Aircraft Performance

Lecture 3: Forces and Moments Acting on an

Aircraft

2023
Aerodynamic Forces
and Moments
 Aerodynamics Forces and Moments
• Forces: Lift, Drag, Thrust, Weight
• Moments: Pitch, Roll, Yaw
• A ected factors: pressure, temperature, viscosity, Mach number, atmosphere,
etc.

• Understanding how these forces work and knowing how to control them with
the use of power and ight controls are essential to ight
ff
fl
fl
The Source of Aerodynamics Forces
• The aerodynamic force exerted
by the air ow on the surface of
an airplane, missile, or the like
stems from only two simple
natural sources:

1. Pressure distribution on the

surface

2. Shear stress (friction) on the

surface

• The net unbalance of the varying

pressure and shear stress
distribution over the surface
creates the resultant
aerodynamic force
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Understanding Resultant Forces and
Moments

F1: resultant force of the pressure distribution

on the top surface
F2: resultant force of the pressure distribution
on the bottom surface

Aerodynamic center:
M is independent of , Mac = const
𝛼
Lift, Drag and Moment

• The resultant aerodynamic force R can

be resolved into components:

Lift L: perpendicular to the relative

wind

Drag D: parallel to the the relative

wind

• The pressure and shear stress

distribution also create a moment M

• Aerodynamic center: M is independent

of α, Mac = const
Airfoil Nomenclature

The camber, the shape of

the mean camber line, and
to a lesser extent the
thickness distribution of the
airfoil essentially control the
lift and moment
characteristics of the airfoil.

Airfoil nomenclature. The shape shown here is a NACA 4415 airfoil

Lift, Drag and Moment
For an airplane in ight, the actual magnitudes of L, D, and M
depend not only on α, but also on velocity and altitude:

1. Free-stream velocity V∞

2. Free-stream density ρ∞ (or altitude)

3. Size of the aerodynamic surface, e.g. <latexit sha1_base64="Qs/BxjtK4O5b/bRl8aZFGLR4AtE=">AAACH3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3g0WoICWRUt0oBTcuXFS0D2hCmEwn7dDJJMxMhBD6J278FTcuFBF3/RunD4q2Xhg4j3u5c48fMyqVZY2M3Mrq2vpGfrOwtb2zu2fuHzRllAhMGjhikWj7SBJGOWkoqhhpx4Kg0Gek5Q9uxn7riQhJI/6o0pi4IepxGlCMlJY8s3oHr2BQanoO5YFKz6Aj+tGcPGgeJnOKvMIUnnpm0Spbk4LLwJ6BIphV3TO/nW6Ek5BwhRmSsmNbsXIzJBTFjAwLTiJJjPAA9UhHQ45CIt1sct8QnmilC4NI6McVnKi/JzIUSpmGvu4MkerLRW8s/ud1EhVcuhnlcaIIx9NFQcKgiuA4LNilgmDFUg0QFlT/FeI+EggrHWlBh2AvnrwMmudlu1qu3FeKtetZHHlwBI5BCdjgAtTALaiDBsDgGbyCd/BhvBhvxqfxNW3NGbOZQ/CnjNEP16ahBw==</latexit>

L = f (V1 , ⇢1 , S, µ1 , a1 )
wing area S

4. Angle of attack α
<latexit sha1_base64="UM/EAwOAY508XkqwCNVuMtS06/M=">AAACH3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3g0WoICWRUt0oBV24rGgf0IQwmU7aoZNJmJkIIfRP3PgrblwoIu76N04fFG29MHAe93LnHj9mVCrLGhm5ldW19Y38ZmFre2d3z9w/aMooEZg0cMQi0faRJIxy0lBUMdKOBUGhz0jLH9yM/dYTEZJG/FGlMXFD1OM0oBgpLXlm9RZewaDU9BzKA5WeQUf0ozl50DxM5hR5hSk89cyiVbYmBZeBPQNFMKu6Z3473QgnIeEKMyRlx7Zi5WZIKIoZGRacRJIY4QHqkY6GHIVEutnkviE80UoXBpHQjys4UX9PZCiUMg193Rki1ZeL3lj8z+skKrh0M8rjRBGOp4uChEEVwXFYsEsFwYqlGiAsqP4rxH0kEFY60oIOwV48eRk0z8t2tVy5rxRr17M48uAIHIMSsMEFqIE7UAcNgMEzeAXv4MN4Md6MT+Nr2pozZjOH4E8Zox/J3qD/</latexit>

D = f (V1 , ⇢1 , S, µ1 , a1 )
5. Shape of the airfoil
<latexit sha1_base64="RkTMO+jdPHB9INKCcitM22lmUFU=">AAACH3icbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqEs3g0WoICWRUt0oBTduhIr2AU0Ik+mkHTqZhJmJEEL/xI2/4saFIuKuf+P0QdHWCwPncS937vFjRqWyrJGRW1ldW9/Ibxa2tnd298z9g6aMEoFJA0csEm0fScIoJw1FFSPtWBAU+oy0/MHN2G89ESFpxB9VGhM3RD1OA4qR0pJnVu/gFQxKTc+hPFDpGXREP5qTB83DZE6RV5jCU88sWmVrUnAZ2DNQBLOqe+a3041wEhKuMENSdmwrVm6GhKKYkWHBSSSJER6gHuloyFFIpJtN7hvCE610YRAJ/biCE/X3RIZCKdPQ150hUn256I3F/7xOooJLN6M8ThTheLooSBhUERyHBbtUEKxYqgHCguq/QtxHAmGlIy3oEOzFk5dB87xsV8uV+0qxdj2LIw+OwDEoARtcgBq4BXXQABg8g1fwDj6MF+PN+DS+pq05YzZzCP6UMfoB2V+hCA==</latexit>

M = f (V1 , ⇢1 , S, µ1 , a1 )
6. Viscosity coe cient μ∞

7. Compressibility of the air ow

ffi
fl
fl
 Coefficients of Lift, Drag, and Moment
• In aerodynamics we often work with non-
dimensional quantities. Why?

• Coe cients of Lift, Drag and Moment are

normalized on air density ⇢, velocity V, wing
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planform area S and, where necessary, wing

mean chord c̄ , or root chord co for tailless
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aircraft.
L D M
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CL = 1 2 , CD = , CM =
• 2 ⇢V S
1 2
2 ⇢V S
1
2 ⇢V 2 Sc̄

• The ‘mean chord’ is usually the ‘mean

aerodynamic chord’. This is a way of
representing the wing which gives the same
force and moment on the aircraft as the real Wing planforms with their mean
wing aerodynamic chords and neutral points
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Infinite Wing (2D)
• Airfoil data were measured in low-speed sub-sonic wind tunnels
where the model wing spanned the test section from one side-
wall to the other.
 Airfoil Data
• A large bulk of experimental airfoil data was compiled over the
years by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
(NACA)

• Some results of these airfoil measurements are given in App. D.

• The rst page of App. D gives data for cl and cm,c/4 versus angle
of attack for the NACA 1408 airfoil.

• The second page gives cd and cm,ac versus cl for the same airfoil.

Smoked ow over airfoil in a wind tunnel: https://youtu.be/6UlsArvbTeo

Wind tunnel setup: https://youtu.be/KvMTQdb3yKg
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 Lift Curve
In nite wing (2D)

• cl is the lift coe cient of an

<latexit sha1_base64="GJ9r0nlVtL9BxwJhTJ7yY2tvyUM=">AAAB6nicbVDLSgNBEOyNr5j4iPHoZTAKOYVdEfUkAS8eI5oHJEuYncwmQ2ZnlplZISzxC/TiQQle/SJv/o2Tx0ETCxqKqm66u4KYM21c99vJrK1vbG5lt3P5nd29/cJBsaFlogitE8mlagVYU84ErRtmOG3FiuIo4LQZDG+mfvORKs2keDCjmPoR7gsWMoKNle5Jl3cLJbfizoBWibcgpWpx8vxUPsnXuoWvTk+SJKLCEI61bntubPwUK8MIp+NcJ9E0xmSI+7RtqcAR1X46O3WMTq3SQ6FUtoRBM/X3RIojrUdRYDsjbAZ62ZuK/3ntxIRXfspEnBgqyHxRmHBkJJr+jXpMUWL4yBJMFLO3IjLAChNj08nZELzll1dJ46ziXVTO72wa1zBHFo7gGMrgwSVU4RZqUAcCfXiBN3h3uPPqTJyPeWvGWcwcwh84nz9eSJAT</latexit>

airfoil or in nite wing

• cl can be obtained from

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experiments

• cl varies linearly with the angle

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of attack

• Important parameters: lift slope,

stalling point, ↵L=0
<latexit sha1_base64="hVJe2ZeOY+q+/79W/HTmda47z1g=">AAAB9XicbVDJSgNBEK1xjYlLjEcvjVHIKcyIqBcl4MWDhwhmgWQMNZ1O0qRnobtHCUP8Aj9ADx4U8eq/ePNv7CwHTXxQ8Hiviqp6XiS40rb9bS0sLi2vrKbW0pn1jc2t7HauqsJYUlahoQhl3UPFBA9YRXMtWD2SDH1PsJrXvxj5tTsmFQ+DGz2ImOtjN+AdTlEb6baJIuphK7kiZ8QetrJ5u2iPQeaJMyX5Uu758aGwnym3sl/NdkhjnwWaClSq4diRdhOUmlPBhulmrFiEtI9d1jA0QJ8pNxlfPSQHRmmTTihNBZqM1d8TCfpKDXzPdPqoe2rWG4n/eY1Yd07dhAdRrFlAJ4s6sSA6JKMISJtLRrUYGIJUcnMroT2USLUJKm1CcGZfnifVw6JzXDy6NmmcwwQp2IU9KIADJ1CCSyhDBShIeIJXeLPurRfr3fqYtC5Y05kd+APr8wdpjJQF</latexit>

• Question: how is the lift curve of

a symmetric airfoil?
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fi
ffi
 Drag
In nite wing (2D/airfoil)
• Total drag of an airfoil:
D = Df + Dp + Dw
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where

D = total drag
Df = skin friction drag
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Dp= pressure drag (also called form drag)

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Dw= wave drag (zero for subsonic speed)

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• Drag coe cient:

• cd = cd,f + cd,p + cd,w
<latexit sha1_base64="L8crYXRfvUDRkT683ZHcNvvbRXs=">AAACCnicbZDLSsNAFIYn9VbrLerSzdQiCEpJRNSNUujGZQV7gTaEyWTSDp1cmJlYSsjClQvd+hhuXCji1idw59s4bYpo6w8DH/85hzPndyJGhTSMLy03N7+wuJRfLqysrq1v6JtbDRHGHJM6DlnIWw4ShNGA1CWVjLQiTpDvMNJ0+tVRvXlDuKBhcC2HEbF81A2oRzGSyrL1IrZdeA6xnbiHXgoPMop+aJDaeskoG2PBWTAnUKoUB+y++nhbs/XPjhvi2CeBxAwJ0TaNSFoJ4pJiRtJCJxYkQriPuqStMEA+EVYyPiWFe8pxoRdy9QIJx+7viQT5Qgx9R3X6SPbEdG1k/ldrx9I7sxIaRLEkAc4WeTGDMoSjXKBLOcGSDRUgzKn6K8Q9xBGWKr2CCsGcPnkWGkdl86R8fKXSuACZ8mAH7IJ9YIJTUAGXoAbqAIM78ARewKv2oD1rb9p71prTJjPb4I+0j29QBJvC</latexit>

pro le drag coe cient

fi
fi
ffi
ffi
Drag
Variation with Mach number
 Wave Drag
As the air ows along the wing,
it sends out pressure waves -
which move at the speed of
sound. That means that the
pressure waves can't move
forward through the supersonic
air ow. Instead, they build up
into a massive pressure, or
shock wave.

The air owing over the wing

crosses a massive pressure
boundary, which sucks energy
out of the air ow - causing drag.
Plus, the air can lose so much
energy that it separates from the
wing, causing more drag. This
drag is called wave drag.
fl
fl
fl
fl
Reducing Wave Drag
• Good design of supersonic airplanes concentrates on minimizing
wave drag: reduce the strength of the shock waves that occur at the
nose, along the leading edges of the wing and tail, and at any other
part of the aircraft that protrudes into the locally supersonic ow

• The shock wave strength is reduced by having a sharp nose, slender

(almost needlelike) fuselage, and very sharp wing and tail leading
edges.

fl
Example Problem
Example 5.1, p. 307, Anderson’s
Problem:

A model wing of constant chord length is placed in a low-speed subsonic wind

tunnel, spanning the test section. The wing has an NACA 2412 airfoil and a chord
length of 1.3 m. The ow in the test section is at a velocity of 50 m/s at a standard
sea-level conditions. If the wing is at a 4o angle of attack, calculate (a) cl, cd, cm,c/4
and (b) the lift, drag, and moments about the quarter chord, per unit span.

Solution:

• What data are given?

• What can be look up from the charts?
• What need to be calculated?
• What is the ratio of lift to drag?
fl
Example Problem
Example 5.2, p. 308, Anderson’s
Problem:

The same wing in the same ow as in Example 5.1 is pitched to an angle of

attack such that the lift per unit span is 700 N (157 lb).

a. What is the angle of attack?

b. To what angle of attack must the wing be pitch to obtain zero lift?

Solution:

Angle of attack

• What can be look up from the charts?

• What need to be calculated?
Zero-lift angle of attack

• What can be look up from the charts?

fl
Example Problem
Example 5.10, p. 314, Anderson’s
Problem:

Can an airfoil produce lift when it is ying upside-down?

a. Consider, for example, an NACA 2415 airfoil ying right side up at an angle of attack
of 6o, as shown in Fig. 5.12a. The airfoil has a chord length of 1.5 m and is ying at a
standard altitude of 2 km at a velocity of 150 m/s. Calculate the lift per unit span.

b. Now, turn this airfoil upside-down, at the same ight conditions at an angle of attack
of 6o. Calculate the lift per unit span.

c. Compare and discuss the results.

fl
fl
fl
fl
 Finite Wing (3D)
• There are vortices at the wing
tips, creating downwash w

• The angle of attack of the

airfoil sections of the wing is
e ectively reduced in
comparison to the angle of
attack of the wing referenced
to V1
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• E ective angle of attack: ↵e↵

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• Induced angle of attack: ↵i

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↵i = ↵
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↵e↵

• ↵i varies with aspect ratio AR

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ff
ff
Lift Curve
Finite Wing (3D)

• Lift coe cient of a nite wing: CL

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• CL still varies linearly with the angle

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of attack

• Lift slope:
dCL
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a=
d↵

• ao: lift slope for an in nite wing/

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airfoil

a0
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a=
1 + a0 /(⇡e1 AR)
ffi
fi
fi
Lift Slope of an Infinite Wing

• Angle of attack in radian:

a0
a= (rad-1)
1 + a0 /(πe1AR)
• Angle of attack in degree:
a0
a= (deg-1)
1 + 57.3a0 /(πe1AR)
Aspect Ratio (AR)
Drag
Finite Wing (3D)

• Induced drag: drag due to lift

• e is the span e ciency factor
• For elliptical planforms, e = 1; for all other planforms, e < 1.
• Thus, CD,i and hence induced drag are a minimum for an elliptical planform
<latexit sha1_base64="yxOviyW3E9uOuMKGinnv2F9ykkI=">AAAB7nicbVA9SwNBEJ2LXzF+RS1tVoNgIeFORK0kEAvLCOYDkiPsbfaSJbt7x+6eEo4U1lYWWihi6++x89+4+Sg08cHA470ZZuYFMWfauO63k1lYXFpeya7m1tY3Nrfy2zs1HSWK0CqJeKQaAdaUM0mrhhlOG7GiWASc1oN+eeTX76jSLJK3ZhBTX+CuZCEj2FipXm6nV8ds2M4X3KI7Bpon3pQUSvv3/LH8/FBp579anYgkgkpDONa66bmx8VOsDCOcDnOtRNMYkz7u0qalEguq/XR87hAdWqWDwkjZkgaN1d8TKRZaD0RgOwU2PT3rjcT/vGZiwgs/ZTJODJVksihMODIRGv2OOkxRYvjAEkwUs7ci0sMKE2MTytkQvNmX50ntpOidFU9vbBqXMEEW9uAAjsCDcyjBNVSgCgT68ASv8ObEzovz7nxMWjPOdGYX/sD5/AEJj5Jc</latexit>

• For typical subsonic aircraft, e ranges from 0.85 to 0.95

• A plot of CD versus CL is called a drag polar
ffi
Example Problem
Example 5.30, p. 375, Anderson’s
Problem:

Consider a wing with an aspect ratio of 10 and an NACA 23012 airfoil section.
Assume that Re ≈ 5 × 106. The span e ciency factor is e = e1 = 0.95. If the wing
is at a 4° angle of attack, calculate CL and CD.

Solution:

Airfoil data: in nite wing (2D)

• Lift slope ao; Zero-lift angle of attack αL=0

• Drag coe cient
Finite wing (3D):

• Lift slope
• Lift and Drag coe cient
ffi
fi
ffi
ffi
Example Problem
Example 5.32, p. 379, Anderson’s
Problem:
Consider two wings with an NACA 23012 airfoil section, (a) one with an aspect ratio of
4 and (b) the other with an aspect ratio of 10. The span e ciency factor for both wings
is e = e1 = 0.95. Both wings are ying at an angle of attack of 2°. Calculate and
compare the change in lift coe cient for both wings if the angle of attack is perturbed
by an amount Δα = 0.5° that is, referring to Fig. 5.53, calculate (ΔCL)2 and (ΔCL)1
for Δα = 0.5°.

Solution:

Airfoil data: in nite wing (2D)

Finite wing (3D):

• Lift slope
• Lift coe cients when Δα
• Comparing results at di erent AR
ffi
fi
ff
ffi
fl
ffi
Aerodynamic Center
• Beside L and D, the pressure and shear
stress distribution also create a moment M:
varying with ↵
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• The value of M is dependent on where the

moment is taken, MLE 6= Mc/4
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• There’s a point on chord line called

aerodynamic center: M is independent of ↵,
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Mac = const

• The location of the aerodynamic center for

real aerodynamic shapes can be found from
experiment.

• For low-speed subsonic airfoils, the

aerodynamic center is generally very close to
the quarter-chord point.
High Lift Device: Flap
• Lowest ight velocities of an airplane are at takeo or landing:
the most critical periods for aircraft safety

• The slowest speed at which an airplane can y in straight and

level ight is de ned as the stalling speed Vstall
<latexit sha1_base64="AOWA89dQW/dwL5KXYY1zm6criWY=">AAAB9XicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKexKUE8S8OIxgnlAsobZySQZMju7zPSqYcl/ePGgiFf/xZt/4yTZgyYWNBRV3XR3BbEUBl3328mtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DhokSzXidRTLSrYAaLoXidRQoeSvWnIaB5M1gdD31mw9cGxGpOxzH3A/pQIm+YBStdN/odpA/YWqQSjnpFktu2Z2BLBMvIyXIUOsWvzq9iCUhV8gkNabtuTH6KdUomOSTQicxPKZsRAe8bamiITd+Ort6Qk6s0iP9SNtSSGbq74mUhsaMw8B2hhSHZtGbiv957QT7l34qVJwgV2y+qJ9IghGZRkB6QnOGcmwJZVrYWwkbUk0Z2qAKNgRv8eVl0jgre+flym2lVL3K4sjDERzDKXhwAVW4gRrUgYGGZ3iFN+fReXHenY95a87JZg7hD5zPHzS/kvk=</latexit>

• Vstall is obtained by considering the maximum lift coe cient

<latexit sha1_base64="AOWA89dQW/dwL5KXYY1zm6criWY=">AAAB9XicbVDLSgNBEOyNrxhfUY9eBoPgKexKUE8S8OIxgnlAsobZySQZMju7zPSqYcl/ePGgiFf/xZt/4yTZgyYWNBRV3XR3BbEUBl3328mtrK6tb+Q3C1vbO7t7xf2DhokSzXidRTLSrYAaLoXidRQoeSvWnIaB5M1gdD31mw9cGxGpOxzH3A/pQIm+YBStdN/odpA/YWqQSjnpFktu2Z2BLBMvIyXIUOsWvzq9iCUhV8gkNabtuTH6KdUomOSTQicxPKZsRAe8bamiITd+Ort6Qk6s0iP9SNtSSGbq74mUhsaMw8B2hhSHZtGbiv957QT7l34qVJwgV2y+qJ9IghGZRkB6QnOGcmwJZVrYWwkbUk0Z2qAKNgRv8eVl0jgre+flym2lVL3K4sjDERzDKXhwAVW4gRrUgYGGZ3iFN+fReXHenY95a87JZg7hD5zPHzS/kvk=</latexit>

• In steady, level ight, the lift is just su cient to support the

weight W of the aircraft: L = W

• Thus the ight velocity is:

<latexit sha1_base64="cYUcMXFKItgRxAg6MIc4enLRDe0=">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</latexit>

s s
2L 2W
V1 = =
⇢1 SCL ⇢1 SCL
min, stall
max
fl
fl
fi
fl
f
High Lift Device: Flap
• Stalling speed corresponds to
the angle of attack that
produces CL,max:
<latexit sha1_base64="Ea/ICRAVO4yfrxCyNrceaDDVWY4=">AAAB+XicbVA9SwNBEN3zM8avU0ub0yBYSLgTUSsJpLGwiGA+IDmOvc1esmT37tidiwnHFdbWdjYWitj6T+z8N24+Ck18MPB4b4aZeX7MmQLb/jYWFpeWV1Zza/n1jc2tbXNnt6aiRBJaJRGPZMPHinIW0iow4LQRS4qFz2nd75VHfr1PpWJReAfDmLoCd0IWMIJBS55plr305qQFdACpwIMs88yCXbTHsOaJMyWF0sE9fyw/PVQ886vVjkgiaAiEY6Wajh2Dm2IJjHCa5VuJojEmPdyhTU1DLKhy0/HlmXWklbYVRFJXCNZY/T2RYqHUUPi6U2DoqllvJP7nNRMILt2UhXECNCSTRUHCLYisUQxWm0lKgA81wUQyfatFulhiAjqsvA7BmX15ntROi8558exWp3GFJsihfXSIjpGDLlAJXaMKqiKC+ugZvaI3IzVejHfjY9K6YExn9tAfGJ8/APaW5Q==</latexit>

s <latexit sha1_base64="ANdc9FEiMS3zBaUIw+HvQXaJ2iE=">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</latexit>

2W
Vstall =
⇢1 SCL,max

• For a wing with a given airfoil,

CL,max is xed
<latexit sha1_base64="Ea/ICRAVO4yfrxCyNrceaDDVWY4=">AAAB+XicbVA9SwNBEN3zM8avU0ub0yBYSLgTUSsJpLGwiGA+IDmOvc1esmT37tidiwnHFdbWdjYWitj6T+z8N24+Ck18MPB4b4aZeX7MmQLb/jYWFpeWV1Zza/n1jc2tbXNnt6aiRBJaJRGPZMPHinIW0iow4LQRS4qFz2nd75VHfr1PpWJReAfDmLoCd0IWMIJBS55plr305qQFdACpwIMs88yCXbTHsOaJMyWF0sE9fyw/PVQ886vVjkgiaAiEY6Wajh2Dm2IJjHCa5VuJojEmPdyhTU1DLKhy0/HlmXWklbYVRFJXCNZY/T2RYqHUUPi6U2DoqllvJP7nNRMILt2UhXECNCSTRUHCLYisUQxWm0lKgA81wUQyfatFulhiAjqsvA7BmX15ntROi8558exWp3GFJsihfXSIjpGDLlAJXaMKqiKC+ugZvaI3IzVejHfjY9K6YExn9tAfGJ8/APaW5Q==</latexit>

• How to decrease Vstall during

takeo and landing?
ff
fi
High Lift Device: Flap
• When the ap is de ected,
the lift coe cient is
increased

• Reason: increases of
camber line and the angle
of attack

When a plain ap is de ected, the increase in lift is

due to an e ective increase in camber and a virtual
increase in angle of attack.
ff
fl
fl
ffi
fl
fl
Effect of a Flap

• CL,max increases
• Stalling angle of
attack decreases

• Lift slope remains

unchanged
 Example Problem
Example 5.4, p. 309, Anderson’s
Problem:
For some of the airfoils in App. D, additional data are provided that
pertain to the case of a simulated split ap de ected 60°. The e ect of
de ecting downward a ap at the trailing edge is to increase both the lift
and the magnitude of the moment at a given angle of attack of the airfoil.
For example, consider the data shown in App. D for the NACA 4412
airfoil. From the code shown on the graph, the data for the simulated
split ap de ected 60° are given by the upside-down triangles. Calculate
(a) the percentage increase in maximum lift coe cient and
(b) the percentage increase in the magnitude of the moment coe cient
about the quarter chord due to the ap de ection of 60°.
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
fl
ffi
fl
ffi
ff
 How Lift Is Produced
Misconception about how velocity increases/decreases

Misconception:
• A uid element that comes into the stagnation region splits into two
elements: one ows over the top surface; one over the bottom surface.
• It is then assumed that these two elements must meet up at the trailing
edge; and because the running distance over the top surface of the airfoil
is longer than that over the bottom surface, the element over the top
surface must move faster.
Fact:
• Experimental results and computational uid dynamic calculations clearly
show that a uid element moving over the top surface of an airfoil leaves
the trailing edge long before its companion element moving over the
bottom surface arrives at the trailing edge.
fl
fl
fl
fl
How Lift Is Produced
Misconception about at plate

Misconception: the curved shape

of an airfoil is required to produced
lift.

Fact: A thin at plate at an angle of

attack produces lift.

Then why do we need an airfoil for

aircraft’s wings? • Lift is produced by the ow over a plate,
which follows the laws of nature:
• We need room for internal continuity and Newton’s second law.
structure and fuel storage • Owing to the lower pressure over the top
surface and the higher pressure over the
• Flat plate produces low lift-to- bottom surface, the airfoil experiences a
drag ratio lift force in the upward direction.
fl
fl
fl
How Lift Is Produced
Newton’s third law is not the fundamental cause
• Misconception: the wing imparts a downward component of
momentum to the air; that is, the wing exerts a force on the air,
pushing the ow downward. From Newton’s third law, the equal and
opposite reaction produces a lift.

• Fact: the air pressure on the surface is pushing on the surface,

creating lift in the upward direction. As a result of the equal-and-
opposite principle, the airfoil surface pushes on the air, imparting a
downward force on the air ow, which de ects the velocity downward.

The net rate of change of downward

momentum created in the air ow
because of the presence of the wing
can be thought of as an e ect due to
the surface pressure distribution.
fl
ff
fl
fl
fl
Further Reading

• Chapter 5, “Introduction to Flight”, Anderson

• Example Problems from Chapter 5
• Exercises from Chapter 5
 General
Equations of Motion
 Forces acting on an entire aircraft
• The results we have developed so far for lift and drag for a nite wing may also
be applied to a complete airplane.

• The airplane is considered a rigid body on which four natural forces are exerted:
lift, drag, propulsive thrust, and weight.

• Assume that the aerodynamicists have done their work and given us the
appropriate aerodynamic data for a given airplane

CD is drag coe cient for complete airplane

CD,0 is parasitic drag coe cient, which contains not only pro le drag of wing
(cd) but also friction and pressure drag of tail surfaces, fuselage, engine
nacelles, landing gear and any other components of airplane exposed to air
ow

CL is total lift coe cient, including small contributions from horizontal tail and
fuselage

Span e ciency for nite wing replaced with Oswald e ciency factor for
entire airplane
fl
ffi
ffi
ffi
fi
ffi
ffi
fi
fi
Overall Aircraft Drag
• No longer concerned with aerodynamic details
• Drag for complete airplane, not just wing
CL2
<latexit sha1_base64="PdiewTJ+qjodeOxTuYVJ2Kvs7eU=">AAACEnicbVA9SwNBEN3z2/h1ammzGARFCHciaqMosbCwUDExkIvH3mYuLu59sDsnhuN+g41/xcZCEVsrO/+Nm5jCrwcDj/dmmJkXpFJodJwPa2h4ZHRsfGKyNDU9Mztnzy/UdZIpDjWeyEQ1AqZBihhqKFBCI1XAokDCRXBd7fkXN6C0SOJz7KbQilgnFqHgDI3k22tV/5DuUu636Tr1QsV4Xr3c8I+L3EsFBeoh3GJ+cFYUvl12Kk4f9C9xB6RMBjjx7XevnfAsghi5ZFo3XSfFVs4UCi6hKHmZhpTxa9aBpqExi0C38v5LBV0xSpuGiTIVI+2r3ydyFmndjQLTGTG80r+9nvif18ww3GnlIk4zhJh/LQozSTGhvXxoWyjgKLuGMK6EuZXyK2ZyQZNiyYTg/n75L6lvVNytyubpZnl/bxDHBFkiy2SVuGSb7JMjckJqhJM78kCeyLN1bz1aL9brV+uQNZhZJD9gvX0CfT+cKg==</latexit>

CL2
<latexit sha1_base64="MZOoxT8pmOS6zC9BqGdFOwaQvBY=">AAACFnicbVA9SwNBEN2L3/ErammzGARBDXciaqMosbCwUDFGyMVjbzOni3sf7M6J4bhfYeNfsbFQxFbs/DduYgpNfDDweG+GmXl+IoVG2/6yCkPDI6Nj4xPFyanpmdnS3PyFjlPFocZjGatLn2mQIoIaCpRwmShgoS+h7t9WO379DpQWcXSO7QSaIbuORCA4QyN5pfWqd0h3adXLDtfsnK5SN1CMZ9WrDe84z9xEUKAuwj1mB2d57pXKdsXugg4Sp0fKpIcTr/TptmKehhAhl0zrhmMn2MyYQsEl5EU31ZAwfsuuoWFoxELQzaz7Vk6XjdKiQaxMRUi76u+JjIVat0PfdIYMb3S/1xH/8xopBjvNTERJihDxn0VBKinGtJMRbQkFHGXbEMaVMLdSfsNMLmiSLJoQnP6XB8nFRsXZqmyebpb393pxjJNFskRWiEO2yT45IiekRjh5IE/khbxaj9az9Wa9/7QWrN7MAvkD6+Mb4pmdZg==</latexit>

CD = cd + CD = CD,0 +
⇡eAR ⇡eAR
Wing or airfoil Entire Aircraft
 Drag Polar
• CD,0 is parasite drag coe cient at zero lift
(↵L=0)
<latexit sha1_base64="1l5EYbQIWhR70pe9ySQkM0XFE0E=">AAAB83icbVA9SwNBEJ2LXzF+RS1tFoNgFe5E1EYJ2FhYRDAfkDvC3GaTLNm7W3b3hHDkb9hYKGLrn7Hz37hJrtDEBwOP92aYmRdKwbVx3W+nsLK6tr5R3Cxtbe/s7pX3D5o6SRVlDZqIRLVD1EzwmDUMN4K1pWIYhYK1wtHt1G89MaV5Ej+asWRBhIOY9zlFYyXfRyGH2M3ur91Jt1xxq+4MZJl4OalAjnq3/OX3EppGLDZUoNYdz5UmyFAZTgWblPxUM4l0hAPWsTTGiOkgm908ISdW6ZF+omzFhszU3xMZRlqPo9B2RmiGetGbiv95ndT0r4KMxzI1LKbzRf1UEJOQaQCkxxWjRowtQaq4vZXQISqkxsZUsiF4iy8vk+ZZ1buonj+cV2o3eRxFOIJjOAUPLqEGd1CHBlCQ8Ayv8Oakzovz7nzMWwtOPnMIf+B8/gCfCpFp</latexit>

• CD,i drag coe cient due to lift (induced

drag)

• Oswald e ciency factor, e, includes all

e ects from the aircraft

• CD,0 and e are known aerodynamics

quantities of the aircraft

CL2
<latexit sha1_base64="hbJl+tO6p5hZJxLVAr4BT89mBs4=">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</latexit>

CD = CD,0 + = CD,0 + CD,i

⇡eAR

• Only the portion of the drag polar

associated with positive CL is usually
shown
Why?
ff
ffi
ffi
ffi
Thrust
• For most airplanes propulsive thrust acts in ight path direction
• May be inclined with respect to ight path angle, ↵T , usually
<latexit sha1_base64="0ac5x9mexp/MXFjVkPhWnGCOpJI=">AAAB73icbVDJSgNBEK1xjYlLjEcvjVHIKcyIqCcJePEYIRskQ6jp9CRNeha7e4QwxC/w5EVEEa/+jjf/xs5y0MQHBY/3qqiq58WCK23b39bK6tr6xmZmK5vb3tndy+8XGipKJGV1GolItjxUTPCQ1TXXgrViyTDwBGt6w+uJ37xnUvEorOlRzNwA+yH3OUVtpFYHRTzAbq2bL9plewqyTJw5KVYKL48PpeNctZv/6vQimgQs1FSgUm3HjrWbotScCjbOdhLFYqRD7LO2oSEGTLnp9N4xOTFKj/iRNBVqMlV/T6QYKDUKPNMZoB6oRW8i/ue1E+1fuikP40SzkM4W+YkgOiKT50mPS0a1GBmCVHJzK6EDlEi1iShrQnAWX14mjdOyc14+uzVpXMEMGTiEIyiBAxdQgRuoQh0oCHiCV3iz7qxn6936mLWuWPOZA/gD6/MHAxaSLA==</latexit>

small angle
How?
• For overcoming drag and generating lift
• The Power required to generate thrust depends on a number of
factors, but in simple terms it may be said that the power is
proportional to the thrust required times the aircraft speed.
fl
fl
 Thrust
• The thrust is generated in di erent ways according to the type of
propulsion:

Turbojet: all the thrust is generated in the form of jet e ux from

the rear of the engine (Now used mostly in military aircraft).

Turbofan: most of the thrust is generated by a large fan at the

front of the engine; a small percentage is generated by jet e ux.

Turboprop: most of the

thrust is generated by the
propeller; a small
percentage is generated by
jet e ux.

Piston: all the thrust is

generated by the propeller.
ffl
ff
ffl
ffl
Weight
• Always acts vertically toward center of
earth

• The combined load of the aircraft itself,

the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or
baggage

• Resultant weight: through center of

gravity

• Position of center of gravity

contributes to aircraft stability &
control
General Equation of Motion
Applying Newton’s 2nd law

• Summation of forces parallel to the ight path: Note:

X
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dV ✦ General two-dimensional
Fparallel = T cos ↵T D W sin ✓ = m translational motion of an airplane
dt in accelerated ight

• Summation of forces perpendicular to the ight path ✦ Rotation of the aircraft has not
been considered
X V2
<latexit sha1_base64="yJVVifpxO3/G/SuX97RQINiYdmw=">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</latexit>

Fperpendicular = L + T sin ↵T W cos ✓ = m

rc
fl
fl
fl
Level, Unaccelerated Flight
• Level, unaccelerated ight means ✓ = 0 and the right sides of the
<latexit sha1_base64="JJUpQeHyfB19IFFylHzfp8N3kK4=">AAAB8XicbZDLSgMxFIYz9VbrrerSTbAIrsqMirpRC25cVrAXbIeSSU/b0ExmSM4IZehbuHGhiFsfwzdw59uYTl1o6w+Bj/8/h5xzglgKg6775eQWFpeWV/KrhbX1jc2t4vZO3USJ5lDjkYx0M2AGpFBQQ4ESmrEGFgYSGsHwepI3HkAbEak7HMXgh6yvRE9whta6b+MAkNEL6naKJbfsZqLz4P1A6erjOFO1U/xsdyOehKCQS2ZMy3Nj9FOmUXAJ40I7MRAzPmR9aFlULATjp9nEY3pgnS7tRdo+hTRzf3ekLDRmFAa2MmQ4MLPZxPwvayXYO/dToeIEQfHpR71EUozoZH3aFRo4ypEFxrWws1I+YJpxtEcq2CN4syvPQ/2o7J2WT27dUuWSTJUne2SfHBKPnJEKuSFVUiOcKPJInsmLY5wn59V5m5bmnJ+eXfJHzvs3QgKSMg==</latexit>

equations are 0
T cos ↵T = D
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L + T sin ↵T = W
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• For most airplane, ↵T is small enough that cos ↵T ⇡ 1 and sin ↵T ⇡ 0

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<latexit sha1_base64="0ac5x9mexp/MXFjVkPhWnGCOpJI=">AAAB73icbVDJSgNBEK1xjYlLjEcvjVHIKcyIqCcJePEYIRskQ6jp9CRNeha7e4QwxC/w5EVEEa/+jjf/xs5y0MQHBY/3qqiq58WCK23b39bK6tr6xmZmK5vb3tndy+8XGipKJGV1GolItjxUTPCQ1TXXgrViyTDwBGt6w+uJ37xnUvEorOlRzNwA+yH3OUVtpFYHRTzAbq2bL9plewqyTJw5KVYKL48PpeNctZv/6vQimgQs1FSgUm3HjrWbotScCjbOdhLFYqRD7LO2oSEGTLnp9N4xOTFKj/iRNBVqMlV/T6QYKDUKPNMZoB6oRW8i/ue1E+1fuikP40SzkM4W+YkgOiKT50mPS0a1GBmCVHJzK6EDlEi1iShrQnAWX14mjdOyc14+uzVpXMEMGTiEIyiBAxdQgRuoQh0oCHiCV3iz7qxn6936mLWuWPOZA/gD6/MHAxaSLA==</latexit>

T =D
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L=W
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fl
Aircraft Performance
Next:
Propulsion