The deformation of a structure under load depends on several variables:

The nature of the load. The structure may be loaded by a compressive or a tensile force, by a moment,
or by a combination of forces and moments. If it is loaded by a force, the deformation is measured in
meters [m] or relative units [%] in relation to its initial dimensions. If it is loaded by a moment and
torsion is observed, the deformation is measured in degrees [°]; if bending is observed, the deflection is
usually measured in meters [m].

The architecture of the structure. The deformation of a beam under bending or torsion depends on its
length and cross section. The deformation of a joint depends on the deformation of the bone and on the
architecture of the cartilage and the ligaments crossing the joint.

The properties of the building materials. In the case of a wooden beam, the deformation depends on the
type of wood used (for example: oak or pine). In the case of a joint, the mechanical properties of the
building materials bone, cartilage, and ligament come into play, or in the case of an orthosis, the
mechanical properties of steel and plastic materials. The mechanical properties are characterized by the
moduli of elasticity and shear and by the elastic, viscoelastic, or plastic properties.

Deformation under instantaneous loads

As with all other materials, concrete is deformable, and is considered to exhibit linear elastic behaviour
under short duration moderate loads. This means that its deformation is proportional to the applied
loads.

The instantaneous elastic modulus of concrete is between 30,000 and 35,000 MPa.

Deformation under long duration loads: creep

When loads exceed a certain level, concrete behaves as a plastic body. After removal of the load there is
still a residual permanent deformation, known as creep.
The deformation due to the process of creep, which continues for months or even years, is of the order
of three times the instantaneous deformation.

Deterioration of Concrete Structures

Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhDClick here to view Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhD’S profile

Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhD

Expert advice on inspection and…

Published Sep 23, 2016

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Deterioration of concrete structures can become a challenge for the owners of these structures. It is
important to identify these defects on time, and plan appropriate repair strategies. In this article, I will
review some of the most famous deterioration mechanisms. In doing so, I have focused on Ontario
Structure Inspection Manual (OSIM, 2008). I have also found this publication by the Portland Cement
Association very helpful.

Deterioration of Concrete

Before I begin this review, I would like to mention the definition of the following two terms according to
the OSIM (2008):

Defect: An identifiable, unwanted condition that was not part of the original intent of design.

Deterioration: A Defect that has occurred over a period of time

Different defects can be involved in the deterioration of any given structure. The following review
provides a brief summary on the most common defects observed in the existing structures. Normally,
one or a number of these defects can be seen in structures; therefore, it is necessary to identify them
properly. One needs to understand these different defects properly in order to get more realistic
evaluation of the structure.
1- SCALING

Scaling is referred to the loss of the surface portion of concrete (or mortar) as a result of the freezing
and thawing (OSIM, 2008). It is a physical action that usually leaves the aggregates clearly exposed.
(PCA, 2001).

Scaling happens when the hydraulic pressure from water freezing within concrete exceeds the tensile
strength of concrete. Scaling is more common in non-air-entrained concrete, but can also occur in air-
entrained concrete in the fully saturated condition.

2- DISINTEGRATION

Disintegration is the physical deterioration (such as scaling) or breaking down of the concrete into small
fragments or particles.

It usually starts in the form of scaling. It may be also caused by de-icing chemicals, sulphates, chlorides
or by frost action.

3- EROSION

Erosion is the deterioration of concrete surface as a result of particles in moving water scrubbing the
surface.Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhDExpand search

Deterioration of Concrete Structures

Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhDClick here to view Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhD’S profile

Hamed Layssi, PEng, PhD

Expert advice on inspection and…

Published Sep 23, 2016

+ Follow
Deterioration of concrete structures can become a challenge for the owners of these structures. It is
important to identify these defects on time, and plan appropriate repair strategies. In this article, I will
review some of the most famous deterioration mechanisms. In doing so, I have focused on Ontario
Structure Inspection Manual (OSIM, 2008). I have also found this publication by the Portland Cement
Association very helpful.

Deterioration of Concrete

Before I begin this review, I would like to mention the definition of the following two terms according to
the OSIM (2008):

Defect: An identifiable, unwanted condition that was not part of the original intent of design.

Deterioration: A Defect that has occurred over a period of time

Different defects can be involved in the deterioration of any given structure. The following review
provides a brief summary on the most common defects observed in the existing structures. Normally,
one or a number of these defects can be seen in structures; therefore, it is necessary to identify them
properly. One needs to understand these different defects properly in order to get more realistic
evaluation of the structure.

1- SCALING

Scaling is referred to the loss of the surface portion of concrete (or mortar) as a result of the freezing
and thawing (OSIM, 2008). It is a physical action that usually leaves the aggregates clearly exposed.
(PCA, 2001).

Scaling happens when the hydraulic pressure from water freezing within concrete exceeds the tensile
strength of concrete. Scaling is more common in non-air-entrained concrete, but can also occur in air-
entrained concrete in the fully saturated condition.

2- DISINTEGRATION
Disintegration is the physical deterioration (such as scaling) or breaking down of the concrete into small
fragments or particles.

It usually starts in the form of scaling. It may be also caused by de-icing chemicals, sulphates, chlorides
or by frost action.

3- EROSION

Erosion is the deterioration of concrete surface as a result of particles in moving water scrubbing the
surface. When concrete surface is exposed to the water-borne sand and gravel, the surface gets
deteriorated by particles scrubbing against the surfaces. Flowing ice particles can also cause the
problem. It is an indicator of poor durability of concrete for that specific exposure.

4- CORROSION OF REINFORCEMENT

Corrosion is the deterioration of steel reinforcement in concrete. Corrosion can be induced by chloride
or carbonation. The corrosion can result in cracking in the concrete cover, delamination in concrete
decks, etc.

When the concentration of chloride ions above the surface of reinforcement reaches the threshold limit
(which is the amount required to break down the passive film) corrosion begins.

5- DELAMINATION

“Delamination is defined as a discontinuity of the surface concrete which is substantially separated but
not completely detached from concrete below or above it.” (OSIM, 2008). Delamination is often
identified by the hollow sound by tapping or chain dragging of concrete surface.

The corrosion of reinforcement and subsequent cracking of the cover can cause delamination. When the
rebar have small spacing, the cracking extends in the plane of the reinforcement parallel to the exterior
surface of the concrete.
6- SPALLING

Spalling can be considered an extended delamination. In fact, when the delamination continues, the
concrete fragments detach from a larger concrete mass.

If delamination is not repaired on time, the progress of damages as a result of external loads, corrosion,
and freezing and thawing can break off the delaminated pieces.

7- ALKALI-AGGREGATE REACTIONS

It is the internal cracking of concrete mass as a result of a chemical reaction between alkalis in the
cement and silica in the aggregates. The AAR/ASR cracking are very famous for their crack patterns.

The alkalis in the cement can react with the active silica in the aggregates to form a swelling gel. When
this gel absorbs water, it expands, and applies pressure to surrounding environment which makes the
concrete crack.

8- CRACKING OF CONCRETE

A crack is a linear fracture in concrete which extends partly or completely through the member.

Some people believe that concrete is born with cracks; that its ingredients, and how it is produced –
from the batching plant to pouring, setting, and curing – is influenced by so many factors that cracking of
concrete does not come as a big surprise; and to a great extent, that might be true. Cracking of concrete
can happen in different stages: It can happen before hardening of concrete, and it can happen in an old
concrete structure:

Before Hardening

Settlement within concrete mass

Plastic shrinkage
After Hardening

Drying shrinkage

Thermal contraction

Stress and Strain

The quantity that describes the magnitude of forces that cause deformation is known as stress. It is
defined as force per unit. Stress is of various types as follows:

Tensile Stress – When forces pull an object and cause its elongation such as the stretching of a rubber
band

Compressive Stress – When the forces result in the compression of an object

Bulk Stress – When an object is squeezed from all sides like the submarine in the depth of the ocean

Shear Stress – A type of stress where the deforming stress acts tangentially to the object’s surface

The quantity that describes the deformation undergone is known as strain. The strain is given as a
fractional change in either the length, geometry or volume. It is a dimensionless number. The greater
the stress, the greater the strain. The proportionality constant in this relation is known as the elastic
modulus. The relation between stress and strain is given as follows:

Stress = Elastic Modulus × Strain

When an object has a large value of elastic modulus, the effect of stress is small. Likewise, a small elastic
modulus means that stress produces noticeable deformation. For example, stress on a rubber band
produces a larger strain as compared to a steel band of the same size. The elastic modulus of a rubber
band is smaller than the elastic modulus of the steel band. Elastic moduli of different materials are
measured based on physical conditions, such as varying temperature, and collected in engineering data
tables for reference. These tables are valuable references for industry and for anyone involved in
engineering or construction.

Definitions:

Stress is the measure of the force required to cause deformation.

A strain is the measure of the degree of deformation.

The ratio of stress to strain is known as elastic modulus. Elastic modulus defines the amount of force
required per unit deformation.

Types of Deformation

Deformation can be of two types as follows:

Permanent Deformation – Also known as plastic deformation, it is irreversible. It is a type of

deformation that stays even after the removal of applied forces.

Temporary Deformation – Also known as elastic deformation, it is reversible. It is a type of deformation

that disappears after the removal of applied forces.

When a material is subjected to applied forces, the material experiences elastic deformation followed by
plastic deformation. The transition from elastic to plastic state is characterized by the yield strength of
the material. The plastic deformation mechanism is different for crystalline and amorphous materials. In
crystalline materials, deformation is accomplished through a process known as the slip that involves the
movement of dislocations. While, in amorphous materials, deformation takes place by the sliding of
atoms and ions without any directionality.

Creep in Concrete

Definition: time-dependent deformation due to sustained load.- ACI Concrete Terminology

Creep is indicated when strain in a solid increases with time while the stress producing the strain is kept
constant. In more practical terms, creep is the increased strain or deformation of a structural element
under a constant load. Depending on the construction material, structural design, and service
conditions, creep can result in significant displacements in a structure. Severe creep strains can result in
serviceability problems, stress redistribution, prestress loss, and even failure of structural elements.

Scaling is local flaking or peeling of a finished surface

of hardened concrete as a result of exposure to freezing and thawing. Generally, it starts as localized
small

patches which later may merge and extend to expose

large areas. Light scaling does not expose the coarse

aggregate. Moderate scaling exposes the aggregate and

may involve loss of up to 1/8 to 3/8 inch [3 to 10 mm] of

the surface mortar. In severe scaling more surface has

been lost and the aggregate is clearly exposed and

stands out.

Note—Occasionally concrete peels or scales in the absence of freezing and thawing. This type of scaling
is not covered in this CIP.

Often this is due to the early use of a steel trowel, over-finishing or

finishing while bleed water is on the surface. (see CIP 20 on Delaminations)

Scaling concrete surface

WHAT is Scaling

HOW to Prevent Scaling

CIP 2 - Scaling Concrete Surfaces

WHY Do Concrete Surfaces Scale

Concrete slabs exposed to freezing and thawing in the

presence of moisture and/or deicing salts are susceptible to scaling. Most scaling is caused by:

a. The use of non-air-entrained concrete or too

little entrained air. Adequate air entrainment is required for protection against freezing and thawing

damage. However, even air-entrained concrete will

scale if other precautions, as listed below, are not

observed.

b. Application of excessive amounts of calcium or sodium chloride deicing salts on concrete with
inadequate strength, air entrainment, or curing. Chemicals such as ammonium sulfate or ammonium
nitrate, which are components of most fertilizers, can

cause scaling as well as induce severe chemical attack on the concrete surface.

c. Any finishing operation performed while bleed water is on the surface. If bleed water is worked back

into the top surface of the slab, a high water-cement

ratio and, therefore, a low-strength surface layer

is produced. Overworking the surface during

finishing will reduce the air content in the surface

layer, making it susceptible to scaling in freezing conditions.

d. Insufficient curing. This omission often results in a

weak surface skin, which will scale if it is exposed

to freezing and thawing in the presence of moisture

and deicing salts.

a. Concrete exposed to freezing and thawing cycles

must be air-entrained. Severe exposures require air

contents of 6 to 7 percent in freshly mixed concrete

made with 3/4-inch [19 mm] or 1-inch [25-mm] aggregate. In moderate exposures, where deicing salts
will

not be used, 4 to 6 percent air will be sufficient. Airentrained concrete of moderate slump (up to 5
inches

[125 mm]) and adequate quality should be used. In

general, concrete strength of 3500 psi [24 MPa] for

freezing and thawing exposure and 4000 psi [28

MPa] when deicers are used should be adequate to

prevent scaling.

b. DO NOT use deicing salts, such as calcium or sodium chloride, in the first year after placing the
concrete. Use clean sand for traction. When conditions permit, hose off accumulation of salt deposited

by cars on newly placed driveways and garage slabs.

Subsequently, use salt sparingly. Never use ammo-nium sulfate or ammonium nitrate as a deicer;

these are chemically aggressive and destroy concrete surfaces. Poor drainage, which permits water

or salt and water to stand on the surface for extended periods of time, greatly increases the severity of
the exposure and may cause scaling. (This is

often noticed in gutters and sidewalks where the

snow from plowing keeps the surface wet for long

periods of time.)

c. Provide proper curing by using liquid membrane curing compound or by covering the surface of newly

placed slab with wet burlap. Curing ensures the

proper reaction of cement with water, known as hydration, which allows the concrete to achieve its
highest potential strength.

d. DO NOT perform any finishing operations with

water present on the surface. Bull floating must

promptly follow initial screeding. Delay finishing

operations until all the bleed water has risen to and

disappeared from the surface. This is critical with

air-entrained concrete in dry and windy conditions

where concrete that is continuing to bleed may appear dry on the surface.

e. Do not use a jitterbug or vibrating screed with high

slump concrete, as it tends to form a weak layer of

mortar on the surface.

f. Protect concrete from the harsh winter environment.

It is important to prevent the newly placed concrete

from becoming saturated with water prior to freeze

and thaw cycles during winter months. Apply a commercially available silane or siloxane-based
breathable concrete sealer or water repellent specifically

designed for use on concrete slabs. Follow the

manufacturer’s recommendations for application

procedures and frequency. Another option is a 1:1

mixture of boiled linseed oil and mineral spirits apThe repaired surface will only be as strong as the base

surface to which it is bonded. Therefore, the surface to

be repaired should be free of dirt, oil or paint and, most

importantly, it must be sound. To accomplish this, use a

hammer and chisel, sandblasting, high-pressure washer,

or jack hammer to remove all weak or unsound material. The clean, rough, textured surface is then
ready

for a thin bonded resurfacing such as:

a. Portland cement concrete resurfacing

b. Latex modified concrete resurfacing

c. Polymer-modified cementitious-based repair mortar

References

1. Guide to Durable Concrete, ACI 201.2R, American

Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

2. Scale-Resistant Concrete Pavements, IS117.02P, Portland

Cement Association, Skokie, IL.

3. Protective Coatings to Prevent Deterioration of Concrete by

Deicing Chemicals, National Cooperative Highway Research

Program Report No. 16.

4. Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab Construction, ACI 302.1R,

American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

5. Residential Concrete, National Association of Home Builders, Washington, DC.

6. Slabs on Grade, Concrete Craftsman Series CCS-1, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI.

7. Eugene Goeb, Deicer Scaling: An Unnecessary Problem,

Concrete Products, February 1994.

plied in two layers. The concrete should be reasonably dry prior to the application of a sealer. Late

summer is the ideal time for surface treatment. The

sealer can be sprayed, brushed, or rolled on the surface of the concrete. CAUTION: Linseed oil will

darken the color of the concrete and care should be

Construction Errors

Errors made during construction can include adding improper amounts of water to the concrete mix,
inadequate consolidation, and improper curing can cause distress and deterioration of the concrete.
Proper mix design, placement, and curing of the concrete, as well as an experienced contractor are
essential to prevent construction errors from occurring. Construction errors can lead to some of the
problems discussed later in this fact sheet such as scaling and cracking. Honeycombing and bugholes can
be observed after construction.

Honeycombing can be recognized by exposed coarse aggregate on the surface without any mortar
covering or surrounding the aggregate particles. The honeycombing may extend deep into the concrete.
Honeycombing can be caused by a poorly graded concrete mix, by too large of a coarse aggregate, or by
insufficient vibration at the time of placement. Honeycombing will result in further deterioration of the
concrete due to freeze-thaw cycles because moisture can easily work its way into the honeycombed
areas. Severe honeycombing should be repaired to prevent further deterioration of the concrete
surface.
Bugholes is a term used to describe small holes (less than about 0.25 inch in diameter) that are
noticeable on the surface of the concrete. Bugholes are generally caused by too much sand in the mix, a
mix that is too lean or excessive amplitude of vibration during placement. Bugholes may cause durability
problems with the concrete and should be monitored.

Disintegration and Scaling

Disintegration can be described as the deterioration of the concrete into small fragments and individual
aggregates. Scaling is a milder form of disintegration where the surface mortar flakes off. Large areas of
crumbling (rotten) concrete, areas of deterioration which are more than about 3 to 4 inches deep
(depending on the wall/slab thickness), and exposed rebar indicate serious concrete deterioration. If not
repaired, this type of concrete deterioration may lead to structural instability of the concrete structure.
A registered professional engineer must prepare plans and specifications for repair of serious concrete
deterioration. For additional information, see the “Concrete Repair Techniques” fact sheet.

Disintegration can be a result of many causes such as freezing and thawing, chemical attack, and poor
construction practices. All exposed concrete is subject to freeze-thaw cycles, but the concrete’s
resistance to weathering is generally determined by the concrete mix and the age of the concrete.
Concrete with the proper amounts of air, water, and cement, and a properly sized aggregate, will be
much more durable. In addition, proper drainage is essential in preventing freeze-thaw damage. When
critically saturated concrete (when 90% of the pore space in the concrete is filled with water) is exposed
to freezing temperatures, the water in the pore spaces within the concrete freezes and expands,
damaging the concrete. Repeated cycles of freezing and thawing will result in surface scaling and can
lead to disintegration of the concrete. Hydraulic structures are especially susceptible to freeze-thaw
damage since they are more likely to be critically saturated. Older structures are also more susceptible
to freeze-thaw damage since the concrete was not air entrained. In addition, acidic substances in the
surrounding soil and water can cause disintegration of the concrete surface due to a reaction between
the acid and the hydrated cement.

Cracks

Cracks in the concrete may be structural or surface cracks. Surface cracks are generally less than a few
millimeters wide and deep. These are often called hairline cracks and may consist of single, thin cracks,
or cracks in a craze/map-like pattern. A small number of surface or shrinkage cracks is common and does
not usually cause any problems. Surface cracks can be caused by freeze-thaw cycles, poor construction
practices, and alkali-aggregate reactivity. Alkali-aggregate reactivity occurs when the aggregate reacts
with the cement causing crazing or map cracks. The placement of new concrete over old may also cause
surface cracks to develop. This occurs because the new concrete will shrink as it cures. Surface cracks in
the spillway should be monitored and will need to be repaired if they deteriorate further. Structural
cracks in the concrete are usually larger than 0.25 inch in width. They extend deeper into the concrete
and may extend all the way through a wall, slab, or other structural member. Structural cracks are often
caused by settlement of the fill material supporting the concrete structure, or by loss of the fill support
due to erosion. The structural cracks may worsen in severity due to the forces ofconcrete) could
develop. Also, water seeping through thin cracks in the wall will make the concrete more susceptible to
deterioration due to freezing and thawing of the water.

Erosion

Erosion due to abrasion results in a worn concrete surface. It is caused by the rubbing and grinding of
aggregate or other debris on the concrete surface of a spillway channel or stilling basin. Minor erosion is
not a problem but severe erosion can jeopardize the structural integrity of the concrete. A registered
professional engineer should prepare plans and specifications for repair of this type of erosion if it is
severe.

Erosion due to cavitation results in a rough, pitted concrete surface. Cavitation is a process in which
subatmospheric pressures, turbulent flow and impact energy are created and will damage the concrete.
If the shape of the upper curve on the ogee spillway is not designed close to its ideal shape, cavitation
may occur just below the upper curve, causing erosion. A professional engineer should prepare plans
and specifications for repair of this type of erosion if the concrete becomes severely pitted which could
lead to structural damage or failure.

Spalling and Popouts

Spalling is the loss of larger pieces or flakes of concrete. It is typically caused by sudden impact of
something dropped on the concrete or stress in the concrete that exceeded the design. Spalling may
occur on a smaller scale, creating popouts. Popouts are formed as the water in saturated coarse
aggregate particles near the surface freezes, expands, and pushes off the top of the aggregate and
surrounding mortar to create a shallow conical depression. Popouts are typically not a structural
problem. However, if a spall is large and causes structural damage, a registered professional engineer
should prepare plans and specifications to repair the spalling.

Causes and mechanisms of deterioration in reinforced concrete

V. Penttala, in Failure, Distress and Repair of Concrete Structures, 2009

Penetration of chlorides into concrete

Reinforcement corrosion is one of the major deterioration mechanisms of reinforced concrete

structures worldwide. The presence of chlorides increases the severity of the corrosion attack
considerably. Chlorides can penetrate into concrete which is in contact with de-icing salts or seawater.
Typical structures that are damaged by chloride-initiated reinforcement corrosion include bridges, car
parking structures, and off-shore structures such as piers, dams, docks, and harbor structures.

Critical amounts of chlorides may also be present in the fresh concrete mix even though at present very
few admixtures used in concrete contain chlorides. If seawater is used in producing concrete, chlorides
are introduced into the mix.

When chlorides penetrate into concrete from outside, they are usually in a water solution. In moist
concrete, the main transport mechanism is diffusion, but the capillary transport mechanism is also
possible if concrete is exposed to drying and wetting cycles. Cyclic freeze–thaw loads can effectively
increase the chloride content in concrete pore water. It is common practice to measure the maximum
concentration of the chloride front penetrating from the surface of the concrete cover over
reinforcement some centimeters inside the exposed surface (Fig. 1.7). Even though drying of concrete
complicates the theoretical modeling of the phenomenon, Fick’s second law is commonly applied in
mathematical modeling of chloride intrusion into concrete.

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1.7. Chloride distributions in the surface layer of concrete.

(adapted from Sandberg, 1993)

The three most important variables that govern the chloride intrusion into concrete and the corrosion of
the reinforcement are concentration of chlorides at the surface, concentration threshold value which
initiates corrosion of steel, and the transport rate of chloride ions in the concrete cover layer. Without
coating the surface of concrete, there are usually very limited means to decrease the concentration at
the surface. If this chloride concentration is high, it is nearly impossible to hinder the penetration of
chlorides to the reinforcement during long exposure times (50–100 years). At normal chloride exposure
concentrations (seawater or de-icing agents), by selecting binders that cause a high OH−-concentration
into pore water, the chloride threshold value that initiates corrosion of steel can be increased. Similarly,
some binders react with chlorides and this decreases the free chloride concentration in pore water
solution. These binders contain large amounts of C3A or GGBS. This is only a temporary relief, because
during carbonation large volumes of these bound chlorides dissolve back into pore water.

The transport rate of chloride ions can be decreased by producing a more impermeable concrete cover
by using lower water/cement ratio and by applying longer wet curing. The rate of chloride-induced
corrosion is reduced considerably in structures situated in environments where relative humidity is less
than 80%.

After initiation of chloride-induced reinforcement corrosion, it usually takes less than 10 years for the
concrete cover surface to deteriorate to such an extent that repair measures have to be applied.

Cracking in Concrete

Definition: a complete or incomplete separation of either concrete or masonry into two or more parts
produced by breaking or fracturing.- ACI Concrete Terminology

Cracks are categorized as occurring either in plastic concrete or hardened concrete. The causes of each
type of cracking depend on many different factors, and may affect appearance only, or they may
indicate significant structural distress or a lack of durability. Cracks may represent the total extent of the
damage, or they may point to problems of greater magnitude. Causes of cracking include: plastic
shrinkage cracking; settlement cracking; drying shrinkage; thermal stresses; chemical reaction;
weathering; corrosion of reinforcement; poor construction practices; construction overloads; errors in
design and detailing; and externally applied loads.

Corrosionpedia Explains Deformation

As deformation occurs, internal inter-molecular forces arise that oppose the applied force. If the applied
force is not too high, these forces resist the applied force and allow the material to resume its original
state once the load is removed. A larger applied force may cause a permanent deformation of the
material, or even structural failure.
Different types of deformation may result from variations in type of material, size and the forces
applied. Types of deformations include:

Elastic deformation - This can be reversible. Elastomers and type memory metals like nitinol exhibit huge
elastic deformation ranges, as does rubber.

Plastic deformation - This may be irreversible. Soft thermoplastics have a rather large plastic
deformation variance, as do ductile metals such as copper, silver and gold.

Metal fatigue - This occurs primarily in ductile metals. Metal fatigue has been a common cause for
failure, especially before the process was well understood.

Compressive failure -This is applied to bars, columns, etc., which leads to shortening. Loading a
structural object or specimen can increase the compressive stress until it reaches its compressive
strength.

Fracture - This may be irreversible. All materials eventually fracture, if enough force is applied

Equilibrium

Architectural structures are normally stationary. Most clients, building officials and designers prefer that
their structures remain static rather than move dynamically. There are specific loading conditions which
are dynamic loads, but in each and every case a return to a stable and static state is desireable. Such a
condition is known as equilibrium..

Equilibrium:

A body is said to be in equilibrium if it does not experience a change in its rest or uniform motion, even
under the influence of external forces.

Types of equilibrium:

Stable equilibrium

Unstable equilibrium
Neutral equilibrium

Stable equilibrium:

A body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it regains its original position on the removal of the external
force after being slightly disturbed by it.

A body is said to be in stable equilibrium, if the line joining the centre of gravity and the centre of earth
must fall within the base of the body, after being lightly disturbed by it.

Example:

A cone resting on its base.

A book lying on a flat surface.

Diagram:

From the figure, it is clear that the line joining the centre of gravity and the centre of earth falls within
the base of the body, even after being lightly disturbed by it. So the cone is in stable equilibrium.

Unstable equilibrium:

A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it does not regains its original position after being slightly
disturbed by an external force.

Here the line joining the centre of gravity and the centre of earth falls outside its base, after being lightly
disturbed by an external force.

Example:

A cone resting on its apex.

A bottle standing on the edge of its mouth.

Diagram:

Here the base of the body is small and the top portion is heavier as it raises the height of the centre of
gravity from its base.

Neutral equilibrium:

A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when it moves to a new place on the application of an
external force and on the removal of the external force the body may or may not come back to its
original place, but the height of its centre of gravity from a reference surface remains the same.

Example:

A rolling ball.

A cone resting on its side.

Diagram:

In neutral equilibrium the line joining the centre of gravity and the centre of earth falls within the base
of the body on the application of an external force.

The height of its centre of gravity does not change even after the application of an external force.
The equilibrium of forces throughout a structure at rest represents an important basis for the analysis of
those forces. Provided the structure stays at rest as the loads are applied, the structure can be described
as being in a state of static equilibrium. There are conditions of dynamic equilibrium relating to bodies in
motion, including structures, but this text is concerned only with statics—that is, the interaction of
bodies at rest.

Causes of Concrete Scaling

Exposure of concrete to freezing and thawing cycles before the concrete gains the required strength (27
MPa).

Use of low-strength concrete or high water-cement ratio, which facilitates deeper penetration of water
and deicing solutions.

The use of non-air entrained or too little entrained air leads to poor air void system in hardened
concrete.

Improper curing regime.

Curing concrete for a shorter period than required leads to the increase in concrete permeability,
reduction of concrete strength and durability.

Lack of adequate concrete protection after its placement.

Improper finishing may trap water in the concrete surface and subsequently reduce concrete strength.

Quick-drying of concrete surface prevents the concrete surface from achieving the designated strength.
As a result, the risk of scaling increases.

The use of deicing chemicals for new concrete increases the likelihood of scaling.

Effects of Scaling on Concrete

Reduced concrete strength

Compromised concrete durability

Concrete spalling, if not repaired soon

Distorted appearance of concrete

Increased maintenance cost

Preventive Measures

Design concrete mix properly; use appropriate water-cement ratio (maximum 0.45) and well-graded
aggregate.

Use a suitable curing method.

The curing period should be long enough (minimum seven days) for concrete to gain a strength (27 MPa
or 70% of design strength) that can resist scaling.

Do not carry out finishing operations when water is on the concrete surface.

Prevent the addition of water when concrete is troweled or floated prematurely.

Do not perform finishing works before bleeding water comes to the concrete surface. So, let bleed water
come to the surface and evaporate, and then begin the finishing operation.

Prevent vibrating screed for high slump concrete as it creates a weak layer of concrete surface.

Avoid the exposure of concrete to corrosive substances. For example, salts like calcium, magnesium, or
sodium chloride for new concrete surfaces.

Protect newly placed concrete from severe environmental conditions and avoid full saturation of new
concrete before freezing and thawing cycles during the winter season.

Slope the concrete slab surface properly to drain water. Saturated concrete is at risk of freezing and
thawing and subsequent surface deterioration.

Clean concrete slab surface and apply a suitable waterproofing system every 3-5 years to prevent
penetration of water and deicing solutions.

3 Ways to Prevent Concrete Deterioration

December 26, 2017

Concrete Deterioration

Learn how to prevent concrete deterioration.

There are many factors that will cause concrete deterioration. Although it is an incredibly durable and
reliable material, it won’t last forever, not without the proper initial installation and maintenance.
Follow these concrete tips to ensure the integrity and strength of your structures.

Concrete Reinforcement

Steel reinforcement is often used in concrete applications to make the resulting structure that much
more sound, strong, and secure. But, steel can be susceptible to corrosion, especially in the winter and
cold climates. Once corrosion starts to spread, it’s almost impossible to stop and therefore, repairing an
isolated area likely won’t solve the problem. Prevent steel reinforcement corrosion by ensuring that you
have at least 1.5 to 2 inches of concrete over the reinforcements. An impermeable concrete mix that
consists of a low water-to-cement ratio is best for protecting the steel. In addition, other corrosion-
inhibiting materials like an epoxy coating and penetrating sealers help ensure that the steel will remain
effective.

Sulfate Tests

Exposure to water that contains a high number of dissolved sulfates leaves your concrete vulnerable to
cracks. A sulfate attack comes from sulfate-containing water entering the concrete, crystallizing, and
expanding. The other option is that the sulfate salts will cause the cement paste to dissolve, soften, and
ultimately erode. Prevent this type of deterioration by testing the sulfate content of the water and soil,
and then creating a resistant concrete mix by limiting the water to cement ratio.

Cement-Aggregate

In certain conditions, a reaction of alkali-silica will create an expansive gel that will cause concrete to
crack. You’ll notice this reaction by the presence of “map cracking” and white or gray gel-like deposits.
Minimize this reaction by testing the combination of cement-aggregate for the cement alkalinity limit,
expansion, and petrographic, or rock and mineral, characteristics. Consider adding slag or low-alkali fly
ash to the cement and reduce the amount of alkali in the concrete.

FOUR ELEMENTS OF PROPER EROSION CONTROL

Erosion Control Measures

Your primary course of action is to keep the soil on your site in place. In order to do that, you need to
limit vegetation removal when possible. You can also try to cover bare soils by seeding and covering
with straw. Additional provisions are necessary when working in a sensitive habitat, or on a steep slope.
Erosion control blankets are typically best applied on steep slopes and can be used to cover the soil after
seeding has taken place.

Sediment Control Measures

Think of sediment control as a back-up, or secondary defense, to erosion control. Should the erosion
control measures fail, sediment control measures are designed to capture eroding soil and keep it on
site. This can be done be using straw rolls on slopes or at the bottom of slopes. Or, silt fences can be
placed at the bottom of slopes, provided they don’t impact drainage. Gravel bags, particularly around
drainage inlets are also commonly used. Finally, rocked driveways and entrances prevent soil and
sediment from being tracked onto adjacent roads. Remember, none of these methods are meant to
initially stop erosion from occuring — only control it. They capture soil that has eluded erosion control
measures before it can cause any damage.

Runoff Control Measures

The primary enemy in erosion control is water. That means controlling stormwater, and keeping it away
from bare soils, is essential to preventing soil erosion. Your first option will be to find a vegetated area
that can withstand increased runoff. This can be done by diverting the runoff from any bare soils and
newly disturbed areas. When dealing with a large concentration of water, it’s unwise to concentrate all
of your runoff to one area.
Find multiple locations for drainage and ensure your development won’t cause additional erosion after
construction is completed. It’s also important to avoid fill slopes in favor of cut slopes for drainage. If
that’s impossible, try breaking up drainage in order to create sheet flows over the slope. If you’re
implementing pipe, conduits or channels for runoff, be sure to install energy dissipators such as a
collection of rocks, which reduces flow velocity and helps prevent scour and downstream erosion.

Routine Maintenance

While there is now a tried-and-true method to concrete waste disposal and containing concrete
washout, there is not a steadfast method to total erosion control. Therefore, it’s important to routinely
check on the erosion control methods you’ve put in place, particularly after it rains. Inspect each area to
determine if any are in need of reinforcement and keep silt fencing clear of any build up so that it
doesn’t give way.

Steel in concrete can be protected from corrosion in three main ways: (1) seal the surface of the
concrete to minimize the ingress of chloride ions, carbon dioxides, and water, (2) modify the concrete to
reduce its permeability, and (3) protect the reinforcing bars to reduce the effects of chlorides and
carbon dioxide when they do reach the steel. This chapter briefly discusses the last method of
protection.