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June 18, 2023

Critically discuss the theoretical differences between the ‘old’ and ‘current’

psychological theories of leadership.

Assessment One (1)

Organisational Leadership
UU-PSY703

Rosanna Ferreira
Leadership is a widespread notion that is important in many fields, including business, politics,
education, and social contexts. It entails the capacity to persuade and direct individuals or groups
toward common goals, make choices, and effect good change. Leadership has been extensively
researched and changed over time, giving rise to several psychological theories that aim to
explain and guide effective leadership techniques.

The goal of this essay is to critically explore and compare the theoretical distinctions between
'old' and 'old' leadership psychology theories. We may obtain insights into how our knowledge of
leadership has evolved through time by investigating the history of leadership theories, as well as
how modern ideas have addressed the limits of older methods. This investigation seeks to
improve our understanding of leadership and to influence leadership strategies across several
areas.

The essay compares traditional and new psychological theories of leadership. Old theories
emphasize leadership qualities and actions, but new theories emphasize more holistic and
relational approaches. Old ideas emphasize leaders, but new theories emphasize followers. Old
theories of leadership saw it as a top-down process, but new views saw it as a collaborative
process. Old theories have limitations in explaining leadership effectiveness, but newer ideas are
more complete. Finally, the essay discusses the consequences of these disparities for leadership
practice and growth.

Trait theories of leadership are about looking at the things that make someone a good leader.
They try to figure out what special qualities and traits leaders have that help them be successful.
These theories want to find out the specific traits that make someone a leader, as opposed to
someone who is not a leader.

A long time ago, people studied what makes a good leader by looking at the things that make
them special, like their personality and skills. They wanted to find out what traits were important
for being a successful leader. People studied what makes someone a good leader, but they didn't
find a definite list of qualities that make someone successful. This is because they didn't look at
other things that also affect how well a leader does, like how well their group works together or
how they advance in their job. They mostly just looked at how certain qualities in a person relate
to how well they do as a leader. Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017)
Ralph studied leaders and found out that they are not very different from the people who follow
them. They have similar qualities like being tall, smart, friendly, and wanting to do well. This
means that leaders aren't special or different from everyone else. Stogdill then found out that
some qualities can help someone be a good leader, like being smart, responsible, and friendly.
But other qualities, like being lazy or cranky, can make it harder to lead a group to success.
Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017)

Despite their contributions, trait theories of leadership have faced limitations and criticisms.
Some common criticisms include:

Lack of comprehensive trait list: Trait theories have been criticized for not providing a
comprehensive and definitive list of traits that universally predict leadership effectiveness.
Different studies have identified different traits, making it challenging to establish a consistent
set of traits.

Neglect of situational factors: Trait theories often overlook the role of situational factors in
determining leadership effectiveness. The same set of traits may not be equally effective in all
situations, and leadership effectiveness is contingent upon the specific context in which leaders
operate.

Failure to account for behavioral aspects: Trait theories primarily focus on inherent qualities and
characteristics of leaders but may not sufficiently address the importance of leader behaviors in
influencing followers and achieving organizational goals. Effective leadership encompasses not
only traits but also the actions and behaviors demonstrated by leaders.

During the transformative era of the late 1940s to early 1950s, a paradigm shift occurred in the
realm of leadership theories, transitioning from trait-based approaches to the emergence of
behavioral theories. These groundbreaking theories delved deep into the intricate study of
leaders' behaviors, with the goal of unveiling the most effective leadership styles and behaviors.
Distinguished researchers embarked on a noble quest to categorize and analyze behaviors that
would enrich our comprehension of leadership and its profound influence. Notably, the
prestigious institutions of the University of Michigan and the Ohio State University undertook
influential studies during this epoch, leaving an indelible mark on the field. Arenas, F. J.,
Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017)

The Survey Research Center at the University of Michigan has created a questionnaire called the
"Survey of Organizations" that compares the behavior of leaders in high-performing units to
those in low-performing units. This research has revealed two distinct leadership styles: job-
centered and employee-centered. Job-centered leaders prioritize goals and task completion,
closely monitoring and directing subordinates. Employee-centered leaders focus on creating a
supportive environment and facilitating meaningful interactions, addressing emotional and social
needs through effective communication. This approach cultivates genuine relationships and
overall well-being.

The Ohio State University Personnel Research Board created a questionnaire called the Leader
Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) to differentiate effective leadership methods. The
questionnaire identified 150 leadership behaviors and divided them into two groups: initiating
structure, which focuses on completing tasks, and consideration, which focuses on building
relationships and meeting human needs. The Ohio State University Leadership Model identified
four leadership styles based on different levels of structure and consideration. Robert Blake and
Jane Mouton developed this model into the Managerial Grid, which classified leadership
approaches based on concern for production and people. The Managerial Grid included five
styles with varying levels of concern for both factors. This was an important tool in analyzing
and improving leadership practices. Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017)

Behavioral theories aimed to explain distinctive leadership styles and define the nature of
leaders' work. However, they faced several criticisms and challenges:

Situational factors: Critics argue that behavioral theories often overlook the importance of
situational factors that can influence leadership effectiveness. The theories may not sufficiently
account for the influence of different contexts and situations on leadership behaviors.

Lack of universal behaviors: Like trait theories, behavioral theories may fail to recognize that
effective leadership behaviors can vary across different individuals and situations. The emphasis
on specific behaviors may overlook the need for adaptability and flexibility in leadership.
Limited focus on outcomes: Behavioral theories primarily focus on describing and categorizing
behaviors but may not adequately address the outcomes and impact of these behaviors on
follower satisfaction, motivation, and performance.

Ignoring individual differences: Behavioral theories may not adequately consider the individual
differences among leaders and followers. The theories may not account for the diverse needs,
values, and personalities of individuals in leadership roles and may overlook the importance of
tailoring leadership behaviors to individual characteristics.

Contingency theories of leadership suggest that the effectiveness of leadership depends on

adapting leadership styles to fit different situations. These theories highlight the significance of
aligning leadership behaviors with specific contexts. They are commonly known as leader-match
theories because their goal is to identify the most appropriate leadership style for a particular
situation. Situational variables are seen as factors that influence how behavior affects outcomes
in different situations.

Fred Fiedler's Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) Scale is a contingency theory that measures an
individual's task-oriented or relationship-oriented affinity. Leaders with low LPC scores are
focused on task accomplishment and may use punitive measures, while leaders with high LPC
scores emphasize fostering good relationships with followers. Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., &
Williams, M. D. (2017)

The effectiveness of a leader depends on situational control, which considers factors like leader-
member relations, position power, and task structure. The Normative Decision Model, created by
Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton, helps leaders decide when to take control or allow their
followers to make decisions. It offers a decision-making framework that considers individual or
group decisions and time-driven or developmental-driven decisions.

By answering a set of questions, leaders can choose from five leadership styles: decide, consult
individually, consult group, facilitate, and delegate. The model helps leaders determine the best
level of involvement and decision-making power based on the situation. The Leadership
Continuum Model by Tannenbaum and Schmidt explains that leadership styles can be placed on
a scale of seven levels, from controlling to collaborative. Leaders at the controlling end make
decisions without explanation, while those at the collaborative end allow followers more
freedom in decision-making. The model emphasizes the importance of adjusting leadership style
to fit different situations and acknowledges varying levels of involvement and participation by
leaders and followers.

Contingency theories highlight the importance of considering both internal and external factors
when determining effective leadership styles. They emphasize that the same leadership style may
be effective in one situation but ineffective in another. However, contingency theories also face
criticisms and limitations:

Complexities and assumptions: Critics argue that contingency theories can be complex and
difficult to apply in practice. The models often rely on assumptions about leaders' decision-
making skills and their ability to execute different leadership styles effectively.

Lack of clear guidelines: Contingency theories may not provide clear guidelines on how to assess
situational variables or determine the best match between leadership styles and situations. This
can make it challenging for leaders to apply these theories in real-world settings.

Overemphasis on situational factors: Some argue that contingency theories place excessive
emphasis on situational factors and neglect the importance of individual characteristics and traits
of leaders and followers.

Limited empirical support: While contingency theories have received significant attention and
research, some studies have yielded inconsistent or inconclusive results. The theories may not
have consistently demonstrated strong empirical support.

Transformational leadership is a leadership approach that surpasses conventional leadership

theories, such as style, trait, and situation theories. The Situation Theory states that although
situational factors can affect leadership, transformational leaders focus on inspiring and
motivating followers regardless of the situation. While some traits may be important,
Transformational leadership emphasizes the importance of how leaders influence their followers.

Authentic leadership recognizes that true leadership comes from within and requires self-
awareness and alignment with personal values. Authentic leadership, according to Bill George, is
characterized by leaders who inspire and empower others while staying true to themselves.
Authentic leadership theory addresses the limitations of the "old" theories in several ways.
Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017)

Servant leadership prioritizes the needs and well-being of followers and promotes collective
goals. It emphasizes empowering and supporting followers to reach their potential and contribute
to organizational success, while also fostering collaboration and personal growth. Servant leaders
prioritize the needs of others, show empathy, humility, and honesty, and encourage teamwork and
independent thinking. They also maintain ethical conduct and prioritize the long-term success of
organizations. This approach creates a positive work environment, boosts employee satisfaction,
retention, and performance. Ethical leadership is also emphasized, urging leaders to behave
ethically and prioritize the well-being of the group over their own benefits. Servant leaders
encourage and support their followers, fostering empowerment and personal growth. Jonathan H.
Westover.(2013).

These theories recognize that leadership is not solely determined by individual traits or behaviors
but is a complex process that involves interactions and relationships between leaders and
followers. Behavior theories, on the other hand, focused on the observable actions and behaviors
of leaders and attempted to identify the behaviors associated with effective leadership. Moreover,
the 'current' theories of leadership also emphasize the distributed nature of leadership.

These theories recognize that leadership is not solely determined by individual traits or behaviors
but is a complex process that involves interactions and relationships between leaders and
followers. Behavior theories, on the other hand, focused on the observable actions and behaviors
of leaders and attempted to identify the behaviors associated with effective leadership. Moreover,
the 'current' theories of leadership also emphasize the distributed nature of leadership. Ogbuzuru,
Cheta. (2020).

Relational influence: 'Current' theories highlight the importance of interpersonal relationships

and social networks in leadership influence. Transformational influence: The 'current' theories
emphasize the transformative power of leadership influence. In contrast, the 'current' theories of
leadership present a more complex and nuanced understanding of leadership influence.

The 'old' psychological theories of leadership, which include trait theories and behavioral
theories, played a significant role in shaping our understanding of leadership. These theories
have laid the foundation for understanding leadership by providing valuable insights into the
individual characteristics and behaviors associated with effective leadership. "Leadership theory:
past, present and future" by Melissa Horner discusses the strengths and contributions of the 'old'
psychological theories of leadership. Horner, M. (1997)

Additionally, cross-cultural leadership theories explore how cultural values and norms influence
leadership behaviors and effectiveness across different cultural contexts, promoting a more
global understanding of leadership. Overall, the 'current' psychological theories of leadership
have advanced our understanding of effective leadership by emphasizing the relational aspects, f
The 'current' psychological theories of leadership also take into account the organizational
context and its influence on leadership effectiveness.

Additionally, some critics argue that the 'current' theories of leadership may overemphasize the
importance of leaders and their individual characteristics, potentially neglecting the contributions
and agency of followers. Similarly, behavioral theories focus on identifying specific behaviors
associated with effective leadership, but they overlook the importance of considering the unique
characteristics and needs of followers. For instance, theories such as authentic leadership and
transformational leadership can be challenging to define and assess objectively.

Contingency theories suggest that effective leadership depends on matching leadership styles to
specific situations. Transformational and authentic leadership theories offer more comprehensive
frameworks for understanding effective leadership by addressing limitations of older theories.
While newer theories have expanded on this foundation, the old theories still shape our
understanding and research of leadership. These older theories focus on individual traits,
behaviors, and situational factors associated with effective leadership. The shift towards
follower-centric approaches highlights the importance of empowering and engaging followers in
the leadership process.
References
Arenas, F. J., Connelly, D., & Williams, M. D. (2017). Authentic Transformational Leadership. In
Developing Your Full Range of Leadership: Leveraging a Transformational Approach (pp. 53–
55). Air University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep13849.19

Heimann, C. G. (1976). Four Theories of Leadership. The Journal of Nursing Administration,

6(5), 18–24. http://www.jstor.org/stable/26806087

Jonathan H. Westover. (2013). Leadership and Organizational Change. Common Ground

Publishing.

Ogbuzuru, Cheta. (2020). Theoretical differences between the 'old' and 'current' theories of
leadership. 10.13140/RG.2.2.27131.34087.

Horner, M. (1997) ‘Leadership theory: past, present and future’, Team Performance
Management, 3, pp. 270–287.