I.

Fundamentals of Normal Histology

• Normal Cell Structure

1
Basic Structure of a Cell

2
History of Cells & the
Cell Theory

Cell
Virchow Specialization
3
 First to View Cells
• In 1665, Robert
Hooke used a
microscope to
examine a thin
slice of cork
(dead plant cells)
• What he saw
looked like small
boxes
4
 First to View Cells
• Hooke is
responsible for
naming cells
• Hooke called them
“CELLS” because
they looked like
the small rooms
that monks lived in
called Cells
5
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek
• In 1673,
Leeuwenhoek (a
Dutch microscope
maker), was first to
view organism (living
things)
• Leeuwenhoek used a
simple, handheld
microscope to view
pond water &
scrapings from his
teeth 6
Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1838, a
German botanist
named Matthias
Schleiden
concluded that all
plants were made
of cells
• Schleiden is a
cofounder of the
cell theory
7
 Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1839, a
German zoologist
named Theodore
Schwann
concluded that
all animals were
made of cells
• Schwann also
cofounded the
cell theory
8
Beginning of the Cell Theory
• In 1855, a German
medical doctor named
Rudolph Virchow
observed, under the
microscope, cells
dividing
• He reasoned that all
cells come from other
pre-existing cells by
cell division
9
 CELL THEORY
• All living things are
made of cells
• Cells are the basic unit
of structure and
function in an organism
(basic unit of life)
• Cells come from the
reproduction of existing
cells (cell division)
10
 Discoveries
Since the Cell
Theory

11
Simple or Complex
Cells

12
Prokaryotes – The first Cells
• Cells that lack a nucleus or
membrane-bound organelles
• Includes bacteria
• Simplest type of cell
• Single, circular chromosome

13
 Prokaryotes
• Nucleoid region
(center) contains
the DNA
• Surrounded by cell
membrane & cell
wall (peptidoglycan)
• Contain ribosomes
(no membrane) in
their cytoplasm to
make proteins
14
 Eukaryotes
• Cells that HAVE a
nucleus and
membrane-bound
organelles
• Includes protists,
fungi, plants, and
animals
• More complex type of
cells

15
 Eukaryotic Cell
Contain 3 basic cell
structures:
• Nucleus
• Cell Membrane
• Cytoplasm with
organelles

16
 Two Main Types of
Eukaryotic Cells

Plant Cell Animal Cell

17
Organelles

18
 Organelles
• Very small (Microscopic)
• Perform various functions for a
cell
• Found in the cytoplasm
• May or may not be
membrane-bound

19
 Cell or Plasma Membrane
• Composed of double layer of phospholipids and
proteins
• Surrounds outside of ALL cells
• Controls what enters or leaves the cell
• Living layer
Outside
of cell
Carbohydrate
chains
Proteins
Cell
membrane

Inside
of cell Protein
(cytoplasm) channel Lipid bilayer 20
 Phospholipids
• Heads contain glycerol &
phosphate and are hydrophilic
(attract water)
• Tails are made of fatty acids
and are hydrophobic (repel
water)
• Make up a bilayer where tails
point inward toward each other
• Can move laterally to allow
small molecules (O2, CO2, &
H2O to enter)
21
 The Cell Membrane is Fluid

Molecules in cell membranes are constantly moving

and changing
22
 Cell Membrane Proteins

• Proteins help move large

molecules or aid in cell
recognition
• Peripheral proteins are
attached on the surface
(inner or outer)
• Integral proteins are
embedded completely
through the membrane

23
 Cell Membrane in Plants
Cell membrane
• Lies immediately
against the cell
wall in plant cells
• Pushes out
against the cell
wall to maintain
cell shape

24
 Cell Wall Cell wall

• Found outside of the cell

membrane
• Nonliving layer
• Supports and protects
cell
• Found in plants, fungi, &
bacteria

25
 Cytoplasm of a Cell
cytoplasm

• Jelly-like
substance enclosed
by cell membrane
• Provides a medium
for chemical
reactions to take
place
26
 More on Cytoplasm
cytoplasm

• Contains organelles
to carry out
specific jobs

27
The Control Organelle - Nucleus
• Controls the normal
activities of the cell
• Contains the DNA in
chromosomes
• Bounded by a
nuclear envelope
(membrane) with
pores
• Usually the largest
organelle 28
 More on the Nucleus
Nucleus

• Each cell has fixed

number of
chromosomes that
carry genes
• Genes control cell
characteristics
29
 Nuclear Envelope
• Double membrane surrounding
nucleus
• Also called nuclear membrane
• Contains nuclear pores for
materials to enter & leave
nucleus

Nuclear
pores

30
 Inside the Nucleus -
The genetic material (DNA) is found

DNA is spread out DNA is condensed &

And appears as wrapped around proteins
CHROMATIN forming
in non-dividing cells as CHROMOSOMES
in dividing cells
31
 What Does DNA do?
DNA is the hereditary
material of the cell

Genes that make up the DNA

molecule code for different
proteins

32
 Nucleolus
• Inside nucleus
• Disappears when
cell divides
• Makes ribosomes
that make
proteins

33
 Cytoskeleton
• Helps cell maintain cell
shape
• Also help move
organelles around
• Made of proteins
• Microfilaments are
threadlike & made of
ACTIN
• Microtubules are
tubelike & made of
TUBULIN
34
 Cytoskeleton

MICROTUBULES

MICROFILAMENTS

35
Centrioles
• Found only in animal
cells
• Paired structures near
nucleus
• Made of bundle of
microtubules
• Appear during cell
division forming mitotic
spindle
• Help to pull chromosome
pairs apart to opposite
ends of the cell

36
 Mitochondrion
(plural = mitochondria)
• “Powerhouse” of the cell
• Generate cellular energy
(ATP)
• More active cells like
muscle cells have MORE
mitochondria
• Both plants & animal cells
have mitochondria
• Site of CELLULAR
RESPIRATION (burning
glucose)
37
MITOCHONDRIA
Surrounded by a DOUBLE
membrane
Has its own DNA
Folded inner membrane
called CRISTAE
(increases surface area
for more chemical
Reactions)

Interior called MATRIX

38
Interesting Fact ---
• Mitochondria
Come from
cytoplasm in the
EGG cell during
fertilization
Therefore …
• You inherit your
mitochondria
from your
mother! 39
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - ER
• Network of hollow membrane tubules
• Connects to nuclear envelope & cell
membrane
• Functions in Synthesis of cell products &
Transport

Two kinds of ER ---ROUGH & SMOOTH 40

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough
ER)
• Has ribosomes
on its surface
• Makes membrane
proteins and
proteins for
export out of
cell

41
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
(Rough ER)
• Proteins are made
by ribosomes on ER
surface
• They are then
threaded into the
interior of the Rough
ER to be modified
and
transported
42
Functions of the Smooth ER

• Makes membrane
lipids (steroids)
• Regulates calcium
(muscle cells)
• Destroys toxic
substances
(Liver)

43
 Endomembrane System

Includes nuclear membrane connected to ER connected

to cell membrane (transport)
44
 Ribosomes
• Made of PROTEINS and rRNA
• “Protein factories” for cell
• Join amino acids to make proteins through
protein synthesis

45
Ribosomes
Can be attached to
Rough ER

OR

Be free
(unattached)
in the
cytoplasm
46
 Golgi Bodies
• Stacks of flattened
sacs CIS
• Have a shipping
side (cis face) & a
receiving side
(trans face)
• Receive proteins
TRANS
made by ER
• Transport vesicles
with modified Transport
proteins pinch off vesicle
the ends 47
 Golgi Bodies
Look like a stack of pancakes

Modify, sort, & package

molecules from ER
for storage OR
transport out of cell
48
 Golgi Animation

Materials are transported from Rough ER

to Golgi to the cell membrane by VESICLES 49
 Lysosomes
• Contain digestive
enzymes
• Break down food,
bacteria, and worn out
cell parts for cells
• Programmed for cell
death (APOPTOSIS)
• Lyse & release
enzymes to break down
& recycle cell parts)
50
 Lysosome Digestion

• Cells take in
food by
phagocytosis
• Lysosomes
digest the food
& get rid of
wastes

51
 Cilia & Flagella
• Function in moving
cells, in moving fluids,
or in small particles
across the cell surface

52
 Cilia & Flagella
• Cilia are
shorter and
more numerous
on cells
• Flagella are
longer and
fewer (usually
1-3) on cells

53
Cell Movement with Cilia &
Flagella

54
Cilia Moving Away Dust Particles
from the Lungs

55
 Chloroplasts
• Found only in producers
(organisms containing
chlorophyll)
• Use energy from
sunlight to make own
food (glucose)
• Energy from sun
stored in the Chemical
Bonds of Sugars

56
 Vacuoles
• Fluid filled
sacks for
storage
• Small or absent
in animal cells
• Plant cells have
a large Central
Vacuole

57
 Vacuoles

• In plants, they store

Cell Sap
• Includes storage of
sugars, proteins,
minerals, lipids,
wastes, salts, water,
and enzymes

58
 Chloroplasts
• Surrounded by DOUBLE
membrane
• Outer membrane smooth
• Inner membrane modified
into sacs called
Thylakoids
• Thylakoids in stacks
called Grana &
interconnected
• Stroma – gel like material
surrounding thylakoids

59
 Cellular Physiology:
Membrane Transport
• Membrane Transport – movement of substance
into and out of the cell
• Transport is by two basic methods
– Passive transport
• No energy is required
– Active transport
• The cell must provide metabolic energy
 Solutions and Transport
• Solution – homogeneous mixture of two or
more components
– Solvent – dissolving medium
– Solutes – components in smaller quantities within a
solution
• Intracellular fluid – nucleoplasm and cytosol
• Interstitial fluid – fluid on the exterior of the
cell
 Selective Permeability
• The plasma membrane allows some materials to
pass while excluding others
• This permeability includes movement into and
out of the cell
 Passive Transport
Processes
• Diffusion
– Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly
within a solution
– Movement is
from high
concentration
to low
concentration,
or down a
concentration
gradient

PRESS
TO PLAY DIFFUSION ANIMATION
Figure 3.9
 Passive Transport
Processes
• Types of diffusion
– Simple diffusion
• Unassisted process
• Solutes are lipid-soluble
materials or small enough to pass
through membrane pores
 Passive Transport
Processes
• Types of diffusion
– Osmosis – simple diffusion of water
• Highly polar water easily crosses
the plasma membrane
– Facilitated diffusion
• Substances require a protein
carrier for passive transport
Diffusion through the
Plasma Membrane

Figure 3.10
 Passive Transport
• Filtration
Processes
– Water and solutes are forced through a membrane
by fluid, or hydrostatic pressure
– A pressure gradient must exist
• Solute-containing fluid is pushed
from a high pressure area to a
lower pressure area
 Active Transport
Processes
• Transport substances that are unable
to pass by diffusion
– They may be too large
– They may not be able to dissolve in the fat
core of the membrane
– They may have to move against a
concentration gradient
• Two common forms of active transport
– Solute pumping – chemical exchanges
– Bulk transport - exocytosis
Active Transport Processes
-Solute pumping-

Figure 3.11
Exocytosis

Figure 3.12a
 Endocytosis
Extracellular -
engulfs
substances by
enclosing in a
membranous
vescicle

2 types
1. Phagocytosis
– cell
eating
2. Pinocytosis –
Figure 3.13a
cell drinking
 The Cell Cycle, Mitosis and Meiosis

•Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages

known collectively as the cell cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2);
an S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is
duplicated; and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the
genetic material and the cell divides.
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a
∙

certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to

division and moves into the S phase.
S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each
∙

chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.

G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic
∙

materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.

M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division
∙

(cytokinesis).

72
 Protein Synthesis
• Gene – DNA segment that carries a blueprint
for building one protein
• Proteins have many functions
– Building materials for cells
– Act as enzymes (biological catalysts)
• RNA is essential for protein synthesis
 Cell Life Cycle
• Cells have two major periods
– Interphase
• Cell grows
• Cell carries on metabolic processes
– Cell division
• Cell replicates itself
• Function is to produce more cells for growth and
repair processes
 DNA Replication
• Genetic material
duplicated and readies a
cell for division into two
cells
• Occurs toward the end of
interphase
• DNA uncoils and each side
serves
as a template

Figure 3.14
 Events of Cell Division
• Mitosis
– Division of the nucleus
– Results in the formation of two daughter
nuclei
• Cytokinesis
– Division of the cytoplasm
– Begins when mitosis is near completion
– Results in the formation of two daughter
cells
 Meiosis
• Meiosis is the form of eukaryotic cell division that
produces haploid sex cells or gametes (which
contain a single copy of each chromosome) from
diploid cells (which contain two copies of each
chromosome).
• The process takes the form of one DNA
replication followed by two successive nuclear
and cellular divisions (Meiosis I and Meiosis II).
• As in mitosis, meiosis is preceded by a process
of DNA replication that converts each
chromosome into two sister chromatids.

77
 Stages of Mitosis
• Interphase
– No cell division occurs
– The cell carries out normal metabolic activity and
growth
• Prophase
– First part of cell division
– Centromeres migrate to the poles
 Stages of Mitosis
• Metaphase
– Spindle from centromeres are attached to
chromosomes that are aligned in the center of the
cell
 Stages of Mitosis
• Anaphase
– Daughter chromosomes are pulled toward the poles
– The cell begins to elongate
• Telophase
– Daughter nuclei begin forming
– A cleavage furrow (for cell division) begins to form
Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.15
Stages of Mitosis

Figure 3.15(cont)
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