MA 210 LECTURE (8)

Radius of curvature

Let P be any point on a given curve and Q a neighboring point. Let arc AP= 𝑠 and
PQ= 𝛿𝑠.
Let the tangents at P and Q make angle 𝜃 and Q+𝛿𝜃 with the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, so that the
angle between the tangents at P and Q = 𝛿𝜃

y
𝛿𝜃
𝛿𝑠 Q

P
s
A

𝜃 𝜃 + 𝛿𝜃
0 x

In moving from P to Q through a distance 𝛿𝑠, the tangent has turned through the angle
𝛿𝜃 . This is called the total bending or total curvature of the arc PQ. Therefore;
𝛿𝜃
The average curvature of arc PQ= 𝛿𝑠

The limiting value of average curvature when 𝜃 approaches P (i.e., 𝛿𝑠 → 0) is defined as

the curvature of the curve at P.
𝑑𝜃
Thus, curvature at 𝐾(𝑎𝑡 𝑃) = 𝑑𝑠

Note:
(i) since 𝛿𝜃 is measured in radians, the unit of curvature is radians per unit
length, e.g. radians per centimeter.
(ii) The radius of curvature: the reciprocal of the curvature of a curve at any point
P is called the radius of curvature at P and is denoted by 𝜌(rho) , so the
𝑑𝑠
𝜌 = 𝑑𝜃

1
 3⁄
𝑑𝑦 2 2
[1+( ) ]
𝑑𝑥
𝜌= 𝑑2 𝑦⁄
𝑑𝑥 2

3⁄
2 2
[1+(𝑦 ′ ) ]
= 𝑦 ′′

Example:
1) Find the radius of the curvature at any point of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥.
Solution:
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
Differentiating we have;
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
2𝑦 𝑑𝑥 = 4𝑎 ⟹ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑦

𝑑2 𝑦 2𝑎 𝑑𝑦 2𝑎 2𝑎 4𝑎2
= − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑦 2 ∙ =−
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑦 𝑦3
Hence
3 3⁄
2 ⁄2 2𝑎 2 2
[1+(𝑦′ ) ] [1+(
𝑦
) ]
𝜌= = 4𝑎2
𝑦 ′′ =− 3
𝑦

⁄ 3 3
−(4𝑎𝑥+4𝑎2 ) 2 −(4𝑎2 )+(4𝑎𝑥) ⁄2
= = ?
4𝑎2 4𝑎2

3⁄ 3⁄
(4𝑎𝑥) 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎) 2
=−
4𝑎2
−1 3⁄
= −2𝑎 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎) 2

−1⁄ 3⁄
⟹ |𝜌| = 2𝑎 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎) 2

2) Show that the radius of the curvature at any point of the cycloid

𝑥 = 𝑎(𝜃 + sin 𝜃), 𝜃

{ is 4𝑎 cos (2).
𝑦 = 𝑎(1 − cos 𝜃

Solution
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
We have = 𝑎(1 + cos 𝜃), = 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜃

𝜃 𝜃
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 sin 𝜃 2 sin( ) cos( ) 𝜃
2 2
= 𝑑𝜃 ÷ 𝑑𝜃 = 𝑎(1+cos 𝜃) = 𝜃 = tan (2)
𝑑𝑥 2 cos2( )
2

2
 𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑 (𝑑𝑥 ) 1 𝜃 1
= 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑥 = 2 sec 2 ( 2) ∙ 𝑎(1+cos 𝜃)
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝜃

1 𝜃 1
= 2 sec 2 ( 2) ∙ 𝜃
2𝑎 cos2( )
2
1 𝜃
= 4𝑎 sec 4 ( 2)

Hence
3⁄
3 2 2
2 ⁄2 𝜃
[1+(𝑦 ′ ) ] [1+(tan( )) ]
2
𝜌= = 1 𝜃
𝑦 ′′ sec4 ( )
4𝑎 2

3⁄
𝜃 2
4𝑎(1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 ( ))
2
= 𝜃
sec4 ( )
2

3⁄
𝜃 2 𝜃
= 4𝑎 ∙ [sec 4 (2)] ∙ cos 4 (2)

𝜃
= 4𝑎 ∙ cos ( 2) shown.
3𝑎 3𝑎
3) Show that the radius of curvature at the point ( 2 , ) of the folium
2
3𝑎
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 3𝑎𝑥𝑦 is 8√2
4) Find the radius of curvature at any point

(i) (𝑎𝑡 2 , 2𝑎𝑡) of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥

𝑥
(ii) (0, 𝑐) of the catenary 𝑦 = 𝑐 ∙ cosh ( )
𝑐
(iii) (𝑎, 0) of the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 (𝑥 − 𝑎)

5) Show that the radius of curvature at

(𝑎−𝑥) 𝑎
(i) (𝑎, 0) on the curve 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 is
𝑥 2
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
(ii) (4 , 4) on the curve √𝑥 + √𝑦 = √𝛼 is
√2
𝜋 5√5
(iii) 𝑥= of the curve 𝑦 = 4 sin 𝑥 − 2 sin 2𝑥 is
2 4

3
Tailor series
If a function 𝑓(𝑥) is defined for values of 𝑥 around 𝑥 = 𝑎 and all its derivatives are
defined, then
(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)3 ′′′ (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑛 𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑎) + (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + ∙𝑓 (𝑎) + ∙𝑓 (𝑎) + ⋯+ ∙ 𝑓 (𝑎)
2! 3! 𝑛!
Letting 𝑥 = 𝑎 + ℎ, where ℎ is usually considered to be a small value, we have;
ℎ2 ℎ3 ℎ𝑛
𝑓(𝑎 + ℎ) = 𝑓(𝑎) + ℎ𝑓 ′ (𝑎) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑎) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑎) + ⋯ + ∙ 𝑓 𝑛 (𝑎)
2! 3! 𝑛!

Examples
(1) Expand ln 𝑥 in powers of (𝑥 − 1) and hence evaluate ln(1.1) correct to 4 decimal
places.

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 , 𝑓(1) = 0

1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (1) = 1

1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − 𝑥 2 , 𝑓 ′′ (1) = −1

2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 , 𝑓 ′′′ (1) = 2

−6
𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (𝑥) = , 𝑓 𝑖𝑣 (1) = −6
𝑥4

etc. etc.

substituting these values in the tailor’s series

(𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−1)3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + (𝑥 − 1)𝑓 ′ (1) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (1) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′′ (1) + ⋯
2! 3!

(𝑥−1)2 (𝑥−1)3 (𝑥−1)4

ln 𝑥 = (𝑥 − 1) − + −
2! 3 4

Now putting 𝑥 = 1.1, so that 𝑥 − 1 = 0.1, we have

1 1 1
ln(1.1) = 0.1 − 2 (0.1)2 + 3 (0.1)3 − 4 (0.1)4 + ⋯

= 0.1 − 0.005 + 0.0003 − 0.00002 + ⋯ = 0.0953

4
 1 1
2) Given sin(450 ) = and cos(450 ) = , approximate sin(440 ) by using the tailors
√2 √2
series expansion.
Solution:
We first convert the angles to radians;
𝜋 𝜋
450 = and 10 = 180 (by direct proportion)
4
𝜋
Expanding sin(𝑎 + ℎ) , where 𝑎 = using Tailor series, we have;
4

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 ℎ2 𝜋 ℎ3 𝜋
sin ( 4 + ℎ) = sin (4 ) + ℎ cos ( 4 ) + [− sin ( 4 )] + [− cos ( 4 )] + ⋯
2! 3!

1 1 1 ℎ2 1 ℎ3
= + ℎ− ∙ − ∙ +⋯
√2 √2 √2 2! √2 3!

Note: 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 as 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 1
and 𝑓 ′ (4 ) = , 𝑓 ′′ ( 4 ) = − , 𝑓 ′′′ ( 4 ) = − .
√2 √2 √2
−𝜋
substituting ℎ for 180 radians, we get

𝜋 1 −𝜋 2 1 −𝜋 3 1
sin(440 ) = [1 − − ( ) − ( ) +⋯]
180 2 180 6 180 √2
1
= [1 − 0.0174533 − 0.0001523 + 0.0000009 + ⋯ ]
√2

= 0.69466 (correct to 5 decimal places).

Exercise:
1) Using Tailor’s series, evaluate the following correct to 4 s.f;

a) tan−1(0.1)

b) sin(0.03)

𝜋
2) Expand sin 𝑥 in powers of (𝑥 − 2 ).Hence find the value of sin 91𝑜 correct to 4
decimal places. (test question)

3) Expand

5
 i) 𝑒𝑥

ii) tan−1 𝑥 in powers of (𝑥 − 1) up to four terms

iii) Compute the value of cos 32𝑜 using Tailor’s series to 4 decimal places.

4) Using Tailor’s series, find the first four terms of

1
i) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 centered at 𝑎 = 1
𝜋
ii) sin 𝑥 centered at 𝑎 = 4

6
Maclaurin’s series
If 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function such that all its derivatives exist and can be expanded
as an infinity series, then
𝑥 2 ′′ 𝑥3 𝑥𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + ∙ 𝑓 (0) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯ + + ∙ 𝑓 𝑛 (0) + ⋯
2! 3! 𝑛!
Example:
1) Using maclaurin’s series, expand tan 𝑥 up to the term containing 𝑥 5 .

Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = tan 𝑥 𝑓(0) = 0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 = 1 + tan2 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 2 tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 = 2 tan 𝑥( 1 + tan2 𝑥 )
= 2 tan 𝑥 + 2 tan3 𝑥 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 2 sec 2 𝑥 + 6 tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
= 2(1 + tan2 𝑥) + 6 tan2 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥)
= 2 + 8 tan2 𝑥 + 6 tan4 𝑥 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 2
𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 16 tan 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 + 24 tan3 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥
= 16 tan 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥) + 24 tan3 𝑥 (1 + tan2 𝑥)
= 16 tan 𝑥 + 40 tan3 𝑥 + 24 tan5 𝑥 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 0
𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 16 sec 2 𝑥 + 120 tan2 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 + 120 tan4 𝑥 sec 2 𝑥 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = 16
and so on.
Substituting values of 𝑓(0), 𝑓 ′ (0) etc. in the Maclaurin’s series, we get

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
tan 𝑥 = 0 + 𝑥 ∙ 1 + ∙ 0 + ∙ 2 + ∙ 0 + ∙ 16 + ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!
𝑥3 2𝑥 5
=𝑥+ + +⋯
3 15

Example 2
Expand the following in powers of 𝑥 by using Maclaurin’s series.

7
a) 𝑒 𝑥

b) cos 𝑥
c) sin 𝑥

d) sin 2𝑥

Solutions
a) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓(0) = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 1

𝑥2 𝑥3
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑥𝑓 ′ (0) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′ (0) + ∙ 𝑓 ′′′ (0) + ⋯
2! 3!

𝑥2 𝑥3
∴ 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥(1) + (1) + (1) + ⋯
2! 3!

𝑥2 𝑥3
⟹ 𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + +⋯
2! 3!

b) Let 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓(0) = 1

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′ (0) = 0

𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = − cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = −1

𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = 0

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 1

𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = 0
Substituting we have;
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
cos 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥(0) + (−1) + (0) + (1) + (0) + ⋯
2! 3! 4! 5!

8
 𝑥2 𝑥4
cos 𝑥 = 1 − 2! + −⋯
4!

𝑥3 𝑥5
c) sin 𝑥 = 𝑥 − + −⋯
3! 5!

d) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥 , 𝑓(0) = 0

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2 cos 2𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −4 sin 2𝑥 , 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = −8 cos 2𝑥

𝑓 ′𝑣 (𝑥) = 16 sin 2𝑥 , 𝑓 𝑣 (𝑥) = 32 cos 2𝑥
∴ 𝑓 ′ (0) = 2 , 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0 , 𝑓 ′′′ (0) = −8 , 𝑓 ′𝑣 (0) = 0, 𝑓 𝑣 (0) = 32
Substituting we have;
𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5
sin 2𝑥 = 0 + 𝑥(2) + 2! (0) + (−8) + (0) + (32) + ⋯
3! 4! 5!
4 4
sin 2𝑥 = 2𝑥 − 3 𝑥 3 + 15 𝑥 5 − ⋯

Example 3
Expand cosh 𝑥 and 𝑒 𝑥 in powers of 𝑥 by using the Maclaurin’s series
and hence evaluate
cosh 𝑥−𝑒 𝑥
lim ( )
𝑥→0 𝑥

Solution:
𝑥2 𝑥4
cosh 𝑥 = 1 + 2! + +⋯
4!

𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥 + + + +⋯
2! 3! 4!

𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4
∴ (cosh 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 ) = [1 + + + ⋯ ] − [1 + 𝑥 + + + +⋯]
2! 4! 2! 3! 4!

𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥3 𝑥5
= −𝑥 − − = − [𝑥 + + +⋯]
3! 5! 3! 5!

Therefore;
cosh 𝑥−𝑒 𝑥 1 𝑥3 𝑥4
lim [ ] = lim {− 𝑥 [𝑥 + + + ⋯ ]}
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 3! 4!

𝑥2 𝑥4
= lim (−1 − − −⋯)
𝑥→0 2! 5!

= −1

9
Exercise:
1) Find the first 3 terms in the Maclaurin’s series for;

𝑥4 2𝑥 6
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = sin2 𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 2 − +
3 45

𝑥
b) 𝑓(𝑥) = √1−𝑥 2

𝑥3
c) 𝑥𝑒 −𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 − 𝑥2 + −⋯
2

𝑥
d) 𝑓(𝑥) = 1+𝑥 ≈ 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 5 − ⋯

10