54 Fundamental Concepts

The completeness relations read


d3 x |x  x | = 1 (1.279a)

and

d3 p |p  p | = 1, (1.279b)

which can be used to expand an arbitrary state ket:


|α = d3 x |x  x |α, (1.280a)

|α = d3 p |p  p |α. (1.280b)

The expansion coefficients x |α and p |α are identified with the wave functions ψ α (x )
and φ α (p ) in position and momentum space, respectively.
The momentum operator, when taken between |β and |α, becomes

β|p|α = d3 x ψ∗β (x )(−ih̄∇ )ψ α (x ). (1.281)

The transformation function analogous to (1.264) is

    
1 ip · x
x |p  = exp , (1.282)
(2πh̄)3/2 h̄
so that
   
1 ip · x
ψ α (x ) = d3 p exp φ α (p ) (1.283a)
(2πh̄)3/2 h̄
and
   
1 −ip · x
φ α (p ) = d3 x exp ψ α (x ). (1.283b)
(2πh̄)3/2 h̄
It is interesting to check the dimension of the wave functions. In one-dimensional
problems the normalization requirement (1.190) implies that | x |α|2 has the dimension
of inverse length, so the wave function itself must have the dimension of (length)−1/2 .
In contrast, the wave function in three-dimensional problems must have the dimen-
sion of (length)−3/2 because | x |α|2 integrated over all spatial volume must be unity
(dimensionless).

Problems

1.1 A beam of silver atoms is created by heating a vapor in an oven to 1000◦ C, and
selecting atoms with a velocity close to the mean of the thermal distribution. The
beam moves through a one-meter long magnetic field with a vertical gradient 10 T/m,
and impinges a screen one meter downstream of the end of the magnet. Assuming
the silver atom has spin 12 with a magnetic moment of one Bohr magneton, find the
separation distance in millimeters of the two states on the screen.
55 Problems

1.2 Prove
[AB, CD] = −AC{D, B} + A{C, B}D − C{D, A}B + {C, A}DB.

1.3 For the spin 1

2 state |Sx ; +, evaluate both sides of the inequality (1.146), that is
   1
(ΔA)2 (ΔB)2 ≥ | [A, B]|2
4
for the operators A = Sx and B = Sy , and show that the inequality is satisfied. Repeat
for the operators A = Sz and B = Sy .
1.4 Suppose a 2 × 2 matrix X (not necessarily Hermitian, nor unitary) is written as

X = a0 + σ · a,

where the matrices σ are given in (3.50) and a0 and a1,2,3 are numbers.
a. How are a0 and ak (k = 1, 2, 3) related to tr(X ) and tr(σk X )?
b. Obtain a0 and ak in terms of the matrix elements Xij .
1.5 Show that the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix σ · a is invariant under
   
iσ · n̂φ −iσ · n̂φ
σ · a → σ · a ≡ exp σ · a exp ,
2 2
where the matrices σ are given in (3.50). Find ak in terms of ak when n̂ is in the
positive z-direction and interpret your result.
1.6 Using the rules of bra-ket algebra, prove or evaluate the following:
a. tr(XY ) = tr(YX ), where X and Y are operators;
b. (XY )† = Y † X † , where X and Y are operators;
c. exp[if (A)] =? in ket-bra form, where A is a Hermitian operator whose eigenvalues
are known;
d. ∑a ψa∗ (x )ψa (x ), where ψa (x ) = x |a .
1.7 a. Consider two kets |α and |β. Suppose a |α, a |α,. . . and a |β, a |β,. . .
are all known, where |a , |a ,. . . form a complete set of base kets. Find the matrix
representation of the operator |α β| in that basis.
b. We now consider a spin 12 system and let |α and |β be |Sz ; + and |Sx ; +,
respectively. Write down explicitly the square matrix that corresponds to |α β|
in the usual (sz diagonal) basis.
1.8 Suppose |i and | j are eigenkets of some Hermitian operator A. Under what
condition can we conclude that |i + | j is also an eigenket of A? Justify your answer.
1.9 Consider a ket space spanned by the eigenkets {|a } of a Hermitian operator A.
There is no degeneracy.
a. Prove that
∏(A − a )
a

is the null operator.

56 Fundamental Concepts

b. What is the significance of

(A − a )
∏  
?
a = a (a − a )

1
c. Illustrate (a) and (b) using A set equal to Sz of a spin 2 system.
1.10 Using the orthonormality of |+ and |−, prove
 
h̄2
[Si , Sj ] = iεijk h̄Sk , {Si , Sj } = δij ,
2
where
h̄ ih̄
Sx = (|+ −| + |− +|), Sy = (−|+ −| + |− +|),
2 2
h̄
Sz = (|+ +| − |− −|).
2
1.11 Construct |S · n̂; + such that
 
h̄
S · n̂|S · n̂; + = |S · n̂; +
2
where n̂ is characterized by the angles shown in the figure. Express your answer as a
linear combination of |+ and |−. [Note: The answer is
   
β β iα
cos |+ + sin e |−.
2 2
But do not just verify that this answer satisfies the above eigenvalue equation. Rather,
treat the problem as a straightforward eigenvalue problem. Also do not use rotation
operators, which we will introduce later in this book.]
z

n̂

y
α

1.12 The Hamiltonian operator for a two-state system is given by

H = a(|1 1| − |2 2| + |1 2| + |2 1|),
where a is a number with the dimension of energy. Find the energy eigenvalues and
the corresponding energy eigenkets (as linear combinations of |1 and |2).
57 Problems

1.13 A two-state system is characterized by the Hamiltonian

H = H11 |1 1| + H22 |2 2| + H12 [|1 2| + |2 1|]

where H11 , H22 , and H12 are real numbers with the dimension of energy, and |1
and |2 are eigenkets of some observable ( = H). Find the energy eigenkets and
corresponding energy eigenvalues. Make sure that your answer makes good sense
for H12 = 0.

1.14 A spin 12 system is known to be in an eigenstate of S · n̂ with eigenvalue h̄/2, where

n̂ is a unit vector lying in the xz-plane that makes an angle γ with the positive z-axis.
a. Suppose Sx is measured. What is the probability of getting + h̄/2?
b. Evaluate the dispersion in Sx , that is,

(Sx − Sx )2 .

(For your own peace of mind check your answers for the special cases γ = 0, π/2,
and π.)

1.15 A beam of spin 12 atoms goes through a series of Stern–Gerlach type measurements
as follows.
a. The first measurement accepts sz = h̄/2 atoms and rejects sz = −h̄/2 atoms.
b. The second measurement accepts sn = h̄/2 atoms and rejects sn = −h̄/2 atoms,
where sn is the eigenvalue of the operator S · n̂, with n̂ making an angle β in the
xz-plane with respect to the z-axis.
c. The third measurement accepts sz = −h̄/2 atoms and rejects sz = h̄/2 atoms.
What is the intensity of the final sz = −h̄/2 beam when the sz = h̄/2 beam surviving
the first measurement is normalized to unity? How must we orient the second
measuring apparatus if we are to maximize the intensity of the final sz = −h̄/2 beam?

1.16 A certain observable in quantum mechanics has a 3 × 3 matrix representation as

follows:
⎛ ⎞
0 1 0
1 ⎝
√ 1 0 1 ⎠.
2 0 1 0

a. Find the normalized eigenvectors of this observable and the corresponding

eigenvalues. Is there any degeneracy?
b. Give a physical example where all this is relevant.

1.17 Let A and B be observables. Suppose the simultaneous eigenkets of A and B {|a , b }
form a complete orthonormal set of base kets. Can we always conclude that

[A, B] = 0?

If your answer is yes, prove the assertion. If your answer is no, give a
counterexample.
58 Fundamental Concepts

1.18 Two Hermitian operators anticommute:

{A, B} = AB + BA = 0.

Is it possible to have a simultaneous (that is, common) eigenket of A and B? Prove

or illustrate your assertion.

1.19 Two observables A1 and A2 , which do not involve time explicitly, are known not to
commute,
[A1 , A2 ] = 0,

yet we also know that A1 and A2 both commute with the Hamiltonian:

[A1 , H] = 0, [A2 , H] = 0.

Prove that the energy eigenstates are, in general, degenerate. Are there exceptions?
As an example, you may think of the central-force problem H = p2 /2m + V(r), with
A1 → Lz , A2 → Lx .
1.20 a. The simplest way to derive the Schwarz inequality goes as follows. First, observe

( α| + λ∗ β|) · (|α + λ|β) ≥ 0

for any complex number λ; then choose λ in such a way that the preceding
inequality reduces to the Schwarz inequality.
b. Show that the equality sign in the generalized uncertainty relation holds if the
state in question satisfies
ΔA|α = λΔB|α

with λ purely imaginary.

c. Explicit calculations using the usual rules of wave mechanics show that the wave
function for a Gaussian wave packet given by
 
 2 −1/4 i px (x − x)2
x |α = (2πd ) exp −
h̄ 4d2
satisfies the minimum uncertainty relation
 
h̄
(Δx)2  (Δp)2  = .
2
Prove that the requirement

x |Δx|α = (imaginary number) x |Δp|α

is indeed satisfied for such a Gaussian wave packet, in agreement with (b).
1.21 a. Compute
(ΔSx )2  ≡ S2x  − Sx 2 ,
59 Problems

where the expectation value is taken for the Sz + state. Using your result, check
the generalized uncertainty relation
1
(ΔA)2  (ΔB)2  ≥ | [A, B]|2 ,
4
with A → Sx , B → Sy .
b. Check the uncertainty relation with A → Sx , B → Sy for the Sx + state.
1.22 Find the linear combination of |+ and |− kets that maximizes the uncertainty
product
(ΔSx )2  (ΔSy )2 .

Verify explicitly that for the linear combination you found, the uncertainty relation
for Sx and Sy is not violated.
1.23 Evaluate the x-p uncertainty product (Δx)2  (Δp)2  for a one-dimensional particle
confined between two rigid walls

0 for 0 < x < a,
V=
∞ otherwise.
Do this for both the ground and excited states.
1.24 Estimate the rough order of magnitude of the length of time that an ice pick can be
balanced on its point if the only limitation is that set by the Heisenberg uncertainty
principle. Assume that the point is sharp and that the point and the surface on which
it rests are hard. You may make approximations which do not alter the general order
of magnitude of the result. Assume reasonable values for the dimensions and weight
of the ice pick. Obtain an approximate numerical result and express it in seconds.
1.25 Consider a three-dimensional ket space. If a certain set of orthonormal kets, say, |1,
|2, and |3, are used as the base kets, the operators A and B are represented by
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a 0 0 b 0 0
. ⎝ .
A= 0 −a 0 ⎠ , B = ⎝ 0 0 −ib ⎠
0 0 −a 0 ib 0
with a and b both real.
a. Obviously A exhibits a degenerate spectrum. Does B also exhibit a degenerate
spectrum?
b. Show that A and B commute.
c. Find a new set of orthonormal kets which are simultaneous eigenkets of both A
and B. Specify the eigenvalues of A and B for each of the three eigenkets. Does
your specification of eigenvalues completely characterize each eigenket?
√
1.26 a. Prove that (1/ 2)(1 + iσx ), where the matrix σx is given in (3.50), acting on
a two-component spinor can be regarded as the matrix representation of the
rotation operator about the x-axis by angle −π/2. (The minus sign signifies that
the rotation is clockwise.)
60 Fundamental Concepts

b. Construct the matrix representation of Sz when the eigenkets of Sy are used as base
vectors.
1.27 Some authors define an operator to be real when every member of its matrix elements
b |A|b  is real in some representation ({|b } basis in this case). Is this concept
representation independent, that is, do the matrix elements remain real even if some
basis other than {|b } is used? Check your assertion using familiar operators such
as Sy and Sz (see Problem 1.26) or x and px .
1.28 Construct the transformation matrix that connects the Sz diagonal basis to the Sx
diagonal basis. Show that your result is consistent with the general relation
U = ∑ |b(r)  a(r) |.
r

1.29 a. Suppose that f (A) is a function of a Hermitian operator A with the property A|a  =
a |a . Evaluate b | f (A)|b  when the transformation matrix from the a basis to
the b basis is known.
b. Using the continuum analogue of the result obtained in (a), evaluate
p |F(r)|p .

Simplify your expression as far as you can. Note that r is x2 + y2 + z2 , where x,
y, and z are operators.
1.30 a. Let x and px be the coordinate and linear momentum in one dimension. Evaluate
the classical Poisson bracket
[x, F(px )]classical .
b. Let x and px be the corresponding quantum-mechanical operators this time.
Evaluate the commutator   
ipx a
x, exp .
h̄
c. Using the result obtained in (b), prove that
 
ipx a
exp |x  (x|x  = x |x )
h̄
is an eigenstate of the coordinate operator x. What is the corresponding eigen-
value?
1.31 a. On p. 247, Gottfried (1966) states that
∂G ∂F
[xi , G(p)] = ih̄ , [ pi , F(x)] = −ih̄
∂ pi ∂ xi
can be “easily derived” from the fundamental commutation relations for all
functions of F and G that can be expressed as power series in their arguments.
Verify this statement.
b. Evaluate [x2 , p2 ]. Compare your result with the classical Poisson bracket
[x2 , p2 ]classical .
61 Problems

1.32 The translation operator for a finite (spatial) displacement is given by

 
−ip · l
J (l) = exp ,
h̄
where p is the momentum operator.
a. Evaluate
[xi , J (l)].
b. Using (a) (or otherwise), demonstrate how the expectation value x changes
under translation.
1.33 In the main text we discussed the effect of J (dx ) on the position and momentum
eigenkets and on a more general state ket |α. We can also study the behavior of
expectation values x and p under infinitesimal translation. Using (1.207), (1.227),
and |α → J (dx )|α only, prove x → x + dx , p → p under infinitesimal
translation.
1.34 Starting with a momentum operator p having eigenstates |p , define an infinitesimal
boost operator B(dp ) that changes one momentum eigenstate into another, that is
B(dp )|p  = |p + dp .
Show that the form B(dp ) = 1 + iW · dp , where W is Hermitian, satisfies the
unitary, associative, and inverse properties that are appropriate for B(dp ). Use
dimensional analysis to express W in terms of the position operator x, and show
that the result satisfies the canonical commutation relations [xi , pj ] = ih̄δ ij . Derive an
expression for the matrix element p |x|α in terms of a derivative with respect to p
of p |α.
1.35 a. Verify (1.271a) and (1.271b) for the expectation value of p and p2 from the
Gaussian wave packet (1.267).
b. Evaluate the expectation value of p and p2 using the momentum-space wave
function (1.274).
1.36 a. Prove the following:
∂
(i) p |x|α = ih̄  p |α,

∂ p
∂
(ii) β|x|α = dp φ∗β (p )ih̄ φ α (p ),
∂ p
where φ α (p ) = p |α and φ β (p ) = p |β are momentum-space wave functions.
b. What is the physical significance of
 
ixΞ
exp ,
h̄
where x is the position operator and Ξ is some number with the dimension of
momentum? Justify your answer.