UNIT

10 Graph Theory – 2

Names of Sub-Units

Introduction to Graph Theory, Planar Graphs, Euler’s Formula, Regular and Bipartite Graph, Graph
Colouring, Covering and Chromatic Numbers, Binary Trees and Decision Trees - Lemma.

Overview

This unit begins by discussing the concept of graph theory and planar graphs. Next, the unit discusses
the Euler’s formula, regular and bipartite graph and graph colouring. Further, the unit explains the
covering and chromatic numbers. Towards the end, the unit discusses the binary trees and decision
trees.

Learning Objectives

In this unit, you will learn to:

 Discuss the concept of graph theory and planar graphs
 Explain the concept of Euler’s formula and regular and bipartite graph
 Describe the graph colouring
 Explain the significance of covering and chromatic numbers
 Discuss the importance of binary trees and decision trees
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Learning Outcomes

At the end of this unit, you would:

 Evaluate the concept of graph theory and planar graphs
 Assess the concept of Euler’s formula and regular and bipartite graph
 Evaluate the importance of graph colouring
 Determine the significance of covering and chromatic numbers
 Explore the importance of binary trees and decision trees

Pre-Unit Preparatory Material

 https://web.math.princeton.edu/math_alive/5/Notes2.pdf

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Graph theory is a branch of discrete mathematics that deals with study of graphs. Graph is a set of
vertices (also called as nodes or points) which are connected by edges. Various sub units of graph
theory like binary trees and decision tree are used in real life to solve decision problems in the field of
operational research and operational management.

10.2 PLANAR GRAPH

A Connected graph that can be drawn without intersection of any edges except at end point is called as
Planar Graph. When a graph does not look such as planar, it may be planar or may not be.
For example:

Graph 1 Graph 2

Graph 1 is a Planar Graph as we can draw it alike graph 2.

It is not possible that between two same graphs, one is planar and the other is not, i.e., if two graphs are
same and one is planar, the other one will also be planar.
Drawing a planar graph divides the plane into regions that are called as faces.

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The graph has 3 phases, as shown in Figure 1:

Figure 1: Graph has Three Phases

Redrawing a planar graph in different ways doesn’t change the number of faces i.e. the number of faces
of a planar graph is fixed.
Note: The number of faces of a graph can be counted if and only if it is in planar form.
For example:

Graph 3 Graph 4

The number of faces in graph 3 is 5 but it is not in planar form. When we draw it in a planar form, we get
graph 4 which has 4 faces. Therefore, the number of faces is 4.
A Planar graph can have more than one planar representation. For example, the complete graph K4 has
two possible planar representations as shown in Figure 2:

Figure 2: Planar Graph

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10.2.1 Connected Graph

A graph is connected if it is in one piece i.e. if there is a path between each pair of vertices and otherwise
it is a disconnected graph. Figure 3 depicts connected and disconnected graphs:

Connected Graph
Disconnected Graph

Figure 3: Connected and Disconnected Graph

An edge in a connected graph is a bridge if its removal leads to a disconnected graph.

10.2.2 Complete Graph

A Complete graph is a graph in which each vertex is connected by the other by exactly one edge. The
complete graph with n vertices is denoted by Kn as shown in Figure 4:

K2 K3 K4

K5 K6 K7

Figure 4: Complete Graph with n Vertices

10.3 EULER’S FORMULA

The relationship of a number of vertices, v; the number of edges, e; and the number of faces f is known
as Euler’s Formula.

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According to Euler’s Formula, for ant planar graph which is connected also,
v–e+f=2
Corollary 1: If G is a planar graph with v vertices, e edges, k components and f faces then v – e + f = k + 1.
Proof: Let the k components of graph g be G1, G2… Gk. As G is a planar graph each of the components is
planar.
For Gi (vi, ei), fi denotes the number of faces where i = 1, 2, 3… k.
On Summing up, we get:
k k

 fi  ei  vi  2
i1 i1

 f + (k –1) = e – v + 2k
(Since an unbounded region is counted k – 1 in the sum)
v–e+f=k+1
Corollary 2: If G be a planar graph with v vertices and e edges and every face is an k-cycle, then

k v  2
e= ,k>2
k 2
Proof: Let f be the number of faces of G. Since every face is bounded by k edges (including the unbounded
region) and each edge lies on the boundary of exactly two faces we have

2e   i  1 the number of edges in the boundary of i the region = f k

f

2e
  f  e v  2
k

 2e k(e –v  2)

 (k – 2)e  k(v  2)

k (v  2)
e 
k2

Corollary 3: If G be a simple planar graph with v vertices and e edges with f faces then e  3 f and
e  3v –6 where v  3 2

Proof: Suppose G is a Tree. Then f = 1 and e = v – 1 where v  3. Therefore e  3 r.

2
Using this inequality in Euler’s Formula, we get:
e  3v – 6
If G is not a tree then G contains cycles. Hence, every edge is on the boundary of at most two regions.
Therefore,

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2e   the number of edges in the boundary of the region

i1

 2e  3r (Since each region is bounded by at least three dges)

3
e  r
2

On substituting in Euler’s formula, we get:

e 
3
2
e  v  2
e  3v  6

Corollary 4: K5 is not Planar.

Proof: We will prove this by contradiction. Let us assume that K5 is planar. Then the graph must satisfy
Euler's formula, as K5 has 5 vertices and 10 edges, so we get:
5 − 10 + f = 2,

Which says that when the graph is drawn without any edges crossing, then we have f = 7 faces.
Now, consider how many edges surround each face. Each face must be surrounded by at least 3 edges.
Let B be the total number of boundaries around all the faces in the graph. Thus, we have that 3f ≤ B. But
also B = 2(no. of edges) since each edge is used as a boundary exactly twice. Putting this together, we get
3f ≤ 2e.
But this is impossible, since we have already determined that f = 7 and e = 10, e = 10 and 21 ≤ 20. This is a
contradiction so in fact, K5 is not planar.
Corollary 5: K3,3 is not Planar.
Proof: Again, we proceed by contradiction. Suppose K3,3were planar. Then by Euler’s formula there will
be 5 faces, since v = 6, e = 9 and 6 − 9 + f = 2.

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Let B be the number of boundaries. Since each edge is used as a boundary twice, we have B = 2e. Also,
B≥4f since each face is surrounded by 4 or more boundaries. We know this is true because K3,3 is bipartite,
so does not contain any 3-edge cycles. Thus, 4f ≤ 2e. But this would say that 20 ≤ 18, which is clearly false.
Thus K3,3 is not planar.

10.4 REGULAR AND BI-PARTITE GRAPH

If all of the vertices in a graph have same degree K, it is said to be regular or K-regular. A 2-regular
graph is one in which all of the vertices have the same degree 2.
A bipartite graph G=(V, E) has vertices V that can be partitioned into two subsets V1 and V2, with each
edge of G connecting a vertex of V1 to a vertex of V2.

10.4.1 Regular Graph

A graph is a Regular if all of its vertices have same degree. A regular graph is r – regular or regular of
degree r if the degree of each vertex is r as shown in Figure 5:

1 – regular graph 2 – regular graph 3 – regular graph

Figure 5: Regular Graph

For example: Draw an r -regular graph with 8 Vertices where r = 3, 4, 5.

3 – regular graph 4 – regular graph 5 – regular graph

8 vertices, 12 edges 8 vertices, 16 edges 8 vertices, 20 edges

Theorem 1: Let G be a r – regular graph with n vertices. Then G has nr edges.

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Proof: Let G be a graph with n vertices, each of degree t then, by the Handshaking Lemma Sum of the
degrees of all the vertices is nr, i.e.,
n

 degv   nr
i1
i

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degv   nr .
1 n
and the number of edges =
2 i1

2
i

The following points should be noted is as follows:

 The complete graph Kn is regular graph of degree n – 1 with n (n – 1)/2 edges.
 A Null graph is a graph with zero edges. Null graph with n vertices is denoted by Nn. The Null graph
Nn is a 0-regular graph.
 A cycle graph is a graph consisting of single cycle of vertices and edges. Cycle graph with n vertices
is denoted by Cn.
For n ≥ 3, Cn can be drawn in the form of Regular polygon.
Graph C n is Regular graph of degree 2 and has n edges.

C2 – Cycle graph with 3 vertices C3 – Cycle graph with 4 vertices

Example: Prove that there are no 3 – regular graphs with 9 vertices.
Solution: We will prove this by contradiction. Let us suppose that there exist a 3 – regular graph with 9
vertices.
By the above theorem, number of edges = nr  9  3  21 .
2 2 2
Which is a fractional number and a fractional number of edges is not possible. Our assumption is wrong.
Example: Prove that if n and r are both odd then there are no r – regular graphs with n – vertices.
Solution: Since n and r both are odd numbers. nr will also be odd number.
nr
By the previous theorem number of edges = will be a fractional number and fractional number of
edges are not possible in a graph. 2
Hence, if n and r both are odd there is no r -regular graphs.

10.4.2 Bipartite Graph

Bipartite graph is a graph whose set of vertices can be split in to two subsets V1 and V2 such that each
edge of graph joins a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2 as shown in Figure 6:

A B A B

D C C D

Figure 6: Bipartite Graph

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Set V1 = { A , C}
Set V2 = { B , D }

10.4.3 Closed Trails and Cycle

A closed walk in a graph is a succession of edges of the form uv, vw, wx, ……., yz, zu that starts and ends
at the same vertex. A closed walk in which all the edges are different is called as closed trail.
A closed walk in which all the edges are different and all the intermediate vertices are different is called
as cycle.

10.4.4 Complete Bipartite Graph

Complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in which each vertex in V1 is joined to each vertex in V2 by
just one edge and is denoted by Kr, s where r is number of vertices
in V1 and s is number of vertices in V2.
Note:
Kr, s is same as Ks, r
Each vertex in V1(r vertices) has degree s and each vertex in V2 ( s vertices) has degree r.
rs sr
Therefore, no. of edges =   rs.
2 2
Kr, s is a regular graph if and only if r = s

K2,3K3,3

10.5 GRAPH COLOURING

The involuntary idea behind colouring a graph is simply to colour its vertices such that no two adjacent
vertices have the same colour. What is the least number of colours required? This is basically a colouring
problem.
After the vertices have been coloured, they can be categorized into sets. For example, one set has all
the blue colours, another of red and similar to this. This is a partitioning problem. The colouring and
partitioning can either be accomplished on vertices or on edges of the graph and for planer graphs,
these can be performed in the faces. Graph colouring have several important applications such as
coding theory, partitioning of logic in digital computer, scheduling and assignments.

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Graph colouring of a simple graph is the assigning colour to each vertex of the graph so that no two
adjacent vertices have the same colour.
A graph can be coloured by assigning different colours to each of its vertices. However, number of coleus
used to colour the vertices is less than the number of vertices in a graph. A graph with colours such that
no two adjacent vertices have the same colour is called properly coloured graph as shown in Figure 7:

A Red

Green B C Blue

Red D E Green

F
Blue

Figure 7: Colouring in Graph

A graph G is said to be m-colourable if each vertex can be assigned one of m colours so that adjacent
vertices get different colours.
Here, we require the proper colouring that requires the minimum number of colours. The colouring
of a graph with minimum number of colours is generally difficult to assess, but the following theorem
provides an upper bound.
Theorem 2: A graph G with n vertices and maximum degree pis( p+1)-colourable.
Proof: We will prove the theorem by using the principle of mathematical induction on the number of
vertex n of G.
Let P(n): n-vertex graph with maximum degree p is (p+1)-colourcolourable
A graph G with 1 vertex has maximum degree0 and is1-colourable, therefore, P (1) is true.
Let us assume that P(n) is true, G be an (n+1) vertex graph with maximum degree p. Remove a vertex
v from G. The maximum degree of G-v is at most p and G-v is(p+1)-colourable by our assumption P(n).
Now, add back the vertex v to G. We can assign v a different colour from all adjacent vertices, since v has
degree at most p and p+1 colour is available. Therefore, Gis (p+1)-colourable. Hence, the theorem follows
by induction.

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10.6 COVERING AND CHROMATIC NUMBERS

The least number of colours required for proper colouring of a graph G is called as Chromatic number
of graph G. This is denoted as (G). Such a graph is known as Chromatic as shown in Figure 8:

A Red

Green B C Blue

Red D E Green

F
Blue

Figure 8: This Graph is 3 – Chromatic

While graph colouring, we consider only connected graphs only (because for disconnected graphs,
colouring of the vertices in one component does not affect the other). We do not consider self-loops
for colouring. We can replace parallel edges between two vertices by a simple edge without effecting
adjacency of vertices. Thus, for colouring problems we need to consider only simple connected graphs.
Some important characteristics of Chromatic number is as follows:
 A graph consisting of only one vertex is 1-chromatic.
 A simple graph with one or more edges is at least 2-chromatic.
  K n   n, where K n is the complete graph with n vertices.
  K m,n   2, where K m,n is the complete bi-partite graph with m, n vertices.

  Cn   2, where Cn is the cycle graph with n vertices and n is even.

  Cn   3, where Cn is the cycle graph with n vertices and n is odd.

  Wn   3, where Wn is the wheel graph with n vertices and n is even.
  Wn   4, where Wn is the wheel graph with n vertices and n is odd.
Generally, it is extremely difficult to determine the chromatic number of a graph. But for graphs with a
small number of vertices we can simply find the chromatic number.

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10.6.1 Welsh and Powell Algorithm for Graph Colouring

Let G is a simple connected graph, a Welsh and Powell algorithm considered the following steps are as
follows:
 Step 1: Arrange the vertices of G according to their degrees in decreasing order.
 Step 2: Assign the first colour C1to the first vertex and then assign C1 to each vertex that is not
adjacent to a previous vertex.
 Step 3: Repeat step-2 with a second colour C2 and sequence of non-coloured vertices.
 Step 4: Repeat step-3 with a third colour C3 and so on until all the vertices are coloured.
 Step 5: Stop

Theorem 3: A graph G is 2-chromatic if and only if it is bipartite.

Proof: Let G be a 2 chromatic graph, i.e., (G) = 2
LetV1denote the set of all vertices for which first colour is an ssigned and V2 are the set of all vertices for
which second colour is assigned.
As V1 and V2do not has any common vertex, then V = V1  V2 is a partition of V in G.
If not, at least two vertices in V1 or V2 have the same colour.
Therefore, G is bipartite.
Conversely, let us assume that G is bipartite. Let (V1 , V2) be the partition of V in G. Then, 2 colouring for
G can be given by colouring the vertices in V1 by one colour and there mining vertices in V2 by another
colour. Hence, G is 2 chromatic.
Theorem 4: For any graph G, (G)  1 + µ(G) where µ(G) is the maximum degree of a vertex in G.
Proof: Let H be the smallest subgraph of G such that  (H) = n. Then (H – v1) = n – 1
For any vertex v1  H.
It follows that µ(G) ≥ n – 1 so that n –1 ≤ µ(H) ≤ µ(G).

10.6.2 Graph Covering

A graph covering of graph G is a sub-graph of G that comprises all of the vertices or all of the edges
that correspond to another graph. A line/edge covering is a sub-graph that contains all of the vertices.
A vertex covering is a sub-graph that contains all of the edges.
Vertex Covering
A vertex covering of a graph G (V, E) is a set of vertices Q  V(G) so that every edge of G is incident to at
least one vertex in Q. We say Q covers the edges of G.
A vertex covering Q  V(G) of a graph G is said to be minimal covering if without any of the vertices its
ability to cover G will be destroyed.
A graph has many minimal coverings and of different sizes. The number of vertices in a minimal
covering of the smallest size is called vertex covering number and is denoted by v (G).
Some of the properties of vertex covering are as follows:
 For any graph G the set of its vertices is trivial vertex covering of G.

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 Minimal covering is contained in every vertex set.

 For any graph G (V, E),
 v (G)+ maximum in dependent set = number of vertices in V
 Fora complete bipartite graph Km,n has v (Km,n) = min {m, n}.
Edge Covering
An edge covering of a graph G (V, E) is a set of edges L  E (G) so that every vertex of G is adjacent to at
least one edge in L. We say L covers the vertices of G.
An edge covering L  E (G) is said to be minimal covering if no edge of L can be removed without
destroying its ability to cover the graph.
The number of edges in a minimal covering is called as Edge covering and is denoted by e (G)..
Some of the properties of edge covering are as follows:
 For any graph G these of its edges is trivially an edge covering of G.
 An edge covering exist if and only if the graph has no isolated vertex.
 Every pendant edge in a graph is included in every edge covering of the graph.
 A minimal covering is contained in very edge covering.
 A minimal covering of an n-vertex graph cannot contain more than n-1edges.
 For a complete bipartite graph Km,n has e (Km,n) = min {m, n}.
Note that, an edge covering L of a graph G is minimal if and only if L contains no path of length three
or more.

10.7 BINARY TREES AND DECISION TREES

A Tree is a connected graph with no cycles. In a tree, there is just one path between each pair of vertices.
Let if possible there exist two paths between each pair of vertices of a tree. Then these path create a cycle
including all the edges in both the path or only some of them which is contradiction to definition of tree.
Hence, there is only one path.

10.7.1 Binary Tree

Binary tree is a tree in which each vertex can have maximum 2 branches. These branches are called as
Left branch and Right branch as shown in Figure 9:

3 10

1 6 14

4 7 13

Figure 9: Binary Tree

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As per Figure 9, the following points are describe are as follows:

 3 is left branch of 8 and 10 is right branch of 8.
 The size of the binary tree is the number of vertex it has.
 The distance of a nod from root nod is known as level of root
 A branch which doesn’t have child branch is known as External nod and Which has atleast one child
branch is known as Internal nod.
 The sum of the levels of each of the internal nodes in a tree is called the internal path length of that
tree.
 The sum of the levels of each of the external nodes in a tree is called the external path length.
 The maximum level, among all of the external nodes, is called the height of the tree.

A tree in which every node has 2 branches except external nod is called a full binary tree. Full binary
trees are also called as proper or plane binary trees.
A tree in which all interior nodes have two branches and all nodes with 0 branches are at the same level
is called a perfect binary tree as shown in Figure 10:

Figure 10: A Perfect Binary Tree

10.7.2 Decision Tree

A decision tree is a tree or graph without cycle very specific that enables us to make a decision about
some kind of problems. For example, we want to choose between manufacturing item X or item Y or to
decide from choice 1, choice 2 or choice 3. It is an excellent technique to solve such kinds of complicated
problems, which is constantly included in several different factors and frequently have some uncertainty
also. It becomes very complicated because software is often used as the trees.
It is a flowchart-like structure in which each internal node (with at least one branch) represents a “test”
on an attribute (e.g. whether a coin flip comes up heads or tails), each branch represents the outcome
of the test and each leaf node represents a class label (decision taken after computing all attributes).
A decision tree has three components are as follows:
 Root node
 Leaf node
 Branch

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Decision trees are commonly used in field of operations research and operations management.
It can be paralleled by probability model to take decisions for which we have incomplete knowledge.
Decision tree are also used to calculate Conditional probability.
Decision utility tools such as decision trees are taught in schools of business, health economics and
public health. The components of a decision tree are shown in Figure 11:

Decision Node Root Node

Sub-Tree Decision Node Decision Node

Leaf Node Leaf Node Leaf Node Decision Node

Leaf Node Leaf Node

Figure 11: Components of Decision Tree

Some of the advantages of decision tree are as follows:
 A decision tree is easy applying and interprets
 Expert opinion and preferences can be included in decision tree
 Can be used for many decision techniques
 New tests can be added
 Some of the disadvantages of decision tree are as follows: If a decision tree is used for variables with
multiple levels, those variables with more levels will have more information gain
 A decision tree’s calculations can quickly grow exceedingly complex, though this is normally only a
concern if the tree is built by hand

For example, Weather information of 10 days is given. Using decision tree we have to decide whether we
can play badminton or not? Figure 12 depicts weather information of 10 days:

Day Weather Temperature Humidity Wind Play?

1 Sunny Hot High Weak No

2 Cloudy Hot High Weak Yes

3 Sunny Mild Normal Strong Yes

4 Cloudy Mild High Strong Yes

5 Rainy Mild High Strong No

6 Rainy Cool Normal Strong No

7 Rainy Mild High Weak Yes

8 Sunny Hot High Strong No

9 Cloudy Hot Normal Weak Yes

10 Rainy Mild High Strong No

Figure 12: Weather Information of Ten Days

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In the below diagram the tree will first ask what is the weather? Is it sunny, cloudy or rainy? If yes then
it will go to the next feature which is humidity and wind. It will again check if there is a strong wind or
weak, if it’s a weak wind and its rainy then the person may go and play as shown in Figure 13:

Weather

Sunny Cloudy Rainy

Humidity Yes Wind

High Normal Strong Weak

No Yes No Yes

Figure 13: Decision Tree for Weather Information

Conclusion 10.8 CONCLUSION

 Graph theory is a branch of discrete mathematics that deals with study of graphs.
 A connected graph that can be drawn without intersection of any edges except at end point is called
as planar graph.
 A graph is connected if it is in one piece, i.e., if there is a path between each pair of vertices and
otherwise it is a disconnected graph.
 A complete graph is a graph in which each vertex is connected by the other by exactly one edge.
 The relationship of a number of vertices, v, the number of edges, e and the number of faces f is
known as Euler’s Formula.
 A graph is a regular if all of its vertices have same degree.
 Bipartite graph is a graph whose set of vertices can be split in to two subsets.
 A closed walk in which all the edges are different is called as closed trail.
 A closed walk in which all the edges are different and all the intermediate vertices are different is
called as cycle.
 Graph colouring of a simple graph is the assigning colour to each vertex of the graph so that no two
adjacent vertices have the same colour.
 The least number of colours required for proper colouring of a graph G is called as chromatic
number of graph G.
 A graph covering of graph G is a sub-graph of G that comprises all of the vertices or all of the edges
that correspond to another graph.
 Binary tree is a tree in which each vertex can have maximum two branches.
 A decision tree is a tree or graph without cycle very specific that enables us to make a decision about
some kind of problems.

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10.9 GLOSSARY

 Graph theory: It is a branch of discrete mathematics that deals with study of graphs
 Connected graph: It can be drawn without intersection of any edges except at end point is called as
planar graph
 Connected graph: It is graph connected if it is in one piece, i.e., if there is a path between each pair
of vertices
 Complete graph: It is a graph in which each vertex is connected by the other by exactly one edge
 Euler’s formula: It is the relationship of a number of vertices, v, the number of edges, e and the
number of faces f
 Regular graph: It is a graph of all of its vertices has same degree
 Bi-partite graph: It is a graph whose set of vertices can be split in to two subsets
 Closed trail: It is a close walk in which all the edges are different is called as closed trail
 Cycle: It is a closed walk in which all the edges are different and all the intermediate vertices are
different is called as cycle
 Graph colouring: It is used to assigning colour to each vertex of the graph so that no two adjacent
vertices have the same colour
 Chromatic number: It is the least number of colours required for proper colouring of a graph G is
called as Chromatic number of graph G
 Graph covering: A graph of G is a sub-graph of G that comprises all of the vertices or all of the edges
that correspond to another graph
 Binary tree: It is a tree in which each vertex can have maximum 2 branches
 Decision tree: It is a tree or graph without cycle very specific that enables us to make a decision
about some kind of problems

10.10 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Essay Type Questions

1. What do you understand by the term graph theory?
2. Explain the concept of planar graph.
3. What is a regular and bi-partite graph?
4. Describe the significance of graph colouring.
5. Explain the importance of decision tree.

10.11 ANSWERS AND HINTS FOR SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

A. Hints for Essay Type Questions

1. Graph Theory is a branch of discrete mathematics that deals with study of graphs. Graph is a set of
vertices (also called as nodes or points) which are connected by edges. Refer to Section Introduction

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 JGI JAINDEEMED-TO-BE UNI VE RSI TY
Mathematical Foundation for Computer Application
2. A Connected graph that can be drawn without intersection of any edges except at end point is called
as Planar Graph. Refer to Section Planare Graph
3. A graph is a regular if all of its vertices have same degree.
Bipartite graph is a graph whose set of vertices can be split in to two subsets. Refer to Section Regular
and Bipartite Graph
4. Graph colouring of a simple graph is the assigning colour to each vertex of the graph so that no two
adjacent vertices have the same colour. Refer to Section Graph Colouring
5. A decision tree is a tree or graph without cycle very specific that enables us to make a decision about
some kind of problems. Refer to Section Binary Tree and Decision Tree

@ 10.12 POST-UNIT READING MATERIAL

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planar_graph#:~:text = In%20graph%20theory%2C%20a%20
planar%20graph%20is%20a,plane%20graph%20or%20planar%20embedding%20of%20the%20
graph.
 https://mathworld.wolfram.com/ChromaticNumber.html

10.13 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION FORUMS

 Discuss with your friends and classmates the concept of graph theory, planar graph and graph
colouring. Also, discuss the binary and decision tree.

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