MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Section 3.3: Graph Coloring

Graph coloring is an interesting and very useful concept

of graph theory. It presents many practical applications,
theoretical challenges, and even poses as an active field
of research. Basically, proper graph coloring is the
assignment of labels (colors) to elements of a graph
(vertex or edge) such that no two adjacent
vertices/edges have the same color, hence, the terms
vertex coloring or edge coloring are used. However, the
following discussion will focus more on vertex coloring.
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Total_color
Some applications of graph coloring are ing#/media/File:Total_coloring_foster_cage.svg

scheduling/time tabling, solving puzzles like Sudoku,

register allocation in a microprocessor, frequency Coloring Planar Graphs
assignment in mobile radios, channel assignment to TV
stations, modeling traffic lights, etc. A graph is planar if it can be drawn in a
plane without edge-crossings.
Definition

Graph Coloring is an assignment of colors (or any

distinct marks) to the vertices of a graph. Strictly
speaking, a coloring is a proper coloring if no two
adjacent vertices have the same color.

Figure 3.3.2. Example of Planar Graph

Figure 3.3.1. The chromatic number of this

graph is 3

Chromatic number is the minimum number of colors

needed to color a graph so that no edge connects Figure 3.3.3. Example of Non-planar
vertices of the same color. Graph

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Application of Planar Graphs: Circuit design, since

wires cannot overlap on circuit board Example
Representation examples: K1, K2, K3, K4 are planar, Kn Show that the given graph below is planar by
for n>4 are non-planar Euler’s Theorem.

Figure 3.3.4. K4 graph

Theorem : Euler's Planar Graph Theorem Figure 3.3.6

For a connected planar graph or multigraph:

v–e+r=2 Answer
where: v – number of vertices
e – number of edges
r – number of regions

Illustration of Euler’s Theorem:

Since v = 8, e = 12, r = 6,
and 8 – 12 + 6 =2, then the graph is planar.

Figure 3.3.4. K4 graph is planar

Example of a planar graph is K4 which has 4 vertices

(v=4), 6 edges (e=6), and 4 regions (r=4). Note that a
planar graph divides the plane into several regions
(faces), one of which is the infinite region. By Euler’s
theorem, 4 – 6 + 4 = 2.
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Graph Theorems Vertex Coloring

2-Colorable Graph Theorem: A graph is 2- A vertex coloring is an assignment of labels or

colorable if and only if it has no circuits that
consist of an odd number of vertices. colors to each vertex of a graph such that no
edge connects two identically colored vertices
http://clipart-library.com/clipart/845254.htm
The Four-Color Theorem: For every planar
graph, the chromatic number is ≤ 4.

Was posed as a conjecture in the 1850’s.

Finally proved in 1976 (Appel and Haken) by
the aid of computers.

Example

1.) Graph G1: Chromatic number = 3

Edge Coloring

Edge Coloring is similar to vertex coloring,

2.) Graph G2: Chromatic number = 4 except edges are colored. Adjacent edges have
different colors.

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Application of Graph Coloring

Finally, color each country/place in the map
One of the interesting and useful applications of
according to the color of the vertex assigned to it
graph coloring is in coloring map.
and indicate the resulting chromatic number.

Example
Draw the corresponding graph and color the
countries in this map.

Solution
Assign vertices to every country/place in the map.
Connect the vertices if the corresponding
countries/places share a common border. Then
apply proper vertex coloring. Color shade does not
matter.

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Application of Graph Coloring:

a.) Construct a planar graph corresponding to
Scheduling
this problem.
Graph coloring has various applications to
b.) By graph coloring method, find the fewest
problems that involve scheduling and assignments.
number of days required to schedule all 6
Example of such applications is scheduling
committee meetings?
meetings, exams, classes, etc.
c.) What meetings should be scheduled on

Example which days so that no conflicts arise?

A student council consists of 7 students a, b, c, d, e,

Solution
f, g. Each student belongs to several of 6
committees. These committees meet weekly for an a.) First, assign a vertex to each committee:
hour at the same time (noon). All members must Executive (E), Ways/Means (W), Finance (F),

be present before business can be conducted. By-Laws (B), Social (S), and Recruiting (R).
Connect the vertices having at least one common
There are lots of meeting rooms available. Below
member (element). Arrange the vertices such
are the committees and the corresponding
that no edges intersect. Then apply proper
members:
vertex coloring, i.e., no adjacent vertices should
Executive (E) = {a, b, c}
have the same color.
Ways/Means (W) = {b, d, e}
Finance (F) = {a, b, d}
By-Laws (B) = {a, c, g}
Social (S) = {e, f}
Recruiting (R) = {c, e, f, g}

Chromatic number = 3

Source: https://webstockreview.net/startdownload.html
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 MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

b.) Since there are three different colors used in RESOURCES

the graph, the chromatic number is 3. This
means the fewest number of days required to
References:
schedule all 6 committee meetings is 3 days. Aufmann, R.N., et.al. (2018). Chapter 5 in
Mathematical Excursions. Cengage Learning.
Retrieved from https://b-
c.) Referring to the resulting graph: ok.asia/book/2172091/cb84c3
Marcus, D. A. (2011). Chapter 1 in Graph Theory.
Committees whose vertices have the same Washington, D.C. : Mathematical Association of
color can hold meetings on the same day. One America (eBook via EBSCO)
GateVidyalay. Graph Coloring and Chromatic
possible schedule is as follows:
Number. Retrieved from
Day 1: Executive & Social Com. https://www.gatevidyalay.com/graph-
coloring-chromatic-number/
Day 2: Finance & Recruiting Com.
Day 3: Ways/Means & By-Laws Com.

Video links:

Lewis, Rhyd (2015). Applications of Graph Colouring.

Retrieved from https://youtu.be/y4RAYQjKb5Y

Ms. Hearn (2017). Coloring graphs part 1: Coloring and

identifying chromatic number. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/-gOh1aG0_zQ

Ms. Hearn (2017). Coloring graphs part 2: Coloring

maps and the four color problem. Retrieved from
https://youtu.be/f1WQpqZKoYw

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