multifunctional molecule used to modify the surface
18882 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

of fibre [100–103]. The aminopropyl triethoxy silane anhydride (MA). These treatments reduced the polar
and vinyltrimethoxysilane are the commonly used component of the surface energy of the flax fibre. It
silanes that may contribute hydrophilic properties to was observed that MAPP-treated Flax/PP-based
the interface [104–106]. In this treatment, the ethanol– composites exhibited the highest mechanical prop-
water mixture is mixed with some amount of erties, while the MA-treated fibres obtained similar
vinyltrimethoxysilane or aminopropyl triethoxy results to those of the untreated ones [115]. Table 12
silanes in the ratio (2:3). Keeping the pH value of this summarizes the effect of silane chemical treatment on
solution at 4, acetic acid is added, followed by the mechanical performance of NFRC.
keeping this solution for 1 h. The fibres or fabric were H2 O
immersed in the above solution for 3 h then the CH2 CHSi(OC2 H5 Þ3 &! CH2 CHSiðOHÞ3 þ3C2 H5 OH
treated fibres or fabric was dried for 8 h at 65 "C ð12Þ
[107–109]. Natural fibres possess micro-pores or
voids on their surface. Silane coupling agents act as a CH2 CHSiðOHÞ2 O þ Fibre & OH
surface coating. This coupling agent penetrates into ! CH2 CHSiðOHÞ2 O & Fibre þ H2 O ð13Þ
the voids, or micropores and hence interlocked
coatings are developed on the fibre surface. It was Acetylation
reported that silane-treated NFRC exhibit superior
tensile properties than the alkaline-treated NFRC Acetylation is another chemical method of fibre
[110]. Silane reactions on fibre are given in Eqs. 12 treatment that replaces the hydroxyl (OH-) group of
and 13 [84]. The researcher investigated the silane natural fibre with the acetyl group and makes them
effect (1% oligomeric siloxane with 97% alcohol more hydrophobic. The main motive of this treatment
solution for 2 h) and alkali (5% NaOH for 2 h) is to coat the OH- groups of natural fibres and make
treatments on flexural strength of jute polyester and them hydrophobic in nature. As a result, the
jute epoxy composites. Results showed that for jute hydrophilicity of the fibre was reduced by enhancing
polyester composites with silane treatment, strength the dimensional stability of the NFRC [119]. More-
and modulus properties were enhanced by 20% and over, this chemical treatment makes the fibre surface
8%, respectively, as compared to the alkaline treat- rough with fewer voids that give better interfacial
ment alone. It was also reported that tensile strength adhesion with the matrix [96, 120]. In this treatment,
and modulus were increased by 12% and 7% for the the cellulose structure of fibre is grafted with and
similar treatments compared to the alkali treatment without a catalyst by an acetyl group. In general,
alone [111]. The surface of the kenaf fibre and its acetic anhydride and acetic acid do not react ade-
interfacial adhesion with the PS matrix was modified quately with the fibres. Initially, fibres are immersed
by using a silane coupling agent. The condensation in acetic anhydride and consequently acetic acid for
reaction between alkoxysilane and hydroxyl network 1–4 h with higher temperature. Acetylation reactions
of kenaf cellulose improved interfacial adhesion on fibre with and without catalyst are given in
between fibre and matrix phase. Due to the kenaf Eqs. 14 and 15 [121]. Acetylation on alkaline pre-
fibre modification, kenaf/PS-based composites treated (5% and 10% NaOH concentration solution
exhibited lower tan d and higher storage modulus for 2 h at 280 "C) sisal fibre was performed, which
than those with untreated fibre [112]. Similarly, the reported improvement in fibre-matrix interfacial
coir fibres and oil palm empty bunch of fruits were bonding of the composites [122]. Acetylation treat-
treated with silane coupling agents by Ismail et al. ment with unlike concentration of catalyst on flax
[113, 114]. It was reported that the tensile strength, fibre was studied. Damage in the fibres was observed
modulus, fatigue life, hardness and tear strength of when more than 0.054% catalyst was used during
coir fibre and oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB) acetylation. The hydrophilicity of the flax fibre was
reinforced natural rubber and polyester composites decreased by using a higher degree of acetylation. It
were enhanced. Two types of flax fibres (flax pulp was also noted that the flexural and tensile properties
and natural flax) were used as a reinforcing phase of flax fibre-reinforced polymeric composites were
with PP matrix to fabricate flax/PP composites. The enhanced by using an 18% degree of acetylation [80].
flax fibres were treated with maleic anhydride- Seena et al. [123] studied the acetylation-treated
polypropylene copolymer (MAPP) and maleic
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18883

Table 12 Recent works on the effect of silane-treated fibre-reinforced polymeric composites on mechanical properties [110, 116–118]

Agents used F/M Quantity Results

NaOH ? methoxy-ethoxy Henequen/ 2% ? 1% ? 0.5% Increase in tensile strength by 23%

silane ? dicumyl peroxide HDPE
20/80
NaOH ? amino silane Pineapple/ 5% ? 5% Increase in tensile modulus and impact strength by 45% and 86%,
PLA 40/60 respectively
Amino silane Pineapple/ 5% Increase in tensile modulus and impact strength by 27% and 47%,
PLA 40/60 respectively
NaOH ? methoxy-ethoxy Henequen/ 2% ? 1% Increase in tensile strength by 23%
silane HDPE
20/80
Glycidoxypropyl silane Kenaf/PLA 4% Increase in tensile strength parallel to fibre axis by 20% and increase
60/40 in tensile strength perpendicular to fibre axis by 20%

abaca fibre-reinforced PF composites and the results Maleated coupling

revealed an improvement in the tensile strength,
modulus, and impact strength as compared to The maleated coupling method is widely used to
untreated abaca fibre-reinforced composites. In make natural fibres hydrophobic in nature. MA is
another study, acetylation treatment was applied to used to modify the surface of fibre so as to achieve
remove non-crystalline constituents of the banana better interfacial adhesion in between fibre and
fibres, and improved adhesion between the fibre and matrix phase, which results in better mechanical
matrix interphase was observed. Moreover, the ten- properties of composites. In this process, MA
sile properties of the composite were enhanced, but removes the OH- groups from the amorphous region
the tensile property of the fibre itself was not signif- of the cellulose network to make it compatible with
icantly improved [25]. Zafeiropoulos et al. [124] the polymeric resin. This makes the fibre surface
investigated the influence of acetylation at the inter- coated, by reducing its hydrophilicity. Therefore,
face of flax fibre/PP-based composites and reported carbon–carbon covalent bond formation takes place
improved surface topography and stress transfer between the anhydride groups of the maleic agent
from matrix to fibres in the composite. In another and OH- groups of fibre by maleated coupling agent.
study, the weight of the natural fibres (up to about This covalent bond makes a bridge interface, which
16.6%) was increased due to acetylation treatment, improves bonding at the interface of fibre and poly-
which completely changed the bulk properties of the meric matrix [128]. For instance, the polypropylene
natural fibre itself [125]. Table 13 summarizes the chain makes the maleic anhydride coupler to be
influence of the acetylation treatment method on the cohesive by the treatment of cellulose structural
mechanical performance of NFRC. fibres with hot MAPP copolymers that makes a
covalent bond at the interface. The reaction of MAPP

ð14Þ

ð15Þ
18884 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Table 13 Recent works on the effect of acetylation-treated fibre-reinforced polymeric composites on mechanical properties
[80, 123, 126, 127]

Agents used F/M Quantity Results

NaOH pre- (a) Banana fibre 4% for 2 h ? 50% for 5 min (a) Decrease in tensile strength and modulus by 27% and
treated ? acetic 80%, respectively
acid (b) Banana/PF (b) Increase in tensile strength and modulus by 36% and
800%, respectively
Acetic anhydride (a) Flax/PP 5% 18% (a) Increase in tensile strength and modulus by 35% and
fibre 20%, respectively
NaOH pre- (a) Cellulose/PP For 1.2 h ? (470 g for 95 g fibre, (a) Decrease in tensile strength and flexural strength by
treated ? acid (10% fibre) additional 170 g acetic acid) 1% and 1.25%, respectively
acetic (b) Cellulignin/PP (b) Decrease in tensile strength and flexural strength by
(10% fibre) 1.01% and 1.14%, respectively
NaOH pre- (a) Banana/phenol 5% for 3 h ? 50% for 5 min (a) Increased tensile strength in outdoor weathering and
treated ? acetic formaldehyde soil burial by 56% and 75%, respectively
acid

composites. In addition, the hydrophilic tendency of

the treated fibre was also reduced. In another study,
Mishra et al. [131] studied that maleated coupling
treatment reduced hydrophilic content to a large
extent in abaca, sisal, and hemp fibre-reinforced
composites. Results showed higher hardness,
young’s modulus, flexural modulus, and impact
strength of NFRC as compared to untreated fibre
composites. Yang et al. [132] studied the effects of
MAPP coupling agent on rice-husk/PP composites. It
was reported that the increment in filler loading rate
decreased the tensile strength of the composite, but
by incorporating MAPP coupling agent, the tensile
strength of the composite was improved and izod
impact strength of both notched and unnotched
Figure 8 The reaction mechanism of cellulose structural fibre specimens remained almost the same. In addition, the
with MAPP copolymer. Adapted with permission from [23]. positive effect of a coupling agent on bonding
Copyright 2012, Elsevier.
between fibre and matrix across interfaces was
revealed by the morphological study. The effects of
1% MAPP coupling agent on sisal fibre-PP compos-
and the cellulosic structure of fibre (shown in Fig. 8) ites were evaluated by Mohanty et al. [133]. It was
can be explained by esterification of cellulose struc- reported that tensile, impact and flexural properties
ture of fibre and activation energy of the copolymer were enhanced by 50%, 58% and 30%, respectively.
at 180 "C. This fibre surface modification method Keener et al. [128] suggested that 3% was the opti-
improves wettability and bonding between the fibre mum amount for using maleated coupling agents on
and polymeric matrix at the interface [129]. Mohanty flax and jute fibres. Table 14 summarizes the effect of
et al. [130] used 0.5% MAPP as a coupling agent maleated treatment on mechanical performance of
impregnated in toluene for 5 min with jute fibre NFRC.
(6 mm fibre length with 30% fibre loading) reinforced
in PP matrix. It was reported that the treated jute/PP
composite revealed 72.2% higher flexural modulus as
compared to the untreated fibre-reinforced
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18885

Table 14 Recent works on the effect of maleated coupling treated fibre-reinforced polymeric composites on mechanical properties
[134–137]

Agents used F/M Quantity Results

Maleated anhydride (a) Bamboo/HDPE 29.5/ 1.7% (a) Increase in tensile strength and modulus by 30% and 5%,
polyethylene (MAPE) 68.8 respectively
(b) Bamboo/HDPE 29/67.5 3.5% (b) Improved in tensile strength by 44% and decrease in tensile
modulus by 18%
MAPP (a) Aspen/PP 30/68 2% (a) Increase in tensile strength and flexural strength by 32% and
(25 "C) 19%, respectively
MAPE (226D) (a) Thermomechanical 3% (a) Increase in tensile strength and modulus by 58% and 11%,
pulp/HDPE 48/50 respectively
MAPP (a) Hemp/PP 30/66 4% (a) Increase in tensile strength, modulus and flexural modulus by
36%, 58% and 44%, respectively

Benzoylation treatment Enzyme treatment

Benzoylation process makes use of benzoyl chloride solu- Enzyme treatment is widely used to make natural
tion to lower the moisture absorption in the fibre cell wall, fibre hydrophobic in nature. Enzyme treatment is
resulting in better adhesion at the fibre and matrix interface, used to extract materials such as lignin, waxes and oil
increased composite strength and enhanced thermal sta- covering materials from plant cellulose structure by
bility of the natural fibre [96, 138]. During this treatment, the action of enzymes. White rot enzyme produces
alkaline pre-treated fibres are used. Benzoyl is responsible oxidase enzymes that react with wax and lignin parts
for extracting materials such as lignin, hemicellulose, waxes of the natural fibre. This results in removal of the
and oil covering materials from plant cellulosic structure, non-cellulosic constituents from fibre. It also enhan-
and a large number of OH- groups are exposed on the ces hemicellulose solubility and thus makes the fibre
natural fibre surface. During this process, the benzoyl hydrophobic in nature. Furthermore, enzymes pro-
group replaced the OH- group of the natural fibre and duce hyphae, which creates micropores on the sur-
coupled with the cellulosic structure of the fibre (shown in face of fibre and makes a rough interface for better
Eq. 16) [139]. This resulted in decreased hydrophilic ten- adhesion between the fibre and matrix across the
dency of the treated fibre and improved interfacial bonding interface [142, 143]. In this treatment process, the
with the hydrophobic matrix [96]. Joseph et al. [140] used fibres are degummed while improving the fineness,
benzoyl chloride to decrease hydrophilicity of alkali pre- homogeneity, softness and cleanliness. This treat-
treated sisal fibre, and results revealed that the thermal ment is completely environment friendly and effi-
stability of treated fibre composites was improved as cient. The process is rapid but exquisite over other
compared to the untreated fibre-reinforced composites. chemical treatment processes since it should be per-
Wang et al. [141] investigated similar treatment on flax/PP formed at 100 "C below atmospheric pressure with a
composites, and results revealed that the tensile strength of pH of 5–9, while the addition of ethylenediaminete-
the treated flax fibre-reinforced composites was enhanced traacetic acid (EDTA) to fungi mixtures can enhance
by 6%. In addition, the positive effect of a benzoylation the effectiveness of this process [144]. Bledzki et al.
treatment on interfacial bonding between matrix and fibre [145] studied the effect of enzyme treatment on
was revealed by the morphological study. abaca/PP composites using fungamix and reported
46% increment in tensile strength. Furthermore, the

ð16Þ
18886 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

tensile strength was enhanced up to 41% using Processing methods

MAPP coupling agent at the same conditions. Pick-
ering et al. [142] studied the effect of enzyme treat- The processing methods used for fabricating NFRC
ment on hemp/PP composites and reported 22% are mostly determined by the polymer matrix
increment in composite strength as compared to employed. Moisture, fibre type, fibre volume fraction,
untreated fibre. In addition, enzyme-treated hemp/ and composite temperature are the primary factors
PP composite showed 33% improvement in com- that influence the processing of NFCs. The natural
posite strength over alkali-treated fibres. When fungi fibre must be free of moisture and the required sur-
treatment was given with a pre-treatment using face treatment of fibre must be performed if fibre
ethylene diamine tetramethylene phosphoric acid, contains moisture [33]. Processing methods such as
more amount of lignin, wax, hemicellulose, and other compression moulding, extrusion moulding, injec-
non-cellulosic components were separated from tion moulding are suitable for thermoplastic matrices.
hemp fibre [134, 146]. In addition, 270% increment in Processing methods such as hand lay-up, resin
the porosity of the hemp fibres with deterioration in transfer moulding, vacuum-assisted resin transfer
mechanical properties was observed [147]. moulding are suitable for thermoset matrices.

Processing methods for thermoplastic based

Biodegradation mechanisms in NFCs composites

In NFCs, the polymer contains a carbon or hetero- Injection moulding

chain backbone. Chemical hydrolysis, or enzyme-
catalyzed hydrolysis, is the method of degradation Injection moulding is the most prevalent method for
for hetero-chain backbone polymers [148]. The mass-producing composites. This technique begins
hydrolytic enzymes generated by physico-chemical with the polymers being placed in the hopper as
characteristics of the polymer and microorganisms pellets or granules and being heated until molten.
are the major factors in hydrolytic biodegradation. The molten ingredients are then injected into and
Polymer biodegradation process can occur up to a held in a chamber produced by a split die mould.
month using this method [149]. The hydrolytic Before opening the mould, the molten material is
biodegradation process of polymers can be restrained chilled down to solidify [150].
by using chemicals or additives in order to use for
several practical applications. Some natural biopoly- Compression moulding
mers such as proteins and polysaccharides, plant-
derived polymers like polybutylene succinate (PBS), Since the 1990s, compression moulding has been
and PLA and microbially derived polymers such as employed to make thermoplastic composites as the
poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate) demand for lightweight, high-performance materials
(PHBV) undergoes hydrolytic biodegradation [148]. has grown [33]. Composite is made by mixing the
Chemical bonding, thickness, co-polymer type, and reinforcement and matrix in the metallic mould of
morphology may affect the hydrolytic degradation required shape and size [151]. The compression
rate under enzyme-mediated or non-enzyme-medi- mould is made up of two parts: a stationary bottom
ated conditions. When comparing the biodegradation plate and a moveable upper plate. Moulds are
of carbon chain and hetero-chain polymers, the car- available in different shape and size, or it may also
bon-chain backbone polymer takes longer time to fabricate as per the intricacy of the profile which
decompose [148]. Chemical oxidation is the mecha- needs to be developed. After putting the sample in
nism through which carbon backbone polymers the mould, mould is placed between the two heating
degrade. Some natural biopolymers such as lignin, platen, which are set to the required temperature and
and natural rubber undergoes oxidative biodegra- pressure as per the matrix materials used during the
dation. The oxidative biodegradation process of process [152]. The curing procedure is carried out at
polymers may take several years, which is signifi- ambient temperature, and the composite is taken out
cantly longer than hydrolytic biodegradation. of the mould [33]. Compression moulding is used to
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18887

make vehicle body panels and structures that are laminates are then allowed to cure in atmospheric
thin, lightweight, and strong. conditions [157].

Extrusion Resin transfer moulding

Extrusion is a high-speed processing method that is In resin transfer moulding (RTM) method, instead of
commonly used to make thermoplastic polymer pouring the polymer into an open mould, the resin is
composites [153]. This processing method is chosen preheated and loaded into the holding chamber [158].
because of the high strength and stiffness of the This method is suitable for fabricating of large com-
composite, as well as the ease with which the com- ponents in medium-volume production. The process
posites may be formed [33]. During this process, the diagram of RTM method is shown in Fig. 9 [159]. The
polymer material in the form of granules or pellets resin is injected to impregnate the preform after the
are fed into a hopper of an extruder. A single screw textile fabric layers are placed in the solid mould.
or twin-screw extruder can be used. The melt flows Vacuum is frequently utilized to prevent air bubbles
into the extruder’s barrel and is forced out via a die to and help in the drawing of resin into the cavity [160].
form the required shape [151, 154, 155]. Extrusion is a
fully automated, continuous fabrication technique. Vacuum assisted resin transfer moulding (VARTM)
Delivery rate, Pressure, and temperature are all crit-
ical parameters. Any air trapped between the grains VARTM method is modified version of RTM method
is extruded out [151]. in which top mould is replaced with vacuum bagging
[161]. In this process, resin flow is assisted with
Processing methods for thermoset based vacuum to maintain the atmospheric pressure for
composites curing of the specimen. Basic accessories used in
VARTM method includes peel ply, mesh, spiral,
Hand lay-up vacuum bag and sealant tape. In this process, pre-
form is first placed on bottom mould of required
Hand lay-up is the common, easiest, and least shape and size, then the flexible tool face is forced
expensive method of manufacturing composites down over the composite object. Mesh which is
[156]. In this method, a release agent is first applied to placed above the peel ply controls and limits the flow
an open mould as an anti-adhesive agent, and then of resin. Spiral tube is used to guide the flow of resin
the fibres are placed in the mould. Resin is poured through the fibre preform. The liquid resin is
and brushed onto the fibres with a roller or brush. pumped into the mould at a moderate pressure,
Layer upon layer of lay-up is building until the suturing the fibres. A vacuum can be applied to the
desired thickness is achieved. Squeegees or rollers are mould to reduce air pockets and improve the
used to remove trapped air in the laminate. The

Figure 9 Process diagram of

RTM method for composite
manufacturing. Adapted with
permission from [159].
Copyright 2014, Elsevier.
18888 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

brittleness of the resin, the fractured surface of neat

PLA was uneven and rough. The interfacial adhesion
between the fibre and matrix (shown by ‘‘A’’) was
good, but many fibres were damaged during tensile
testing as shown in Fig. 12. Some fibres in the fabri-
cated composite (shown by ‘‘B’’ in Fig. 12) fractured
in the matrix during tensile deformation, showing
that the interfacial adhesion between the fibre and
matrix further improved. Because of the rough sur-
face of the kenaf fibre and high viscosity of PLA,
Figure 10 Schematic diagram of VARTM. agglomeration of kenaf fibres (shown by ‘‘C’’) and the
presence of tiny voids (shown by ‘‘D’’) are also visible
composites quality [162]. Figure 10 illustrates a typi- in Fig. 12. Pothan et al. [165] investigated the effect of
cal setup used for VARTM method. the different fibre percentage on the morphology of
chopped banana/polyester composite fabricated by
compression moulding method through SEM. SEM
Morphology micrographs of composites with different fibre con-
tent (10, 20, and 40 wt.%) are shown in Fig. 13a-c. The
Optical microscope and SEM are the major approa- results revealed that fibre-matrix bonding was good
ches to study the morphology of composites. SEM in the composite with 40 wt.% fibre content, but fibre-
gives detailed information on the topography and matrix debonding was clearly visible in the com-
composition of composites at the micro-scale through posites with 10wt.% and 20wt.% fibre content. In
high magnification level whereas optical microscopy addition, there was no voids and strong interfacial
is appropriate for general inspection [163]. The mor- bonding between fibre and matrix in composite
phology of NFCs has been studied extensively. This specimen (40 wt.% fibre content) was observed.
review article includes some of these studies. The However, when the fibre content was reduced, the
morphological study of unidirectional bamboo/ accumulation efficiency of fibres was not high, which
epoxy composites fabricated by compression makes the interface area prone to bonding failure.
moulding method with a combination of heat and
pressure was studied through optical microscopy by
Hebel et al. [164]. Optical micrographs of the frac- Simulation and modelling of bio-
tured surface of composite fabricated at 100 "C and composites used for automotive
pressures of 15, 20, and 25 MPa are shown in
Fig. 11a-c [164]. The results revealed that the com- Analytical models
posites fabricated at a pressure of 20 MPa have
smooth surface, homogenously covered by matrix Due to different parameters, such as the type of resin
and higher tensile strength than 15 and 25 MPa. Due and fibre used, the microstructure and composition
to its viscosity, the polymer network forms a thin of fibre, the fabricating method and the expected
layer at this pressure that effectively interacts with application, the modelling of the mechanical prop-
the fibre surface and penetrates into the fibre. Fur- erties of bio-composites is considered a very com-
thermore, the reduction in the homogenous coverage plicated process [166]. The mechanical properties of
and wettability of fibres occurs by lowering the bio-composites with chopped fibres have been pred-
pressure to 15 MPa. The epoxy resin formed crys- icated using six analytical models: rule of mixture,
talline beads larger at 25 MPa than at 15 MPa, and Hirsch model, Bowyer Bader model, series and par-
infiltration was hindered by propagating carboniza- allel, Halpin–Tsai model, and shear model [167].
tion of the fibres. The morphology of chopped kneaf/ Micro-defects in the matrix and the fibre/matrix
PLA composites fabricated by melt mixing method interface are not taken into account in these models.
using SEM was studied by Pan et al. [163]. SEM The prediction of the tensile strength and Young’s
micrographs of neat PLA and a composite of 30 wt.% modulus of unidirectional jute/epoxy composite
kenaf fibre are shown in Fig. 12 [163]. Because of the fabricated by resin infusion moulding method using
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18889

Figure 11 Optical
micrographs of the fractured
surface of bamboo/epoxy
composites fabricated at
100 "C and pressures of a 15,
b 20, and c 25 MPa. Adapted
with permission from [164].
Copyright 2014, Elsevier.

rule of mixture model was investigated by Virk et al. series and parallel model, all models exhibited good
[168]. The author reported that measuring the cross- accord with experimental longitudinally chopped
sectional area of fibres by linear measurement of fibre composite Young’s modulus and tensile strength. In
diameter and assuming a circular cross section of addition, Bowyer–Bader and Hirsch models were
fibre would results in an overestimation of cross- also shown to be in good accord with experimental
sectional area and diminishing the mechanical results of chopped composites. Migneault et al. [170]
properties of jute fibre was observed. The author used the Halpin–Tsai equation and the shear lag
suggested a fibre area correction factor (FACF) for model to predict the Young’s modulus of chopped
predicting the composites tensile strength and pulp/high-density polyethylene composites fabri-
Young’s modulus accurately. Kalaprasad et al. [169] cated by injection moulding method, and found that
compared Hirsch, Halpin–Tsai, series and parallel, the predictions with an orientation factor in the
Bowyer–Bader, and shear lag models to predict ten- modelling were in good accord with the experimental
sile properties of chopped sisal/low-density poly- results. The prediction of the tensile strength of
ethylene composites fabricated by injection moulding hemp/polypropylene composite fabricated by injec-
method. The author reported that except for the tion and extrusion moulding method using Bowyer–
18890 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Figure 12 SEM micrographs

of fractured surface of neat
PLA and chopped kneaf/PLA
composite fabricated by melt
mixing method with
magnification of a 500x,
b 200 9 c 500x, and d 500x.
Adapted with permission from
[163]. Copyright 2007, John
Wiley and Sons.

Figure 13 SEM micrographs of chopped hemp/polyester composite fabricated by compression moulding method with fibre content of
a 10 wt.%, b 20 wt.%, and c 40 wt.%. Adapted with permission from [165]. Copyright 2003, Elsevier.

Bader model was investigated by Beckermann and measurements of the material to be modelled in the
Pickering et al. [171]. The author reported that in Halpin–Tsai equation. Munde and Ingle et al. [173]
predicting the mechanical properties of bio-compos- compared Hirsch model, Bowyer–Bader, and Hal-
ites, fibre aspect ratio (AR) and orientation are two pin–Tsai equation to predict Young’s modulus and
key parameters to be considered. Facca et al. [172] tensile strength of chopped coir/polypropylene
used the Halpin–Tsai equation, rule of mixture, and composites fabricated by compression moulding
the shear lag model to predict the Young’s modulus method. The author reported that the Hirsch model
of chopped hemp/HDPE composites fabricated by predicted Young’s modulus and tensile strength
compression moulding method, and found that more accurately than other models.
Halpin–Tsai model predicted Young’s modulus more
accurately than other models because the efficiency
factor (EF) is generally derived from experimentally
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18891

Simulation by finite element method (FEM)

The finite element analysis has been used to simulate

the properties of bio-composites, because it can con-
structively investigate the influence of various
parameters, such as the type of reinforcement, the
fibre aspect ratio, volume fraction of fibre, and the
fibre orientation on the performance of bio-compos-
ites [174]. Representative volume element (RVE) has
been considered to predict the mechanical perfor-
mance of composite materials as the most effective
homogenization-based multi-scale approach for Figure 15 Simulation of the tensile properties of chopped flax/PP
composite using 3D RVE approach considering the plastic
mechanical characterization of composites. To simu-
deformation starts at the end of the fibre and around the fibre
late bio-composites with chopped fibres, two RVE
defect. Adapted with permission from [176]. Copyright 2016,
methods were used: orientation averaging and direct Elsevier.
RVE. A single fibre is embedded in the matrix (as a
unit cell) in the orientation averaging method, isotropic. The results showed that the modelling
whereas the matrix is surrounded by number of approach were in a good accord with experimental
fibres in the direct RVE approach. The mechanical results of chopped composites. Sliseris et al. [176]
properties of bio-composites with chopped fibres simulated the tensile properties of chopped flax/
have been predicted using FEM approach in a few polypropylene composites with 3D RVE approach by
research. The prediction of the Young’s modulus of considering the effect of voids, bundles, and fibre
flax/polypropylene composite fabricated by extru- aspect ratio. PP matrix and flax fibre were modelled
sion moulding method (shown in Fig. 14) using RVE as nonlinear plastic material and linear isotropic
orientation averaging approach was investigated by elastic material, respectively. To analyse the effect of
Modniks and Andersons et al. [175]. They used five fibre defect in the simulation, they modelled (shown
loading nodes to obtain the composite’s elastic con- in Fig. 15) the interface between the fibres and the
stants, assuming that the unit cell is transversely fibres using continuum damage mechanics approach.

Figure 14 Schematic diagram

of a a single fibre is embedded
in the matrix (as a unit cell)
and b prediction the young’s
modulus using the RVE
orientation averaging
approach. Adapted with
permission from [175].
Copyright 2010, Elsevier.
18892 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Figure 16 In a 3D RVE
approach, arbitrarily
dispersion of fibres embedded
in a solid PP and b PP
containing micro-voids.
Adapted with permission from
[174]. Copyright 2016,
Elsevier.

They reported that the plastic deformation of the the application of NFRC really started to play a
composite material starts at the end of the fibre and dominant role in the automotive sector in 1998, when
around the fibre defect, which matched the experi- morassi fabricated seats made of coir fibre with latex
mental results. Kern et al. [174] simulated the tensile for trucks [181]. Today, most car manufacturers,
properties of chopped wheat/PP composites using including Mercedes, Volkswagen, Daimler-Chrysler,
3D RVE approach (shown in Fig. 16) by considering Audi Group, Ford, BMW, Nissan, Opel, Toyota, and
the effect of micro-cellular voids. They reported that Mitsubishi, use natural fibre-based composites in
the void-filled composite had shorter fracture path several applications, as presented in Table 15. In 1994,
than the void-free composite. Their predictions mat- Mercedes Benz used jute fibre-reinforced polymeric
ched the experimental results. Gopalan et al. [177] composites for the interior door panel of their E-Class
investigated the dynamic behaviour of woven Flax/ variant [182, 183]. Flax, sisal/epoxy fibre mat rein-
epoxy composite plates experimentally and numeri- forced composites were used to fabricate the door
cally. It was reported that the structural behaviour of and reported 20% weight reduction. In 1999, Mer-
the fabricated composite showed a compromising cedes Benz used 65% blend of hemp, flax, and sisal
one to some of the synthetic composite which were fibre and 35% polyurethane (PU) for the inner door
used in various dynamic load bearing structural panel of their S-Class variant [184]. In 2000, flax/
applications. Furthermore, the numerical and exper- polyester-based composites were used in the engine
imental results were found to be in good agreement. encapsulations by Mercedes in their various bus
brands; EvoBus, Trivago, Setra and Top-class and
reported 5% weight reduction in the Setra series
Potential of natural fibres for automotive engine with the use of natural fibre-reinforced poly-
meric composites [185]. In 2003, Toyota used kenaf
One of the largest consumers of natural fibre-based fibres reinforced in the PLA matrix to go green in
polymeric composite is the automotive industry their RAUM model spare tyre cover [186]. Mazda
[178]. Natural fibre-based composites have superior used kenaf/PP composites in their door trims, door
specific mechanical properties, durable, sustainable, scuff plates and other interior parts. Lexus CT200h
and environmentally friendly, which makes them models used PP/PLA composites in the door scuff
captivate to the automotive industry. Initially, NFRC plates, side trims, toolbox area, package trays, and
were used for interior components of a car due to floor finishing plates [187]. NFRC used primarily for
their low weight [179]. The comparatively low cost of interior parts such as cabin linings, door panels,
natural fibres (such as hemp, coir, sisal and jute) as dashboards, parcel shelves, backrests and seat cush-
compared to glass fibre, which makes them fascinate ions [79, 153]. Thus far, NFRC have found limited
to the automotive industry [180]. The first car was applications in exterior parts of the car due to their
made of hemp fibre-based composite by Henry Ford high hydrophilic behaviour. For instance, abaca fibre-
in 1940. Other manufacturers, Daimler-Benz (1994), reinforced composites were used underfloor pan-
Mercedes (1996), used composites in their cars, but elling by the Mercedes A-class model. Flax fibres
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18893

Table 15 Applications of NFRC by various car manufacturers [79, 153, 159]

Manufacturer Car Model Automotive components

BMW 3, 5, 7 series Headliner panel, door panels, moulded foot well linings,
seatback, boot lining
Ford Mondeo CD 162, Focus, Freestar Floor trays, door panels, boot liner and B-pillar
Mercedes- A, E, C and S classes, 2004 Trucks, Mercedes Instrument panel support, door panels, engine hood, sun visor,
Benz engine insulation,
interior insulation, trunk panel, bumper, wheel box and roof
Renault Twingo, Clio Rear parcel shelf
Lotus Eco Elise Body panels, Spoiler, seats and interior carpets
TOYOTA Harrier, Brevis, Celsior, RAUM, ES3 Seat backs, door panels, floor mats, pillar garnish and spare
tire cover
Volvo C70, V70 Natural foams, seat padding and cargo floor tray
Opel Zafira, Astra, Vectra Door panels, headliner panel, instrument panel and pillar
cover panel
Daimler/ Travego bus, A, C, E, and S-Class, Stratus, EvoBus Dashboard, door panels, instrumental panel, Pillar cover
Chrysler (exterior), Sebring convertible panel, windshield, business table
Peugeot New model 406 Seat backs and parcel shelf, door panels
Rover Rover 2000 rear storage shelf/panel and insulation
Volkswagen Golf A4, Polo, Fox, Bora Door panel, decklid finish panel, seat back and boot liner
Citroen C5 Interior door panel
Audi A4 Avant, A2, A3, A4, A6, A6 Avant, A8 Roadster, Seat backs, hat rack, spare tire lining, door panels and boot
Coupe lining
Saturn L3000 Door panels and Package trays
Fiat Brava, Marea, Alfa, Punto Door panel
Honda Pilot Cargo area

were also used in other exterior parts by Travego. fabricate door panels in their C Segment cars, and
Germany based car manufacturers like Audi, BMW, 20% weight reduction was observed by the use of
Volkswagen, Porsche and Mercedes are trying to wood fibre in various models of sedans like Mercedes
make each component of their cars either [191]. Flax, wood, hemp, kenaf, jute, coir and sisal
biodegradable or recyclable [188]. AL Rahman et al. fibres are being used nowadays as reinforcement for
[189] studied pure micro-porous materials, used coir elastomers, thermosets and thermoplastics for the
fibre and date palm fibres for sound insulation pur- fabrication of several automotive components, such
poses, and results showed good acoustics properties as pillars, door panels, instrument panels, seat panels
at a low frequency, which showed a great potential to and seat holsteries [73]. It was reported that 21% cost
replace conventional materials counterpart. In 1980, reduction and 32% weight reduction occurred by
bio-composites were used for the first time to fabri- incorporating natural fibres into various components
cate automotive door panels [180]. Daimler A class of the vehicle in the automotive industries. If the
used NFRC to fabricate boot lid, roof and bonnet of mass of the vehicle will be reduced, then it will
Bio Concept car [73]. The average usage of NFRC per consume less fuel and CO2 emission will also be
vehicle is 11–13.2 kg in the automotive industry in reduced. The European Union Commission set
Brazil. The natural fibre reinforcement is distributed ‘European Guidelines 2000/53/RG’ for the automo-
in a vehicle, such as rear door liners (0.9–1.6 kg), front tive industries to set goals for automotive recycla-
door liners (1.3–1.7 kg), boot liners (1.7–2.7 kg), sun- bility. Many countries, like Japan and the United
roof interior shields (0.6 kg), headrests (2.3 kg) and States of America, are giving more emphasis on
parcel shelves (2.1 kg) [190]. In Europe, various automotive recyclability [192]. In the automotive
automotive industries are using natural fibres to sector, NFRC are being used for dashboards and door
18894 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Figure 17 Mercedes-Benz
parts fabricated using different
natural fibres (sisal, hemp,
wool, flax, and others) of
models a A-class, b C-class,
c E-class, and d S-class.
Adapted with permission from
[193]. Copyright 2020,
Elsevier.

waste cotton fibre-based composites were mostly

used for cabins of the cars [194].

Recent advancements in textile fibre-

reinforced composites (TFRC)
Natural-synthetic fibres reinforced hybrid
composites for automotive structural
components

In hybrid composites, one type of reinforcement is

Figure 18 Percentage of wood and natural fibres used for integrated with a mixture of two different matrices
composite fabrication in the EU automotive sector in 2012 [194]. [195], or more than one reinforcing material are
Re-drawn from [194]. mixed in a single matrix phase [196], or both cases are
combined together. The mechanical properties of
hybrid composites depend on the AR (L/D) of fibres,
panels. Wood-based composites are mainly used for the properties of discrete fibre, length of the discrete
spare wheels, trims for trunks, rear shelves, and fibre, fibre-matrix interfacial bonding, the proportion
interior trims for decklid. Different parts of various of intermingling of fibres, failure strain of fibres,
models of Mercedes-Benz (shown in Fig. 17) fabri- fibres arrangement, and also on the orientation of
cated using different natural fibres (sisal, hemp, fibres [197]. In this section, application of hybrid
wool, flax, and others) [193]. In 2012, the total volume composites in automotive structural parts (i.e., bum-
of natural fibres and wood used in the fabrication of per beam, anti-roll bar and brake pads) is being dis-
composites for lorries and passenger vehicles in cussed. The bumper beam is a structural part as it
Europe was 80,000 t as shown in Fig. 18. Recycled absorbs kinetic energy during a high impact crash
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18895

and provides resistance to buckling in a low impact (SMC) to improve the desired mechanical properties.
crash. In one study, mechanical properties of glass A specimen was tested and compared with automo-
and jute fibres reinforced in polypropylene matrix tive structural car bumper beam material known as
were compared for the automotive car bumper beam glass mat thermoplastic (GMT). The result revealed
by Olorunnishola et al. [198]. Hand lay-up technique that tensile strength, Young’s modulus, flexural
was used to fabricate hybrid composites by laying the strength, and modulus were almost similar to GMT;
fibres on the bumper mould and the commercial- however, impact strength was low. The researcher
grade PP sprayed on it. The samples were cured for suggested optimization of design parameters to
20–24 h, and the surface was finished by grinding enhance the impact properties [201]. To design
wheel operation. Three types of samples were pre- automotive structural components, replacement of
pared with 40 wt.% of jute fibre, 40 wt.% of glass fibre iron and steel with natural fibre-reinforced hybrid
and 30 wt.% of jute fibre blended with 10 wt.% of composites was done because of high power con-
glass fibre to make hybrid composites [198]. To sumption in fabricating metal structural components
enhance the adhesion across the interface of fibre and that influence the environment [202]. Hence, the
matrix, a maleated polypropylene coupling agent researchers focused on natural fibre selection for
was used. The results revealed that hybrid compos- hybrid composite materials to fabricate an automo-
ites showed the superior impact and hardness prop- tive structural anti-roll bar (ARB) in order to evaluate
erties as compared to the non-hybridized composites the suitable natural fibre for hybrid composites that
and can efficiently substitute conventional materials could satisfy both environmental and the customer
used for bumper beams. In another study, thermo- requirements. This study was conducted using a
mechanical properties of glass and flax fibres rein- fusion of the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) and
forced in methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (MDI) environmental quality function deployment (EQFD).
matrix were investigated by Hasan et al. [199]. The SolidWorks sustainability tool was used for life cycle
results revealed that the incorporation of glass fibre assessment (LCA) of the developed hybrid compos-
in composites showed satisfactory mechanical per- ites to satisfy the expected environmental require-
formance (tensile strength, tensile modulus, flexural ments. The results revealed that sugar palm fibre
strength, and flexural modulus). Furthermore, the with 21.51% of the total score was the best fibre to
thermal stability of glass/flax hybrid composites was fulfil the design requirements, followed by kenaf
also improved by the addition of glass fibre. How- fibre, which obtained 20.19%. The selected sugar
ever, with the addition of glass fibre in composites, palm fibre reduced the production cost, making the
the water absorption and moisture content began to sustainable rate of selected natural fibres comparable
fall. Figure 19 shows the schematic diagram of a to the synthetic fibres used for the automotive
typical structural bumper. structural ARB as shown in Fig. 20. Furthermore, the
In another study, a kenaf/glass-based hybrid LCA was done for both the fibres and results
composite was fabricated for automotive structural revealed that sugar palm fibre exhibited 10% less
car bumper beams with sheet moulding compound effect on the environment because of its lower CO2
footprints and lower energy consumption. Hence,
sugar palm fibres were chosen as the prime material
used in the hybrid fibre-reinforced polymeric com-
posite for the automotive structural ARB [203].
Friction brake pads are safety–critical components
of disc brakes used in the automotive. It is also
known as friction linings which is used to stop or
decelerate the vehicle by transforming the kinetic
energy of the running vehicle into thermal energy
through friction. Brake pad absorbs the maximum
amount of heat; remaining heat is dissipated into the
surrounding. Figure 21 shows the schematic
Figure 19 Schematic of a bumper system. Adapted with arrangement of a typical brake pad. The friction
permission from [200]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier. material of brake pad consists of reinforcement in the
18896 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Figure 20 Automotive
structural ARB fabricated from
hybrid natural fibre-reinforced
polymeric composite. Adapted
with permission from [204].
Copyright 2006, Elsevier.

water absorption were increased. However, the

hardness of the composite decreased as the fibre
percentage increased. Furthermore, higher frictional
and brake pad performance was observed when the
banana fibre content used was less than 10 wt.%
[206]. Choosri et al. [207] investigated the compres-
sive, hardness, wear and friction properties at room
temperature and high temperature (100 "C-150"C) of
S-glass/phenolic composites containing the bagasse
ash and industrial waste fly ash as secondary abra-
sive (0–12 wt.%) for replacing primary abrasives
(alumina and silica). Composite was fabricated by a
Figure 21 Schematic of an automotive brake pad. Adapted with
compression moulding technique. The results
permission from [209]. Copyright 2000, Elsevier. revealed that composite with 4 wt.% natural abra-
sives showed an optimum performance and a great
form of fibres, friction modifier, binders, and fillers. potential to replace primary abrasives (alumina and
Asbestos fibres as a reinforcement incorporated in the silica) counterparts. Furthermore, compressive
polymeric matrix have been a supreme choice among strength of bagasse based phenolic composites was
brake pad manufacturers because of its excellent enhanced as compared to the natural fly ash based
mechanical and thermal properties. However, due to phenolic composites for a given load. In addition,
stringent environmental concerns and its carcino- lower wear resistance and higher coefficient of fric-
genic nature, the scientific community is trying to tion of phenolic based composites was observed at
find suitable alternate materials to replace asbestos. 100 "C and 150 "C. In another study, jute fibres
In one study, sisal, nettle and Grewia optiva fibres in combined with pulverized hazelnut shells as
mat form reinforced PLA matrix and their tribologi- biodegradable natural fillers used for non-asbestos
cal properties were evaluated. Hot compression organic friction brake pad composites was studied.
moulding technique was used to fabricate hybrid Two combinations of samples, jute fibres combined
composites. The results revealed that wear properties with graphite solid lubricant and jute fibres com-
were enhanced substantially because of the inclusion bined with hazelnut shells were prepared. According
of hybrid fibres [205]. Another study, the effect of to SAE J661 standard using CHASE tester, friction
banana fibres on tribological and mechanical prop- and wear properties of the prepared composites were
erties of the friction brake pad was investigated by evaluated. The results revealed that jute-graphite
Zhen-Yu et al. [206]. The results revealed that as fibre based composites exhibited fade phenomenon if the
percentage increased, wear rate, compressibility and temperature increased above 300 "C. At the same
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18897

time, jute-hazelnut shell-based composites exhibited Table 16 Nanocomposite materials from various polymer matrix
better resistance to fade phenomenon even if the with nano filler/natural fibre [216–223]
temperature exceeded 300 "C. Furthermore, for 14 Polymeric matrix Nano Filler/Natural Fibre
vol.% natural and biodegradable components, a
combination of jute fibres (5.6 vol.%) with pulverized Polyamide 11 (PA-11) Nano clay
hazelnut shells (8.4 vol.%) possessed better frictional PP Nano clays
performance, whereas for 30 vol.% natural and e-Caprolactam Organo clay
Polyurethanes (PU) Carbon nanotubes
biodegradable components, a combination of jute
Epoxy resin Coir fibre nano filler
fibres (23.6 vol.%) with pulverized hazelnut shells
PS Carbon nanotube
(6.3 vol.%) has shown allowable stability of frictional Poly (ether ether ketone) (PEEK) Organo-alkoxysilanes
coefficient [208].
are used to process nanofibres [213]. Similar to sur-
Natural filler reinforced polymer
face modification treatments of natural fibres,
nanocomposites
nanofibres are also given various modification treat-
ments, which result, improvement in mechanical
Nanocomposites are those materials in which nano-
properties, thermal properties, and physico-chemical
sized filler particles are incorporated into the matrix,
properties of nanofibres [214]. Recognizing the
resulting in an improvement in mechanical proper-
mechanical and morphological advantages of nano-
ties, electrical and thermal conductivity. Generally,
fillers, the scientific community produced nanocom-
nanocomposite materials are a multiphase solid
posite materials by using different reinforcing fibres
material in which at least one phase has a dimension
and polymeric matrix by a wide variety of clays,
lower than 100 nm [210]. Nowadays, this technology
which showed better properties. Reported work on
is growing at a rapid pace in the manufacturing of
nanocomposite materials as recited in Table 16.
various automotive components such as sensors,
Nanocomposite materials showed improvement in
windows, batteries, fuel cells, paints, nano-filters, and
electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties over
tires due to its higher AR (L/D) and larger surface
conventional composites. In addition, a notable re-
area with fascinating properties. In nanocomposites
duction in flammability of the polymer matrix was
materials, nanofillers are key components and can be
observed by using nanoparticles [52, 215].
composed of inorganic/organic, inorganic/inorganic,
or organic/organic sources. There are various types
Textile structural reinforced polymeric 3-D
of bio-based filler materials available in nature, such
composites
as ramie, kenaf, jute, coir, hemp rice husk, and
bamboo [211]. When the size of fillers is reduced from TSRPC are composites reinforced by textile structures
micrometers to nanometers, various characteristics, committed for load-bearing applications. These TSC
such as a larger surface area to volume ratio, excellent must have textile structure (act as a preform for
mechanical properties (tensile modulus and composites), matrix, ceramic, or metal component
strength), and flexibility in surface functionalities, and must have the potential to withstand primary
tend to appear as compared to any other conforma- and secondary load in automotive. The principal
tion of material [212]. A wide range of polymeric objective of TSC envisions the utilization of textile
nanocomposite materials has been developed for fibre-based structures in composite fabrication to
several applications by integrating various polymer achieve lightweight composites, load-bearing com-
matrices, nanostructured materials, and nanofabri- posites, and advanced composites. And the prime
cation techniques. To improve the performance (me- advantage of textile structural reinforced polymeric
chanical strength, optical, thermal, and electrical 3D composites is to take advantages of textile struc-
properties) of PMC, nanomaterials can be incorpo- ture (preform) inclusion to textile-based materials in
rated with both the matrix and fibre. The diameter of structural composites to achieve high strength/
cellulose nanofibre is less than 0.5 lm and has high weight ratio, structural anisotropy, high impact
stiffness and strength compared to micro-natural resistance, withstand multidirectional mechanical
fibres. Solution spinning, melt blown, electrospin- stress, thermally stable, numerous shape and
ning, melt spinning, and electrospinning techniques
18898 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Figure 22 Schematic of 2D
and 3D textile structures.
Adapted with permission from
[227]. Copyright 2020,
Elsevier.

geometry, endless textile structures like knitted, Table 17 Difference in 2D and 3D textile structures [11]
woven, braided, etc. and existing textile manufac-
2D structure 3D structure
turing technologies.
Textile reinforcement structures may be classified Low thickness High thickness
on the basis of continuity and discontinuity of fibres, Delamination occurs No delamination
reinforcement axis (uniaxial, biaxial, triaxial, and Poor resistance to impact load High resistance to impact load
multiaxial), structural integrity (integrated or lami- High crimp Zero or very low crimp
nated), dimensions (UD, 2D, or 3D), and manufactur- Low production speed High production speed
ing techniques (non-woven, woven, braided, and Single pick in a cycle Multiple pic in a cycle
knitted), etc. All the fibres are arranged in one direction
in unidirectional (UD) preforms and fibres are arran-
ged in two directions (warp and weft) in bidirectional structures, constituent yarns are arranged in such a
(2D) preform, whereas in 3D preforms all fibres are manner that both yarns in warp and weft directions
arranged in three directions [224]. Figure 22 represents make a right angle to each other in a single plane. The
2D and 3D textile structures (preforms) used for com- thickness of 2D structures is small; high thickness can
posite reinforcement. In 3D structures, constituent be attained only by sewing and laminating. 2D fabrics
yarns are arranged in such a manner that they make a are generally poor in plane resistance to shear, aniso-
right angle to each other in three mutually perpen- tropic in nature and comparably low modulus than
dicular planes, in which two yarns (i.e., warp and weft) fibre due to crimp presence. Basic difference between 2
are positioned in X and Y directions, whereas the third and 3D structures is shown in Table 17. However, the
yarn binds the weft and warp yarns in Z direction performance of composites was influenced by fibre
which provides better structural integrity, having architecture, and it can contribute up to 90% of com-
substantial thickness higher than yarn diameter, posite strength if its construction and design parame-
higher fibre volume fraction (45–50%) without any ters are selected properly. The mechanical behaviour
crimp in the yarns [11]. On the other side, in 2D of natural fibre-based 3D woven structural composites
for automotive applications was investigated. UD, 2D,
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18899

Figure 23 Various textile structure developed a UD Tows b 2D preform c 3D woven orthogonal structures.

Figure 24 Developed natural fibre-reinforced polymeric composites from various textile structures (preforms) a UD b 2D c 3D.

and 3D textile structures (shown in Fig. 23) were fab- specific stiffness, which further increased the natural
ricated using sisal yarn at a 3D customized weaving frequency of the beam.
machine. These preforms were reinforced in epoxy
resin to fabricate various composites (shown in Fig. 24) Textile fibre-reinforced aluminium metal
by VARTM technique. The results revealed that matrix composites
specific tensile strength and specific flexural strength
of sisal/epoxy composite were found lower than the TFRAMMC are composites reinforced by textile fibre
metallic counterpart, but the izod impact strength of in aluminium matrix committed for lightweight and
3D sisal/epoxy composite was found to be higher in load-bearing applications. These composites must
comparison with the metallic counterpart [Unpub- have textile fibre (acting as reinforcement) and alu-
lished]. It was concluded that the structural parame- minium matrix; they must have the potential to
ters of 3D woven solid structure could further be withstand primary and secondary load in automo-
optimized to achieve better results. In another study, tive. Aluminium-based metal matrix composites
thermomechanical properties of flax woven fabric reinforced with textile fibre in the aluminium matrix
reinforced in PLA and PP matrices were investigated have many advantages such as superior strength to
by Hasan et al. [225]. The results revealed that the weight ratio, high modulus, resistance to creep, wear
mechanical performance (tensile and flexural) and and fatigue properties. Aluminium-based composite
physical properties (thickness swelling and water materials have high potential application in the
absorbency) imparted significant results for the per- automotive sector (piston rod, valve train, piston pin,
formance of the fabricated bio-composites. Further- crankshaft, cylinder head, cylinder blocks, and
more, the thermal stability of the fabricated bio- engine blocks). Today, most car manufacturers,
composites was also improved. Krishnasamy et al. including Volkswagen, Daimler-Chrysler, Honda,
[226] investigated the vibration and wear behaviour of Toyota, Nissan, and GM, use aluminium metal
aloe vera/flax/hemp woven fabric epoxy composite matrix-based composites in various applications, as
reinforced with wire mesh and BaSO4. The results presented in Table 18. A very little effort has been put
revealed that the incorporation of wire mesh and up so far towards TFRAMMC by the scientific com-
BaSO4 reinforcement in the fabricated composite munity. Arab et al. [228] fabricated TFRAMMC using
enhanced the wear property and mechanical perfor- milled and chopped E-glass, S-glass, and carbon
mance (tensile and compressive strength by 8.68% and fibres as reinforcement, and then friction stir pro-
10.72%, respectively) compared to the other compos- cessing (FSP) was employed to disperse the textile
ites. Furthermore, the addition of filler enhanced the fibres into the aluminium matrix to improve the
18900 J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910

Table 18 Applications of
aluminium metal matrix Manufacturer Component Composite
composites by various car
Nissan Connecting rods Al/SiCw
manufacturer [236]
Toyota Piston rings Al/Al2O3
Daimler-Chrysler Connecting rods Al/Al2O3
Honda Engine blocks Al/Al2O3-Cf
Volkswagen Brake rotors Al/SiCp
GM Engine cradle, driveshaft, rear brake drum Al/SiCp

Figure 25 a Aluminium
matrix b Non-reinforced
FSPed, and reinforced with
c milled carbon fibres
d chopped carbon fibres
e milled E-glass fibres
f chopped E-glass fibres
g milled S-glass fibres
h chopped S-glass fibres.
Adapted with permission from
[228]. Copyright 2015,
Elsevier.
J Mater Sci (2021) 56:18867–18910 18901

mechanical properties. The results revealed that ten- However, their disadvantages, such as moisture
sile strength, micro-hardness, toughness, and ductil- absorption, poor interfacial bonding between the
ity were improved for all the processed samples. natural fibres and matrix, low impact strength, low
Appropriate distribution of the reinforcements in the durability, and poor fire resistance, have restricted
aluminium matrix was observed by scanning electron them from being considered as an alternative mate-
micrographs, as shown in Fig. 25. The synergetic rial for traditional composites. Water degradation is
effects by reinforcing the fibre into the aluminium the biggest challenge associated with NFCs. It is clear
matrix and severe plastic deformation (SPD) from the assessment of review articles that desired
improved mechanical properties compared to base mechanical properties needed for the automotive
aluminium. No other studies have been reported on sector cannot be obtained by natural fibre itself.
glass or carbon fibres reinforced aluminium metal Although it fulfills the condition of lightweight
matrix composites (GFRAMMC or CFRAMMC) fab- biodegradability, it delivers minimal adverse impact
ricated by FSP. These fibres are easy to use and more on the environment due to its carbon neutrality and
economical than other conventional reinforcing pha- eco-friendliness. This paper evaluates the several
ses, such as carbon nanotubes [229, 230]. Mertens chemical treatment methods which are used to lower
et al. [231] investigated the mechanical properties of the moisture absorption content of natural fibres and
FSPed Mg-Carbon fibre composites, and the results enhance their mechanical properties, which makes
revealed that the yield strength of the composite was them an alternative for obtaining lightweight and
increased by 15%-25% as compared to the as-received more environment-friendly materials for the auto-
Mg alloys. It is concluded from the above discussion motive sector. In addition, the concept of vehicle
that FSP has been proven to be a viable approach to weight reduction, recent advancements in TFRC such
homogeneously disperse the textile fibres in the metal as natural-high performance fibre-reinforced hybrid
matrix [232–235]. Therefore, more studies will still be composites, natural filler reinforced polymer
needed to explore more advanced technical concepts nanocomposites, textile structural reinforced poly-
to fabricate the glass and carbon fibres reinforced meric 3D composites, and TFRAMMC have been
aluminium metal matrix composites with better dis- explored. This paper will assist researchers to initiate
tribution of fibres and improved bonding across the further technical advancements in the field of textile
interface, which further explores to clarify the further fibre-reinforced composites for the automotive
mechanism for the enhanced properties. industry.

Declarations
Conclusion
Conflict of interest All the authors declare that they
The usage of natural fibre-based composites in have no conflict of interest.
automotive industries has gained investment and
great focus by the scientific community due to the
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