Diocese of Tagum

Queen of Apostles College Seminary

Seminary Drive, Magugpo West, Tagum City, Davao del Norte

“Mohism”

Presented to
Rev. Fr. Nestor M. Hinco Jr.
PHILO 141: Modern Asian Thoughts

Mahinay, Vince JR B.
Malinao, Charles M.
Painagan, Micho C.
Seismundo, Vince Carl B.
Tulang, Cesar John P.

September 2023
Introduction
I. Historical background
Mohism was an influential philosophical, social, and religious movement that flourished
in ancient China during the Warring States era (479–221 BCE). Mohism originates in the
teachings of Mo Di, or “Mozi” (“Master Mo,” fl. ca. 430 BCE), from whom it takes its name.
Mozi and his followers initiated philosophical argumentation and debate in China. They were the
first in the tradition to engage, like Socrates in ancient Greece, in an explicit, reflective search for
objective moral standards and to give step-by-step, tightly reasoned arguments for their views,
though their reasoning is sometimes simplistic or rests on doubtful assumptions.1
Mohism is primarily a utilitarian system of thought and provided one of the first
challenges to the thoughts of Confucius in ancient Chinese culture. Mozi's philosophical view
looked down on any form of waste, including that of time and materials, as any kind of
ceremony, pomp, or ornamentation was thought to distract from the pursuit and preservation of
''Zhi''. Zhi can have several meanings, but in Mohism, it is usually translated as ''good order''.
Because Mozi's outlook was highly utilitarian, Zhi generally refers to society being well-ordered
at every level, from the family to the supreme ruler, avoiding aggression and pursuing
righteousness.
Mohism started during the Warring States period of the Eastern Zhou dynasty. At this
point, China was divided into seven primary states, Chu, Hann, Qi, Qin, Wei, Yan, and Zhao,
that fought amongst themselves for dominance of the region. The extent of this violence resulted
in the development of the large-scale infantry army, composed of the peasantry, the building of
permanent defensive fortifications, and the specialized approach to conflict that is known as the
art of war.2
II. Proponent
Mo Tzu
Mo Di (Mo Ti), better known as Mozi (Mo-tzu) or “Master Mo,” was a Chinese thinker
active from the late 5th to the early 4th century B.C.E. He is best remembered for being the first
major intellectual rival to Confucius and his followers. Born a few years after Confucius’s death,
and died just before Mencius. He thus confronted the problem that faced all thinkers in 5th-
century-BCE China: how to bring political and social order out of chaos.
Again, little is known regarding his education. What can be gleaned from the Mozi
indicates that Master Mo was well versed in the available academic literature, primarily that
regarding the ancient sage kings and the works of Confucius, trained in rhetoric that he used to
meticulously argue his points, traveled the country teaching his philosophy, and served at least
one ruler in an advisory capacity, attaining a high office for a scholar.
According to tradition, Mozi was originally a follower of the teachings of Confucius,
until he became convinced that Confucianism laid too much emphasis on a burdensome code of
rituals and too little on religious teaching, at which time Mozi decided to go his own way.
Confucius, from all accounts, was aristocratic by temperament and orientation and dreamed of a
return to the calm and peaceful days of pomp and splendor at the beginning of the Zhou dynasty.
Mozi, on the other hand, was drawn to the common people and looked much farther back to a
life of primitive simplicity and straightforwardness in human relations.
Mohists
The Mohists, known for their austere way of life, advocated for the principles of
universal love and the rejection of partiality. Clad in coarse cloth and sandals, they were a
dedicated group willing to travel great distances to offer assistance to those in need. Mo Tzu, the

1
Chris Fraser, “Mohism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy),” Stanford.edu, 2015,
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/.
2
Ethan Putman, “Mohism: History, Beliefs & Doctrines,” Study.com, 2023, https://study.com/learn/lesson/mohism-
philosophy-beliefs-teachings.html.
founder of Mohism, spent many years as a roaming political philosopher, spreading his teachings
and promoting his philosophical ideals.
Central to Mo Tzu's philosophy was the belief that heaven, known as "T'ien," was a
benevolent and personal entity that bestowed universal love upon all human beings. Mo Tzu
encouraged individuals to emulate the example set by Heaven by rejecting partiality. Here, it is
important to note that Mo Tzu had a different understanding of partiality than Confucius.
According to Mo Tzu, partiality, or particularity, was synonymous with selfishness. It
entailed seeking personal gain solely for one's immediate family or state, as promoted by
Confucius. Mo Tzu believed that such partiality was detrimental to society, as it created divisions
and hindered the overall harmony and well-being of communities. He criticized the notion of
being kind or considerate only towards certain individuals while neglecting others, which he
referred to as "bracketing."
Contrary to this, Mo Tzu advocated for the practice of "universal love" and benevolence.
He believed that individuals should extend love and kindness to all without discrimination or
exclusions. This inclusive approach mirrored the way heaven showered down universal love
upon all mankind. For Mo Tzu, genuine social harmony and flourishing could only be achieved
by overcoming partiality and embracing universal love as a guiding principle.
In essence, the Mohists promoted an austere way of life and sought to embody the ideals
of universal love and the rejection of partiality. They believed that by extending benevolence and
inclusivity to all, society could thrive and individuals could experience true harmony and
fulfillment. While the popularity of Mohism declined over time, the principles espoused by Mo
Tzu and the Mohists continue to inspire discussions on ethics, morality, and the importance of
societal well-being.3
III. Doctrine
Mo Tzu’s Doctrine of Universal Love/ All-Embracing Love
All-embracing love is a central one in Mo Tzu's philosophy and represents a logical
extension of the professional ethics of the class of Hsieh from which Mo Tzu Sprang. 4 This
ethics was, namely, that within their group the Hsieh "enjoy equally and suffer equally".
Taking this group concept as a basis, Mo Tzu tried to broaden it by preaching the doctrine that
everyone in the world should love everyone else equally and without discrimination. Meaning to
say, a universal love in a non-hierarchical way.5
The human-hearted man whose task is to procure benefits for the world and eliminate its
calamities must establish all-embracing love as the standard of action for himself and all others
in the world. When everyone in the world acts according to this standard, "then attentive ears and
keen eyes will respond to serve one another, limbs will be strengthened to work for one another,
and those who know the proper principle will untiringly instruct others. Thus, the aged and
widowers will have support and nourishment with which to round out their old age, and the
young and weak and orphans will have a place of support in which to grow up. When all-
embracing love is adopted as the standard, such are the consequent benefits." This, then, is Mo
Tzu's ideal world, which can be created only through the practice of all-embracing love.6
He advocated positive measures or methods or a fundamental remedy for war and
other evils. Mo Tzu did not criticize Jen (human heartedness) and YI
(righteousness) but for him, Jen and Yi signify all-embracing love. It follows the
birth of his ethical idea of “enjoy equally and suffer equally) love everyone without
discrimination.7
3
Jim Powell, Eastern Philosophy for Beginners (Red Wheel/Weiser, 2007), p115.
4
Jingjing Qi, “Confucianist and Daoist Philosophies in Chinese Art Songs,” digital.lib.washington.edu, 2021,
https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/48302#:~:text=Confucius%20(551%20BCE.
5
Oliver Leaman, “KEY CONCEPTS in EASTERN PHILOSOPHY” (Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005), p208.
6
“Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture,” www.chinesethought.cn, accessed August 22, 2023,
https://www.chinesethought.cn/EN/detail.aspx?nid=114&pid=131&id=2336.
7
Magdalena A. Villaba, Philosophy of the East, 2nd ed. (UST Publishing House, 1996), p159.
 Mozi believed that people are naturally benevolent, and they owe a duty of love to
everyone else regardless of their rank in society. 8 And, a universal policy of benevolence
has the power to bring society together, whereas a policy of dissension and aggression has
the potential to cause its disintegration.
Why advocate AL?
All-embracing love would benefit the state and society. That’s because when love transcends
individual boundaries and extends to encompass all members of a community, remarkable
positive changes can occur.

Why aim to profit the state and society?

The benefit of the whole was the best method for obtaining the benefit of the individual. Mohists
uphold the principle of utilitarianism, which advocates for actions that bring about the greatest
happiness for the greatest number of people. By prioritizing the benefit of the whole, we
recognize the interconnectedness of individuals and communities. It encourages us to consider
the wider impact of our choices and actions, ensuring that they contribute positively to the
greater welfare of society as a whole

Gist of Mo Tzu’s Argument

The task of Jen (all virtues of human heartedness) would eliminate calamities by
extending all-embracing love. By embodying all-embracing love, individuals cultivate a deep
sense of empathy, compassion, and kindness towards others. This virtuous approach enables the
creation of harmonious relationships and a harmonious society, ultimately reducing conflicts and
preventing various forms of catastrophes. Through the practice of all-embracing love, the
transformative power of love is harnessed, paving the way for a more peaceful and prosperous
world.

Calamities/destructions
1. Small states attacked by big states
2. Strong oppresses the weak
3. Few misused by the many
4. Deception of the simple by the cunning

Discrimination and inequalities are the cause of misfortunes in the world. In contrast, all-
embracing love provides order in society.

1. Big states will regard small states as themselves

2. The strong will regard themselves as weak

How can one achieve all-embracing love?

He who loves others must also be loved by others (Golden role). The ruler must encourage
everyone to practice universal love, and people must understand its usefulness.

Mo Tzu Against Warfare

Mo Tzu and his followers were known to travel great distances to dissuade rulers from
launching invasions against defenseless states. They firmly believed in the power of dialogue and
negotiation to resolve conflicts peacefully. However, Mo Tzu and his followers acknowledged
that certain invasions couldn't be resolved through dialogue alone. In such cases, Mo Tzu wrote
about the defensive aspect of military strategy. He emphasized the importance of taking
defensive measures to protect one's state from aggression.9
The core principle of Mohism centered around the idea of benefiting all of humanity.
They believed that activities should directly contribute to providing food, shelter, and clothing

8
Oliver Leaman, “KEY CONCEPTS in EASTERN PHILOSOPHY” (Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005), p209.
9
Chris Fraser, “Mohism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy),” Stanford.edu, 2015,
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/.
for everyone. In their view, the war did not align with this principle. Instead, it brought
destruction and suffering, hindering the well-being and prosperity of society.
Due to their opposition to war and their focus on practical utilitarianism, the Mohists
often criticized many traditional Confucian values and practices. Confucianism, with its
emphasis on ritual and hierarchical relationships, was seen by the Mohists as diverting resources
and attention away from the basic needs of the population.
By attacking Confucian values and promoting a pacifistic stance, the Mohists sought to
create a society that prioritized the welfare of all individuals and embraced peaceful resolutions
to conflicts.
Mo Tzu’s critiques of Confucian beliefs
1. Listening to loud music, for instance, was an essential part of Confucian ethics.
“Confucius emphasized the educational function of music. He believed that music should
possess the moral connotation of benevolence, and the “kindness of content” is more
important than the beauty of sound.”10. However, Mo Tzu felt that one should abandon
listening to music, because it is a waste of time, and one cannot perform his duty well.
2. Confucius praised the value of rituals, especially funerals, but Mo Tzu felt that elaborate
funerals were a waste of money and time.
3. Mo Tzu also felt that Confucius was fatalistic (all are predetermined).

Confucius and Mo Tzu differed in view

Confucius (conservative) Mo Tzu (progressive)
Confucius felt a sympathetic understanding of Questioned their rationality and usefulness.
the traditional institutions, rituals, music, etc.
of the Chou Dynasty.
was a rationalizer and justifier of the ancient was a critic
civilization
Was a refined gentleman Was a militant preacher, and his preaching
aimed to oppose both traditional institutions
and practices and theories of Confucius.

Five Benefits of Practicing All-embracing Love

1. Enriching the country
2. Bringing about good order
3. Preventing aggressive war
4. Obtaining blessings from the spirits
5. Increasing population
Defense of Mencius against Mo Tzu’s Attack on Confucianism
After Mo Tzu's passing, Mohism emerged as a significant philosophical rival to
Confucianism, posing a challenge to its prevailing doctrines. In response, Mencius, a prominent
Confucian philosopher, directed his criticisms towards the Mohists' concept of universal
benevolence.
Mencius argued against the Mohist belief in universal benevolence, contending that
human kindness and compassion are inherently expressed within the context of one's specific
interests and loyalties.11 Confucius himself emphasized the importance of cultivating these
values within the family unit and then extending them to others in society. According to
Confucian teachings, values are nurtured within the intimate relationships of the family, such as

10
Jingjing Qi, “Confucianist and Daoist Philosophies in Chinese Art Songs,” digital.lib.washington.edu, 2021,
https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/48302#:~:text=Confucius%20(551%20BCE.
11
Van Norden, “Mencius (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy),” Stanford.edu, September 6, 2019,
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mencius/.
those between a ruler and subject, a father and child, or between siblings. The expression of
human kindness varies within these relationships, taking into account the specific roles and
responsibilities assigned to each individual.
Mencius further posited that if universal love were to be practiced without distinctions or
boundaries, it would lose its meaning and become vague. Confucianism, with its emphasis on the
Five Relationships (ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, elder brother and
younger brother, friend and friend), relied on the differentiation of roles and responsibilities. If
everyone were to universally love everyone without considering these distinctions, the entire
Confucian system, based on the principles of filial piety, respect, and social hierarchy, would
collapse.
Drawing a parallel between Mencius and Plato, it can be said that Mencius played a role
in popularizing the teachings of Confucius, much like how Plato's writings made Socrates more
widely known. Mencius expanded upon the ideas of Confucius, disseminating them to a broader
audience and ensuring their enduring influence.12
In summary, Mencius argued against the Mohists' concept of universal benevolence,
asserting that the expression of human kindness is contextualized within specific relationships
and roles. He contended that universal love, without distinctions, would undermine the
foundations of the Confucian system and its emphasis on familial and social harmony.
The downfall of Mohism
Mo Tzu, the founder of Mohism, experienced a significant downfall in popularity due to
various factors. His austere philosophy, constant attacks from Mencius, and the adoption of
Confucianism as the official state philosophy during the Han Dynasty all played a part in his
decline. However, Mo Tzu and Mohism found a resurgence of interest among Western scholars
and China's Communist revolutionaries in later years.
Mo Tzu's strict adherence to principles and his austere way of life proved to be too
challenging for the majority of the Chinese population. His philosophy emphasized universal
love, non-aggression, and the rejection of excessive rituals. While these ideals resonated with
some, they were seen as impractical and difficult to implement by many. As a result, Mo Tzu
failed to gain widespread support, leading to the collapse of his popularity.
Furthermore, Mo Tzu's school of thought faced relentless attacks from Mencius. Mencius
criticized and challenged the teachings of Mohism, further eroding its standing and influence. 13
With Confucianism increasingly gaining traction among the ruling powers and society at large,
Mo Tzu and Mohism faced an uphill battle to maintain their relevance.
The adoption of Confucianism as the official state philosophy during the Han Dynasty
dealt a significant blow to Mo Tzu's teachings. Confucianism, with its emphasis on moral
cultivation, filial piety, and hierarchical social structures, became the dominant philosophical
system in ancient China. As a result, Mohism was largely forgotten, relegated to the sidelines of
intellectual discourse, and overshadowed by Confucianism's widespread influence.
However, in later years, Mo Tzu and Mohism experienced a revival of interest. Western
scholars discovered similarities between Mo Tzu's teachings and those of Jesus, leading to a
reevaluation and renewed appreciation for his philosophical contributions. 14 Additionally,
China's Communist revolutionaries found resonance in Mo Tzu's ideas, which emphasized
supplying goods for the benefit of society as a whole, aligning with their Marxist-like ideologies.
In conclusion, Mo Tzu's popularity collapsed primarily due to the challenging nature of
his austere philosophy, constant attacks from Mencius, and the dominance of Confucianism as
the official state philosophy. However, Mo Tzu and Mohism found recognition and resurgence

12
Jim Powell, Eastern Philosophy for Beginners (Red Wheel/Weiser, 2007), p117.
13
“Mohism | Chinese Philosophy | Britannica,” in Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020,
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mohism.
14
“The Philosophy of Mozi, and Christ.,” The Dao Bums, July 26, 2012, https://www.thedaobums.com/topic/24358-
the-philosophy-of-mozi-and-christ/.
among Western scholars who saw parallels with Jesus' teachings and China's Communist
revolutionaries who appreciated his focus on societal benefits. While Mo Tzu may have been
largely forgotten in his time, his ideas continue to be studied and appreciated for their unique
insights into ethics, morality, and social welfare.
Bibliography
Fraser, Chris. “Mohism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” Stanford.edu, 2015.
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mohism/.

Putman, Ethan. “Mohism: History, Beliefs & Doctrines.” Study.com, 2023.

https://study.com/learn/lesson/mohism-philosophy-beliefs-teachings.html.

www.chinesethought.cn. “Key Concepts in Chinese Thought and Culture.” Accessed September

19, 2023. https://www.chinesethought.cn/EN/detail.aspx?nid=114&pid=131&id=2336.

Villaba, Magdalena A. Philosophy of the East. 2nd ed. UST Publishing House, 1996.

Qi, Jingjing. “Confucianist and Daoist Philosophies in Chinese Art Songs.”

digital.lib.washington.edu, 2021.
https://digital.lib.washington.edu/researchworks/handle/1773/48302#:~:text=Confucius
%20(551%20BCE.

Leaman, Oliver. “KEY CONCEPTS in EASTERN PHILOSOPHY.” Taylor & Francis e-Library,
2005.

Norden, Van. “Mencius (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy).” Stanford.edu, September 6,

2019. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mencius/.

“Mohism | Chinese Philosophy | Britannica.” In Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020.

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mohism.

The Dao Bums. “The Philosophy of Mozi, and Christ.,” July 26, 2012.
https://www.thedaobums.com/topic/24358-the-philosophy-of-mozi-and-christ/.