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Semester: 7th Academic Year: 2023-24

Subject Name: Big Data Analytics Subject Code: 1010043437

Answer bank

Sr. CO
No. Question Text Marks Number

What is Big Data?

Big data refers to extremely large and complex datasets
that cannot be easily processed or analyzed using
traditional data management and analysis tools. These
datasets typically contain vast amounts of information,
including structured data (such as numbers and dates) and
unstructured data (such as text, images, and videos), and
they may be generated at high velocities.

The concept of big data is often characterized by the "Three

Vs":

1. Volume: Big data involves massive amounts of data.

This could be data generated from various sources
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like social media, sensors, IoT devices, or transaction
records. The sheer volume of data can range from
terabytes to petabytes and beyond.
2. Velocity: Data is generated at an unprecedented
speed in the era of big data. For example, social
media platforms produce vast amounts of data every
second, and sensors in manufacturing environments
constantly generate real-time data. Handling and
analyzing data at this speed is a significant
challenge.
3. Variety: Big data is diverse in nature. It includes
structured data (like traditional databases), semi-
structured data (like XML and JSON), and
unstructured data (like text, images, and videos).
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Dealing with this variety requires specialized tools

and techniques.

In addition to the Three Vs, some discussions about big

data also consider other factors, such as:

4. Veracity: This refers to the reliability and accuracy of

the data. Big data can often be noisy or contain
errors, and dealing with data quality issues is crucial
in many applications.
5. Value: The ultimate goal of big data analysis is to
extract meaningful insights and value from the data.
Businesses and organizations collect and analyze big
data to make better decisions, optimize operations,
improve customer experiences, and more.

To harness the potential of big data, organizations use

various technologies and techniques, including distributed
computing frameworks like Hadoop and Spark, NoSQL
databases, machine learning algorithms, and data
visualization tools. The field of big data analytics has
evolved to help organizations turn these massive datasets
into actionable insights and drive innovation in various
industries.

Explain characteristics of Big Data.

Big data is characterized by several key attributes, often

referred to as the "Five Vs," which help distinguish it from
traditional data:

1. Volume: This characteristic represents the sheer

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quantity of data involved. Big data involves
extremely large datasets, often ranging from
terabytes to petabytes and even exabytes. These
datasets are too massive to be easily managed and
analyzed using traditional database systems.
2. Velocity: Velocity refers to the speed at which data
is generated, collected, and processed. In the age of
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big data, data is often generated in real-time or

near-real-time. For example, social media platforms
produce a continuous stream of data, and sensors in
IoT devices generate data at high speeds. Handling
data at this rapid pace requires specialized tools and
infrastructure.
3. Variety: Big data is highly diverse in terms of data
types and sources. It includes structured data (like
traditional relational databases), semi-structured
data (like XML and JSON), and unstructured data
(like text, images, videos, and audio). This variety
presents challenges because traditional relational
databases are not well-suited to handle unstructured
and semi-structured data.
4. Veracity: Veracity relates to the quality and
reliability of the data. Big data often contains noisy,
incomplete, or inconsistent information. Ensuring
data accuracy and reliability is essential for
meaningful analysis and decision-making. Data
cleaning and validation processes are often required.
5. Value: The primary goal of big data analytics is to
derive value and insights from the data. This value
can come in various forms, such as improved
decision-making, better customer experiences,
increased operational efficiency, and new revenue
streams. Extracting meaningful insights from large
and complex datasets is a fundamental aspect of big
data.

In addition to these Five Vs, there are two more Vs

sometimes added to further characterize big data:

6. Variability: Variability refers to the inconsistency in

the data's structure and meaning. Data in big data
environments can vary not only in terms of format
but also in terms of how it changes over time.
Handling this variability can be a significant
challenge.
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7. Visibility: Visibility refers to the ability to access and

analyze data from different sources and locations.
With big data, organizations often need to integrate
data from diverse sources, including internal
databases, external sources, cloud-based platforms,
and more. Ensuring visibility across these data
sources is crucial for comprehensive analysis.

Understanding these characteristics is essential for

organizations looking to harness the potential of big data.
It helps them design appropriate data management and
analytics strategies to turn large and complex datasets into
actionable insights and valuable outcomes.

What is Bigdata? Describe the main features of big data in

detail.

Big data refers to extremely large and complex datasets

that are difficult to process and analyze using traditional
data management and analysis tools. It encompasses a
wide range of data types, including structured, semi-
structured, and unstructured data, and is characterized by
several main features:

1. Volume: Big data is characterized by its massive

volume. It involves exceptionally large amounts of
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data that can range from terabytes to petabytes and
beyond. This volume can come from various sources,
such as social media, sensors, web logs, and
transaction records. Managing and storing such vast
quantities of data requires specialized infrastructure
and technologies.
2. Velocity: Velocity represents the speed at which
data is generated and collected. Big data often
involves data streams that are produced in real-time
or at high speeds. For example, financial market
data, social media updates, and sensor data from
manufacturing processes are generated rapidly.
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Analyzing data as it's generated can provide valuable

insights and is a hallmark of big data applications.
3. Variety: Big data is highly diverse in terms of data
types and sources. It includes structured data (like
traditional databases), semi-structured data (like
XML and JSON), and unstructured data (like text,
images, videos, and audio). This variety presents a
challenge because traditional relational databases
are not well-suited to handle the unstructured and
semi-structured data commonly found in big data
environments.
4. Veracity: Veracity refers to the quality and reliability
of the data. Big data often contains noisy,
inconsistent, or incomplete information. Ensuring
data accuracy and reliability is essential for
meaningful analysis. Data cleansing and validation
processes are frequently needed to address veracity
issues.
5. Value: Extracting value from big data is a primary
objective. Organizations collect and analyze big data
to gain insights, make informed decisions, optimize
operations, and create business value. Whether it's
improving customer experiences, identifying market
trends, or enhancing product development, deriving
value from large and complex datasets is a
fundamental aspect of big data.
6. Variability: Variability relates to the inconsistency in
the data's structure and meaning. Data in big data
environments can vary not only in terms of format
but also in terms of how it changes over time.
Handling this variability can be challenging, as data
structures and meanings may evolve and require
flexible data processing approaches.
7. Visibility: Visibility refers to the ability to access and
analyze data from different sources and locations.
With big data, organizations often need to integrate
data from diverse sources, including internal
databases, external sources, cloud-based platforms,
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and more. Ensuring visibility across these data

sources is crucial for comprehensive analysis.

These features collectively define the landscape of big data.

To effectively leverage big data, organizations employ
various technologies and techniques, including distributed
computing frameworks (e.g., Hadoop and Spark), NoSQL
databases, machine learning algorithms, data streaming
platforms, and data visualization tools. The goal is to turn
the challenges posed by big data into opportunities for
improved decision-making and innovation across multiple
industries.

What is big data analytics? Explain four ‘V’s of Big data. Briefly
discuss applications of big data.

Big data analytics is the process of examining large and

complex datasets, known as big data, to discover valuable
insights, patterns, trends, and correlations that can inform
decision-making, improve processes, and drive innovation.
It involves using various technologies, tools, and techniques
to extract actionable information from data sets that are
too voluminous, fast-moving, or diverse to be effectively
managed and analyzed by traditional data processing
methods. Big data analytics is crucial in today's data-driven
4 world for gaining a competitive edge and addressing 7 CO1
complex business and societal challenges.

The four 'V's of big data provide a framework for

understanding its key characteristics:

1. Volume: This refers to the sheer amount of data

involved in big data analytics. It encompasses
massive datasets that often range from terabytes to
petabytes or more. Examples include social media
posts, sensor data, and e-commerce transaction
records. Analyzing such large volumes of data
requires specialized tools and infrastructure.
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2. Velocity: Velocity relates to the speed at which data

is generated and must be processed. Big data often
involves real-time or near-real-time data streams,
such as stock market tick data, sensor readings, or
social media updates. Analyzing data at this high
speed is essential for applications like fraud
detection, monitoring equipment health, and
responding to customer inquiries promptly.
3. Variety: Variety signifies the diverse nature of data
in big data analytics. Data comes in many forms,
including structured data (like traditional databases),
semi-structured data (like XML or JSON), and
unstructured data (like text, images, and videos).
Handling this variety requires versatile tools and
techniques to extract insights effectively.
4. Veracity: Veracity relates to the reliability and
quality of the data. Big data can often be noisy,
inconsistent, or incomplete, which can impact the
accuracy of analyses and insights. Data cleansing,
validation, and quality assurance processes are
essential to address veracity issues and ensure
trustworthy results.

Applications of big data span a wide range of industries

and domains:

1. Business and Marketing: Big data analytics helps

businesses better understand customer behavior,
preferences, and market trends. It's used for
customer segmentation, personalized marketing
campaigns, pricing optimization, and supply chain
management.
2. Healthcare: Big data is applied to analyze patient
records, medical imaging data, and genomics data to
improve diagnosis, treatment, and drug discovery.
It's also crucial for public health surveillance and
epidemiological studies.
3. Finance: In finance, big data is used for fraud
detection, algorithmic trading, credit risk assessment,
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and portfolio optimization. Real-time analysis of

market data is essential for making informed
investment decisions.
4. Manufacturing: Big data analytics is employed to
monitor and optimize manufacturing processes,
predict equipment failures, and ensure product
quality. It's also used for supply chain optimization
and demand forecasting.
5. Transportation and Logistics: Big data helps
optimize route planning, reduce transportation costs,
and enhance the efficiency of logistics operations.
It's also essential for the development of
autonomous vehicles and smart transportation
systems.
6. Energy: In the energy sector, big data is used for
smart grid management, energy consumption
analysis, and predictive maintenance of energy
infrastructure.
7. Government and Public Policy: Governments use
big data analytics for crime prediction and
prevention, disaster response, urban planning, and
public health monitoring.

These applications represent just a fraction of the

possibilities in the world of big data analytics, as it
continues to evolve and transform industries and societies
by leveraging the power of data-driven insights.

Explain advantages and disadvantages of big data analytics.

Big data analytics offers numerous advantages, but it also

comes with some disadvantages and challenges. Here's an
overview of both:
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Advantages of Big Data Analytics:

1. Informed Decision-Making: Big data analytics

enables organizations to make data-driven decisions.
By analyzing large and diverse datasets, businesses
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and governments can gain deeper insights into

various aspects of their operations, customers, and
markets, leading to better decision-making.
2. Improved Customer Understanding: Analyzing big
data allows organizations to understand customer
behavior, preferences, and trends at a granular level.
This knowledge can lead to personalized marketing,
improved customer experiences, and higher
customer satisfaction.
3. Enhanced Operational Efficiency: Big data analytics
can optimize processes and operations. It helps in
resource allocation, supply chain management,
predictive maintenance, and other areas, leading to
cost savings and increased efficiency.
4. Competitive Advantage: Organizations that
effectively harness big data gain a competitive edge.
They can respond quickly to market changes, identify
emerging trends, and innovate more effectively than
competitors who rely solely on traditional
approaches.
5. New Revenue Streams: Big data analytics can
uncover new business opportunities. Organizations
can monetize their data by offering data-related
products and services, such as data analytics
platforms or data-as-a-service solutions.
6. Faster Insights: With the right tools and
infrastructure, big data analytics can provide real-
time or near-real-time insights. This speed is crucial
for applications like fraud detection, cybersecurity,
and real-time marketing campaigns.
7. Scientific and Research Advancements: Big data is
invaluable in scientific research and healthcare. It
accelerates discoveries in fields like genomics,
particle physics, and climate science, leading to
breakthroughs and innovations.

Disadvantages and Challenges of Big Data Analytics:

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1. Data Privacy and Security: One of the biggest

challenges is ensuring the privacy and security of
sensitive data. The more data is collected and
analyzed, the greater the risk of data breaches and
privacy violations. Compliance with data protection
regulations is essential.
2. Cost: Building and maintaining the infrastructure
required for big data analytics can be expensive.
Organizations need to invest in storage, computing
resources, software licenses, and skilled personnel.
3. Complexity: Big data analytics involves complex
technologies and techniques. Handling diverse data
types, managing data pipelines, and creating
effective analytics models can be challenging and
require specialized expertise.
4. Data Quality: Ensuring data quality is a significant
concern. Big data often contains noisy, inconsistent,
or incomplete information. Data cleansing and
validation processes are essential but can be time-
consuming.
5. Scalability: As data volumes continue to grow,
organizations must continually scale their
infrastructure and systems to handle the increased
load. Scaling can be complex and costly.
6. Ethical Concerns: The use of big data raises ethical
questions, particularly in areas like surveillance,
profiling, and algorithmic bias. Organizations must
consider the ethical implications of their data
analytics practices.
7. Skill Shortage: There is a shortage of data scientists
and analysts with the necessary skills to work with
big data. Recruiting and retaining talent in this field
can be challenging.
8. Overwhelming Amount of Data: Ironically, the
sheer volume of data can sometimes be
overwhelming. Extracting meaningful insights from
vast datasets can be a daunting task, and
organizations may struggle to focus on the most
relevant information.
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In conclusion, while big data analytics offers tremendous

opportunities for organizations to gain insights, improve
operations, and innovate, it also poses challenges related to
data privacy, cost, complexity, and ethical considerations.
Addressing these challenges effectively is crucial for
realizing the full potential of big data.

Discuss Big Data in Healthcare,Trasportation & Medicine. CO1

Big data has had a significant impact on healthcare,

transportation, and medicine, revolutionizing these fields in
various ways. Here's an overview of how big data is being
used in each of these domains:

1. Healthcare:

• Patient Care and Monitoring: Big data analytics is

used to monitor and track patient data in real-time,
especially in intensive care units. This helps
healthcare providers make timely decisions and
intervene when necessary.
• Predictive Analytics: Healthcare organizations use
6 big data to predict disease outbreaks, patient 7
readmissions, and even individual patient health
trajectories. Predictive analytics can help in early
intervention and preventive care.
• Personalized Medicine: Genetic data and patient
health records are analyzed together to develop
personalized treatment plans. This allows for
targeted therapies based on an individual's genetic
makeup and medical history.
• Drug Discovery: Big data is used in pharmaceutical
research to analyze massive datasets of chemical
compounds, clinical trials, and genetic information.
This accelerates drug discovery and development
processes.
• Healthcare Fraud Detection: Insurance companies
and healthcare providers use big data analytics to
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detect fraudulent claims and billing errors, saving

significant amounts of money.
• Population Health Management: Public health
agencies analyze big data to track disease trends,
allocate resources efficiently, and formulate public
health policies.

2. Transportation:

• Traffic Management: Big data analytics is used to

monitor traffic flow, detect congestion, and optimize
traffic signals in real-time. This reduces traffic
congestion and improves overall transportation
efficiency.
• Public Transportation Optimization: Public transit
agencies use big data to analyze ridership patterns,
optimize routes, and improve the reliability and
accessibility of public transportation systems.
• Predictive Maintenance: In the aviation and railway
industries, big data is employed to predict
equipment failures and schedule maintenance
proactively. This minimizes downtime and enhances
safety.
• Navigation and Routing: Navigation apps like
Google Maps use real-time traffic data to provide
users with optimal routes and estimated travel times.
This saves time and fuel for drivers.
• Autonomous Vehicles: Big data plays a crucial role
in the development of autonomous vehicles. Self-
driving cars rely on real-time sensor data and
machine learning algorithms to navigate safely.

3. Medicine:

• Medical Imaging: Big data is used to analyze and

interpret medical images, such as MRI and CT scans.
Deep learning algorithms are applied to detect
abnormalities and assist radiologists in diagnosis.
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• Drug Safety and Pharmacovigilance:

Pharmaceutical companies analyze big data to
monitor the safety of drugs once they are on the
market. Adverse event reports and patient records
are used to identify potential safety issues.
• Genomic Medicine: Genomic data is a massive
source of big data in medicine. Researchers analyze
genomes to identify genetic markers associated with
diseases and tailor treatment plans accordingly.
• Clinical Trials: Big data analytics is used to identify
suitable candidates for clinical trials, predict trial
outcomes, and optimize trial designs. This speeds up
the drug development process.
• Healthcare Operations: Hospitals use big data to
optimize patient scheduling, resource allocation, and
inventory management. This improves operational
efficiency and patient care.

In all these domains, big data analytics has the potential to

transform traditional practices and lead to better outcomes,
cost savings, and more efficient services. However, it also
raises important considerations regarding data privacy,
security, and ethical concerns, which need to be carefully
managed as these technologies continue to evolve.

Explain the difference between structure and unstructured

data.

Structured data and unstructured data are two distinct

types of data that differ in terms of their organization,
format, and usability. Here are the key differences between
structured and unstructured data:
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Structured Data:

1. Organization and Format: Structured data is highly

organized and follows a predefined format. It is
typically stored in relational databases, spreadsheets,
or other structured formats where data elements are
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organized into rows and columns. Each data field has

a clear label or attribute.
2. Examples: Examples of structured data include
customer names, addresses, phone numbers,
product prices, transaction dates, and employee IDs.
These data types are well-defined and have a
consistent format.
3. Ease of Processing: Structured data is relatively easy
to process, query, and analyze using standard
database management systems (DBMS) and SQL
(Structured Query Language). It is suitable for
traditional data analysis techniques.
4. Use Cases: Structured data is commonly used in
business applications, such as customer relationship
management (CRM), enterprise resource planning
(ERP), and financial systems. It is also prevalent in
scientific and research databases.
5. Analysis: Analysis of structured data often involves
aggregating, sorting, filtering, and performing
mathematical operations on the data to derive
insights and make decisions.

Unstructured Data:

1. Organization and Format: Unstructured data lacks

a specific structure and does not conform to a
predefined format. It includes text, images, videos,
audio files, social media posts, and more.
Unstructured data is not organized into rows and
columns like structured data.
2. Examples: Examples of unstructured data include
email messages, social media comments,
handwritten notes, images of scanned documents,
video footage, and audio recordings. These data
types do not have a standardized format and may
contain free-form text or multimedia content.
3. Complexity: Unstructured data is more complex and
challenging to work with compared to structured
data. It often requires natural language processing
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(NLP), image recognition, or audio analysis

techniques to extract meaning and structure.
4. Use Cases: Unstructured data is prevalent in areas
like social media analysis, sentiment analysis, content
recommendation systems, and customer feedback
analysis. It is also used in fields like healthcare for
analyzing medical records and images.
5. Analysis: Analyzing unstructured data involves
techniques such as text mining, sentiment analysis,
image recognition, and speech-to-text conversion.
The goal is to extract meaningful insights and
patterns from the unstructured content.

In summary, structured data is highly organized and follows

a clear format, making it suitable for traditional database
systems and analysis methods. Unstructured data, on the
other hand, lacks a predefined structure and encompasses a
wide range of content types, requiring specialized
techniques for analysis. Many real-world datasets consist of
a combination of structured and unstructured data, making
it essential for organizations to leverage both types
effectively for comprehensive data analysis and decision-
making.

Give the difference between Traditional data vs Big Data.

Traditional data and big data differ in several key aspects,

including volume, velocity, variety, and the technologies
and techniques used to manage and analyze them. Here's a
comparison of traditional data vs. big data:
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1. Volume:

• Traditional Data: Traditional data refers to data that

can be comfortably managed and processed using
standard relational database systems. It typically
involves datasets of a size that can be stored on a
single server or a small cluster.
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• Big Data: Big data, as the name suggests, involves

extremely large datasets that exceed the capabilities
of traditional database systems. These datasets often
range from terabytes to petabytes or more and
require distributed storage and processing solutions.

2. Velocity:

• Traditional Data: Traditional data is typically

generated and updated at a moderate pace. It
doesn't require real-time processing or analysis.
• Big Data: Big data is characterized by high velocity,
with data generated and updated in real-time or at
extremely fast rates. Real-time or near-real-time
processing is essential for many big data
applications.

3. Variety:

• Traditional Data: Traditional data is structured and

fits neatly into tables with rows and columns. It
includes data like customer names, addresses,
transaction records, and numerical measurements.
• Big Data: Big data encompasses a wide variety of
data types, including structured data (like traditional
data), semi-structured data (e.g., JSON, XML), and
unstructured data (e.g., text, images, videos).
Managing and analyzing this diverse data requires
specialized tools.

4. Storage and Processing:

• Traditional Data: Traditional data is typically stored

in relational databases (e.g., MySQL, Oracle) and
processed using SQL queries. Traditional data
management systems are usually hosted on a single
server.
• Big Data: Big data is stored and processed using
distributed computing frameworks like Hadoop and
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Spark. Data is distributed across multiple nodes or

clusters to handle the volume and velocity. NoSQL
databases are also commonly used for big data
storage.

5. Analysis Techniques:

• Traditional Data: Analysis of traditional data often

involves well-established techniques such as SQL
queries, data warehousing, and business intelligence
tools.
• Big Data: Big data analysis requires advanced
techniques, including machine learning, data
streaming, natural language processing (NLP), and
complex event processing (CEP), to extract insights
from large and complex datasets.

6. Use Cases:

• Traditional Data: Traditional data is commonly used

for transactional systems, reporting, and structured
business processes, such as customer relationship
management (CRM) and financial management.
• Big Data: Big data is employed in various
applications, including real-time analytics, social
media analysis, sensor data processing, predictive
maintenance, fraud detection, and personalized
marketing.

7. Value:

• Traditional Data: Traditional data provides valuable

insights but often focuses on historical and
structured data, offering a more limited perspective.
• Big Data: Big data can provide richer and more
timely insights due to its ability to handle real-time
data streams and diverse data sources, leading to
more informed decisions and innovations.
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In summary, while traditional data is well-suited for

conventional business data processing and analysis, big
data addresses the challenges posed by massive volumes,
high velocity, and diverse data types. Big data technologies
and techniques have become essential for organizations
looking to extract value from the vast amounts of data
generated in today's digital age.

Explain core architecture of Hadoop with suitable block diagrams.

Discuss the role of each component in detail.
Hadoop is an open-source framework designed for distributed
storage and processing of large datasets using a cluster of
commodity hardware. Its core architecture consists of two primary
components: Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) for storage and
MapReduce for processing. Here, I'll explain these components and
their roles in detail, including a simple block diagram.
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1. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):

HDFS is the storage component of Hadoop. It is designed to store

and manage large files by distributing them across multiple
machines in a Hadoop cluster. Here's a simplified block diagram of
HDFS:
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• NameNode: The NameNode is the master server in HDFS

and is responsible for managing the metadata of the file
system. It keeps track of file names, permissions, and the
structure of directories. However, it doesn't store the actual
data; it just maintains the metadata, including the structure of
the file system tree and the mapping of files to blocks. The
NameNode is a single point of failure in HDFS, so it is critical
to ensure its high availability through techniques like
Secondary NameNode or Hadoop High Availability (HA).
• DataNode: DataNodes are worker nodes responsible for
storing and managing the actual data. They store the data in
blocks (typically 128MB or 256MB in size) and send periodic
heartbeats and block reports to the NameNode to report the
health and status of the blocks they manage.

2. MapReduce:

MapReduce is the processing component of Hadoop, used for

parallel processing of data stored in HDFS. It allows users to write
programs that can process large datasets in parallel across the
cluster. Here's a simplified block diagram of the MapReduce
architecture:
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• JobTracker: The JobTracker is the master server of the

MapReduce framework. It is responsible for managing and
monitoring job execution, task scheduling, and resource
allocation. It receives job requests from users, splits them into
tasks, and assigns those tasks to available TaskTrackers in the
cluster. Like the NameNode, the JobTracker is also a single
point of failure in Hadoop, so it's important to ensure its high
availability.
• TaskTracker: TaskTrackers are worker nodes that execute
tasks as assigned by the JobTracker. There are two types of
tasks: Map tasks and Reduce tasks. Map tasks process data,
while Reduce tasks aggregate and summarize the results
produced by Map tasks. TaskTrackers communicate with the
JobTracker to receive task assignments and report their
progress.

In a nutshell, HDFS provides a distributed and fault-tolerant storage

system for large datasets, while MapReduce offers a programming
model and runtime for processing those datasets in parallel across a
cluster of machines. Together, these components form the core
architecture of Hadoop, enabling the storage and analysis of big
data in a scalable and reliable manner.

10 What is Name node & Data node in Hadoop Architecture. 3 CO2

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In Hadoop's architecture, the NameNode and DataNode are integral

components of the Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS), which is
responsible for storing and managing the distributed data across a
cluster of machines. Here's an explanation of the roles and functions
of the NameNode and DataNode:

1. NameNode:

• The NameNode is a critical component of HDFS and serves as

the master server in the HDFS cluster.
• Its primary responsibility is to manage the metadata and
namespace of the file system. This metadata includes
information about the directory structure, file names,
permissions, and the mapping of data blocks to files.
• The NameNode does not store the actual data; it only stores
the metadata related to the data and the structure of the file
system.
• When a client application or user interacts with HDFS, they
communicate with the NameNode to perform operations like
reading, writing, or deleting files.
• The NameNode keeps track of the location and replication
factor of data blocks, ensuring data redundancy and fault
tolerance. It decides where to store data blocks on
DataNodes to ensure data reliability.
• While the NameNode is crucial to the functioning of HDFS, it
is also a single point of failure. If the NameNode goes down,
the entire file system becomes inoperable. To address this,
organizations often implement High Availability (HA)
solutions, such as having a standby NameNode that can take
over in case of failure.

2. DataNode:

• DataNodes are worker nodes in the HDFS cluster, and their

primary role is to store and manage the actual data blocks.
• Each DataNode is responsible for storing a portion of the
data blocks in HDFS. These data blocks are typically large
(e.g., 128MB or 256MB in size) and are replicated across
multiple DataNodes for fault tolerance.
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• DataNodes continuously send heartbeats and block reports to

the NameNode to inform it of their status and the health of
the data blocks they are responsible for.
• If the NameNode detects that a data block is missing or
corrupted, it can instruct a DataNode to replicate the block to
ensure data integrity.
• DataNodes do not have knowledge of the data they store
beyond the data blocks themselves. They do not manage
metadata or directory structures.
• DataNodes are responsible for serving data to client
applications upon request, based on the metadata provided
by the NameNode.

In summary, the NameNode and DataNode are fundamental

components of HDFS. The NameNode manages metadata and
namespace, while DataNodes store and serve the actual data blocks.
Together, they enable Hadoop to provide scalable, fault-tolerant,
and distributed storage for large datasets.

Draw HDFS Architecture. Explain any two commands of HDFS from the
following commands with syntax at least one example of each.
CopyFromLocal,setrep,checksum

11 HDFS Architecture: 7 CO2

HDFS is designed with a master-slave architecture, where

there is a single master node (NameNode) and multiple slave
nodes (DataNodes). Here's a textual representation:
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• NameNode: The NameNode is the master server that

manages the metadata and namespace of the file
system. It keeps track of file and directory structure,
permissions, and data block locations. However, it does
not store the actual data.
• DataNode: DataNodes are worker nodes that store
the actual data blocks. They periodically send
heartbeats and block reports to the NameNode,
reporting the status and health of the data blocks they
manage.

Now, let's discuss two HDFS commands along with their

syntax and examples:

1. copyFromLocal:

• Syntax: hadoop fs -copyFromLocal <local-source> <hdfs-

destination>
• Example: To copy a file from the local file system to
HDFS, you can use the following command:
hadoop fs -copyFromLocal /local/path/to/file
/user/hadoop/hdfs-directory/
This command copies the file located at
/local/path/to/file in your local file system to the HDFS
directory /user/hadoop/hdfs-directory/.
 P a g e | 24

2. setrep:

• Syntax: hadoop fs -setrep -R <replication-factor> <hdfs-path>

• Example: To change the replication factor of files and
directories in HDFS, you can use the following
command:
• hadoop fs -setrep -R 3 /user/hadoop/hdfs-directory/

This command recursively sets the replication factor of

all files and directories under /user/hadoop/hdfs-directory/
to 3. This can be useful for increasing or decreasing
data redundancy based on your storage and fault
tolerance requirements.

3. checksum:

• Syntax: hadoop fs -checksum <hdfs-path>

• Example: To calculate and display the checksum of a
file in HDFS, you can use the following command:
• hadoop fs -checksum /user/hadoop/hdfs-
directory/file.txt
This command retrieves and displays the checksum of
the specified file (file.txt) in HDFS. The checksum can
be used to verify the data's integrity.

These commands allow you to interact with HDFS, manage

files and directories, control data replication, and ensure data
integrity in the Hadoop ecosystem.

What is Hadoop Ecosystem? Discuss various components of the Hadoop

Ecosystem.

12 7 CO2
The Hadoop ecosystem is a collection of open-source software
components and tools that complement the Hadoop core
components, extending its capabilities for distributed storage and
 P a g e | 25

processing of big data. The ecosystem provides a wide range of

solutions for data storage, data processing, data ingestion, data
analysis, and more. Here are some of the key components and
technologies within the Hadoop ecosystem:

1. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):

• HDFS is the primary storage component of the
Hadoop ecosystem. It provides a distributed file
system for storing and managing large datasets across
a cluster of commodity hardware.
2. MapReduce:
• MapReduce is the original data processing framework
in Hadoop. It allows users to write parallel processing
programs to analyze large datasets.
3. YARN (Yet Another Resource Negotiator):
• YARN is a resource management and job scheduling
component that replaces the MapReduce-specific
resource management of Hadoop 1.x. It allows
different processing frameworks to run on the same
Hadoop cluster.
4. Hive:
• Hive is a data warehousing and SQL-like query
language tool built on top of Hadoop. It allows users
to query and analyze data stored in HDFS using SQL-
like queries.
5. Pig:
• Pig is a high-level platform for creating MapReduce
programs used for data transformation and processing.
It provides a simpler scripting language for Hadoop.
6. HBase:
• HBase is a NoSQL database that provides real-time,
random read and write access to large volumes of
data. It is suitable for applications requiring low-
latency access to data.
7. Spark:
• Apache Spark is a fast and general-purpose cluster
computing framework. It offers in-memory data
processing and supports a wide range of data analytics
 P a g e | 26

tasks, including batch processing, machine learning,

and real-time data streaming.
8. Kafka:
• Apache Kafka is a distributed streaming platform used
for building real-time data pipelines and streaming
applications. It is designed for high-throughput, fault-
tolerant, and scalable data streaming.
9. Sqoop:
• Sqoop is a tool for efficiently transferring data between
Hadoop and relational databases. It simplifies the
process of importing and exporting data to and from
Hadoop.
10. Flume:
• Apache Flume is a distributed, reliable, and scalable
service for efficiently collecting, aggregating, and
moving large volumes of log data into HDFS.
11. Oozie:
• Oozie is a workflow scheduler for Hadoop. It allows
users to define and schedule complex data workflows
involving multiple Hadoop jobs.
12. ZooKeeper:
• Apache ZooKeeper is a distributed coordination service
used to manage distributed systems and ensure their
consistency and reliability.
13. Mahout:
• Apache Mahout is a machine learning library for
Hadoop. It provides a range of machine learning
algorithms for tasks like clustering, classification, and
recommendation.
14. Ambari:
• Apache Ambari is a management and monitoring tool
for Hadoop clusters. It simplifies the provisioning,
managing, and monitoring of Hadoop clusters.
15. Tez:
• Apache Tez is an alternative to MapReduce as an
execution engine for Hadoop. It offers better
performance and efficiency for certain types of data
processing workloads.
16. Flink:
 P a g e | 27

• Apache Flink is another stream processing framework

that provides event time processing, exactly-once
processing guarantees, and support for both batch and
stream processing.

The Hadoop ecosystem continues to evolve, and new components

and projects are regularly added to address various aspects of data
processing and analysis. These components work together to create
a comprehensive and powerful platform for managing and
extracting insights from big data.

What is Map Reduce? Explain working of various phases of

Map Reduce with appropriate example and diagram

MapReduce is a programming model and processing framework

that was initially developed by Google and later popularized by
Apache Hadoop. It is designed for processing large volumes of data
in parallel across a distributed cluster of computers. MapReduce
divides a task into two main phases: the Map phase and the Reduce
phase. Here's an explanation of each phase along with an example
and a diagram:

1. Map Phase:
13 7 CO2
• Map Phase is the first step in the MapReduce process. It
involves breaking down the input data into key-value pairs
and performing some initial processing or transformation on
each data point. The Map phase runs independently on each
node in the cluster.
• Map Function: The core component of the Map phase is the
Map function. The Map function takes an input record and
emits one or more key-value pairs as intermediate output.

Example: Let's say you have a large log file containing web server
access logs, and you want to count the occurrences of each unique
URL.
 P a g e | 28

2. Shuffle and Sort Phase:

• After the Map phase, all the key-value pairs emitted by the
Map functions are collected and grouped by their keys. This
process is known as the Shuffle and Sort phase.
• The Shuffle and Sort phase ensures that all values associated
with a specific key end up on the same reducer node for
processing in the Reduce phase.

Diagram for Map Phase and Shuffle and Sort Phase:

Explain “Map Phase” and “Combiner Phase” in MapReduce. CO2

In the MapReduce programming model, the Map Phase is the initial

step where data is divided into chunks and processed in parallel
across multiple worker nodes in a distributed cluster. During this
14 3
phase, a set of key-value pairs is generated as output, often referred
to as intermediate key-value pairs. The Map Phase is followed by the
Combiner Phase, which is an optional intermediate step in the
MapReduce pipeline.
 P a g e | 29

Here's a detailed explanation of both the Map Phase and the

Combiner Phase:

1. Map Phase:

• Input Data: The Map Phase begins with a large dataset that
needs to be processed. This dataset is divided into smaller
splits or chunks, with each chunk assigned to a worker node
in the cluster for processing.
• Mapper Function: A user-defined Mapper function is applied
to each chunk of data independently. The Mapper function
takes the input data, processes it, and generates a set of key-
value pairs. The Mapper function can perform various
operations on the data, such as filtering, parsing, and
transformation.
• Intermediate Key-Value Pairs: The output of the Mapper
function consists of intermediate key-value pairs, where the
key represents a specific category or group, and the value is
associated data or a count. These intermediate key-value
pairs are typically stored in memory and not written to the
Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).
• Shuffling and Sorting: Once the Mapper tasks complete, the
MapReduce framework performs a shuffle and sort operation.
It groups together intermediate key-value pairs with the same
key, ensuring that all values associated with a particular key
are grouped together. This is a critical step in preparing data
for the Reduce Phase.

2. Combiner Phase (Optional):

• Purpose: The Combiner Phase is an optional intermediate

step that occurs after the Map Phase and before the Reduce
Phase. Its primary purpose is to reduce the volume of data
that needs to be transferred from the Mapper nodes to the
Reducer nodes. It does so by performing local aggregation of
intermediate data on each Mapper node.
• Combiner Function: Similar to the Mapper and Reducer
functions, the user can define a Combiner function. The
Combiner function takes the intermediate key-value pairs
 P a g e | 30

produced by the Mapper and performs local aggregation and

reduction on them.
• Example Use Case: Suppose you're counting word
occurrences in a large set of documents. In the Map Phase,
you generate intermediate key-value pairs for each word
encountered (word as the key, count as the value). The
Combiner function can sum up the counts of the same word
within each Mapper node. This reduces the amount of data
that needs to be transferred over the network during the
shuffle and sort phase.

Important Points:

• Not all MapReduce jobs require a Combiner. It depends on

the specific data processing task. However, when used
appropriately, a Combiner can significantly reduce network
traffic and improve performance.
• The Combiner function should be designed so that it can be
applied multiple times, and the final result should be the
same as if the Combiner was not used.

In summary, the Map Phase is the initial step in the MapReduce

process, where data is divided, processed, and transformed into
intermediate key-value pairs. The Combiner Phase, if used, performs
local aggregation on these intermediate pairs to reduce network
overhead before the data is transferred to the Reducer nodes for
further processing in the Reduce Phase.

Explain Map-reduce framework in brief.

The MapReduce framework is a programming model and processing

paradigm designed for distributed and parallel processing of large
datasets across a cluster of computers. It was originally developed
15 by Google and popularized by Apache Hadoop. The fundamental 7 CO3
idea behind MapReduce is to break down complex data processing
tasks into simpler, parallelizable tasks that can be executed on
distributed computing infrastructure. Here's a brief explanation of
the MapReduce framework:
 P a g e | 31

Components of the MapReduce Framework:

1. Mapper: The Mapper is the first phase of the MapReduce

framework. It takes a set of input data and processes it to
generate intermediate key-value pairs. Each Mapper task runs
independently and processes a portion of the input data.
2. Shuffling and Sorting: After the Map Phase, the MapReduce
framework performs a shuffle and sort operation. It groups
together intermediate key-value pairs with the same key,
ensuring that all values associated with a particular key are
grouped together. This step prepares the data for the Reduce
Phase.
3. Reducer: The Reducer is the second phase of MapReduce. It
takes the sorted and grouped intermediate key-value pairs
and performs aggregation, summarization, or any other
operation as defined by the user. Each Reducer task works on
a distinct subset of the data and produces the final output.
4. Input Data: The input data is typically stored in a distributed
file system, such as Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS).
This data is divided into smaller chunks, and each chunk is
processed by a separate Mapper task.
5. Output Data: The output data produced by the Reducer
tasks is typically written back to the distributed file system or
another storage system. The final output may consist of key-
value pairs, summary statistics, or any other structured data.

How MapReduce Works:

1. Splitting Data: The input data is divided into smaller splits or

chunks, each of which is processed by an individual Mapper.
The splits are distributed across the cluster.
2. Mapping: The Mapper tasks take the input data and apply a
user-defined mapping function to generate intermediate key-
value pairs. These key-value pairs represent the results of the
Map Phase.
3. Shuffling and Sorting: The MapReduce framework performs
a shuffle and sort operation to group together key-value pairs
with the same key. This step is critical for preparing data for
the Reducer Phase.
 P a g e | 32

4. Reducing: The Reducer tasks take the sorted and grouped

key-value pairs and apply a user-defined reducing function to
perform aggregation or any other desired operation.
5. Output: The final output is produced by the Reducer tasks
and can be written back to the distributed file system or
another storage system for further analysis or consumption.

Key Characteristics of MapReduce:

• Parallel Processing: MapReduce allows for the parallel

processing of data across multiple machines, which makes it
suitable for handling large datasets.
• Fault Tolerance: The framework is designed to handle node
failures and ensure the completion of tasks by redistributing
them to healthy nodes.
• Scalability: MapReduce is highly scalable, as additional
machines can be added to the cluster to process larger
datasets.
• Flexibility: Users can define custom mapping and reducing
functions, allowing for a wide range of data processing tasks.
• Distributed Storage: MapReduce often works in conjunction
with distributed file systems like HDFS for storing and
accessing data.
What is NoSQL database? List the differences between NoSQL and
relational databases. Explain in brief various types of NoSQL databases
in practice.

NoSQL databases, often referred to as "Not Only SQL" databases,

are a class of database management systems that provide a flexible
and scalable approach to data storage and retrieval. They are
designed to handle large volumes of data that may not fit well
16 7 CO3
within the traditional relational database model. NoSQL databases
are particularly well-suited for use cases where data is unstructured,
semi-structured, or rapidly changing. Here are the key differences
between NoSQL and relational databases, followed by an
explanation of various types of NoSQL databases:

Differences Between NoSQL and Relational Databases:

 P a g e | 33

1. Data Model:
• Relational Database: Relational databases use a
structured, tabular data model with predefined
schemas. Data is organized into tables with rows and
columns.
• NoSQL Database: NoSQL databases use various data
models, including document-oriented, key-value,
column-family, and graph-based models. They offer
schema flexibility and can handle semi-structured or
unstructured data.
2. Scalability:
• Relational Database: Traditional relational databases
are typically scaled vertically by adding more resources
(CPU, RAM) to a single server. This approach has
limitations in terms of scalability.
• NoSQL Database: NoSQL databases are designed for
horizontal scalability, allowing data to be distributed
across multiple nodes or servers. They can easily
handle large and growing datasets.
3. Schema Flexibility:
• Relational Database: Relational databases require a
predefined schema, where the structure of the data
(tables, columns, data types) must be determined
before data insertion.
• NoSQL Database: NoSQL databases offer dynamic
schema flexibility, allowing data to be inserted without
a predefined schema. This flexibility is particularly
useful in agile development and handling evolving
data.
4. Query Language:
• Relational Database: Relational databases use SQL
(Structured Query Language) for querying and
manipulation. SQL is a powerful query language with
standardized syntax.
• NoSQL Database: NoSQL databases use various query
languages, some of which are specific to the database
type. These query languages are often optimized for
specific data models.
5. ACID vs. BASE:
 P a g e | 34

• Relational Database: Relational databases adhere to

the ACID (Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, Durability)
properties, ensuring strong data consistency and
integrity.
• NoSQL Database: NoSQL databases follow the BASE
(Basically Available, Soft state, Eventually consistent)
model, which prioritizes availability and partition
tolerance over strict consistency. This makes them
suitable for distributed systems.

Types of NoSQL Databases:

1. Document-oriented Databases: These databases store data

in documents, typically using formats like JSON or BSON.
Examples include MongoDB and Couchbase.
2. Key-Value Stores: Key-value databases store data as key-
value pairs, where keys are unique identifiers for values.
Examples include Redis and Riak.
3. Column-family Stores: These databases organize data into
column families, where each column family contains a set of
rows. Examples include Apache Cassandra and HBase.
4. Graph Databases: Graph databases are designed for storing
and querying graph structures, making them suitable for
applications like social networks and recommendation
systems. Examples include Neo4j and Amazon Neptune.
5. Time-series Databases: Time-series databases are optimized
for handling time-stamped data, making them ideal for IoT
and monitoring applications. Examples include InfluxDB and
TimescaleDB.
6. Wide-column Stores: These databases use a wide-column
data model, suitable for applications with large amounts of
sparse data. Apache Cassandra is an example of a wide-
column store.

NoSQL databases have gained popularity due to their flexibility,

scalability, and ability to handle modern data requirements,
including big data and real-time data processing. The choice
between a NoSQL and a relational database depends on the specific
use case and data characteristics.
 P a g e | 35

Use of NoSQL in industry

NoSQL databases have found applications across various industries

due to their flexibility, scalability, and ability to handle different types
of data efficiently. Here are some prominent use cases of NoSQL
databases in different industries:

1. E-commerce and Retail:

• NoSQL databases are used for managing product
catalogs, customer profiles, and user-generated
content.
• They enable real-time inventory management and
recommendation engines for personalized shopping
experiences.
2. Social Media and Advertising:
• NoSQL databases store user profiles, social graphs, and
content feeds.
17 • They support ad targeting and user engagement 7 CO3
analytics for social media platforms.
3. Gaming:
• NoSQL databases manage player profiles, game state,
and leaderboards in real time.
• They handle massive amounts of data generated by
online multiplayer games.
4. Financial Services:
• NoSQL databases are used for fraud detection, risk
analysis, and real-time transaction processing.
• They provide scalability for high-frequency trading
systems.
5. Healthcare and Life Sciences:
• NoSQL databases store patient records, medical
images, and genomic data.
• They enable real-time analytics for disease diagnosis
and drug discovery.
6. IoT (Internet of Things):
 P a g e | 36

• NoSQL databases handle sensor data, device

management, and telemetry data.
• They support real-time monitoring and predictive
maintenance for IoT applications.
7. Telecommunications:
• NoSQL databases store call detail records, network
performance data, and customer profiles.
• They provide scalability for managing the vast amount
of data generated by telecom networks.
8. Media and Entertainment:
• NoSQL databases handle digital asset management,
content distribution, and user preferences.
• They support content recommendation engines and
streaming platforms.
9. Energy and Utilities:
• NoSQL databases store sensor data from smart grids
and energy management systems.
• They enable real-time monitoring and optimization of
energy distribution.
10. Agriculture:
• NoSQL databases manage agricultural data such as
crop yields, weather data, and soil quality.
• They support precision agriculture and data-driven
farming practices.
11. Government and Public Sector:
• NoSQL databases are used for citizen data
management, public records, and geospatial data.
• They enable data analytics for urban planning and
public policy decision-making.
12. Logistics and Supply Chain:
• NoSQL databases handle tracking and monitoring of
shipments, inventory, and logistics operations.
• They support real-time visibility and optimization in
supply chain management.
13. Manufacturing:
• NoSQL databases store data from sensors and
production lines for quality control and process
optimization.
 P a g e | 37

• They facilitate predictive maintenance in

manufacturing plants.
14. Travel and Hospitality:
• NoSQL databases manage reservations, customer
reviews, and loyalty program data.
• They enable personalized recommendations and
booking platforms.

In each of these industries, NoSQL databases offer advantages like

horizontal scalability, schema flexibility, low-latency access to data,
and the ability to handle diverse data types. Organizations leverage
NoSQL databases to meet the growing demands of modern
applications and data-driven decision-making processes.

Define NoSQL and where is it used? (b) i) Document Oriented

Database ii) Graph based Database

NoSQL (Not Only SQL) is a class of database management systems

that provide a flexible and scalable approach to data storage and
retrieval. Unlike traditional relational databases, NoSQL databases
are designed to handle large volumes of data that may not fit well
within the rigid structure of tables and rows. NoSQL databases are
characterized by their ability to store and manage various types of
data, including unstructured, semi-structured, and structured data,
as well as their horizontal scalability across distributed clusters of
machines.
18 7 CO3
Now, let's delve into the two specific types of NoSQL databases you
mentioned:

i) Document-Oriented Database:

• A document-oriented database is a NoSQL database that

stores data in a semi-structured format, usually using JSON or
BSON (Binary JSON) documents. Each document can have a
different structure, making it highly flexible.
• In a document-oriented database, data is organized into
collections or buckets, and each document within a collection
 P a g e | 38

can have a unique schema. This flexibility makes it suitable for

use cases where data structures evolve over time.
• Example Document-Oriented Databases:
• MongoDB: MongoDB is one of the most popular
document-oriented databases. It allows you to store,
retrieve, and query data in JSON-like BSON
documents. MongoDB is often used for content
management systems, catalogs, and real-time
analytics.

ii) Graph-Based Database:

• A graph-based database is a NoSQL database designed to

represent and store data in the form of nodes, edges, and
properties. This structure is ideal for managing and querying
highly interconnected data.
• In a graph-based database, nodes represent entities (e.g.,
people, products, locations), edges represent relationships
between nodes, and properties provide additional
information about nodes and edges.
• Graph databases excel in use cases involving complex
relationships and traversals, such as social networks,
recommendation engines, fraud detection, and knowledge
graphs.
• Example Graph-Based Databases:
• Neo4j: Neo4j is a popular graph database that allows
you to model, store, and query graph data efficiently. It
is commonly used for applications like social networks,
recommendation engines, and network management.
• Amazon Neptune: Amazon Neptune is a managed
graph database service provided by AWS. It supports
both property graph and RDF graph models and is
suitable for various graph-related use cases.

In summary, NoSQL databases offer various data models, including

document-oriented and graph-based databases, to cater to different
types of data and use cases. These databases are used in a wide
range of applications, including content management, real-time
 P a g e | 39

analytics, social networks, recommendation systems, and more,

where traditional relational databases may not be the best fit.

Write differences between NoSQL and SQL.

NoSQL and SQL (Structured Query Language) databases are two
different classes of database management systems, each with its
own strengths and weaknesses. Here are some key differences
between NoSQL and SQL databases:

1. Data Model:

• SQL Database:
• SQL databases use a structured, tabular data model
with predefined schemas.
• Data is organized into tables with rows and columns.
• SQL databases enforce strong schema constraints.
• NoSQL Database:
• NoSQL databases use various data models, including
document-oriented, key-value, column-family, and
graph-based models.
19 7 CO3
• They offer schema flexibility and can handle semi-
structured or unstructured data.
• Some NoSQL databases allow dynamic schema
changes.

2. Query Language:

• SQL Database:
• SQL databases use SQL (Structured Query Language)
for querying and manipulation.
• SQL is a powerful query language with standardized
syntax for defining and retrieving data.
• NoSQL Database:
• NoSQL databases use various query languages, some
of which are specific to the database type.
• Query languages may be optimized for specific data
models and use cases.
 P a g e | 40

3. Scaling:

• SQL Database:
• Traditional relational databases are scaled vertically by
adding more resources (CPU, RAM) to a single server.
• Vertical scaling has limitations in terms of scalability.
• NoSQL Database:
• NoSQL databases are designed for horizontal
scalability, allowing data to be distributed across
multiple nodes or servers.
• They can easily handle large and growing datasets.

4. Schema Flexibility:

• SQL Database:
• Relational databases require a predefined schema
where the structure of the data (tables, columns, data
types) must be determined before data insertion.
• Schema changes can be complex and time-consuming.
• NoSQL Database:
• NoSQL databases offer dynamic schema flexibility,
allowing data to be inserted without a predefined
schema.
• This flexibility is particularly useful in agile
development and handling evolving data.

5. ACID vs. BASE:

• SQL Database:
• SQL databases adhere to the ACID (Atomicity,
Consistency, Isolation, Durability) properties, ensuring
strong data consistency and integrity.
• ACID transactions provide strict data guarantees.
• NoSQL Database:
• NoSQL databases follow the BASE (Basically Available,
Soft state, Eventually consistent) model.
 P a g e | 41

• BASE prioritizes availability and partition tolerance over

strict consistency, making them suitable for distributed
systems.

6. Use Cases:

• SQL Database:
• SQL databases are well-suited for applications with
complex relationships, structured data, and
transactions.
• They are commonly used in industries like finance,
healthcare, and traditional enterprise applications.
• NoSQL Database:
• NoSQL databases are suitable for applications with
large volumes of unstructured or semi-structured data,
real-time data processing, and high scalability
requirements.
• They are used in industries like social media, e-
commerce, IoT, and big data analytics.

7. Examples:

• SQL Database Examples:

• MySQL, PostgreSQL, Oracle Database, Microsoft SQL
Server.
• NoSQL Database Examples:
• MongoDB (document-oriented), Redis (key-value),
Cassandra (column-family), Neo4j (graph-based).

The choice between SQL and NoSQL databases depends on the

specific use case, data characteristics, scalability requirements, and
development preferences. Organizations often use a combination of
both to address different data storage and retrieval needs within
their applications.

Define Data stream.Give the benefits and limitations of data stream.

Data Stream refers to a continuous flow of data that is generated
20 7 CO4
over time, often at high speed and in real-time or near-real-time.
Data streams are typically unbounded, meaning that they don't have
 P a g e | 42

a fixed end; they can continue indefinitely. These data streams can
originate from various sources, such as sensors, social media feeds,
financial markets, IoT devices, and more. Analyzing and processing
data streams are critical in modern applications to make real-time
decisions, gain insights, and detect patterns or anomalies.

Benefits of Data Streams:

1. Real-time Insights: Data streams provide immediate access

to data as it's generated, allowing organizations to make real-
time decisions, detect issues, and respond quickly to
changing conditions.
2. Timely Analytics: Data stream processing enables timely
data analytics, making it possible to identify trends, patterns,
and anomalies as they occur, which is crucial in domains like
fraud detection and predictive maintenance.
3. Scalability: Data stream processing frameworks are designed
for horizontal scalability, making it easy to handle large
volumes of data and adapt to growing workloads.
4. Efficiency: Data streams can help reduce data storage costs
because they often involve processing and storing only
relevant data, discarding or aggregating less critical
information.
5. Monitoring and Alerts: Businesses can use data streams to
monitor the health and performance of systems and
applications, setting up automated alerts when certain
conditions are met.
6. Improved User Experience: In applications like e-commerce
and content recommendation, real-time analysis of user
interactions and behavior can enhance the user experience by
providing personalized content or recommendations.

Limitations of Data Streams:

1. Complexity: Processing data streams can be more complex

than batch processing because it requires handling data as it
arrives in real-time. This complexity can result in challenges
related to system design and management.
 P a g e | 43

2. Resource Intensive: Handling high-velocity data streams can

be resource-intensive, requiring specialized hardware and
distributed computing frameworks to keep up with the
incoming data.
3. Latency: Data stream processing introduces some level of
latency due to the need to process and analyze data in real-
time. Low-latency requirements can be challenging to achieve
in certain use cases.
4. Data Loss: In some cases, when data streams arrive faster
than they can be processed, there may be data loss. This can
be acceptable in some applications but not in others, such as
financial trading systems.
5. Infrastructure Costs: Building and maintaining the
infrastructure for processing data streams can be costly,
particularly for high-velocity, high-volume streams.
6. Complex Event Processing: Detecting complex patterns or
events within data streams may require sophisticated
algorithms and complex event processing (CEP) systems,
which can be challenging to develop and maintain.

In summary, data streams offer significant advantages in terms of

real-time insights, scalability, and efficiency, but they also come with
challenges related to complexity, resource requirements, and the
need for low-latency processing. Organizations must carefully
consider their use cases and requirements when deciding to
implement data stream processing solutions.

Explain the characteristics of Data Stream.

Data streams have distinct characteristics that differentiate them
from traditional batch data processing. Understanding these
characteristics is essential for effectively working with data streams.
Here are the key characteristics of data streams:
21 3 CO4
1. Continuous Flow: Data streams are continuous and
unbounded, meaning they never end and keep flowing
indefinitely. Data is generated and arrives in real-time or
near-real-time. This continuous nature requires systems to
process data as it arrives.
 P a g e | 44

2. High Velocity: Data streams are generated at high speeds.

The rate at which data arrives can vary significantly, from
megabytes per second to gigabytes or even terabytes per
second. Managing and processing this high velocity is a
fundamental challenge in data stream processing.
3. Variety of Sources: Data streams can originate from diverse
sources, including sensors, IoT devices, social media, web
logs, financial markets, and more. Each source may produce
data in different formats, structures, and frequencies.
4. Heterogeneity: Data in streams can be heterogeneous,
consisting of various data types such as text, numbers,
images, audio, and video. Handling this diversity requires
flexible data processing techniques.
5. Real-Time or Near-Real-Time: Data streams demand real-
time or near-real-time processing. Decisions and actions
based on stream data often need to be made within
milliseconds or seconds of data arrival.
6. Infinite Volume: Unlike batch processing, where data is
processed in finite chunks, data streams have infinite volumes.
They require processing methods that can handle data
without an endpoint.
7. Loss of Data Tolerance: In some scenarios, data streams can
be so fast that it's not feasible to process every data point. In
such cases, systems may tolerate a certain degree of data
loss, focusing on processing the most relevant data.
8. Time Sensitivity: Data streams are inherently time-sensitive.
Time is often a critical dimension in analyzing and correlating
data points. Delayed processing can result in a loss of context
or relevance.
9. Event-Based: Data streams often represent events, which can
be discrete occurrences or updates. These events can trigger
actions or decisions in real time.
10. Dynamic Nature: The characteristics of data streams can
change over time. The velocity, volume, and variety of data
may fluctuate, requiring adaptive processing strategies.
11. Limited Memory: Processing data streams often involves
limited memory or storage. Historical data may need to be
aggregated or summarized to maintain manageable storage
footprints.
 P a g e | 45

12. Complex Event Patterns: Analyzing data streams can involve

detecting complex event patterns or anomalies in real-time,
which may require sophisticated algorithms and complex
event processing (CEP) systems.
13. Scalability: Scalability is critical in data stream processing.
Systems must be able to scale horizontally to handle
increasing data volumes and velocities by adding more
computing resources.
14. Fault Tolerance: Data stream processing systems need to be
fault-tolerant to handle failures gracefully and ensure
continuous operation.
15. Privacy and Security: Privacy and security concerns are
essential when dealing with real-time data streams, especially
in applications like healthcare and finance, where data
confidentiality is critical.

Understanding these characteristics is crucial when designing,

implementing, and managing data stream processing solutions.
Successful data stream processing requires specialized technologies
and techniques tailored to these unique characteristics to extract
valuable insights and make real-time decisions.

Explain with a neat diagram about Stream data model.

A stream data model is a conceptual framework for representing and

processing continuous data streams. It's typically used in real-time
and near-real-time data processing scenarios. Here's a textual
description of the components of a stream data model:

1. Data Sources: Data streams originate from various sources,

22 such as sensors, IoT devices, social media feeds, web logs, and 7 CO4
more. These sources continuously produce data points over
time.
2. Data Stream: A data stream is a continuous and unbounded
flow of data points. Each data point represents an event,
measurement, or piece of information generated at a specific
timestamp. Data streams are continuous and never-ending.
3. Data Processing: Data processing components receive and
process data as it arrives in real-time. Processing tasks may
 P a g e | 46

include filtering, aggregation, transformation, and analysis of

data points. Complex event processing (CEP) systems are
often used to detect patterns or anomalies within data
streams.
4. Output/Action: The processed data can trigger various
actions or outputs in real-time. These actions may include
generating alerts, updating databases, sending notifications,
making real-time decisions, or visualizing data on
dashboards.
5. Storage (Optional): While data streams are typically
processed in real-time, some applications may require
storage for historical data or offline analysis. Storage systems
may store processed data or aggregated results for later
retrieval.
6. Scalability: Stream data models need to be scalable to
handle increasing data volumes and velocities. Scalability
often involves distributing processing tasks across multiple
computing nodes or clusters.
7. Fault Tolerance: To ensure data integrity and reliability,
stream data models must be fault-tolerant. Systems should
handle node failures and recover gracefully without losing
data.
8. Complex Event Patterns (Optional): In some cases, stream
data models involve the detection of complex event patterns
within the data stream. These patterns may be predefined
rules or algorithms that identify specific conditions or
behaviors in the data.

DIAGRAM:

Explain with a neat diagram about Stream data Architecture. CO4

Stream data architecture, also known as stream processing

architecture, is a framework designed to handle the continuous and
23 7
real-time processing of data streams. It encompasses the
technologies, components, and strategies needed to ingest, process,
analyze, and act upon data as it flows in real-time. Stream data
architecture is crucial for applications requiring real-time insights,
 P a g e | 47

decision-making, and event-driven actions. Here are the key

components and concepts of a typical stream data architecture:

1. Data Sources:
• Data streams originate from a variety of sources,
including sensors, IoT devices, social media, web
applications, and more.
• These sources continuously produce data points, such
as events, measurements, logs, or messages, with
associated timestamps.
2. Data Ingestion:
• Data ingestion is the process of collecting and
importing data streams into the stream processing
system.
• Ingestion components handle data sources and adapt
data into a format suitable for processing.
3. Stream Processing Engine:
• The stream processing engine is the core component
responsible for processing data streams in real-time.
• It includes libraries, APIs, and tools for defining and
executing data processing operations, such as filtering,
mapping, aggregation, and windowing.
4. Complex Event Processing (CEP): (Optional)
• CEP is a specialized component that detects complex
patterns or conditions within data streams.
• It enables the identification of specific events or
sequences of events, triggering actions or alerts.
5. Storage (Optional):
• Some stream processing architectures include storage
for historical data, auditing, or offline analysis.
• Storage systems may store processed data, aggregated
results, or raw data for later retrieval.
6. Output and Actions:
• Processed data streams can trigger various real-time
actions, decisions, or outputs.
• Outputs may include alerts, notifications, updates to
databases, visualization on dashboards, or external
system integrations.
7. Scalability:
 P a g e | 48

• Scalability is a fundamental aspect of stream data

architectures.
• Systems need to scale horizontally to handle growing
data volumes and increased processing demands.
8. Fault Tolerance:
• Fault tolerance mechanisms ensure data integrity and
system reliability.
• Stream processing architectures should handle node
failures gracefully without losing data.
9. Event Time Handling:
• Event time refers to the actual timestamp associated
with data points in the stream.
• Architectures often include mechanisms for handling
out-of-order data, late arrivals, and event time-based
processing.
10. Data Serialization and Formats:
• Stream architectures support various data serialization
formats, such as JSON, Avro, or Protobuf.
• Compatibility with different data formats is essential
for handling diverse data sources.
11. Monitoring and Management:
• Comprehensive monitoring and management tools
provide insights into the health and performance of
the stream processing system.
• Operators can monitor data pipelines, detect issues,
and optimize processing as needed.
12. Security and Authentication:
• Stream data architectures often incorporate security
measures to protect data in transit and at rest.
• Authentication and authorization mechanisms are
crucial for controlling access to data streams.
13. Integration with External Systems:
• Integrations with external systems, databases,
messaging platforms, and other tools may be
necessary for complete data flow.

Stream data architectures are widely used in applications such as

real-time analytics, fraud detection, monitoring, recommendation
engines, IoT, and financial trading systems. The choice of specific
 P a g e | 49

components and technologies within a stream data architecture

depends on the use case, data volume, and processing requirements
of the application.

DIAGRAM:

Explain Filtering a stream in detail.

Filtering a stream in the context of stream data processing refers to
the process of selectively including or excluding data points from a
continuous data stream based on specific criteria or conditions.
Filtering is a fundamental operation in stream processing that allows
you to extract relevant information and reduce the volume of data
that needs further processing. Here's a detailed explanation of
filtering a stream:

1. Data Stream Ingestion:

• The process begins with the ingestion of a continuous data

stream from various sources. These sources can include
sensors, IoT devices, logs, social media feeds, and more.

2. Data Stream Processing Engine:

24 7 CO4
• Data streams are processed in real-time using a stream
processing engine, which is a core component of the stream
processing architecture.
• The stream processing engine can be a part of a larger stream
processing framework or platform, such as Apache Kafka,
Apache Flink, Apache Storm, or Apache Beam.

3. Filter Definition:

• To perform filtering, you need to define filtering criteria or

conditions that specify which data points to include or
exclude from the stream.
• Filtering criteria are typically expressed as predicates or rules.
These rules can be based on attributes or values within each
data point.
 P a g e | 50

4. Data Point Evaluation:

• As each new data point arrives in the stream, it is evaluated

against the filtering criteria defined in the previous step.
• The data point is compared to the criteria, and a decision is
made whether to include or exclude it from further
processing.

5. Inclusion or Exclusion:

• If the data point satisfies the filtering criteria (i.e., it meets the
conditions), it is included in the filtered stream. Otherwise, it is
excluded.
• Included data points are typically passed to downstream
processing stages, while excluded data points are discarded
or archived, depending on the use case.

6. Types of Filters:

• Filters can be based on various conditions, including:

• Attribute Filters: Filtering based on specific attributes
or fields within the data point, e.g., filtering sensor data
by temperature values.
• Temporal Filters: Filtering data points based on
timestamps or time intervals.
• Pattern Matching Filters: Detecting specific patterns
or sequences of events within the data stream.
• Threshold Filters: Applying filters based on numerical
thresholds, e.g., filtering stock prices above a certain
value.
• Aggregation Filters: Filtering based on aggregated
values, such as averages or sums.

7. Continuous Processing:

• Filtering is applied continuously as new data points arrive in

the stream. The stream processing engine ensures that the
filtering rules are consistently enforced in real-time.
 P a g e | 51

8. Output Stream:

• The result of filtering is an output stream that contains only

the data points that meet the specified criteria. This filtered
stream can be further processed, analyzed, or acted upon.

9. Monitoring and Maintenance:

• It's essential to monitor the filtering process to detect any

issues or deviations in real-time.
• Maintenance may involve adjusting or fine-tuning filtering
criteria as data patterns change or as new requirements
emerge.

Filtering is a critical operation in stream data processing because it

allows organizations to focus on relevant data, reduce processing
overhead, and extract valuable insights in real-time. Depending on
the stream processing framework and platform used, filtering can be
implemented using built-in operators or custom user-defined
functions.

Define filtering.Explain implicit filtering.

Filtering is a data processing technique used to select specific data
or elements from a dataset or stream based on predefined criteria or
conditions. The goal of filtering is to retain only the data that
satisfies the specified criteria, excluding any data that does not meet
those conditions. Filtering is a common operation in various fields,
including data analysis, databases, stream processing, and
information retrieval.
25 4 CO4
There are two primary types of filtering: explicit filtering and
implicit filtering.

1. Explicit Filtering:
• Explicit filtering refers to the process of applying filters
directly by specifying the criteria or conditions
explicitly. Users or developers define the filtering rules,
and the filtering operation is carried out accordingly.
 P a g e | 52

• For example, in a database query, you might use SQL

to specify explicit filtering criteria in a WHERE clause to
retrieve rows that meet certain conditions, such as
"SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Age >= 30."
• Explicit filtering is commonly used when the filtering
criteria are known and can be defined in advance.
2. Implicit Filtering:
• Implicit filtering, on the other hand, involves filtering
data based on inherent characteristics, properties, or
constraints of the data itself, without explicitly
specifying the filtering criteria.
• This type of filtering relies on predefined rules or
default behaviors that are applied without user
intervention.
• An example of implicit filtering can be found in web
search engines. When you perform a search, the search
engine applies implicit filtering algorithms to rank and
display search results based on relevance and other
factors. Users do not specify explicit filtering criteria;
the search engine's algorithms handle the filtering
behind the scenes.
• Another example is in streaming data processing.
Implicit filtering may involve discarding data points
that are duplicates, out-of-order, or do not conform to
expected data formats.
• Implicit filtering is often used in scenarios where
predefined rules or system defaults are trusted to
provide the desired outcome without manual
intervention.

Define Data Sampling.Also define types of data sampling. CO4

Data sampling is a statistical technique used in data analysis and

research to select a subset or sample from a larger dataset with the
26 3
aim of making inferences, drawing conclusions, or performing
analyses on the sample instead of the entire dataset. Data sampling
is particularly useful when dealing with large and potentially
unwieldy datasets, as it allows for more manageable and efficient
 P a g e | 53

analysis. The goal of sampling is to obtain a representative subset of

data that accurately reflects the characteristics of the whole dataset.

There are several types of data sampling techniques, each with its
own purpose and method:

1. Random Sampling:
• Random sampling involves selecting data points from
a dataset purely by chance, with each data point
having an equal probability of being included in the
sample.
• Random sampling is unbiased and is often used when
researchers want to avoid introducing any systematic
bias into the sample.
• Methods like simple random sampling and stratified
random sampling fall under this category.
2. Stratified Sampling:
• In stratified sampling, the dataset is divided into
subgroups or strata based on specific characteristics or
attributes.
• A random sample is then taken from each stratum in
proportion to its representation in the overall
population.
• Stratified sampling ensures that important subgroups
are adequately represented in the sample, making it
useful when certain subgroups are of particular
interest.
3. Systematic Sampling:
• Systematic sampling involves selecting data points at
regular intervals from a sorted or ordered dataset.
• For example, if you have a list of customer names in
alphabetical order, you might select every 10th
customer for your sample.
• Systematic sampling is efficient and can be less time-
consuming than pure random sampling.
4. Cluster Sampling:
• In cluster sampling, the dataset is divided into clusters
or groups, and a random sample of clusters is selected.
 P a g e | 54

• Then, all data points within the selected clusters are

included in the sample.
• Cluster sampling is often used when it is impractical or
expensive to sample individual data points.
5. Convenience Sampling:
• Convenience sampling involves selecting data points
that are readily available or easy to access.
• It is often used for quick and low-cost studies but may
introduce bias if the sample is not representative of the
population.
6. Purposive Sampling (Judgmental Sampling):
• Purposive sampling is a non-random sampling
technique where specific data points are selected
intentionally based on their relevance to the research
objective.
• Researchers choose data points that they believe will
provide valuable insights or information.
7. Snowball Sampling:
• Snowball sampling is commonly used in social network
analysis and qualitative research.
• It begins with an initial data point or participant, and
additional data points are added to the sample based
on referrals or connections from the initial data point.
8. Quota Sampling:
• Quota sampling involves selecting data points based
on predefined quotas or characteristics.
• Researchers aim to ensure that the sample reflects the
proportions of various attributes or characteristics
found in the population.

List out Real Time Analytics Platform application.

Real-time analytics platforms are used across various industries and
applications to process and analyze data in real-time or near-real-
time. These platforms are essential for making data-driven decisions,
27 3 CO4
detecting anomalies, and gaining insights as data streams in. Here
are some common real-time analytics platform applications:

1. E-commerce and Retail:

 P a g e | 55

• Real-time recommendation engines that suggest

products to customers based on their browsing and
purchase history.
• Fraud detection systems to identify suspicious
transactions as they occur.
2. Financial Services:
• Real-time monitoring of financial markets and trading
activities.
• Algorithmic trading systems that make split-second
buy/sell decisions based on market data.
3. Healthcare:
• Patient monitoring in hospitals, where vital signs are
continuously analyzed.
• Predictive analytics for disease outbreak detection and
resource allocation.
4. Telecommunications:
• Network monitoring and optimization to ensure
service quality.
• Real-time billing and usage analysis for mobile
providers.
5. IoT (Internet of Things):
• Monitoring and control of smart devices and sensors in
industrial settings.
• Predictive maintenance for machinery and equipment.
6. Social Media and Marketing:
• Real-time sentiment analysis of social media posts and
comments.
• Ad targeting and optimization based on user behavior.
7. Energy and Utilities:
• Monitoring of power grids and distribution networks
to prevent outages.
• Optimization of energy consumption in smart
buildings.
8. Transportation and Logistics:
• Real-time tracking of vehicles and shipments.
• Route optimization and traffic management.
9. Manufacturing:
• Monitoring of production lines for quality control and
efficiency.
 P a g e | 56

• Predictive maintenance for minimizing equipment

downtime.
10. Gaming:
• Real-time analytics for multiplayer games, including
player behavior and in-game purchases.
• Matchmaking systems that pair players based on skill
levels.
11. Agriculture:
• Monitoring of soil conditions and weather data for
precision agriculture.
• Real-time tracking of livestock for health and location.
12. Government and Public Safety:
• Public safety agencies use real-time analytics for
emergency response and crime prevention.
• Traffic management and congestion monitoring in
smart cities.
13. Media and Entertainment:
• Real-time viewer analytics for streaming platforms.
• Dynamic content recommendations and
personalization.
14. Health and Fitness:
• Wearable devices provide real-time health and fitness
data to users.
• Analytics for remote patient monitoring and chronic
disease management.
15. Environmental Monitoring:
• Real-time analysis of air and water quality data for
environmental protection.
• Early warning systems for natural disasters.

These are just a few examples of the many applications of real-time

analytics platforms across various industries. In each case, the goal is
to process and analyze data as it becomes available, enabling
organizations to respond quickly to changing conditions, identify
trends, and make informed decisions in real time.

What is Real time sentiment analysis?Give the benefits and components

28 of sentiment analysis. 4 CO4
 P a g e | 57

Real-time sentiment analysis is a natural language processing

(NLP) technique that involves continuously monitoring and analyzing
text data, such as social media posts, customer reviews, news
articles, and comments, as it is generated in real-time. The objective
of real-time sentiment analysis is to determine the emotional tone or
sentiment expressed in the text, whether it is positive, negative,
neutral, or a combination thereof. This analysis provides valuable
insights into public opinion, customer satisfaction, and brand
perception as it evolves in real-time.

Benefits of Real-Time Sentiment Analysis:

1. Timely Insights: Real-time sentiment analysis provides

immediate insights into how people are reacting to events,
products, services, or trends. This enables organizations to
respond quickly to emerging issues or opportunities.
2. Brand Reputation Management: By monitoring sentiment
in real-time, businesses can protect their brand reputation by
addressing negative sentiment or feedback promptly and
effectively.
3. Customer Engagement: Real-time sentiment analysis can
help companies engage with customers in a personalized and
timely manner. Positive sentiment can be acknowledged,
while negative sentiment can be addressed with relevant
responses.
4. Market Research: Companies can use real-time sentiment
analysis to gather market intelligence, track trends, and assess
the competitiveness of products or services.
5. Crisis Detection: Early detection of negative sentiment spikes
can alert organizations to potential crises, allowing them to
take corrective action before issues escalate.
6. Product Development: Continuous sentiment analysis can
inform product development by providing feedback on what
customers like or dislike about current offerings.
7. Improved Customer Service: By identifying customer
sentiment in real-time, businesses can improve their customer
service by addressing concerns promptly and efficiently.
 P a g e | 58

Components of Sentiment Analysis:

Sentiment analysis typically involves the following components:

1. Text Preprocessing: The first step is to clean and preprocess

the text data. This includes removing noise, such as special
characters and irrelevant information, and tokenizing the text
into words or phrases.
2. Text Classification: Sentiment analysis uses machine learning
or deep learning models to classify text into sentiment
categories, such as positive, negative, or neutral. These
models learn from labeled training data to make predictions.
3. Sentiment Lexicons: Lexicons or dictionaries of words and
phrases with associated sentiment scores are used to identify
sentiment-bearing terms in text. Some words have predefined
sentiment values (e.g., "happy" is positive), while others
depend on context.
4. Feature Extraction: Feature extraction techniques are used
to convert text data into numerical representations that can
be fed into machine learning models. Common methods
include bag-of-words (BoW) and term frequency-inverse
document frequency (TF-IDF).
5. Model Training: Machine learning models, such as support
vector machines (SVMs), logistic regression, or deep neural
networks (e.g., LSTM or BERT), are trained using labeled data
to predict sentiment.
6. Real-Time Data Ingestion: Text data from various sources
(e.g., social media feeds, news articles) is continuously
ingested into the sentiment analysis system.
7. Real-Time Analysis: The sentiment analysis system
continuously processes incoming text data, applying the
trained model to classify sentiment in real-time.
8. Visualization and Reporting: Results are often visualized
through dashboards or reports, providing insights into
sentiment trends and patterns as they happen.

Real-time sentiment analysis is a valuable tool for businesses and

organizations to stay attuned to public sentiment, make informed
 P a g e | 59

decisions, and respond effectively to changing circumstances and

customer feedback.

Explain working of Hive with proper steps and diagram. CO5

Hive is a data warehousing and SQL-like query language for
managing and querying large datasets in a Hadoop ecosystem. It
provides a high-level abstraction and a familiar SQL interface for
users to interact with data stored in Hadoop Distributed File System
(HDFS) or other compatible storage systems. Below are the steps to
understand how Hive works:

1. Data Ingestion:

• Data is ingested into the Hadoop Distributed File System

(HDFS) or another compatible storage system. This data may
include structured or semi-structured data in various formats
like CSV, JSON, or Parquet.

2. Hive Metastore:

29 • Hive has a Metastore component that stores metadata about 7

tables, partitions, columns, and data types. This metadata is
essential for managing and querying data.

3. HiveQL:

• Users interact with Hive using HiveQL, which is a SQL-like

language. They write queries to create tables, load data, and
perform various data operations.

4. Query Parsing and Compilation:

• When a HiveQL query is submitted, it undergoes a parsing

and compilation process. The query is parsed to understand
its structure and checked for syntax errors.

5. Query Optimization:
 P a g e | 60

• After parsing, the query undergoes optimization to generate

an execution plan. Hive's query optimizer looks for
opportunities to optimize the query, such as reducing data
shuffling.

6. Execution Plan Generation:

• The optimized query is converted into a series of MapReduce,

Tez, or Spark jobs, depending on the execution engine
chosen (e.g., MapReduce, Tez, or Spark).

7. Query Execution:

• The generated execution plan is executed on the Hadoop

cluster. This involves distributing tasks to worker nodes,
reading data from HDFS, processing data, and generating
intermediate results.

8. Intermediate Data Storage:

• Intermediate results are stored in HDFS or other distributed

storage. Hive uses temporary tables or directories to hold
these intermediate data sets.

9. Data Shuffling (if necessary):

• In some cases, data shuffling occurs during query execution.

This is common in join operations, where data is redistributed
among worker nodes to align keys.

10. Final Result Generation: - After processing is complete, the

final results are generated and stored in HDFS or another specified
location. These results can be queried by the user or used for further
analysis.

11. Query Result Retrieval: - Users can retrieve the query results
using the Hive command-line interface, a graphical user interface
(like Hue), or by integrating Hive with external tools like BI tools or
applications.
 P a g e | 61

12. Metadata Updates: - Any changes to the data or schema, such

as creating new tables, adding partitions, or altering table structures,
are reflected in the Hive Metastore, ensuring that metadata is always
up-to-date.

Hive's strength lies in its ability to provide a familiar SQL-like

interface for users who may not be well-versed in Hadoop's
underlying complexities. It translates high-level SQL queries into
MapReduce, Tez, or Spark jobs that can be executed on Hadoop
clusters. This abstraction simplifies data processing tasks for data
analysts and allows them to leverage the power of Hadoop without
needing to write complex code.

Explain the architecture of the hive with a neat diagram.

Hive, a data warehousing and SQL-like query language system for

Hadoop, follows a distributed and layered architecture. It's designed
to manage and query large datasets stored in Hadoop Distributed
File System (HDFS) or other compatible storage systems efficiently.
The architecture of Hive consists of several key components:

1. User Interface:
• The top layer of Hive's architecture includes various
user interfaces through which users interact with the
system.
30 • The command-line interface (CLI), Hive shell, and web- 7 CO5
based interfaces like Hue provide ways for users to
submit HiveQL queries and manage Hive operations.
2. Driver:
• The Driver is responsible for parsing, compiling,
optimizing, and executing HiveQL queries.
• It coordinates the flow of query processing and
communicates with other components of the Hive
architecture.
3. Compiler and Query Optimizer:
• The Compiler takes the HiveQL queries and generates
an execution plan in the form of a directed acyclic
graph (DAG).
 P a g e | 62

• The Query Optimizer examines the execution plan and

applies optimization rules to improve query
performance. It can perform tasks like query pruning,
predicate pushdown, and join optimization.
4. Metastore:
• The Metastore stores metadata about tables, columns,
partitions, data types, and other schema-related
information.
• It is critical for query planning and execution, as it
provides information about how data is structured and
where it's located.
5. Execution Engine:
• Hive supports multiple execution engines, including
MapReduce (legacy), Tez, and Spark. The choice of
execution engine can significantly impact query
performance.
• The Execution Engine is responsible for executing the
tasks generated by the Compiler and Query Optimizer.
• In the case of MapReduce, it generates MapReduce
jobs. In Tez and Spark, it creates DAGs and tasks.
6. Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS):
• Hive stores its data in HDFS or other compatible
storage systems. HDFS is a distributed file system that
provides scalability and fault tolerance.
• Hive uses HDFS to store both the raw data and any
intermediate query results.
7. External Storage Systems (Optional):
• In addition to HDFS, Hive can also be configured to
use external storage systems like HBase or Amazon S3
as data storage.
• This flexibility allows users to choose the storage
system that best fits their use case and requirements.
8. Execution Nodes:
• Execution nodes are the worker nodes in the Hadoop
cluster responsible for running tasks generated by the
Execution Engine.
• They read data from HDFS, process it, and store
intermediate results back in HDFS.
9. Result Store:
 P a g e | 63

• The Result Store is the location where the final query

results are stored. This can be HDFS or another user-
defined storage system.
• Users can retrieve the query results from this location.
10. External User-Defined Functions (UDFs) (Optional):
• Hive allows users to define custom UDFs that can be
used in HiveQL queries. These UDFs can be written in
Java, Python, or other languages.
11. Extensions and Plugins (Optional):
• Hive can be extended with various extensions, plugins,
and connectors to integrate with other systems and
tools, such as data warehouses, BI tools, and data
lakes.

Explain the types of meta stores in Hive.

In Hive, the Metastore is a critical component that stores metadata
about tables, columns, partitions, data types, and other schema-
related information. The Metastore enables Hive to manage and
query data efficiently by providing information about how data is
structured and where it's located. There are several types of
Metastores used in Hive, including:

1. Embedded Metastore:
• The Embedded Metastore, also known as the built-in
Metastore, is the default Metastore provided with Hive.
• It uses an embedded database, such as Apache Derby
31 3 CO5
or Apache HSQLDB, to store metadata.
• The Embedded Metastore is suitable for small to
moderate-sized Hive installations, where the metadata
storage requirements are not extensive.
• It is easy to set up and does not require external
database installation or configuration.
2. Local Metastore:
• The Local Metastore is similar to the Embedded
Metastore in that it stores metadata in an embedded
database.
• However, it differs in its use case. The Local Metastore
is typically used when you want to run Hive in local
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mode on a single machine for development, testing, or

small-scale data processing.
• It is not suitable for distributed Hive clusters.
3. Remote Metastore (External Metastore):
• A Remote Metastore, also referred to as an External
Metastore, stores metadata in an external relational
database management system (RDBMS) like MySQL,
PostgreSQL, Oracle, or Microsoft SQL Server.
• Using an external RDBMS for the Metastore is
recommended for production environments and large-
scale Hive deployments.
• It offers better scalability, reliability, and performance
compared to the Embedded or Local Metastores.
• Multiple Hive instances in a cluster can share a single
Remote Metastore, making it a central point for
managing metadata across the cluster.
4. Highly Available (HA) Metastore:
• In environments where high availability is crucial, you
can configure a Highly Available Metastore.
• This involves setting up multiple instances of the
Metastore database in an active-standby or active-
active configuration.
• In case of a failure in one instance, the system can
automatically switch to another, ensuring
uninterrupted access to metadata.
5. Custom Metastores (Metastore Plug-ins):
• Hive allows users to implement custom Metastores or
Metastore plug-ins to cater to specific requirements or
integrate with non-standard databases.
• Custom Metastores are developed using the Hive
Metastore API, which provides a framework for
building Metastores tailored to unique needs.

Explain the features of Pig. CO5

32 Apache Pig is a high-level platform and scripting language designed 4

for processing and analyzing large datasets in the Hadoop
ecosystem. It simplifies the development of data transformation and
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analysis tasks, making it easier for data engineers and analysts to

work with big data. Here are the key features of Apache Pig:

1. Abstraction Layer:
• Pig provides a high-level abstraction layer over
Hadoop MapReduce. Users can express data
transformations using a simple scripting language
called Pig Latin, without needing to write complex
MapReduce code.
2. Ease of Use:
• Pig Latin is similar to SQL, making it relatively easy for
those familiar with SQL to learn and use Pig.
• Pig abstracts away many of the low-level details of
MapReduce, reducing the learning curve for Hadoop
newcomers.
3. Extensibility:
• Pig allows users to write User-Defined Functions
(UDFs) in Java, Python, or other languages, which can
be integrated into Pig scripts. This extensibility enables
custom data processing.
4. Data Flow Language:
• Pig Latin scripts define data flows, where data is
loaded, transformed, and stored in a series of steps.
This makes it easy to understand and visualize the data
processing logic.
5. Optimization:
• Pig includes an optimization phase that can
automatically optimize the execution plan of a Pig
Latin script for better performance. It can reorder
operations and reduce data movement, improving
query efficiency.
6. Schema Flexibility:
• Pig is schema-agnostic, which means it can handle
structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data.
This flexibility is useful for processing diverse data
sources.
7. Support for Complex Data Types:
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• Pig supports complex data types like tuples, bags, and

maps, allowing users to work with nested and
hierarchical data structures.
8. Parallel Execution:
• Pig automatically parallelizes data processing tasks
across a Hadoop cluster, taking advantage of the
distributed nature of Hadoop. This leads to faster data
processing on large datasets.
9. Integration with Ecosystem:
• Pig seamlessly integrates with other components of
the Hadoop ecosystem, including HDFS, Hive, HBase,
and Piggybank (a library of user-contributed UDFs).
10. Script Reusability:
• Pig scripts are modular and can be reused across
different datasets and projects, promoting code
efficiency and maintainability.
11. Debugging and Profiling:
• Pig provides tools for debugging and profiling scripts,
helping users identify and resolve issues in their data
processing logic.
12. Community and Ecosystem:
• Apache Pig is an open-source project with an active
community. Users can leverage community-
contributed resources and libraries to extend its
functionality.
13. Ecosystem Independence:
• Pig is not tied to a specific storage format or data
source. It can process data from various sources,
including HDFS, local file systems, and cloud storage.
14. Scalability:
• Pig scales horizontally, allowing users to process and
analyze large datasets across a cluster of machines.
15. Reproducibility:
• Pig scripts are repeatable, ensuring consistent data
processing and analysis across different runs and
environments.
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Differentiate between Local Mode vs Mapreduce Mode.

33 4 CO5

Differentiate between Apache pig vs Mapreduce.

34 4 CO5
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Name & Sign Name & Sign

Subject Co-ordinator Head of Department

35
Differentiate between Apache pig vs NoSQL.
3 CO5
 Aspect Apache Pig NoSQL Databases
P a g e | 69

Apache Pig is a platform for processing NoSQL databases are designed for efficient
and analyzing large datasets. It is used storage and retrieval of unstructured, semi-
for data transformation, ETL (Extract, structured, or structured data. They are used
Transform, Load), and data analysis for data persistence, often in real-time or
Use Case tasks. near-real-time applications.

Pig is primarily used for data processing NoSQL databases are storage systems
and analysis, providing a scripting optimized for data retrieval and management.
Data language (Pig Latin) for expressing data They don't offer data processing capabilities
Processing transformations. like Pig.

NoSQL databases use query languages

specific to their database type. Examples
Pig uses Pig Latin, a high-level scripting include MongoDB's JSON-like query language
Query language that resembles SQL, making it and Cassandra's CQL (Cassandra Query
Language accessible to users with SQL skills. Language).

NoSQL databases support various data

models, including document-based (e.g.,
Pig is schema-agnostic, capable of MongoDB), key-value (e.g., Redis), column-
working with structured, semi- family (e.g., Cassandra), and graph-based
Data Model structured, and unstructured data. (e.g., Neo4j).

Pig doesn't provide inherent horizontal NoSQL databases are designed for horizontal
scalability. Performance is based on the scalability, making them suitable for handling
Scalability underlying Hadoop cluster's scalability. large and growing datasets.
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Aspect Apache Pig NoSQL Databases

Pig itself doesn't store data. It processes

data stored in external systems, such as NoSQL databases are data storage systems
Data Storage HDFS. that persist data directly.

Pig focuses on data processing and NoSQL databases are designed for efficient
doesn't provide real-time data retrieval data retrieval, supporting real-time or near-
Data Retrieval capabilities. real-time access to stored data.

NoSQL databases are used in applications

Common use cases for Apache Pig requiring high-speed data retrieval, such as
include data transformation, ETL, log web applications, real-time analytics, and
Use Cases processing, and batch data analysis. content management systems.

Pig has a lower learning curve for users NoSQL databases may have varying learning
Learning with SQL experience due to its SQL-like curves depending on the database type and
Curve syntax. query language.

NoSQL databases have diverse communities

Community Pig has an active open-source and ecosystems, with each database type
and community and integrates with the having its own ecosystem of tools and
Ecosystem Hadoop ecosystem. libraries.
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Aspect Apache Pig NoSQL Databases

Pig can be used for data analysis, but it's Some NoSQL databases support analytics and
Data Analytics not optimized for real-time analytics or reporting features, but they are primarily
and Reporting reporting. focused on data storage and retrieval.