THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other forms of energy.
In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other forms of energy and how it affects
matter.
THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body,
then they are also in equilibrium with each other.
1ST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that energy cannot be created nor destroyed in a system of constant mass,
although it may be converted from one form to another.
2ND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The Second Law of Thermodynamics states that the state of entropy of an isolated system will always increase over
time.

TEMPERATURE AND HEAT

HEAT – the form of energy that is transferred between two substances at different temperatures. As a form of energy,
heat is conserved however it can be transferred from one place to another and it can be further converted to and from
other forms of energy.
TEMPERATURE - the degree of hotness and coldness of a certain substance with respect to some standard value. It
is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the different particles in a sample of matter. The atoms or molecules in
a substance move in accordance to temperature. The higher the temperature, the faster the atoms or molecules move,
and the more atoms or molecules that are in motion, the greater the quantity of heat they transfer.
Temperature is most commonly measured in the Celsius scale which has 100 degrees of separation between the
boiling and freezing point of water. The other temperature scales are Fahrenheit, Kelvin – the SI unit of temperature
and also called the absolute temperature scale, and Rankine. Example of devices used for measuring temperature is
shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
Temperature Conversion Formulas

THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM – the condition under which two substances in physical contact with each other exchange
no heat energy. Two substances/system are in thermal equilibrium if and only if they have the same temperature.
CONDUCTOR – a material that permits thermal interactions through it
INSULATOR – a material that permits no thermal interaction through it
THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body,
then they are also in equilibrium with each other.

Sample Problem 1
You place a small piece of ice in your mouth. Eventually, the water all converts from ice at 𝑇1 = 32.00℉ to body
temperature, 𝑇2 = 98.60℉. Express these temperatures in both Celsius degrees and Kelvins, and find ∆𝑇 = 𝑇2 – 𝑇1
in both cases.
Given: (it is important to include the unit)
T1 = 32.00℉
T2 = 98.60℉
Required:
T1 in °C and K

T2 in °C and K
∆T in °C and K
Solution:
T1 in °C: T2 in °C: ∆T in °C:
𝑇1 = 5/9 (𝐹 − 32) 𝑇2 = 5/9 (𝐹 − 32) ∆𝑇°C = T2 – T1
𝑇1 = 5/9 ((32℉) − 32) 𝑇2 = 5/9 ((98.6℉) − 32) ∆𝑇°C = (37℃) – (0℃)
𝑇1 = 0℃ 𝑇2 = 37℃ ∆𝑇°C = 37℃

T1 in K: T2 in K: ∆T in K:
T1(K) = T1(°C) + 273.15K T2(K) = T2(°C) + 273.15K ∆TK = T2 – T1
T1(K) = (0°C) + 273.15K T2(K) = (37°C) + 273.15K ∆TK = (310.15K) – (273.15K)
T1(K) = 273.15K T2(K) = 310.15K ∆TK = 37K

**for ∆T, it is important to convert first the given temperature scale to the final unit before getting their difference
THERMAL EXPANSION
Thermal expansion is the tendency of matter to change length, shape, volume and area in response to a change in
temperature. Most materials expand when their temperature increase.
1. Linear Expansion
The change in length increases linearly with the change in temperature. This length could be the thickness
of a rod, the side length of a square, or the diameter of a hole.

The change in length is directly proportional to the change in temperature and also proportional to the initial
length.

Formula: ∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿0 ∆𝑇

where: ∆L – change in length (m)

α – coefficient of linear expansion (°C-1)
L0 – initial length (m)
∆T – change in temperature (°C)
The constant α describes the thermal expansion properties of a particular material and is called the
coefficient of linear expansion.
 Sample Problem 2
What is the new length of a bar made of pure gold at 75°C if it has a length of 0.3 meters at 10°C?
Given:
T1 = 10°C L0 = 0.3m
T2 = 75°C αgold = 14x10-6 /°C
Required:
L = ? when T2 = 75°C
Solution:
∆𝐿 = 𝛼𝐿0 ∆𝑇
(𝐿𝑓 − 𝐿0 ) = 𝛼𝐿0 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝐿𝑓 = 𝛼𝐿0 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) + 𝐿0
𝐿𝑓 = (14𝑥10−6 /℃)(0.3𝑚)(75℃ − 10℃) + (0.3𝑚)
𝐿𝑓 = 0.3𝑚

2. Volume Expansion
An increase in temperature would usually result in an increase of volume for both solid and liquid materials.
This is the only type of expansion considered usually for fluids (liquids or gases). The change in volume is
approximately proportional to both the temperature change and the initial volume, V0.

Formula: ∆𝑉 = 𝛽𝑉0 ∆𝑇
𝛽 = 3𝛼

where: ∆V – change in volume (m3)

β – coefficient of volume expansion (°C-1)
V0 – initial volume (m3)
∆T – change in temperature (°C)

The coefficient of volume expansion β describes the volume expansion properties of a particular material.
 Sample Problem 3
A glass of water with volume of 1 liter is completely filled at 5°C. How much water will spill out of the glass
when the temperature is raised to 85°C?

Given:
T1 = 5°C
T2 = 85°C
V0 = 1L
βwater = 0.21x10-3 /°C (taken from the table)
αglass = 8x10-6 /°C (taken from the table)
Required:
Vspill = ?
Solution:

Vspill = ΔVwater – ΔVglass

ΔVwater = βwaterV0ΔT Vspill = ΔVwater – ΔVglass

= (0.21x10-3 /°C)(1L)(85°C – 5°C) = (0.0168L) – (0.00192L)
ΔVwater = 0.0168 L Vspill = 0.015L – final answer

ΔVglass = βglassV0ΔT
= (3αglass)V0ΔT
= [3(8x10-6 /°C)(1L)(85°C – 5°C)
ΔVglass = 0.00192 L

QUANTITY OF HEAT
Heat is the internal energy in transit from one body of matter to another by virtue of a temperature difference between
them. Heat always flow in one direction from hot to cold temperature.
A unit of quantity of heat can be defined based on temperature changes of some specific material. The calorie (cal) is
defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1°C. The British thermal unit
(Btu), a corresponding unit of heat using Fahrenheit degrees and British units, is the quantity of heat required to raise
the temperature of 1 pound of water by 1°F. Below is the relationship between the unit Joule and these two units of the
quantity of heat.

Sensible Heat
Sensible Heat is the quantity of heat that changes the temperature of the substance without changing its phase.
As heat is applied to a certain body, its temperature increases in proportion to the amount of heat transferred. As heat
is removed from a certain body, its temperature decreases in proportion to the amount of heat removed. In both cases,
the proportionality constant is called specific heat (c). This quantity of heat Q is also proportional to the mass m of the
material.

𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
where: Q – heat applied (J)
m – mass of the substance (kg)
c – specific heat capacity (J/kgK)
∆T – change in temperature (K)
Molar Heat Capacity
When the quantity of substance is described in terms of the number of moles instead of the mass, the molar heat
capacity is used. The molar heat capacity C is the product of molecular mass M and the specific heat of the substance
c.

𝐶 = 𝑀𝑐
Recall, the molar mass of any substance M is the mass per mole. Then, the total mass m of material is equal to the
mass per mole M times the number of moles n.

𝑚 = 𝑛𝑀
Thus, for solving the heat required Q for temperature change of n moles:

𝑄 = 𝑛𝐶∆𝑇
where: Q – heat applied (J)
n – number of moles (mol)
C – molar heat capacity (J/mol K)
∆T – change in temperature (K)
 Sample Problem 4
During a bout with the flu an 80-kg man ran a fever of 39.0 ℃ instead of the normal body temperature of
37.0 ℃. Assuming that the human body is mostly water, how much heat is required to raise his temperature
by that amount?
Given:
m = 80kg
Ti = 37°C
Tf = 39°C
cwater = 4190 J/kgK

Required:
Q=?
Solution:
𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇
= 𝑚𝑐(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
𝐽
= (80𝑘𝑔) (4190 ) (2𝐾)
𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝐾
𝑄 = 670,400 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 670 𝑘𝐽
CALORIMTERY AND PHASE CHANGES
Phase Changes
Phase describes a specific state of matter, such as a solid, liquid, or gas. A transition from one phase to another is
called a phase change. For any given pressure a phase change takes place at a definite temperature, usually
accompanied by absorption or emission of heat and a change of volume and density.
Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf) – the heat required per unit mass when changing from solid state to liquid and vice versa
Latent Heat of Vaporization (LV) – the heat required per unit mass when changing from liquid state to gas and vice
versa
Latent Heat of Sublimation (LS) – the heat required per unit mass when changing from solid state to gas (without
becoming liquid) and vice versa
The heat transfer in a phase change can be calculated by:
𝑄 = ± 𝑚𝐿
where: Q – amount of heat (J)
m – mass (kg)
L – latent heat constant (can be Lf, LV, or LS) (kJ/kg) – see table below
“+” – used when heat is entering the system (material melts)
“–” – used when heat is leaving the system (material freezes)

The figure below shows the graph of temperature versus time for a specimen of water initially in the solid phase (ice).
Heat is added at a constant rate which results to the rise of temperature until melting point is reached (point b). As
more heat is added, the temperature remains constant until all ice has melted (point c). The temperature rises again
until boiling point is reached (point d) then, the temperature will remain constant until all water is transformed into the
vapor phase (point e).
Heat Calculations
When heat flow occurs between two bodies that are isolated from their surroundings, the amount of heat lost by one
body must equal the amount gained by the other.
Σ𝑄 = 0
Sample Problem 5

A camper pours 0.300kg of coffee, initially in a pot of 70°C, into a 0.120kg aluminum cup initially at 20°C.
What is the equilibrium temperature? Assume that coffee has the same specific heat as water and that no
heat is exchanged with the surroundings.
Given:
mcoffee = 0.300kg
maluminum = 0.120kg
Ti-coffee = 70°C
Ti-aluminum = 20°C
cwater = 4190 J/kgK
caluminum = 910 J/kgK

Required:
Tf = ? (the common final temperature of the cup and coffee)
Solution:
Let Qal = heat gained by the aluminum cup
QC = heat gained by the coffee
Σ𝑄 = 0
Qal + QC = 0
[mal cal (Tf – Ti-al)] + [mc cc (Tf – Ti-c)] = 0
[(0.120kg)(910 J/kgK)(Tf – 20°C)] + [(0.3kg)(4190 J/kgK)(Tf – 70°C)] = 0
 Tf = 66°C

Sample Problem 6
A glass contains 0.25kg of omni-cola (mostly water) initially at 25°C. How much ice, initially at -20.0°C, must
you add to obtain a final temperature of 0°C with all the ice melted? Neglect the heat capacity of the glass.
Given:
mcola = 0.25kg
Ti-cola = 25°C
Ti-ice = -20°C
Tf = 0°C
cwater = 4190 J/kgK
cice = 2100 J/kgK

Required:
mice = ?
Solution:
(The omni-cola and ice exchange heat. The cola undergoes temperature change; the ice undergoes both a
temperature change and a phase change from solid to liquid.)
Let Qc = heat gained by the omni-cola
Q1 = heat gained by the ice
Q2 = heat required to melt the ice (phase change)

Σ𝑄 = 0
Qc + Q1 + Q2 = 0
mccwΔTc + miceciceΔTice + miceLf = 0
mice = (-mccwΔTc) / (ciceΔTice + Lf)
mice = [-(0.25kg)(4190 J/kgK)(-25°C)] / [(2100 J/kgK)(20°C) + (3.34x105 J/kg)]
mice = 0.070 kg
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
1. CONDUCTION
Thermal conduction is the transfer of heat energy between two bodies in contact. Heat transfer occurs only
between regions that are at different temperatures, and the direction of heat flow is always from higher to
lower temperature. The figure below shows a rod of conducting material with cross-sectional area A and length
L. The left end of the rod is kept at a temperature TH and the right end at a lower temperature TC, so heat
flows from left to right.
 Fourier’s Law (Law of Thermal Conduction) states that the time rate of heat transfer through a material is
proportional to the gradient in temperature and to the area, through which the heat is flowing. The rate of heat
transfer through conduction (also called Heat current) is defined as:
𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
𝐻= =
𝑡 𝐿
where: H – heat current (J/s)
Q – heat conducted (J)
t – time (s)
k – thermal conductivity (W/mK)
A – cross-sectional area (m2)
∆T – temperature difference (TH – TC) (K)
L – length of the heat-flow path (m)
The quantity ∆T/L is the temperature difference per unit length and it is called the magnitude of temperature
gradient. For thermal insulation, the thermal resistance (R) which is the insulating ability of a layer of material
is calculated by dividing the material thickness with its thermal conductivity – (R = L/k).
2. CONVECTION
Convection is the transfer of heat by the motion of a volume of hot fluid from one place to another. Unlike
conduction, heat transfer through convection involves the flow of matter. Along with the moving matter, energy
is carried with it. Convection is normally the heat transfer mechanism attributed to most fluids (liquids and
gases). The rate of heat transfer through convection is defined as:

𝑄
𝐻= = ℎ𝐴∆𝑇
𝑡
where: H – heat current (J/s)
h – convection coefficient
A – cross-sectional area (m2)
∆T – temperature difference (TH – TC) (K)
3. RADIATION
Radiation takes place by means of electromagnetic waves which require no material medium for their
passage. The rate of heat transfer through radiation at which an object of surface area A and absolute
temperature T emits radiation is given by Stefan-Boltzmann Law as:

𝑄
𝐻= = 𝜎𝑒𝐴𝑇 4
𝑡
where: H – heat current (J/s)
σ – Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67x10-8 W/m2K4)
A – surface area (m2)
e = emissivity (value ranges from 0 to 1; 0 for perfect reflector, 1 for blackbody)
T – temperature (K)
While a body at absolute temperature T is radiating, its surroundings at temperature Ts are also radiating,
and the body absorbs this radiation. The net rate of radiation from a body at temperature T with
surroundings ate temperature TS is
 𝐻𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴(𝑇24 − 𝑇14 )

Sample Problem 7
An aluminum rod has a diameter of 4cm and a length of 8cm. One end of the rod is placed in boiling water
and the other end is placed in an ice bath. How much heat in calories is conducted through the bar in 1
minute? The thermal conductivity of aluminum is 205 J/m-s-°C
Given:
kal = 205 J/m-s-degC
d = 4cm = 0.04m
L = 8cm = 0.08m
TH = 100°C (boiling water)
TC = 0°C
t = 1min or 60s
Required:
Q in calories
Solution:
𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
=
𝑡 𝐿
𝜋𝑑 2
𝑘( ) ∆𝑇
4
𝑄= (𝑡)
𝐿
Q = (205 J/m-s-°C)(π(0.04m)2)(100°C - 0°C)(60s) / (4)(0.08m)
Q = 4,620 cal or 4.62 kcal
Sample Problem 8
A thin, square steel plate, 10cm on a side, is heated in a blacksmith’s forge to 800°C. If the emissivity is
0.60, what is the total rate of radiation of energy from the plate?
Given:
σ – 5.67x10-8 W/m2K4
e – 0.60
A – (2)(0.1m)2 = 0.02m2 (total surface area of a square)
T - 800°C → 1073K
Required:
H=?
Solution:
𝐻 = 𝜎𝑒𝐴𝑇 4
H = (5.67x10-8 W/m2K4)(0.60)[2(0.01m2)](1073K)4
H = 900W

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

EQUATIONS OF STATE
The conditions in which a particular material exists are described by physical quantities such as pressure, volume,
temperature, and amount oof substance. These are called state variables. The relationship among these state
variables can be expressed as an equation.
Ideal-Gas Equation

𝑝𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇
where: p – pressure (Pa)
V – volume (m3)
n – number of moles (mol)
R – gas constant (or proportionality constant) = 8.314 J/mol-K = 0.08206 L-atm/mol-K
T – temperature (K)
For constant mass or constant number of moles of an ideal gas the product nR is constant, so the quantity pV/T is
also constant. If the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to any two states of the same mass of gas, then

𝑝1 𝑉1 𝑝2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
where: p – pressure (Pa)
V – volume (m3)
T – temperature (K)
Sample Problem 9
What is the volume of a container that holds exactly 1 mole of an ideal gas at standard temperature and
pressure (STP), defined as T = 273.15K and p = 1atm = 1.013x105 Pa?
Given:
n = 1 mole
p = 1.013x105 Pa
T = 273.15K
Required:
V=?
Solution:
pV = nRT
V = nRT/p
V = (1mol)(8.314 J/mol-K)(273.15K)/(1.013x105 Pa)
V = 0.0224 m3 or 22.4L

THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamic System is any collection of objects that is convenient to regard as a unit, and that may have the
potential to exchange energy with its surroundings. Thermodynamic process is a process in which there are
changes in the state of a thermodynamic system.
Energy relationships in any thermodynamic process is described in
terms of the quantity of heat Q added to the system and the work W
done by the system. Both Q and W may be positive, negative, or zero.
A positive value of Q represents heat flow into the system, with a
corresponding input of energy to it; negative Q represents heat flow
out of the system. A positive value of W represents work done by the
system against its surroundings, hence corresponds to energy
leaving the system. Negative W represents energy entering the
system.
Work Done During Volume Changes
If the pressure p remains constant while the volume changes from V1
to V2, the work done by the system is

𝑊 = 𝑝(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )
Internal Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics
The Internal Energy (U) of a system is defined as the sum of the kinetic energies of all of its constituent particles, plus
the sum of all the potential energies of interaction among these particles.
The first law of thermodynamics is the application of the conservation of energy principle to heat and thermodynamic
processes. It states that the change in internal energy of a system is equal to the heat added to the system minus the
work done by the system.

ΔU = Q − W
Cyclic Process is a process that eventually returns a system to its initial state. The final state is the same as the
initial state, and so the total internal energy change must be zero.

𝑈2 = 𝑈1 𝑄=𝑊
Isolated System is a system that does no work on its surrounding and has no heat flow to or from its surroundings.
The internal energy of an isolated system is constant.

𝑈2 = 𝑈1 = ∆𝑈 = 0 𝑄=𝑊=0
THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES
Thermodynamic Process is defined as the energetic evolution a thermodynamic proceeding from an initial state to
a final state.
Types of Thermodynamic Processes
1. Isothermal Process – a constant temperature process. Heat flowing into or out of the system occurs slowly
enough that thermal equilibrium is maintained.
ΔT = 0 ∆U = 0 Q=W
2. Adiabatic Process – no heat transfer into or out of a system. Heat flow can be prevented by either
surrounding the system with thermally insulating material or by carrying out the process so quickly that there
is not enough time for appreciable heat flow.
The compression stroke in an internal-combustion engine is an approximately adiabatic process.
 Q=0 ∆U = −W
3. Isochoric Process – also known as isovolumetric or isometric process, it is a constant volume process. When
the volume of a thermodynamic system is constant, it does no work on its surroundings. In an isochoric
process, all the energy added as heat remains in the system as an increase in internal energy. Heating a gas
in a closed constant-volume container is an example of an isochoric process.
ΔV = 0 ∆U = Q W=0
4. Isobaric Process – a constant pressure process. Most cooking involves isobaric process.
W = p(𝑉2 − 𝑉1 )

Sample Problem 10
You propose to climb several flights of stairs to work off the energy you took in by eating a 900-calorie hot
fudge sundae. How high must you climb? Assume that your mass if 60.0 kg.
Given:
Q = 900 kcal (food calories)
m = 60.0kg
Required:
h=?
Solution:
The thermodynamic system is your body. You climb the stairs to make the final state of the system the
same as the initial state. There is therefore no net change in internal energy: ΔU = 0. Eating the hot fudge
sundae corresponds to a heat flow into your body, and you do work climbing the stairs. The work you must
do to raise your mass to a height h is W = mgh.
ΔU = Q – W
(0) = Q – W
Q=W
Q = (mgh)
h = Q/mg
h = (900kcal)(4186J/kcal) / (60.0kg)(9.8 m/s 2)
h = 6410m
Sample Problem 11
1 liter of water turns to 1671 liters of steam when boiled at 1 atm pressure. Calculate the change of internal
energy and work done by water when it evaporates. (LV(water) = 22.5x102 kJ/kg)
Given:
V1 = 1L = 1kg
V2 = 1671L
p = 1 atm = 1.013x105 N/m2
LV(water) = 22.5x102 kJ/kg
Required:
W=?
ΔU = ?
 Solution:
W = p(V2 – V1)

W = p (V2 – V1) ΔU = Q – W
W = (1.013x105 N/m2)(1671L – 1L) ΔU = (mLv) – W
W = (1.013x105 N/m2)(1671x10-3 m3 – 1x10-3 m3) ΔU = (1kg)(22.6x102 kJ/kg) – 169,171J
W = 169,171J ΔU = 22.6x102 kJ – 169.171 kJ
ΔU = 2,090.9 kJ

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamic processes that occur in nature are all irreversible processes. These are processes that proceed
spontaneously in one direction but not the other. An example would be the flow of heat from a hot body to a cooler
body. The second law of thermodynamics determines the preferred direction for such processes.
A system that undergoes an idealized reversible process is always very close to being in thermodynamic
equilibrium within itself and with its surroundings. Any change of state that takes place can then be reversed by
making only an infinitesimal change in the conditions of the system. Reversible processes are equilibrium process,
with the system always in thermodynamic equilibrium.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The second law of thermodynamics states that:

• It is impossible for any system to undergo a process in which it absorbs heat from a reservoir at a single
temperature and converts the heat completely into mechanical work, with the system ending in the same
state in which it began. (This is the “engine” statement or Kelvin-Planck statement)
• It is impossible for any process to have as its sole result the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body.
(This is the “refrigerator” or Clausius statement)
• The total entropy of any isolated thermodynamic system tends to increase over time, approaching maximum
value.
The second law is also used to determine the theoretical limits for the performance of mostly used engineering
systems like heat engines and heat pump.
HEAT ENGINES
A heat engine is a device that converts heat into mechanical energy or work. The purpose of a heat engine is to utilize
heat to perform work with the highest possible efficiency. Usually, a quantity of matter inside the engine (called the
working substance) undergoes inflow and outflow of heat, expansion and compression, and sometimes change of
phase. The simplest kind of engine to analyze is one in which the working substance undergoes a cyclic process, a
sequence of processes that eventually leaves the substance in the same state in which it started.
All heat engines absorb heat from a source at a relative high temperature, perform some mechanical work, and discard
or reject some heat at a lower temperature. The working substance of the heat engine can interact with two bodies:
the hot reservoir and the cold reservoir. The hot reservoir represents the heat source; it can give the working substance
large amounts of heat at a constant temperature TH without appreciably changing its own temperature. The other body,
the cold reservoir, can absorb large amounts of discarded heat from the engine at a constant lower temperature T C.
When a system is carried through a cyclic process, its initial and final internal energies are equal.

∆U = 0 Q=W
𝑄 = 𝑄𝐻 + 𝑄𝐶 = |𝑄𝐻 | − |𝑄𝐶 |
The output of the engine – net work W done by the working substance:

𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄 = |𝑄𝐻 | − |𝑄𝐶 |

The thermal efficiency e represents the fraction of QH that is converted to work.
This is always less than unity (1) and it is unitless.
𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄𝐶
𝑒= =1−| |
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

CARNOT ENGINES
A Carnot engine is an idealized engine that is not subjected to practical difficulties such as
friction or heat loss by conduction or radiation but that obeys physical laws. Though only
theoretical, a carnot engine is always more efficient than an actual heat engine. This is called
Carnot’s Theorem. The unit of temperature in the formula below must be in Kelvin.
𝑇𝐶
Carnot Efficiency: 𝑒 = 1 −
𝑇𝐻

Sample Problem 12
A gasoline truck engine takes in 10,000J of heat and delivers 2,000J of mechanical
work per cycle. The heat is obtained by burning gasoline with heat of combustion LC = 5.10x104 J/g. a) What
is the thermal efficiency of this engine? b) How much heat is discarded in each cycle? c) If the engine goes
through 25 cycles per second, what is its power output in watts? In horsepower? d) How much gasoline is
burned per second? Per hour?
Given:
QH = 10,000J
W = 2,000J
LC = 5.10x104 J/g
Required:
a) e=?
b) QC = ?
c) P = ? in watts, and hp
d) Mass per second, mass per hour
Solution:
 a) e = Wout / Qin = 2000J / 10000J = 0.2 or 20%
b) W = |QH – QC|
|QC| = |QH| - W
|QC| = (10000J) – (2000J)
QC = 8000 J
c)

d) QH = mLC
m = QH/LC
m = (10,000J) / (5.10x104 J/g)
m = 0.19g/cycle
for grams per second and per hour:

Sample Problem 13
A steam engine works between 500°C and 300°C. Determine the ideal efficiency (Carnot efficiency) of the steam
engine.
Given:
TH = 500°C
TC = 300°C
Required:
e=?
Solution:

REFRIGERATOR
A refrigerator is a heat engine operating in reverse. It takes heat from a cold
place (the inside of the refrigerator) and gives it off to a warmer place (usually
the air in the room where the refrigerator is located). The refrigerator requires a
net input of mechanical work.

|𝑄𝐻 | = |𝑄𝐶 | + |𝑊|

The best refrigeration cycle is one that removes the greatest amount of heat QC
from the inside of the refrigerator for the least expenditure of mechanical work
W. The relevant ratio is QC / W; the larger this ratio, the better the refrigerator.
This ratio is called the coefficient of performance (COP) and it is unitless
|𝑄𝐶 | |𝑄𝐶 |
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =
|𝑊 | |𝑄𝐻 | − |𝑄𝐶 |
CARNOT REFRIGERATOR
When the temperature difference is small, the coefficient of performance (COP) is much larger than unity; in this case
a lot of heat can be “pumped” from the lower to the higher temperature with only a little expenditure of work. The unit
of temperature in the formula below must be in Kelvin.
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑇𝐶
𝐶𝑂𝑃 = =1−
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝐻 − 𝑇𝐶
Sample Problem 14
What is the coefficient of performance of a brand new refrigerator which has a capacity of 3500W and an input rating
of 750W?
Given:
Pin = 750W
Pout = 3500W
Required:
COP = ?
Solution:
COP = Pout/Pin
COP = 3500W/750W
COP = 4.67