Introduction to Digital Control

• Control systems are an integral part of modern society. Control systems exist in many systems of engineering,
sciences, and in human body.

• Control means to regulate, direct, command, or govern and A system is a collection, set, or arrangement of
elements (subsystems).

• A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a manner as to

command, regulate, direct, or govern itself or another system.
• Examples of control systems:

The rocket fires, and the space shuttle lifts off to earth orbit.

Our eyes follow a moving object to keep it in view;

our hands grasp the object and place it properly at a fixed location.

Models showing automatic control of student performance

(input =study time and output = grade).

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 Control System Definition
• A control system consists of subsystems and processes (or plants) assembled for the purpose of obtaining a
desired output with desired performance, given a specified input.

Excitation, or
Input : Stimulus Output : Response Controlled
Command Control variable

Desired response System Actual response

• Control systems can have more than one input or output.

• An electric switch is a man-made control system controlling the electricity-flow (Man-made control systems).

• Pointing at an object with a finger requires a biological control system (eyes, the arm, hand, finger and the brain
of a person). (Natural, including biological-control systems)

• The control system consisting of a person driving an automobile (both man-made and biological.)

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 Examples of Control Systems
• Examples 1

a) Residential heating and air-conditioning systems controlled by a thermostat ( temperature sensor).

b) The cruise (speed) control of an automobile.
c) Automatic hot water heater.
d) Control system which automatically turns on a room lamp at dusk, and turns it off in daylight.

• Example 2
When the fourth-floor button is pressed on the first floor, the elevator rises to the
fourth floor with a speed and floor-leveling accuracy designed for passenger comfort.
Input : The push of the fourth-floor button.
Output : the elevator rises to the fourth floor. output
Input
If the transient response is too fast, passenger comfort is sacrificed; if
too slow, passenger patience is sacrificed.

The steady-state error is an important performance since passenger

safety and convenience would be sacrificed if the elevator did not
properly level.
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 Advantages of Control Systems

We build control systems for four primary reasons:

1. Power amplification Low power input; high power output (move the antenna)

2. Remote control Remote controlled robots (dangerous locations)

3. Convenience of input form Temperature control system (desired thermal output)

4. Compensation for disturbances Antenna system interrupted by wind forces or noise

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 Response Characteristics
The short period of time immediately
The transient response after the system is turned on
• Two major measures of
performance are apparent:
The steady-state error the difference between the actual
output and the desired output as time
tends to infinity

• Example

Elevator Input-Output:

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 Control System Configurations
• There are two control system configurations: open-loop control system and closed-loop control system.

1.Block: set of elements that can be grouped together, with

overall characteristics described by an input/output relationship.

2. Block diagram: a simplified pictorial representation of the cause-

Fig.1 Block diagram
and-effect relationship between the input(s) and output(s) of a
physical system. The input and output characteristics of entire
groups of elements within the block can be described by an
appropriate mathematical expressions (Fig.2)
Fig.2 Block representation
3. Transfer function: property of the system elements only and
is not dependent on the excitation and initial conditions. It is
used to represent a mathematical model of each block in the
Fig.3 Transfer function
block diagram representation. The transfer function of a system
(or a block) is defined as the ratio of output to input.

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 System Configurations: Open Loop Systems
• Open-loop control systems represent the simplest form of controlling devices.

converts the form of the input to

that used by the controller drives a process or a plant Can be a motor or a furnace …
Fig General block diagram of open-loop control system
• Example

plant a furnace or air conditioning system

Controller a heating system (with fuel valves) and the electrical system (operates the valves).

Open loop systems cannot compensate for any disturbances that add to: Example: Toasters are
a) The controller’s driving signal (disturbance 1 in Figure); open-loop systems,
b) The output (disturbance 2 in Figure).

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 System Configurations: Closed Loop Systems (Feedback Control)
• Closed-loop control systems derive their valuable accurate reproduction of the input from feedback comparison .
Error = Input - output

Forward Path
feedback path
Feedback Path

• Output transducer (Sensor) measures the output response and converts it into the form used by the controller.
• Example: if the controller uses electrical signals to operate the valves of a temperature control system,
we need to convert the input position (by a potentiometer) and the output temperature (by thermistor)
to electrical signals.
• Characteristics:
1. Can compensate disturbances, noise and changes in the environment (greater accuracy than open-loop).
2. Transient response and steady-state error can be controlled more conveniently and with greater flexibility.
3. More complex and expensive than open-loop systems ( A closed-loop toaster oven has to measure both color
(through light reflectivity) and humidity.
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 Analysis and Design Objectives
we evaluate its transient response and steady-state error
Analysis The process by which a system's performance is determined. to determine if they meet the desired specifications

we change parameters or add additional components to

Design The process by which a system's performance is created or changed.
meet the system's transient response and steady-state
error specifications.

Three major objectives:

other important considerations must be taken into
1. Producing the desired transient response. account: hardware (motor size, sensor), Finances, robust
design (system’s parameters changes over time)
2. Reducing steady-state error.
3. Achieving stability.
Examples: Elevator: A slow transient response makes passengers impatient;
an excessively rapid response makes them uncomfortable.
Must be level enough with the desired floor for passengers to exit.

Natural force must be zero or oscillate; otherwise elevator may crash through the floor or exit through the ceiling.
Total response of a system = Natural response + Forced response
depends only on the system, describes the depends on the input.
way the system dissipates or acquires energy.

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 Control System Terminology
• Controlled Output C(s): the output variable of the plant under the control of the control system.
• Controller: drives a process or plant.
• Disturbance or Noise Input: is an undesired stimulus or input signal affecting the value of the controlled output.
• Feedback Path. The feedback path is the transmission path from the controlled output back to the summing point.
• Forward Path. The forward path is the transmission path from the summing point to the controlled output.
• Transducer: A transducer is a device that converts one energy form into another.
• Input Transducer. Input transducer converts the form of input to that used by the controller.
• Plant, Process or Controlled System G(s): Is the system, subsystem, process, or object controlled by the control
system.
• Reference Input R(s): Is an external signal applied to the control system generally at the first summing input, so as
to command a specified action of the process or plant. It typically represents ideal or desired process or plant
output response.
• Summing Point: is a small circle called a summing point with the appropriate sign associated with the arrows
entering the circle. The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.
• Takeoff Point: allows the same signal or variable as input to more than one block or summing point, thus
permitting the signal to proceed unaltered along several different paths to several destinations.

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 Control System Terminology

General block diagram of closed-loop control system

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 Response of Position Control System

• High gain causes oscillation. the increased speed, increased momentum could cause
the motor to overshoot the final value and be forced by Response of a position control system, showing effect
the system to return to the commanded position.
• Zero error at steady state. of high and low controller gain on the output response
• If not zero error, a controller is needed for gain
adjustment to regulate transient response
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 The Design Process

reduce this large system's block diagram

transforming the requirements to a single block with a mathematical
into a physical system transforming the physical description that represents the system
system into a schematic from its input to its output,
diagram (use approximations).

translates a qualitative description of the

system into a functional block diagram that the engineer analyzes the system to see if the response specifications
describes the component parts of the and performance requirements can be met by simple adjustments of
system and shows their interconnection. Mathematical Model(Kirchhoff’s voltage system parameters. If specifications cannot be met, the designer then
/ current law / Newton’s law) designs additional hardware in order to effect a desired performance.

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Test Waveforms
Used in Control Systems

• Test input signals (standard test inputs) are used, both

analytically and during testing, to verify the design.

• If t < 0, function value = 0

• An impulse waveform (infinite at t = 0 and zero

elsewhere) is used to place initial energy into a
system so that the response due to that initial
energy is only the transient response of a system.
From this response the designer can derive a
mathematical model of the system.

• A step waveform (constant command)

represents the desired position, desired velocity,
desired acceleration or desired temperature.

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