Physics

Learner's Book

For Rwanda Secondary

Schools

S5
r

First Edition: 2017

© Reserved with the Rwanda Education Board

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TABLE OF CONTENT
Unit 1 outline
1.0. Introduction..............................................................................2
1.1. Planck’s quantum theory.........................................................3
1.2. Photon theory of light and photoelectric effect.......................5
1.3. Wave theory of monochromatic light......................................6
1.4. Properties of a light wave………………………......................11
1.5. Blackbody radiation………………………………....................12
1.6. Energy, mass and momentum of a photon…………………..14
1.7. Compton effect and photon interactions…..........……….......15
1.7.1. Types of photon interactions……………….......………16
1.8. Wave particle duality of light…………………………......…...17
1.9. The principle of complementarities……………………..........17
1.10. The wave nature of matter….………………………….....……18
1.11. Electron microscope ………....……………………………….…18
1.11.1. Transmission Electron Microscope………….…….…18
1.11.2. Scanning Electron Microscope……….……….....……19
Unit 2 outline
2.0. Introduction…………………………….....…………………...…25
2.1. Kinematics of Simple Harmonic Motion……………….…….25
2.2. Equation of Simple Harmonic motion………........….……….27
2.3. Simple Harmonic oscillators………………………......…........32
2.3.1. Simple Pendulum…….………………………….............33
2.3.2. Mass suspended from a Coil Spring….……................36
2.3.3 Liquid in a U-tube…………….....………….……............40
2.4. Kinetic and Potential energy of an oscillating system…..…42
2.5. Energy changes and Energy conservation in an oscillating
system…..................................................................................43
2.6. Superposition of harmonics of same frequency and same
direction……...........................................................................46
Unit 3 outline
3.0. Introduction…...............…………………………………………52
3.1. Damped oscillations………………….....……….……..……….52

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 3.2. Equation of Damped oscillations…….......…….…..………….54
3.3. The solution of equation of damping……........………………55
3.4. Types of damped oscillations……………….......…………...…56
3.4.1. Under damping oscillation……………………..............56
3.4.2. Over damped oscillation…………………………............57
3.4.3. Critically damped oscillation…………………..............58
3.5. Natural frequency of a vibration and forced oscillation....…61
3.6. Equation of forced oscillation and its solution………………62
3.7. Variation of forced frequency on graph at amplitude close to
natural frequency of vibration……………......................……64
3.8. Resonances………………...……………………………….......…65
3.9. Applications and examples of resonance in everyday life....66
3.9.1 A washing machine………………………………….....…66
3.9.2 Breaking the glass using voice…………………….....…67
3.9.3 Breaking the bridge…………………………………....…67
3.9.4 Musical instruments……………………………....…...…68
3.9.5 Tuning circuit……………………………………….......…68
3.9.6 Microwave ovens…………………………………......……69
3.9.7 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)…………...........…69
3.10 Effect of resonance on systems………………………....….......70
Unit 4 outline
4.0. Introduction……………….……....……………………...………75
4.1. The concept of waves……………………......……………..……75
4.2. Terms used and characteristics of waves…….........……...…76
4.3. Types of waves…………………………………...…………… …77
4.3.1. Mechanical waves………………………........………..…78
4.3.1.1. Progressive waves……..........……...……...……78
4.3.1.1.1. Longitudinal waves……..........………………78
4.3.1.1.2. Transverse waves……..........……………..….78
4.3.1.1.3. Equation of progressive waves……..............79
4.3.1.2. Principle of superposition…………..................81
4.3.1.3. Stationary waves……….............………….……82
4.3.1.4. Examples of mechanical waves…….................84
4.3.2. Electromagnetic waves…….......……..…………....……86

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 4.4. Properties of waves……………………….................………………87
4.4.1. Reflection…….......……………….....……….....…………87
4.4.2. Refraction……….......………………......……......……….88
4.4.3. Interference………........………………….....….......……89
4.4.4. Diffraction………….......……………………............……90
4.4.4.1. Fresnel’s diffraction…………................……….90
4.4.4.2. Fraunhofer Diffraction……..............…...………91
4.5. Young’s double slit experiment……………….............…...………92
4.6. Wave on a vibrating string…………...........……………...…………92
4.7. Applications of waves………...........………………………...………95
Unit 5 outline
5.0. Introduction……………………....……………………….….…102
5.1. Kirchhoff’s laws…………….………....…………………..……104
5.1.1. Kirchhoff’s Current Law…………………….....…………...…106
5.1.2. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law………………......……………...……107
5.2. Design of complex and simple electric circuits…..……......108
5.3. Resistors and electromotive forces in series and parallel
complex circuits…..............................................................................111
5.4. Simple potentiometer circuits………………….….………....115
5.4.1. Comparison of e.m.f.s……………………………….…………117
5.4.2. Measurement of internal resistance of a cell……....………119
5.5. Measurement of current by potentiometer…………...….…121
5.6. Advantages and disadvantages of potentiometer…...…..…125
Unit 6 outline
6.0. Introduction………………………....………….…….…………131
6.1 Fossil fuels and Non-fossil fuels………..…………........……133
6.1.1 Fossil fuels………………………..…………..…..………133
6.1.2 Non-fossil fuels……………………….....…...……..……134
6.2. Storage and transportation of different types of fossil fuels.135
6.2.1 Coal……………………..……………………….......……135
6.2.2 Transporting Natural Gas and Crude Oil………....…141
6.3. Advantages and disadvantages of fossil fuels……….…...…143
6.4. Energy production using fossil fuels.……………………...…144
6.5. Nuclear fuel and nuclear fission…………………….…..……145

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 6.6. Controlled fission (power production)………….....….………146
6.7. Uncontrolled fission (nuclear weapons)….…….....…………147
6.8. Impacts of nuclear weapons………………………….….....…148
6.9. Energy transformations in a nuclear power station…....…149
6.10. Problems associated with the production of nuclear
power…..................................................................................149
6.11. Environmental problems of fossil fuels.…………...….........150
6.12. Safety issues and risks associated with nuclear power…..155
6.12.1 Nuclear Meltdown…………………………………….......……155
6.12.2 Nuclear (Radioactive) Wastes………………………....…......156
Unit 7 outline
7.0. Introduction……………………………………….……..………161
7.1. Electric field and electric potential due to a point charge...162
7.2. Electric potential energy and potential difference……...…163
7.3. Equipotential Lines and Surfaces…....................................165
7.4. Potential due to electric dipole……………...........................166
7.5. Conservation of electrical energy…………..........................167
7.6. Cathode ray tube……………................................................168
7.7. TV and computer monitors…...............................................169
7.8. Trajectory of a charge moving in a cathode ray tube…..….169
7.9. Electrodynamics……………………………………..........……174
7.10. Gravitational field and gravitational potential……….....…174
7.11. Escape velocity for a planet……………………………....……176
7.12. Energy conservation in gravitational fields……………..…….176
Unit 8 outline
8.1. Introduction………………………………………....……..……184
8.2. Newton’s law of gravitation………………………..........……184
8.3. Kepler’s laws of planetary motion……………………...........185
8.4. Verification of Kepler’s third law of planetary motion…....186
8.5. Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth…...193
8.6. Variation of acceleration due to gravity with height……....195
8.7. Variation of gravity with depth………………………........…197
8.8. Variation in g due to rotation of earth………………...........199
8.9. Variation of gravity “g” due to shape of earth………....…...201

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 8.10. Rockets…………………………………………………...………202
8.11. Spacecraft Propulsion………………………………......…….202
8.12. Satellites…………………………………………………..……204
8.12.1. Orbital Velocity of Satellite……………….............204
8.12.2. Time Period of Satellite……………........………….206
8.12.3. Height of Satellite………………….......…………….208
8.12.4. Geostationary Satellite………………........………209
8.12.6. Energy of Satellite…………………………............210
8.13. Types and applications of Satellite Systems….........……212
8.14. Cosmic velocity (first, second and third)……………........215
8.14.1. The first cosmic velocity………………….......…....216
8.14.2. Second cosmic velocity (escape velocity)…….........217
8.14.3. The third cosmic velocity………………..............…217
8.14.4. The fourth cosmic velocity……………...............…218
Unit 9 outline
9.0. Introduction………………....…………………………………225
9.1. Structure of atom……………....……………………………225
9.2. Rutherford’s atomic model……......….……………………225
9.3. Bohr’s atomic model…………………….....……………….227
9.4. Energy levels and spectral lines of Hydrogen….........…230
9.5. Thermionic emission (thermo electronic emission)……..231
9.6. Applications of cathode rays…………….......………………232
9.6.1 Cathode ray oscilloscope……………......……………232
9.6.2 TV tubes……………………………..…………………233
9.7. Fluorescence and phosphorescence……….........…………235
9.8. Photoelectric emission laws’…………….......………………236
9.9. Photoelectric effect………………………….....………………236
9.10. Factors affecting photoelectric emission……….........……238
9.11. Photon, work function and Plank constant………...........238
9.12. Einstein’s equation photoelectric effect…………….........239
9.13. Application of photoelectric effect (photo emissive and
photovoltaic cells)...............................................................244
9.14. Compton effect…………………………………………...….245

vi Physics Senior Five

Unit 10 outline
10.1. Introduction……….....……………………………………254
10.2. Information transmission in a communication system…254
10.3. Communication Terms and Concepts………………………255
10.4. Elements of communication………………………………….257
10.5. Types of information and requirements……………........259
10.6. Simplex transmission……………………………………...…260
10.7. Half-duplex communications………………………….........260
10.8. Full-duplex communications……………………………......261
10.9. Bandwidth and signal Frequency…………………………..262
10.10. Analog signal system………………………………………….262
10.11. Analog signals…………………………………………………264
10.12. Advantages and disadvantages of analog signals…………264
10.13. Digital signals…………………………………………………265
10.14. Advantages of digital technology……………………………265
10.15. Comparing digital and analog signals………………......…266
10.16. Logic gates………………………………………………………268
Unit 11 outline
11.0. Introduction…………………...………………………………275
11.1. Concepts of transmission system……………………………275
11.2. Principle of cellular radio…………………………......……278
11.3. Structure of cellular network………………………….......278
11.4. Principle of cellular network………………………………...279
11.5. Mobile communication systems……………………………283
11.6. Radio Transmission (AM, FM, PM)……………………….284
11.7. Post, telegraph and telephone (PTT)………………………288
Unit 12 outline
12.0. Introduction…………………………………..………….....….293
12.1 Definition of relativity……………………….....…………….294
12.2 Concept of space, time and mass…..................................294
12.3 Concept of frame of reference……..................................…..299
12.4 Galilean equation of transformation….............…...............301
12.5 Postulates of special theory of relativity………………...303
12.6 Concept of simultaneity………………….........……………...304

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Unit 13 outline
13.0. Introduction……………………………………………...……..308
13.1. Nature of electromagnetic waves……………………………308
13.1.1 . Producing electromagnetic waves…………….........309
13.1.2 . Electromagnetic Radiation………..…..............…….309
13.1.3 . Electromagnetic spectrum………………...............309
13.1.4. Radiation Interaction with the Earth..………........311
13.1.5. Radiation Interaction with the Atmosphere……...312
13.1.6 . Atmospheric Absorption of electromagnetic waves. 313
13.2. Conditions for interference to occur given two sources of
light.......................................................................................313
13.3. Principle of superposition…………………….........………….314
13.4. Interference patterns of two coherent point sources of
light…….................................................................................315
13.5. Young’s Double-slit experiment……………..………......……315
13.6. Intensity distribution of fringe pattern……........………….318
Unit 14 outline
14.0. Introduction………………………………………....…………324
14.1. Sun’s atmosphere and interior…………………......………326
14.1.1. The sun’s interior…………................………………..326
14.1.2. The sun’s atmosphere….............……………………327
14.2. Brightness and magnitude scale of stars………........…….330
14.3. Star temperature, colour and spectra………….........……330
14.4. Types of stars……………………………………...………….331
14.5. Hertzsprung-Russel diagram………………………......….335
14.6. Stellar distance and masses:……………………………...336
Parallax, binary stars and mass-luminosity relationship.

Unit summary......................................................................... 339

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 Topic Area: LIGHT
Sub-Topic Area: Wave Particle Duality
UNIT WAVE AND PARTICLE
1 NATURE OF LIGHT

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, I should be able to

analyze the nature of light.

Unit Objectives:

By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ Explain the Planck’s quantum theory and apply it to other theories.
◊ Explain photoelectric effect and use it to derive and apply
Einstein’s photoelectric equation
◊ explain photoelectric effect and use it to derive and apply
Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
◊ Explain the wave theory of light and state its limitations.
◊ Evaluate properties of light as a wave.
◊ Differentiate electron microscope and Compton Effect as applied in
medecine.

Physics Senior Five 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Until the late 19th century physicists used to explain the phenomena
in the physical world around them using theories such as mechanics,
electromagnetism, thermodynamics and statistical physics that are known
as classical theories.
At the turn of the 19th century, more and more experiments showed effects
that could not be explained by these classical theories. This indicated a need
for a new theory that we now know as quantum mechanics. Quantum
mechanics is the system of laws which governs the behaviour of matter on
the atomic scale. It is the most successful theory in the history of science,
having withstood thousands of experimental tests without a single verifiable
exception. So, the quantum mechanics is required to analyze the behaviour
of photons, electrons and other particles that make up the universe.
This theory is the most useful in various studies especially for Radiography
and Physiotherapy in Medicine, electrons and photons in Chemistry and
Astronomy in Geography.

Opening question
Clearly observe the image shown on Fig.1-1, with kids playing on a slide
with the help of their father Mr. John and answer the questions that follow.

Fig. 1-1; Kids playing on the slide

a) Sarah is climbing the ladder. How do you think her potential energy
is changing?
b) Comment on the potential energies of Jovia and Peter.

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c)How is the change in the potential energy of Jovia as she slides down?
d)What do you think is Mr. John doing on the young kid? Give your
comments.
Fig.1.2 below shows how light interacts with an electron. F and B are the
terminals of the circuit (the wires of an external circuit).

Fig.1.2: Interaction of light and electron

The working mechanism of Fig.1.2 is used in solar cells and solar panels.
Clearly analyse Fig.1.2 and compare it with the situation on Fig.1.1,
take children as electrons at different points or positions, and make your
comments.

1.1 PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY

The quantum theory arose out of the inability of the classical physics to
explain the experimentally observed distribution of energy in the spectrum
of a blackbody. When a blackbody is heated, it emits thermal radiations
of different wavelengths or frequency. To explain these radiations, Max
Planck put forward a theory known as Planck’s quantum theory. The theory
is summarized in the following statements:
1. The matter is composed of a large number of oscillating particles. These
oscillators have different frequencies.
2. The radiant energy which is emitted or absorbed by the blackbody is
not continuous but discontinuous in the form of small discrete packets
of energy and each such packet of energy is called a ‘quantum’. In case
of light, the quantum of energy is called a ‘photon’.
3. The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to the frequency (f)
of the radiation, i.e.
(Let ‘E’ be the energy and ‘f ’ be the frequency)
Then, E ∝ f or E = hf ......... Equation 1.1
hc
c` f = m
c
λ
E=  ......... Equation 1.2
λ

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 whereas c is the speed of light, l is the wavelength and h is the Planck’s
constant (h = 6.63 × 10–34 J.s.).
4. The oscillator emits energy, when it moves from one quantized state to
the other quantized state. The oscillator does not emit energy as long
as it remains in one energy state. The total amount of energy emitted
or absorbed by a body will be some whole number quanta. Hence,
nhc
E = nhf =  ......... Equation 1.3
λ
where n is an integer.
According to the Planck’s theory, the exchange of energy between quantized
states is not continuous but discrete. This quantized energy is in small
packets of bundles. The bundle of energy or the packet of energy is called
quantum (plural quanta).

EXAMPLE 1.1
The laser in a compact disc player. It uses light with a wavelength of
7.8 × 102 nm. Calculate the energy of a single photon of this light.

Solution:
From Equation 1.2,
hc
E= ( Speed of light = 3 × 108 m/s)
λ
6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
= ( 1 nm = 10–9 m)
7.8 × 102 × 10 −9
E = 2.55 × 10–19 J

EXAMPLE 1.2
What is the ratio between the energies of two radiations, one with a
wavelength of 200 nm and the other with 600 nm?

Solution:
Let us use l1 = 200 nm and l2 = 600 nm
hc 6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108 hc 6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
E1 = = E2 = =
λ1 200 × 10 −9 λ2 600 × 10 −9
E1 = 9.95 × 10–19 J E2 = 3.32 × 10–19 J
\ The ratio E1 to E2 is given by
E1 9.95 × 10 −19
= = 3.0
E2 3.32 × 10 −19

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Hence, E1 : E2 = 3 : 1
or
E1 hc hc
=
E2 l1 l2
E1 l2 600 × 10 −9
= =
E2 l1 200 × 10 −9
E1 3
=
E2 1

EXERCISE 1.1
1. What is quantum mechanics?
2. What is Planck’s quantum theory?
3. Explain Planck’s hypothesis or what are the postulates of Planck’s
quantum theory?
4. A laser emits light energy in short pulses with frequency 4.69 × 1014 Hz
and deposits 1.3 × 10–2 J for each pulse. How many quanta of energy
does each pulse deposit?

1.2 PHOTON THEORY OF LIGHT AND PHOTOELECTRIC

EFFECT
As proposed by Einstein, light is composed of photons, very small packets of
energy. A photon has no mass and no charge. It is a carrier of electromagnetic
energy and interacts with other discrete particles, e.g. electrons, atoms and
molecules.
A beam of light is modelled as a stream of photons, each carrying a well-
defined energy that is dependent upon the wavelength of the light. Einstein
reasoned that to conserve energy, the light ought to be emitted in packets
or quanta or photons and the energy of a given photon can be calculated by:
hc
Photon energy (E) =
λ
where h is the Planck’s constant, c is the speed of light and l is the
wavelength.
Because all light ultimately comes from a radiating source, this idea
suggests that light is transmitted as tiny particles, or photons as they
are now called. The photon theory of light was also a radical departure from
classical ideas. Einstein proposed a test of the quantum theory of light:

Physics Senior Five 5

quantitative measurements on the photoelectric effect.

Fig.1.3. Photoelectric effect

The emission of electrons from the surface of metals, when light of a certain
frequency is incident on it is known as photoelectric effect. In other words,
it is the process of the removal of electrons from the surface of metal when
the rays of special frequency fall on the surface of metal. As a result of the
flow of these photoelectrons, the photoelectric current is produced.
Applications of photoelectric effect
There are numerous desirable applications based on photoelectric effect
such as:
Automatic doors — The beam of light strikes the photocell, the photoelectric
effect generates enough ejected electrons to produce a defectable electric
current. When the light beam is blocked (by a person), the electric current
is intruppted and the doors are signaled to open.
Solar panels — Photocells convert sunlight into electrical energy.
Some other applications of photoelectric emission are: television, camera,
tube light, activated counters, intrusion alarms, turn on street lights at
dawn and safety lights.

1.3 WAVE THEORY OF MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT

Till the end of the 19th, century the predominant perception of wave
propagation was moduled in some medium. Therefore, a medium called
ether, was hypothesized for waves of light. The necessity of hypothesizing
ether occured because it is different from any material medium known to
us and it arises because light travels through empty space. For example,
light coming from the sun and the stars as well as dense objects like glass,
diamond can travel through empty space etc. Huygens published this theory
in 1690, having compared the behaviour of light not with that of water
waves but with that of sound. According to the Huygens’ principle:
• Light travels in the form of longitudinal waves which travel with
uniform velocity in homogeneous medium.
• Different colours are due to the different wavelengths of light waves.

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 • We get the sensation of light when these waves enter our eyes.
• In order to explain the propagation of waves of light through vacuum.
Huygens suggested the existence of a hypothetical medium called
luminiferous ether, which is present in vacuum as well as in all
material objects. Since ether couldn’t be detected, it was attributed
properties like:
 It is continuous and is made up of elastic particles.
 It has zero density.
 It is perfectly transparent.
 It is present everywhere.
The Huygens’ principle of the wave theory of light states that:
“Every point on a wavefront may be considered a source of secondary
spherical wavelets which spread out in the forward direction at the
speed of light. The new wavefront is the tangential surface to all of
these secondary wavelets.”

Diffraction of a plane wave of a slit Diffraction of a plane wave when the

whose width is several times the wavelength slit width equals the wavelength

Fig.1.4. Huygens construction principle

In the wave theory assuming monochromatic light, the two important
properties of a light wave are its intensity and frequency (or wavelength).
When these two quantities are varied, the wave theory makes the following
predictions:
1. if the light intensity is increased, the number of electrons ejected and
their maximum kinetic energy should be increased because the higher
intensity means greater electric field amplitude, and the greater electric
field should eject the electrons with higher speed.
2. the frequency of the light should not affect the kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons. Only the frequency of incident radiation affect the
maximum kinetic energy.

Physics Senior Five 7

There are, however, at least two problems with this idea and these led
Newton and others to reject it:
(a) The secondary waves are propagated in the forward direction only, and
(b) They are assumed to destroy each other except when they form the new
wavefront.
Newton wrote, ‘If light consists of undulations in an elastic medium, it
should diverge in every direction from each new centre of disturbance. Like
sound bend around all obstacles and obliterate all shadows.’ Newton did not
know that in fact light behaves the same, but the effects are exceedingly
small due to the very short wavelength of light.
(Huygens’ theory also failed to explain the rectilinear propagation of light.)

Definitions
A wave is any disturbance that results into the transfer of energy from one
point to another point.
Primary source: The geometrical centre or axis of the actual source of
light which is either a point or a line is called the primary source.
Wavelets: All points lying on small curved surfaces that receive light at the
same time from the same source (primary or secondary) are called wavelets.
Secondary source: Any point on a wavelet, acts as the source of light for
further propagation of light. It is called a secondary source.
Wavefront: The envelope of all wavelets in the same phase receives light
from sources in the same phase at the same time is called a wavefront.
Wave normal: The normal at any point drawn outward on a wavefront is
called the wave normal. Further propagation of light occurs along the wave
normal. In isotropic media, the wave normal coincides with the ‘ray of light’.
Limitations of Huygens’ wave theory of light
• It could not explain the rectilinear propagation of light.
• It could not explain the phenomenan of polarisation of light such as
Compton effect and Photoelectric effect.
• Michelson and Morley experiment concluded that there is no ether
drag when the earth moves through it. This proves ether doesn’t exist.
All the other attempts/ experiments to detect Luminiferous ether
failed, which prove that it does not exist.

8 Physics Senior Five

1.4 PROPERTIES OF A LIGHT WAVE
The properties of waves include the following:
The wavelength of a wave is defined as the distance over which the wave’s
shape repeats.
It is the distance between the corresponding points on successive cycles,
eg. the distance between two wave crests is known as wavelength of a
sinusoidal wave. It is measured in units of length (metres, nanometres).
The wavelength is usually represented by the symbol l (lambda).
A measurement of the wavelength is made by observing the wave in space
at a single instant of time.

Fig.1.5: Wavelength of a Sinusoidal wave

Amplitude: The maximum displacement of wave quantity relative to the
undisturbed, equilibrium position of a particle is called amptitude. for
example, height of water wave, pressure of sound wave, maximum electric
field, etc.
Periodic time: This is the time between two successive wave crests or
successive wave troughs. It is measured in units of time (second). The period
is often represented by the letter T. It is measured by observing the wave
displacement at a single point in space.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of the wave quantity, measured
in hertz (Hz) is called frequency. The frequency is usually represented by
the letter f. The observation of the frequency is made at a single point in
space.
1
Mathematically; f=  ......... Equation 1.4
T

Fig.1.6: Period and amplitude of the wave

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Phase angle: The number of units of angular measure between a point on
the wave and a reference point in a periodic wave is called phase angle.

Fig.1.7: Phase angle of the wave

The phase angle at any point is calculated using simple proportions as
shown below. Where is the wavelength, is any horizontal distance and
RMis the phase angle corresponding to the horizontal displacement .

......... Equation 1.5

10 Physics Senior Five

ACTIVITY 1-1: Properties of waves
The curve of Fig.1.8 shows the
variation of height reached by
a vibrating object against the
horizontal distance it can cover.
Study the curve and answer the
questions that follow.
From the graph find;
(a) The amplitude of the wave.
(b) The wavelength of the wave.
Fig.1.8: Variation of height and distance
(c) What do we call point A?
attained by a vibration.

1.5 BLACKBODY RADIATION

One of the earliest indications that classical physics was incomplete came
from attempts to describe blackbody radiation. A blackbody is a theoretical
object that absorbs 100% of the radiation that hits it and re-radiates energy
which is the characteristic of this radiating system or body only. Therefore,
it reflects no radiation and appears perfectly black.
The blackbody radiation is the emission of electromagnetic waves from the
surface of an object. The distribution of blackbody radiation depends only
the temperature of the object and is independent of the material.
This concept is idealized but can be very nearly realized in practice as
illustrated in Fig. 1.9. The inner wall of the enclosure is black so that most of
any radiation which enters through the small hole is absorbed on reaching
the wall. The small amount of radiation which is reflected has very little
chance of escaping through the hole before it is absorbed in a subsequent
encounter with the wall.

Fig. 1.9: Approximate realization of the black body

Physics Senior Five 11

A blackbody radiator can be made by surrounding the enclosure of
Fig. 1.9(a) with a heating coil as shown on Fig.1.9(b). The radiation which
is emitted by any section of the wall is involved in many reflections before
it eventually emerges from the hole. Any section which is a poor emitter
absorbs very little of the radiation which is incident on it, and those sections
which are good emitters absorb most of the radiation which incident on
them. This is the effect of mixing the radiations before they emerge and
of making the temperature same at all points on the inner surface of the
enclosure.
ACTIVITY 1-2: Blackbody Rediation
Discuss blackbody radiation in group and ask questions.

1.6 ENERGY, MASS AND MOMENTUM OF A PHOTON

The famous Einstein equation of energy of the photon is E = mc2. In short,
the equation describes how energy and mass are related with speed of light.
To derive this equation, consider an X-ray photon of mass m hitting the
surface of a metal and consider if a part of its energy is gained by a surface
electron and is then emitted as shown in Fig. 1.10.

Fig.1.10: Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

The most important laws in dynamics are those that state the conservation
of energy and the conservation of momentum. These two laws can be applied
whenever we have a closed system; that is, a system that does not interact
with its surroundings. They assert that for such systems and any process
they may undergo:
Assume that;

12 Physics Senior Five

E is the energy
s is the distance
F is the force
c is the speed
t is the time
P is the momentum

∑E = ∑E
i f

∑P = ∑P
i f

The total energy of the photon is given by

E = F × s ......... Equation 1.6

The distance moved by the photon in time t second is

s = ct
E = F × ct. ........ Equation 1.7
where c is the speed of the photon.
\ E = Fct ......... Equation 1.8
From Newton’s second law of motion, the momentum of the photon is given
by;
P = Ft = mc ......... Equation 1.9
mc
\ F=  ......... Equation 1.10
t
Substituting Equation 1.10 into Equation 1.7 gives the total energy of the
photon in the form;
mc
E= (ct)
t 2
E = mc ......... Equation 1.11
Equation 1.11 can be derived by integration using the theory of special
relativity.

Physics Senior Five 13

 EXERCISE 1.2
The mass of an electron or positron is 9.11 × 10–31 kg. The speed of light is
3.0 × 108 m/s.
1. Show that the rest energy of an electron is 8.2 × 10–14J.
2. Use the answer to question 1, to show that the rest energy of an electron
is 0.51 MeV.
3. Write down the rest energy of a positron (antielectron).
4. An electron and a positron meet and annihilate one another. By how
much does the rest energy decrease in total? Express the answer in
MeV.
5. The annihilation of an electron and a positron at rest produces a pair
of identical gamma ray photons travelling in opposite directions. Write
down (in MeV) the energy you expect each photon to have.
6. A single photon passing near a nucleus can create an electron–positron
pair. Their rest energy comes from the energy of the photon. Write
down the smallest photon energy that can produce one such pair.
7. Cosmic rays can send high-energy photons through the atmosphere.
What approximately is the maximum number of electron–positron
pairs that a 10 GeV photon can create?

1.7 COMPTON EFFECT AND PHOTON INTERACTIONS

The Compton Effect concerns the inelastic scattering of X-rays by electrons.
Scattering means dispersing in different directions and inelastic means
that energy is lost by the scattered object in the process. The intensity of
the scattered X‑ray is measured as a function of the wavelength shift.
Photons are electromagnetic radiation with zero mass, zero charge, and a
velocity that is always equal to the speed of light. Because they are electrically
neutral, they do not steadily lose energy via Coulombic interactions with
atomic electrons, as charged particles do. Photons travel some considerable
distance before undergoing a more “catastrophic” interaction leading to
partial or total transfer of the photon energy to electron energy. These
electrons will ultimately deposit their energy in the medium. Photons are
far more penetrating than charged particles of similar energy. There are
many types of photon interactions. We will only discuss those that are
important in radiation therapy and/or diagnostic radiology.

14 Physics Senior Five

1.7.1 Types of photon interactions

Coherent scattering
Coherent scattering is one of three forms of photon interaction which occurs
when the energy of the X-ray or gamma photon is small in relation to the
ionisation energy of the atom. It therefore occurs with low energy radiation.
Upon interacting with the attenuating medium, the photon does not have
enough energy to liberate the electron from its bound state (i.e. the photon
energy is well below the binding energy of the electron), so no energy transfer
occurs. The only change is a change of direction (scatter) of the photon,
hence it is called ‘unmodified’ scatter. Coherent scattering is not a major
interaction process encountered in radiography at the energies normally
used. There are two types of coherent scattering: Thomson scattering and
Rayleigh scattering.
• In Thomson scattering, only one electron of the atom is involved in the
interaction.
• With Rayleigh scattering, all the electrons of the atom, sometimes
called the electron cloud, are involved in a cooperative effort in the
interaction with the photon.

Photoelectric effect
The following points make this phenomena clear:
1. The photon must have an energy equal to or greater than the binding
energy of electron in the atom.
2. The incident photon must be completely absorbed by the electron.
3. The electron is then ejected from the atom.
4. The excess energy over the binding energy is given to the electron in
the form of kinetic energy (which is the speed of the electron).
5. The hole left in the atom is filled by an outer shell electron or a free
electron with the emission of characteristic radiation.

Compton interaction
In Compton interaction, the photon interacts with a ‘free’ or an outer shell
electron. A portion of incident energy of the photon will be transferred to
an electron in the form of kinetic energy. The incident photon, now called
a scattered photon will be deflected in a new direction with less energy.
Energy given to recoil electron is considered as the absorbed energy and the
energy retained by the photon is considered scattered.

Physics Senior Five 15

Pair Production
The photon interacts with the nuclear field of the atom, in such a way, that
the photon transforms itself into an electron-positron pair. As the photon
interacts with the strong electric field around the nucleus, it undergoes a
change of state and is transformed into two particles (essentially creating
matter from energy).

Photodisintegration
(Photo transmutation) It is a nuclear reaction in which the absorption of
high energy electromagnetic radiation (a gamma-ray photon) causes the
absorbing nucleus to change to another species by ejecting a subatomic
particle, such as a proton, neutron, or alpha particle.

ACTIVITY 1-3: Compton Effect.

Aim: In this activity you will be able to highlight the most important terms
in Compton effect
Question: highlight at least 17 important terms you may need to explain
photoelectric effect and photo interaction. Use these terms to construct at
least 5 sentences to explain this theory

V T A O I W A T X O W O O D R O P S S E A S U P T S

S C A T T E R I N G A C A N U M B E P H X D E E X Z

A M X Q Q I Y P H O T O D I S I N T E G R A T I O N

O W A A D B C O U L O M B I C L X U E F A C H P L P

E L W C T R O N A T E P U I O N I P D S Y J O O S O

S X I N C O H E R E N T O S D Q Z T M D U H M L V O

U O P O T S M L E P R O D U C T I O N U S O S F X S

A I N T E R A C T I O N L T I T T L K O T S O X D Z

O S M C O S U N M O D I F I E D I P H O T O N T P K

1.8 WAVE PARTICLE DUALITY OF LIGHT

When one focusses on different types of phenomena such as interference,
diffraction and polarisation, a wave picture of light can be built. This is
because these phenomena are also found in properties of waves.
Experiments such as Young’s double slit experiment depend upon the
diffraction of light waves and the constructive and destructive interferences
show that light has wave-like properties.

16 Physics Senior Five

The analysis of data in photoelectric experiment showed that the energy
of ejected electrons was proportional to the frequency of illuminated light.
This showed that whatever was knocking the electrons out had an energy
proportional to frequency. The ejection energy of illumination showed that
the interaction must be like that of a particle and gave all of its energy to
the electron.
This fits well with Planck’s hypothesis that light in the blackbody experiment
could exist only in discrete bundles of energy, so we conclude that light is a
particle.

1.9 THE PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITIES

The principle of complementarities refers to the effects such as wave particle
duality in which different measurements made on the system reveal it to have
either particle-like or wave-like properties. Both properties are necessary to
gain the complete knowledge of the phenomena; they are complementary to
each other; but at the same time, they also exclude each other.
Within the scope of classical physics, all characteristic properties of a given
object can be ascertained by a single experimental arrangement, although
in practice various arrangements are often convenient for the study of
different aspects of the phenomena. In fact, data obtained in such a way
simply supplement each other and can be combined into a consistent picture
of the behaviour of the object under investigation. In quantum physics,
however, evidence about atomic objects obtained by different experimental
arrangements exhibits a novel kind of complementary relationship.

1.10 THE WAVE NATURE OF MATTER

Being fully aware of the pioneering work of Einstein on the photoelectric
effect, de Broglie extended the notion of wave particle duality to matter.
All matter can exhibit wave-like behaviour. For example, a beam of electron
can be diffracted just like a beam of light or a water wave.
The concept that matter behaves like a wave is also referred to de Broglie
hypothesis.
The de Broglie wavelength is the wavelength, l, associated with a massive
particle and is related to its momentum p.
h
l=  ......... Equation 1.12
p
With p being the particle’s momentum. The particles are diffracted by
passing through an aperture in a similar manner as light waves. The wave

Physics Senior Five 17

properties of particles mean that when you confine it in a small space its
momentum and kinetic energy must increase.
It is important to realize that the attribution of a wavelength to a massive
particle implies that it should behave as a wave under some conditions.
For example, it should be possible to verify this wave-like behaviour when
performing a diffraction experiment. Of course, there was no experimental
evidence of any sort at the time to justify such an assertion.
To understand how a massive particle could exhibit wave-like properties, or
how a wave could ‘behave’ as a particle, we must first review the notions of
phase and group velocities.

1.11 ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

A microscope can be defined as an instrument that uses one or several
lenses to form an enlarged (magnified) image. Microscopes can be classified
according to the type of electromagnetic wave employed and whether this
wave is transmitted or not through the specimen. The most common electron
microscopes are Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and Scanning
Electron Microscope (SEM).

1.11.1 Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

This is a microscopy technique whereby a beam of electrons is transmitted
through an ultra thin specimen, interacting with the specimen as it passes
through it. An image is formed from the electrons transmitted through
the specimen, magnified and focused by an objective lens. It appears on
an imaging screen, a fluorescent screen (in most TEMs), a monitor, or on a
layer of photographic film. It can also be detected by a sensor such as a CCD
camera. Theoretically, the maximum resolution that one can obtain with a
light microscope has been limited by the wavelength of the photons that are
being used to probe the sample and the numerical aperture of the system.
TEM consists of a cylindrical tube about 2 metres long. The tube contains
vacuum where the specimen is located. This is because the molecules of
gases, such as those in air, absorb electrons.
TEM works by emitting electrons from a cathode, then accelerating them
through an anode, after which the electrons pass through an aperture into
the vacuum tube.

18 Physics Senior Five

 Fig.1.11: Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)

As it passes down through the tube the electron beam is controlled by

electromagnetic lenses formed by coils around the tube (whose effect is
moderated by adjusting the electricity flowing through the coils). These
electromagnetic lenses direct the electron beam through the centre of the
tube to a very thin specimen located part-way down the tube.
Some parts of the specimen might allow electrons to pass through them
unaffected. Other regions within the specimen absorb some or all of the
electrons that reach them. If any electrons continue from that part of the
specimen further down the tube to the image formation plane with less
energy. This happens because some of their energy has been absorbed by,
or “passed to”, the part of the specimen that the electron(s) passed through.

TEM Applications
• TEMs provide topographical, morphological, compositional and
crystalline information.
• It is useful in the study of crystals and metals, but also has industrial
applications.
• TEMs can be used in semiconductor analysis and the manufacturing
of computer and silicon chips.
• Tech giants use TEMs to identify flaws, fractures and damages to
micro-sized objects; this data can help and fix problems and/or help to
make a more durable efficient product.
• Colleges and universities can utilize TEMs for research and studies.
1.11.2 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)
The SEM is designed for direct study of the surfaces of solid objects. By
scanning with an electron beam that has been generated and focussed by

Physics Senior Five 19

the operation of the microscope, an image is formed in the same way as a TV.

Fig.1.12: Scanning Electron microscope

The SEM allows a greater depth of focus than the optical microscope. For
this reason, the SEM can produce an image that is a good representation of
the three-dimensional sample.
The SEM uses electrons instead of light to form an image. A beam of electrons
is produced at the top of the microscope by heating a metallic filament. The
electron beam follows a vertical path through the column of the microscope.
It makes its way through electromagnetic lenses which focus and direct the
beam down towards the sample. Once it hits the sample, other electrons
(backscattered or secondary) are ejected from the sample. Detectors collect
the secondary or backscattered electrons, and convert them to a signal that
is sent to a viewing screen similar to the one in an ordinary television,
producing an image. To produce an image on the screen, the electron beam
scans over the area to be magnified and transfers this image to the TV
screen.

Applications of SEM
• Image morphology of samples (eg. view bulk material, coatings,
sectioned material, foils, even grids prepared for transmission electron
microscopy).
• Image composition and finding some bonding differences (through
contrast and using backscattered electrons).
• Image molecular probes: metals and fluorescent probes.

20 Physics Senior Five

 • Undertake micro and nano lithography: remove material from
samples; cut pieces out or remove progressive slices from samples (eg.
using a focussed ion beam).
• Heat or cool samples while viewing them (it is generally done only in
ESEM or during Cryo-scanning electron microscopy).
• Wet and dry samples while viewing them (only in an ESEM)
• View frozen material (in an SEM with a cryostage)
• Generate X-rays from samples for microanalysis (EDS; WDS) to
determine chemical composition.
• Study optoelectronic behaviour of semiconductors using
cathodoluminescence
• View/map grain orientation/crystallographic orientation and study
related information like heterogeneity and microstrain in flat samples
(Electron backscattered diffraction).
• Electron diffraction using electron backscattered diffraction. The
geometry may be different from a transmission electron microscope
but the physics of Bragg Diffraction is the same.

ACTIVITY 1-4: Microscopes

Aim: this activity aims at understanding the difference between TEM and
SEM.

Question: label each diagram as SEM or TEM and basing on their mode
of operations compare them by showing parts of the same functions and
parts of different functions.

Physics Senior Five 21

 END OF UNIT QUESTION
1. Hydrogen has a red emission line at 656.3 nm, what is the energy and
frequency of photon of this light?
2. An FM radio transmitter has a power output of 100 kW and operates
at a frequency of 94 MHz. How many photons per second does the
transmitter emit?
3. State Huygens’ principle. State its application and explain the
construction of spherical wavefront.
4. Outline the advantages of Huygen’s wave theory of light.
5. If you pick up and shake a piece of metal that has free electrons, no
electrons fall out. Yet if you heat the metal, electrons can be boiled off.
Explain both of these facts and relate to the amount and distribution of
energy involved with shaking the object as compared with heating it.
6. Which formula may be used for the momentum of all particles, with or
without mass?
7. Is there any measurable difference between the momentum of a photon
and the momentum of matter?
8. Describe one type of evidence for the wave nature of matter.
9. Describe one type of evidence for the particle nature of EM radiation.

UNIT SUMMARY
Wave theory of monochromatic light: If light consists of undulations in
an elastic medium, it should diverge in every direction from each new centre
of disturbance, and so, like sound, bend round all obstacles and obliterate
all shadow.
A wave is any disturbance that results into the transfer of energy from one
point to another point.
Primary source: The geometrical centre or axis of the actual source of
light which is either a point or a line is called the primary source.
Wavelets: All points lying on small curved surfaces that receive light at the
same time from the same source (primary or secondary) are called wavelets.
Secondary source: Any point on a wavelet, acts as the source of light for
further propagation of light. It is called a secondary source.
Wavefront: The envelope of all wavelets in the same phase-receives light
from sources in the same phase at the same time is called a wavefront.
Wave normal: The normal at any point drawn outward on a wave front is
called the wave normal. Further propagation of light occurs along the wave

22 Physics Senior Five

normal. In isotropic media the wave normal coincides with the ‘ray of light’.
A black body is a theoretical object that absorbs 100% of the radiation
that hits it and re-radiates energy which is characteristic of this radiating
system or body only.
The mass, energy and momentum of a photon are related according to
equations;
E
E = mc2  P =
c
Compton effect says that when X-rays are projected on the target, they
are scattered after hitting the target and change the direction in which they
were moving.
Photon interactions: because photons are electrically neutral, they do not
steadily lose energy via coulombic interactions with atomic electrons, as
do charged particles. Photon interactions include; Coherent Scattering,
Photoelectric Effect, Compton Interaction, Pair Production and
Photodisintegration.
Wave-particle duality of light: According to different experiments and
properties, light behaves as waves as well as particles.
Principle of complementarities: Both properties of light being a wave and
a particle are necessary to gaining complete knowledge of the phenomena;
they are complementary to each other but at the same time they also exclude
each other.
The wave nature of matter: The attribution of a wavelength to a massive
particle implies that it should behave as a wave under some conditions.
Electron microscope: is an instrument that uses one or several lenses to
form an enlarged (magnified) image. The most common electron microscopes
are Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM) and Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM).

Physics Senior Five 23

24 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
Sub-Topic Area: ENERGY CHANGES IN SIMPLE HARMONIC
MOTION
UNIT
2 SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit I should be able to

analyze energy changes in simple harmonic motion.
Unit Objectives:

By the end of this unit I will be able to;

◊ Determine the periodic time of an oscillating mass by practically

and by calculation accurately.

◊ Derive and apply the equation of simple harmonic motion correctly

◊ Determine the periodic time of the simple pendulum correctly.

Physics Senior Five 25

2.0 INTRODUCTION
You are familiar with many examples of repeated motion in your daily
life. If an object returns to its original position a number of times, we call
its motion repetitive. Typical examples of repetitive motion of the human
body are heartbeat and breathing. Many objects move in a repetitive way,
such as a swing, a rocking chair and a clock pendulum. Probably the first
understanding of repetitive motion grew out of the observations of motion
of the sun and phases of the moon.
Strings undergoing repetitive motion are the physical basis of all string
musical instruments. What are the common properties of these diverse
examples of repetitive motion?
In this unit we will discuss the physical characteristics of repetitive
motion and develop techniques that can be used to analyze this motion
quantitatively.

Opening question
Clearly analyse the images of Fig. 2-1 given below and explain what you
think will happen in each case when the mass is displaced.

M
L

Fig. 2-1(a) Fig. 2-1(b)

Fig. 2.1. (a) Mass on the spring (b) Mass on the meter rule

2.1 KINEMATICS OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

One common characteristic of the motions of the heartbeat, clock pendulum,
violin string and the rotating phonograph turntable is that each motion has
a well defined time interval for each complete cycle of its motion. Any motion
that repeats itself with equal time intervals is called periodic motion. Its
period is the time required for one cycle of the motion.

26 Physics Senior Five

 mass

mass

Fig.2.2: Mass suspended in real space

Simple harmonic motion (SHM) is a type of motion where the restoring
force is directly proportional to the displacement and acts in the direction
opposite to that of displacement.
SHM is an oscillatory motion under a retarding force proportional to the
amount of displacement from an equilibrium position. This means that
Simple harmonic motion occurs when
• the force F acting on an object is directly proportional to the
displacement x from a fixed point and is always towards this point.
That is, F ax
⇒ F = –kx 
But force F is fiven by F = ma
⇒ ma =–kx………. Equation 2-1
This is called the force law of simple harmonic motion.
a =(–kx)/m

k k
a=
− x ω2 =
m m

• This means that acceleration is directly proportional to displacement

from a fixed point and it is always directed towards this point.
a a -x
The negative sign in equations (2-1) signifies that the force and acceleration
are always pointing back towards the mean position respectively. The
values k and m are constants in equation (2-1).

Definition of terms
Time Period or Periodic Time T: It is the time taken for the particle to
complete one oscillation, that is, the time taken for the particle to move
from its starting position and return to its original position and is generally
denoted by the symbol T.

Physics Senior Five 27

Frequency f means how many oscillations occur in one second. Since the
time period is the time taken for one oscillation, the frequency is expressed
by; (f is frequency in one oscillation and T is the time period)
1
f= ………. Equation 2-2
T
The frequency is measured in s­–1. This unit is known as the hertz (Hz) in
honour of the physicist Heinrich Hertz.
Amplitude A is the maximum displacement of the particle from its resting
position or mean position.
Displacement
+A

Period Amplitude A

Time
One cycle
–A shown in red

Fig. 2-3. Simple harmonic motion

Fig.2-3 shows the displacement-time graph of a periodic motion of a particle.
From this graph, displacement can be represented as;
x = A sin wt ………. Equation 2-3
Angular velocity (w): Angular velocity is the rate of change of angular
displacement. It is measured in (rad/s). This is related to periodic time
according to equation (2-4).
2π
w= ………. Equation 2-4
T
Linear velocity (n): Linear velocity is the rate of change of linear
displacement. It is measured in (m/s).
dx
v= ………. Equation 2-5
dt
Linear acceleration a of a particle is the rate of change of linear velocity
of that particle with time. It is measured in m/s2.
a = dv ………. Equation 2-6
dt

2.2 EQUATION OF SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

The equation of simple harmonic motion is derived based on the conditions
necessary for periodic motion to be simple harmonic.
Linear velocity can be related to displacement as shown below:-
dx
v=
dt
28 Physics Senior Five
 v = d (A sin ωt)
dt
v = Aw cos wt ………. Equation 2-7

But from trigonometric identities;

sin 2 ωt + cos 2 ωt =
1

Then cos wt = != 1 − sin 2 ωt

So v = !ω A2 − A2sin2 ωt … Equation 2-8

Substituting equation (2-3) into equation 2-7 gives;

  v= = !ω A2 − x2 ………. Equation 2-9

It is seen from equation (2-8) that a maximum linear velocity is obtained

if the displacement of the body is zero and is zero when displacement
amplitude is maximum. From the definition of linear acceleraion;
a = dv ………. Equation 2-9
dt
a = d (Aw cos wt) ………. Equation 2-10
dt
a = –w­2A sin wt
a = –w­2x ………. Equation
2-11
Maximum acceleration is obtained when displacement x is maximum i.e
when displacement is equal to amplitude A. So equation 2-11 becomes;
amax = –w2A ………. Equation 2-12

Combining equation 2-5 and equation 2-9 gives acceleration

a= d b l
dx
dt dt
2
a = d x2 ………. Equation 2-13
dt
Equating equation 2-11 and equation 2-13 gives;
d2x = – w2­x
dt2

Physics Senior Five 29

 d2 x
2
+ ω2 x = 0 ………. Equation 2-14
dt
The expression for equation 2-14 is the differential equation of simple
harmonic equation. Its solution is given by;

=x A sin (ωt + φ )
Where x is the displacement, A is the amplitude.
EXAMPLE 2.1

A particle moving with SHM has velocities 4 cm/s and 3 cm/s at distances
3 cm and 4 cm respectively from equilibrium position. Find
(a) the amplitude of oscillation
(b) the period
(c) velocity of the particle as it passes through the equilibrium position.

Solution:
Given  v1 = 4cm/s, x1 = 3 cm, v2 = 3 cm/s, x2 = 4 cm
From equation 2-9;
v1 = !ω A2 − x12 , v2 = !ω A2 − x22

(a) 4 = !ω A2 − 32

3 = !ω A2 = 42
Dividing these two equations gives

4 = A2 − 9
3 A2 − 16
Squaring both sides will give;
⇒ 16 = A2 − 9
9 A2 − 16
⇒ A = 5 cm
(b) Let us find the period at a velocity of 4 cm/s and displacement 3 cm.
Both cases give the same value of angular velocity w.
2
T = 2π = 2π 5 − 9 = 2p or 6.28 sec.
ω 4
Hence, w = 2π = 2π = 1 rad s–1
T 2π

30 Physics Senior Five

(c) As the particle passes the equilibrium position, it has the maximum
velocity;

vmax = ± 1 × 5 = ± 5 cm/s(from eq. 1)

vmax = 5 cm/s (velocity cannot be negative)

EXAMPLE 2.2
A simple pendulum has a period of 2.0 s and amplitude of swing 5.0 cm.
Calculate the maximum magnitude of
(a) velocity of the bob
(b) acceleration of the bob.

Solution:

(a) vmax = 2πA = = 15.71 m/s

T
2
(b) amax = – 4π 2A = = 49.39 m/s2 (Negative sign will be neglected
T
for minimum acceleration.)

Physics Senior Five 31

ACTIVITY 2-1: Cantilever
Aim of this activity is to determine the periodic time of a cantilever
beam.
Required Materials
Metre rule, G-clamp (or a wooden block), stop watch, set of masses
(4 × 100g), Cellotape and pair of scissors (can be shared).
Procedure
Cantilever length, L
(a) Use the apparatus, set up
as shown in the diagram. G-clamp
Metre rule
Start with a length L of
Mass, m attached
80.0 cm. to the end of the
(b) Place a 200 g mass at 5 cm Bench metre ruler

from the free end.

(c) Displace the mass slightly Fig. 2-4. Determination of the periodic time of a
and release it. cantilever
(d) Use a stop-watch to
measure the time taken t for 10 complete oscillations
(e) Calculate the time T for one oscillation.
(f) Repeat procedures from (b) to (e) for values of L = 70.0, 60.0, 50.0, 40.0
cm
(g) Record your observations in a table. Also include the values of log T
and log L .
(h) Plot a graph of log T against log L.

QUESTIONS
(i) Measure the gradient, m of your graph.
(j) Calculate the intercept c on the vertical axis.
(k) Calculate the constant a of the rule from c = log a.
(l) Calculate the period of a cantilever from T = aLm
(m) Calculate the value of T from log T = m log L + log a for value of
L = 70.0 cm.
(n) Compare and comment on the results in procedures (l) and (m).

EXAMPLE 2-3
The displacement of an object undergoing simple harmonic motion is given
by the equation x(t) = 3.00 sin . Where x is in meters, t is in seconds

32 Physics Senior Five

and the argument of the sine function is in radians.
(a) What is the amplitude of motion?
(b) What is the frequency of oscillation?
(c) What are the position, velocity and acceleration of the object at t = 0?

Solution:
(a) From x(t) = 3.00 sin = Asin (wt + F)
⇒ A = 3.00 m
ω 8π
(b) f = = = 4Hz
2π 2π
(c) v = dx = 24 p cos
dt
At t = 0; v = 24p cos = 53.32 m/s

EXERCISE 2-1
1. A body of mass 100 g undergoes simple harmonic motion with amplitude
of 20 mm. The maximum force which acts upon it is 0.05 N. Calculate:
(a) its maximum acceleration.
(b) Its period of oscillation.
2. The following graph shows the
displacement (x) of
a simple harmonic oscillator. Draw x t
graphs of its velocity, momentum,
acceleration and the force acting on
it.
3. A particle undergoes SHM with an
amplitude of 8.00 cm and an angular frequency of 0.250 s-1. At t = 0, the
velocity is 1.24 cm/s. Determine:
(a) The equations for displacement and velocity of the motion.
(b) The initial displacement of the particle.

2.3 SIMPLE HARMONIC OSCILLATORS

A simple harmonic oscillator is a physical system in which a particle
oscillates above and below a mean position at one or more characteristic
frequencies. Such systems often arise when a contrary force results from
displacement from a force-neutral position and gets stronger in proportion
to the amount of displacement. Below are some of the physical oscillators;

Physics Senior Five 33

2.3.1 Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a small bob of mass m suspended from a
fixed support through a light, inextensible string of length L as shown on
Fig.2-5. This system can stay in equilibrium if the string is vertical. This is
called the mean position or the equilibrium position. If the particle is pulled
aside and released, it oscillates in a circular arc with the center at the point
of suspension ‘O’.
O

L T

A s B m

mg sin q
q
mg cos q
L sin q
mg
Fig. 2-5. Simple pendulum
The driving force on the bob is always equal to the restoring force at any
point during an oscillation but acts in opposite direction. This restoring
force is a component of weight mg sin q.
ma = –mg sin q
a = –g sin q ………. Equation 2-15
If the bob is slightly displaced and the angle q is small, B is close to A and
triangle AOB becomes a right angled triangle, then
sinq = AB = s
L L
Where s is the horizontal displacement of the bob, g is acceleration due to
gravity and Lis the length of the string;
\ a = –g s
L

⇒ a=– ………. Equation 2-16

g
The value of the equation 2-17 is constant. This means that
L
aa–s ………. Equation 2-17
Equation 2-17 shows that acceleration is directly proportional to displace-
ment and is opposite to it. So the bob executes S.H.M;
Comparing equation 2-11 and equation 2-17 gives
g
w2 =
L

34 Physics Senior Five

 g 2π
w= and w =
L T
2π g
=
T L
L
T = 2π ………. Equation 2-18
g
Equation 2-18 represents the periodic time of a simple pendulum. Thus, the
following are the factors affecting the periodic time of the simple pendulum;
• Length of string
• Angle from which pendulum is dropped
• Acceleration due to gravity
• Air resistance

EXAMPLE 2.4
A small piece of lead of mass 40 g is attached to the end of a light string of
length 50 cm and it is allowed to hang freely. The lead is displaced to 0.5 cm
above its rest position, and released.
(a) Calculate the period of the resulting motion, assuming it is simple
harmonic.
(b) Calculate the maximum speed of the lead piece. (Take g = 9.81 ms–2)

Solutions:
(a) To calculate the time period
equation 2-26 can be used
L
T = 2π
g
0 .5
T = 2π = 1.42 s
9.81
(b) The maximum speed is obtained by assuming that the total energy
stored is equal to the total energy used.
Total energy stored = P.E
E1 = mgh = 0.04 × 9.81 × 0.005 = 0.001962 J
Total energy used = K.E
E2 = 1 mv2 = 0.5 × 0.04 × v2 = 0.02 v2
2
Since E1 = E2,
0.02 v2 = 0.001962
⇒ v = 0.001962 = 0.31 m/s
0.02

Physics Senior Five 35

EXAMPLE 2.5
What happens to the period of a simple pendulum if the pendulum’s length
is doubled? What happens to the period if the mass of the suspended bob is
doubled?

Solutions:
Li
Ti = 2p
g
Lf
and Tf = 2 π
g
But Lf = 2Li

Tf =

⇒ Tf =
Conclusion: The time period gets larger by 2 times. Changing the mass
has no effect on the time period of a simple pendulum.

36 Physics Senior Five

ACTIVITY 2-2: Acceleration due to Gravity
The aim of this activity is to determine the acceleration due to
gravity using oscillation of a simple pendulum Apparatus

Cotton thread, small pendulum bob, metre rule,

stopwatch, retort stand/clamp stand.
Procedure
(a) Set up a small simple pendulum, as shown
in the diagram.
(b) Keeping the angle of swing, q less than 10º
(approximately) for the values of L = 20,
30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 cm respectively,
measure the time period t for 10 oscillations
and calculate time period T for one
oscillation.
(c) Record your results in a suitable table
including the values of T2.
Fig.2-6; Oscillation of bob
(d) Plot a graph of T2 against L.
(e) Calculate the slope S of the graph
(f) Find the value of acceleration due to
T2
4π 2
gravity g from S =
g

2.3.2 Mass suspended from a Coiled Spring

The extension of the spiral spring which obeys Hook’s law is directly
proportional to the extending tension. A mass m is attached to the end of
the spring which exerts a downward tension mg on it and stretches it by e
as shown in Fig.2-7 below;

Physics Senior Five 37

 y

Fig. 2-7. Mass stretching the spring

The relation between T and e can be defined as
Tae
T = ke
The stretching tension overcomes the downward force and makes the mass
stable in the rest position.
\ Stretching tension = Downward force
ke = mg ………. Equation 2-19
Consider that the mass is slightly pulled down a further distance x below
its equilibrium position.

x m

Fig. 2-8. Mass displaced by a stretching external force applied.

The stretching force is equal to the upward tension and is given by k(x + e)
So, the resultant force acting on the mass downwards is given by;
F = Downword force – Upward force
ma = mg – k (x + e)
ma = mg – kx – ke ………. Equation 2-20

38 Physics Senior Five

Substitute equation 2-19 into equation 2-20 to get;
ma = –kx
a=– k x ………. Equation 2-21
m
Where k is the spring constant and m is the mass of the object attached and
are all constants. So acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement
and acts in opposite direction to extension. So the spring executes S.H.M.
Comparing equation 2-12 and equation 2-21 gives;
w2 = k
m
k = mw2

\ w= k
m
2π k
⇒ =
T m
m
T = 2π ………. Equation 2-22
k
But from equation 2-19;
m= e
k g
e
So T = 2π ………. Equation 2-23
g
Form equation 2-22 and 2-23, we conclude that the periodic time of an
oscillation of a mass on a spring will depend on extension and the mass tied
on it.

EXAMPLE 2.6
When a family of four with a total mass of
200 kg steps into their 1200-kg car, the car’s
springs get compressed by 3.0 cm.
(a) What is the spring constant of the car’s
springs (Fig.2-9), assuming they act as a
single spring?
(b) How far will the car lower if loaded with
Fig. 2-9. Image of the car’s spring
300 kg rather than 200 kg?

Solutions:
(a) The added force of (200 kg) (9.8 m/s2) = 1960 N cause the spring to

Physics Senior Five 39

 compress 3.0 × 10–2­ m therefore,

k= F = = 6.5 × 104 N/m

x
(b) if the car is now loaded with 300 kg, Hook’s law gives;

x= F = = 4.5 × 10­–2 m
k

EXAMPLE 2.7
A light spiral spring is loaded with a mass of 50 g and it extends by 10 cm.
Calculate the period of small vertical oscillations.

Solution:
We first find the value of the spring constant
mg
k= = = 4.9 N/m
x

m
T = 2π = = 0.63 s
k
ACTIVITY 2-3: Acceleration due to Gravity
Aim: The aim of this activity is to determine the acceleration due to
gravity, g, using mass on spring.
Required materials
1 retort stand, one Spring
spiral spring, slotted
masses (5 × 100g), 1 Pointer
meter rule Scale pan
Retort stand m
Procedure Meter rule
(a) Clamp the given
spring and a
meter rule as
shown in the Fig. 2-10. Suspended spring
figure above.
(b) Read and record the position of the pointer on the meter rule.
(c) Place mass m equal to 0.100 kg on the scale pan and record the new
position of the pointer on the meter rule.
(d) Find the extension of the spring x in meters.
(e) Remove the meter rule.

40 Physics Senior Five

(f) Pull the scale pan downwards through a small distance and release it.
(g) Measure and record the time for 20 oscillations. Find the time T for one
oscillation.
(h) Repeat the procedures (f) and (g) for values of m equal to 0.200, 0.300,
0.400 and 0.500 kg.
(i) Record your results in a suitable table including values of T2.
(j) Plot a graph of T2 (along the vertical axis) against m (along the horizontal
axis).
(k) Find the slope, s, of the graph.
4π 2 x
(l) Calculate g from g = .
s
2.3.3 Liquid in a U-tube
Consider a U-shaped tube filled with a liquid. If the liquid on one side of a
U-tube is depressed by blowing gently down that side, the level of the liquid
will oscillate for a short time about the respective positions O and C before
finally coming to rest.

Fig. 2-11. Liquid in a U-tube

As shown in Fig. 2-11, B is x units below the original level C, and D is x
units above the original level O. Here x is displacement of the fluid caused
by blowing into one arm of the U-tube.
Usually, pressure in liquid is given by;
P = density × acceleration due to gravity × height
P = rgh ………. Equation 2-24
Excess pressure exerted in the liquid will store some energy to restore the
position of the liquid and is given by;
P = density × acceleration due to gravity × Excess height
P = r × g × 2x
P = 2rgx ………. Equation 2-25
Also pressure; P = F
A

Physics Senior Five 41

\ F = PA
Force on the liquid;
F1 = 2rgxA ………. Equation 2-26
From the second Newton’s law of motion, the resultant force on the liquid
is given by;
F2 = ma  where m = mass of the oscillating liquid
As, Mass = Volume × density
m = rV and V = Al l = 2h
\ m = 2rAh
F2 = 2rAha ………. Equation 2-27
F1 and F2 are equal and opposite to each other;
F2 = – F1
2rAha = –2rgxA
gx
a = – ………. Equation 2-28
h
Where g and h are constant. Comparing equation 2-12 and equation 2-28
gives;
g
w2 =
h
2π g
w = =
T h
T = 2p h ………. Equation 2-29
g
Equation 2-29 is the expression of the periodic time of S.H.M of the liquid
in a U-tube.

EXERCISE 2.2
1. A baby in a ‘baby bouncer’ is a real-life example of a mass-on-spring
oscillator. The baby sits in a sling suspended from a stout rubber cord,
and can bounce himself up and down if his feet are just in contact with
the ground. Suppose a baby of mass 5.0 kg is suspended from a cord
with spring constant 500 N m–1. Assume g = 10 N kg–1.
(a) Calculate the initial (equilibrium) extension of the cord.
(b) What is the value of angular velocity?
(c) The baby is pulled down a further distance, 0.10 m, and released.
How long after his release does he pass through equilibrium
position?
(d) What is the maximum speed of the baby?

42 Physics Senior Five

 (e) A simple pendulum has a period of 4.2 s. When it is shortened by
1.0 m the period is only 3.7 s.
(f) Calculate the acceleration due to gravity g suggested by the data.
2. A pendulum can only be modelled as a simple harmonic oscillator if the
angle over which it oscillates is small. Why is this so?
3. What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple
pendulum having a length 75.000 cm has a period of 1.7357 s? State
the assumptions made.
4. A geologist uses a simple pendulum that has a length of 37.10 cm and
a frequency of 0.8190 Hz at a particular location on the Earth. What is
the acceleration due to gravity at this location?
5. Find the time taken for a particle moving in S.H.M. from 1 A to – 1 A.
2 2
Given that the period of oscillation is 12s.
6. A spring is hanging from a support without any object attached to it
and its length is 500 mm. An object of mass 250 g is attached to the end
of the spring. The length of the spring is now 850 mm.
(a) What is the spring constant?
The spring is pulled down 120 mm and then released from rest.
(b) Describe the motion of the object attached to the end of the spring.
(c) What is the displacement amplitude?
(d) What are the natural frequency of oscillation and period of motion?
Another object of mass 250 g is attached to the end of the spring.
(e) Assuming the spring is in its new equilibrium position, what is the
length of the spring?
(f) If the object is set vibrating, what is the ratio of the periods of
oscillation for the two situations?

2.4 KINETIC AND POTENTIAL ENERGY OF AN

OSCILLATING SYSTEM
Kinetic energy as the energy of a body in motion, change in velocity will also
change it as shown on Fig.2-12. Velocity of an oscillating object at any point
is given by equation 2-8;
v=±w
From kinetic energy;
KE = 1 mv2 ………. Equation 2-30
2

Physics Senior Five 43

 KE = 1 mw2A2 – 1 mw2x2 ………. Equation 2-31
2 2
When the particle is in oscillatory motion, work is done against the force
trying to restore it. The energy stored to perform this work is called the
potential energy.
Force on the particle;
F = ma with a = w2x
\ F = mw2x ………. Equation 2-32
Work done to restore the position of the particle after being displaced by x
is given by;
Work done = Average force × Distance
Note that there is no work done when displacement is zero.

Work done = F + 0 × Displacement

2
PE = Work done = 1 Fx ………. Equation 2-33
2
Substitute equation 2-32 into equation 2-33 to get;
PE = 1 mw2x2 ………. Equation 2-34
2

2.5 ENERGY CHANGES AND ENERGY CONSERVATION

IN AN OSCILLATING SYSTEM
In an oscillation, there is a constant interchange between the kinetic and
potential forms and if the system does no work against resistive force its
total energy is constant. Fig.2-12 illustrates the variation of potential
energy and kinetic energy with displacement x.

Fig. 2-12. Variation of potential and kinetic energy of an oscillating system

44 Physics Senior Five

Substituting equation 2-3 for sinusoidal displacement into equation 2-34
and equation 2-35 gives;
KE = 1 mw2A2 – 1 mw2A2 sin2 wt
2 2
KE = 1 mw2A2(1 – sin2wt) But 1 – sin2 wt = cos2 wt
2
KE = 1 mw2A2 cos2 wt ………. Equation 2-35
2
PE = 1 mw2 A2 sin2wt ………. Equation 2-36
2
The total energy of an oscillating system using equations 2.35 and 2.36 is
given by;

Total energy = KE + PE ………. Equation 2-37

E = 1 mw2 A2 – 1 mw2 x2 + 1 mw2 x2

2 2 2
E= 1 mw2 A2 ………. Equation 2-38
2
The equation 2-38 of total energy indicates that this energy is constant and
is independent of displacement x. Since the total energy of an oscillating
particle is constant, it means that potential energy and kinetic energy vary
in such a way that total energy is conserved.
Also substituting equation 2-35 and equation 2-36 into equation 2-37 will
give an expression for the total energy of an oscillating system which is
independent of time taken.
E = 1 mw2 A2 cos2 wt + 1 mw2 A2 sin2 wt
2 2
E = 1 mw2 A2 (cos2 wt + sin2 wt)
2
\ E = 1 mw2 A2
2
Fig.2-15 illustrates the variation of energy of an oscillating system with
time.
Total energy
Energy

K.E.

P.E.

T T 3T T 5T
Time
4 2 4 4
Fig. 2-13. Variation of energy of an oscillating system with time

Physics Senior Five 45

EXAMPLE 2.8
A 0.500-kg cart connected to a light spring for which the force constant is
20.0 N/m oscillates on a horizontal, frictionless air track.
(a) Calculate the total energy of the system and the maximum speed of the
cart if the amplitude of the motion is 3.00 cm.
(b) What is the velocity of the cart when the position is 2.00 cm?
(c) Compute the kinetic and potential energies of the system when the
position is 2.00 cm.
Solution:
(a) Using equation 2-55

E = 1 mw2 A2
2

E = 1 – 2A2 = 1 × 20 × (3 × 10)2 = 9 × 10­–3­J

2 2
Maximum K.E. energy is obtained when the cart is located at x = 0, and
potential energy P.E = 0.

\ Emax = 1 mvmax2
2
(b)

The positive and negative signs indicate that the cart could be moving
to either the right or the left at this instant.

(c) K.E = 1 mv2 = 1 × 0.5 × 0.01412 = 5.0 ×

2 2
10–5 J

P.E = 1 kx2 = 1 × 20 × 0.022 = 4.0 × 10–3 J

2 2

44 Physics Senior Five

2.6 SUPERPOSITION OF HARMONICS OF SAME
FREQUENCY AND SAME DIRECTION

(a) (b) (c)

Consider two simple harmonic oscillations which interfere to produce a

displacement x of the particle along same line. Suppose that both have the
same frequency. The displacement time functions of respective motions are
given by equations 2-39 and 2-40 with A1 and A2 being the amplitude of
individual displacements ( x1 and x2 ) and a1 and a2 as their respective
phase angles;
x1 = A1 sin (wt + a1) … … … .
Equation 2-39
x2 = A2 sin (wt + a2) … … … .
Equation 2-40
After superposition or interference, the displacement of the resultant
harmonic motion is;
x = x1 + x2

x = A1 sin (wt + a1) + A2 sin (wt + a2)
x = sin wt(A1 cosa1 + A2cosa2) + coswt (A1
sina1 + A2 sina2) ………. Equation 2-41
A cos α = A1 cos α1 + A2 cos α2
Assume that; * ………. Equation 2-42
A sin α = A1 sin α1 + A2 sin α2
Substitute equation 2-42 into equation 2-41 to give;
x = A sin wt cos a + A cos wt sina
x = A sin (wt + a) ………. Equation 2-43
Squaring and adding expressions of equation 2-42 gives the amplitude A of
the resultant displacement;
A2 = A 1 2 + A 2 2 + 2A 1 A 2 cos (a 1 – a 2 )
……. Equation 2-44
If the two harmonic oscillations are in phase;
a2 = a2

Physics Senior Five 45

\ A2 = A12 + A22 + 2A1A2
⇒ A = A1 + A2 ………. Equation 2-45
Equation 2-45 is the equation of resultant amplitude A in terms of amplitudes
of individual displacements.
Dividing expressions of equation 2-42 gives the phase a of the resultant
displacement;
A sin α1 + A2 sin α2
tan a = 1 … … … .
A1 cos α1 + A2 cos α2
Equation 2-46

QUESTIONS
1. Give at least 2 examples of the applications of superposition in real life.
2. Derive the expression for the resultant displacement of two oscillations
of the same frequency but acting in opposite directions.

END OF UNIT QUESTIONS

1. An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along the x axis.

Its position varies with time according to the equation x = (4.0 m)

where t is in seconds and the angles in the parentheses are

in radians.
(a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, and period of the motion.
(b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object at any time t.
(c) Using the results of part (b), determine the position, velocity, and
acceleration of the object at t = 1.0 s.
(d) Determine the maximum speed and maximum acceleration of the
object.
(e) Find the displacement of the object between t = 0 s and t = 1.0 s.
2. A 200-g block connected to a light spring for which the force constant
is 5.00 N/m is free to oscillate on a horizontal, frictionless surface. The
block is displaced by 5.00 cm from equilibrium and released from rest,
as in Fig.2-15.

46 Physics Senior Five

 x=0
A

Fig. 2-14. Mass on the spring

(a) Find the period of its motion.

(b) Determine the maximum speed of the block.
(c) What is the maximum acceleration of the block?
(d) Express the position, speed, and acceleration as functions of time.
3. (a) A 10N weight extends a spring by 5cm. Another 10N weight is
added, and the spring extends another 5cm. What is the spring
constant of the spring?
(b) A pendulum oscillates with a frequency of 0.5 Hz. What is the
length of the pendulum?
4. Christian Huygens (1629–1695), the greatest clockmaker in history,
suggested that an international unit of length could be defined as the
length of a simple pendulum having a period of exactly 1 s. How much
shorter would our length unit be had his suggestion been followed?
5.A simple pendulum is suspended from the ceiling of a stationary
elevator, and the period is determined. Describe the changes, if any, in
the period when the elevator
(a) accelerates upward,
(b) accelerates downward, and
(c) moves with constant velocity.
6. Imagine that a pendulum is hanging from the ceiling of a car. As the car
coasts freely down a hill, is the equilibrium position of the pendulum
vertical? Does the period of oscillation differ from that in a stationary
car?
7. The diagram below shows a spring of stiffness K, attached to a mass m.

Physics Senior Five 47

 Fig. 2-15. Mass on a horizontal spring
The mass is pulled by a distance a to the left and released. Show that
the velocity of the mass can be modeled by; .
Where x is the extension in the spring. What important assumption
has to be made about the system?
8.What is the acceleration due to gravity in a region where a simple
pendulum having a length 75.000 cm has a period of 1.7357 s?

UNIT SUMMARY

Simple Harmonic Motion: Any motion that repeats itself in equal time
intervals is called periodic motion with the force F acting on an object
directly proportional to the displacement x from a fixed point and is always
towards this point.
Periodic Time; is the time taken by the particle to complete one oscillation.
Frequency is defined as number of oscillations occur in one second f = 1 .
T
Amplitude is the maximum displacement of the particle from its resting
position.
Angular velocity (w): is the rate of change of angular displacement with
time.
2π
w=
T
Linear velocity (v): is the rate of change of linear displacement with time.

48 Physics Senior Five

Linear acceleration of a particle is the rate of change of linear velocity of
that particle with time.
a = w2x
The equation of simple harmonic motion is derived based on the
conditions necessary for simple harmonic equation;
d2x + w2x = 0
dt2
Solution of a Simple Harmonic motion equation;
x(t) = A sin (wt + F)

A simple pendulum executes S.H.M and its period is given by;

T = 2p L
g
The extension of the spiral spring (caused by attached mass) which obeys
Hooke’s law is directly proportional to the extending tension. The periodic
time of oscillation caused by releasing the mass is given by;
T = 2p m
k
or
T = 2p e
g
If a U-shaped tube is filled with a liquid and liquid on one side of a U-tube
is depressed by blowing gently down that side, the liquid will oscillate and
execute simple harmonic motion with period given by;
T = 2p h
g
The total energy of any oscillating object is always constant and is given by;
E = 1 mw2A2
2
The potential energy of the oscillating object is given by;
P.E = 1 mw2x2
2
Kinetic energy of an oscillating object is given by;
K.E = 1 mw2A2 – 1 mw2x2
2 2
Superposition of harmonic oscillations always give the displacement
of the resultant equal to the sum of individual displacements.
Physics Senior Five 49
50 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
Sub-Topic Area: Forced Oscillations and Resonance
UNIT
3 FORCED OSCILLATIONS AND
RESONANCE OF A SYSTEM

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit I should be able to

analyze the effects of forced oscillations on systems..

Unit Objectives:

By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ Explain the concept of oscillating systems and relate it to the real

life situations.
◊ Solve equations of different types of damped oscillations and derive
the expression for displacement for each.
◊ explain resonance, state its conditions and explain its applications
in everyday life.

Physics Senior Five 51

3.0 INTRODUCTION
In the conventional classification of oscillations by their mode of excitation,
oscillations are called forced if an oscillator is subjected to an external
periodic influence whose effect on the system can be expressed by a separate
term, a periodic function of the time, in the differential equation of motion.
We are interested in the response of the system to the periodic external
force. The behaviour of oscillatory systems under periodic external forces is
one of the most important topics in the theory of oscillations. A noteworthy
distinctive characteristic of forced oscillations is the phenomen of resonance,
in which a small periodic disturbing force can produce an extraordinarily
large response in the oscillator. Resonance is found everywhere in physics
and thus, a basic understanding of this fundamental problem is required.

Opening questions
Comment on the following situations by giving clear reasons on each;
• A guitar string stops oscillating a few seconds after being plucked.
• To keep a child moving on a swing, you must keep pushing.

3.1 DAMPED OSCILLATIONS.

Unless maintained by some source of energy, the amplitude of vibration of
any oscillatory motion becomes progressively smaller and the motion is said
to be damped. The majority of the oscillatory systems that we encounter
in everyday life suffer this sort of irreversible energy loss while they are in
motion due to frictional or viscous heat generation generally. We therefore
expect oscillations in such systems to eventually be damped.

Damping is the gradual decrease of amplitude of an oscillating system

due to friction force (air resistance) and losses of energy. As work is
being done against the dissipating force, energy is lost. Since energy is
proportional to the amplitude, the amplitude decreases exponentially
with time.

52 Physics Senior Five

ACTIVITY 3-1: Resonance
Clearly observe the figure below and answer the questions that follow:

a) How is figure A different from B?

b) What do you think the kid is doing?
c) Assume that the man and woman shown are the kid’s father and mother.
What do you think they are doing?
d)Explain the oscillations in both cases.
e)Compare the two oscillations.
f)Depending on the definition of damping given above, how do you relate it
with the above scenarios?
g)Make a clear conclusion.

In everyday life we experience some damped oscillations like:

(i) Damping due to the eddy current produced in the copper plate

Fig.3-1; Damping due to eddy current

(ii) Damping due to the viscosity of the liquid

Physics Senior Five 53

3.2 EQUATION OF DAMPED OSCILLATIONS
Consider a body of mass m attached to one end of a horizontal spring, the
other end of which is attached to a fixed point. The body slides back and
forth along a straight line, which we take as x-axis of a system of Cartesian
coordinates and is subjected to forces all acting in x-direction (they may be
positive or negative). The motion equations for constant mass are based
on Newton’s second law which can be expressed in terms of derivatives. In
all derivations assume that m is the mass of an oscillating object, b is the
damping constant and k is the spring constant.

Fig.3-2; Mass attached with the spring

Fnet external = ma .......... Equation 3-1
d2 x
⇒ Fnet external = m
.......... Equation 3-2
dt2
Where x is displacement. The force that causes damping is directly
proportional to the speed of oscillation. i.e.
Fdamping ∝ n
dx
Fdamping ∝
dt
Fdamping = .......... Equation 3-3

Where b is the damping constant and the negative sign means that damping
force always opposes the direction of motion of the mass.
The spring itself stores the energy that is used to restore the position of the
mass once released after being slightly displaced. The restoring force of the
spring is directly proportional to the displacement.
Frestoring ∝ x

Frestoring = – kx .......... Equation 3-4

54 Physics Senior Five

Where k is the spring constant and the negative sign means that the restoring
force opposes the direction of motion of the mass. With this restoring force
and the resisting force of the spring, the resultant force on the mass is;
Fnet external = Fdamping + Frestoring
d2 x
m =
dt2
d2 x dx
m +b + kx = 0 .......... Equation 3-5
dt 2 dt
Equation 3-5 is the differential equation of damping.

3.3 THE SOLUTION OF EQUATION OF DAMPING

To solve the differential equation 3-5 (of damping), we try a solution of the
form;
x = eyt
dx d2 x
So, = yeyt and = y2eyt
dt dt 2
Substituting in equation 3-5,
my2eyt + byeyt + keyt = 0
eyt(my2 + by + k) = 0
my2 + by + k = 0 .......... Equation 3-6
Equation 3-6 is called the auxiliary quadratic equation of the differential
equation. Solving this equation for y gives;

.......... Equation 3-7

Assume that wd = .......... Equation 3-8

The value wd is called the damped angular frequency or damped circular
frequency.
Equation 3-7 has three cases to consider based on whether the quantity
under the square root is positive or negative. These three cases define the
types of damping oscillations.

3.4 TYPES OF DAMPED OSCILLATIONS.

3.4.1 Under damping oscillation
This is also called a lightly damped oscillation. For this oscillation, the
displacement keeps varying with time and oscillations keep dying away

Physics Senior Five 55

slowly and slowly. The vibrating system keeps passing its original position
and more time is taken by it to come to rest.
This is the case where the value of equation 3-8 under the square root is
negative;
b2 < 4mk
This means that damping constant b is small relative to mass m and spring
constant k. So the solution of equation 3-7 becomes;

.......... Equation 3-9

Equation 3-9 has two values for y:
y1 = and y2 =

So the general solution of equation 3-5 becomes;

x(t) = C1ey1t + C2ey2t

(x)t =

(x)t = C1 × C2

x(t) = (cos wd dt + j sin wd dt) + (cos wdt – j sin wdt)

.......... Equation 3-10
C1 and C2 are constants. Simplifying the expression of equation 3-10 give;

x(t) =

x(t) = (C1cos wd t + C2sin wd t)

.......... Equation 3-11
Equation 3-11 represents the displacement of under damped oscillation.
From this equation it can be interpreted that the value of x decreases as
time increase, but due to the trigonometric function of sine and cosine in
bracket makes its graph on Fig.3-3 cross the horizonal axis so many times.
Examples of slightly damped oscillations include

Acoustics
(i) A percussion musical instrument (e.g. a drum) gives out a note
whose intensity decreases with time. (slightly damped oscillations

56 Physics Senior Five

 due to air resistance)
(ii) The paper cone of a loud speaker vibrates, but is heavily damped so
as to lose energy (sound energy) to the surrounding air.

3.4.2 Over damped oscillation

Over damping is also called excessive or heavy damping. In this
oscillation, displacement decreases with increase in time but the vibrating
system takes a longer time to come to rest. This is the case where the value
of equation 3-8 under the square root is positive.
b2 > 4mk
One extremely important thing to notice is that in this case the roots are
both negative. You can see this by looking at equation 3-7 where the square
root is less than b. The term under the square root is positive by assumption,
so the roots are real.
y1 = and y2 =

The solution for expression 3-5 is;

x(t) = C1ey1t + C2ey2t

x(t) =
(x)t =

(x)t =
.......... Equation 3-12
Equation 3-12 represents the displacement of over damped. This equation
is fully exponential and keeps the value of x decreasing towards zero in a
quite long time Fig.3-3.
3.4.3 Critically damped oscillation
This is also called natural damping and is when there is an intermediate
dissipating force and the system reaches equilibrium position as fast as
possible without oscillating. This rapid return to the equilibrium position
( x = 0 ) reduces the motion to rest in a shortest possible time. This is the
case where the term (of equation 3-8) under the square root is 0 and the
characteristic polynomial has repeated roots, i.e.
b2 = 4mk

.......... Equation 3-13

Repeated roots are; ,

Physics Senior Five 57

Now we use the roots to solve equation 3-5 in this case. We have only one
exponential solution, so we need to multiply it by t to get the second solution.

x(t) = .......... Equation 3-14

Equation 3-14 represents the displacement of critically damped oscillation
and shows that the displacement critically dies to zero in a short period of
time as shown on Fig.3-3. It is possible to use the following values;
b k 2m
= 2g = w02 and t =
m m b

Fig.3-3; Damping oscillation

curves

Where g is the damping coefficient, w0 is the natural frequency and t is

the decay constant or the damping constant. Plotting equations 11, 12 and
14 on the same amplitude-time axes gives the general curve for damping
oscillation as shown on Fig.3-3.

Examples of Critical damping

(a) Shock Absorber

It critically damps the suspension of the vehicle and so resists the setting
up of vibrations which could make control difficult or cause damage. The
viscous force exerted by the liquid contributes to this resistive force.

58 Physics Senior Five

 Fig.3-4; Shock absorber

(b) Electrical Meters They are critically damped (i.e. dead-beat) oscillators
so that the pointer moves quickly to the correct position without oscillation.

ACTIVITY 3-2: Damping Oscillation

A mass and spring system was set up with three masses of 100g and
radius 2.5 cm. The oscillator (masses) was displaced by 3 cm, released
and the time was measured for the oscillator to come to rest. After this,
pieces of circular cards were inserted between two of the masses and
the experiment was carried out again. Analyse the results obtained as
tabulated in table 3-1.
Table 3-1; Experimental Data

Radius Time taken for Mean Area of Additional % of

of card oscillator to come time Oscillator Area Undamped
(cm) to rest time to
(s) (m2) (m )
2
come to
(s)
rest
0.0 259 248 254 ----- -----
6.0 134 131 143
7.0 116 115 111
8.0 92 83 83
9.0 65 68 68
10.0 58 57 53

Analysis
• Calculate mean value for the time taken for the oscillator to come to

Physics Senior Five 59

 rest for each radius of card.
• What is the uncertainty in the time taken to stop when the radius is
6 cm?
• Calculate this as a percentage of the mean value.
• What is the uncertainty in the time taken to stop when the radius is
8 cm?
• Calculate this as a percentage of the shortest time measurement at
this radius.
• What is the uncertainty in the time taken to stop when the radius is
10 cm?
• Calculate this as a percentage of the longest time measurement at
this radius.
• What type of error is responsible for the difference in the value of the
time taken to come to rest?
• Calculate the area of the oscillator using A = pr2. Write these values
in the column provided.
• What is the precision in the radius of card measurements?
• Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the 7.0 cm measurement.
• What will be the percentage uncertainty in the value of the area?
• Write down the upper and lower limits of the area.
• Plot a graph of radius of Oscillator (on the y axis) against time taken
to come to rest.
• Describe the graph you have plotted.
• What does your graph suggest about the relationship between the two
variables?
• Plot a graph of area of Oscillator (on the y axis) against time taken to
come to rest.
• Describe the graph you have plotted.
• What does your graph suggest about the relationship between these
two variables?
• Complete the final columns of the table by calculating the additional
area each card adds to the oscillator and the time period as a percentage
of the undamped time taken to come to rest.
• Do you notice any patterns or trends?
• Plot a graph of additional area (y axis) against percentage of undamped
time taken to come to rest.
• How are these variables linked?
• Theory states that damping will not affect the time period of the
SHM system. How could you prove this using the experimental set up
described above?

60 Physics Senior Five

3.5 NATURAL FREQUENCY OF A VIBRATION AND
FORCED OSCILLATION.
The natural frequency of an object is the frequency of oscillation when
released. e.g. a pendulum. A forced oscillation is where an object is subjected
to a force that causes it to oscillate at a different frequency than its natural
frequency. e.g. holding the pendulum bob in your hand and moving it along
its path either more slowly or more rapidly than its natural swing. Examples
on forced oscillation include:
A: Barton’s Pendulum
The oscillation of one pendulum by application of external periodic force
causes the other pendulums to oscillate as well due to the transfer of energy
through the suspension string. The pendulum having the same pendulum
length and pendulum bob mass will have the same natural frequency as
the original oscillating pendulum and will oscillate at maximum amplitude
due to being driven to oscillate at its natural frequency causing resonance
to occur.

Fig.3-5; Barton’s Pendulum

B: Hacksaw blade oscillator

This is another example of resonance in a driven system. If the peiod
of oscillation of the driver is changed by increasing the length of thread
supporting the moving mass, the hacksaw blade will vibrate at a different
rate. if we get the driving frequency right the slave will reach the resonant
frequency and vibrate widely. Moving the masses on the blade will have a
similar effect.

Physics Senior Five 61

 Fig.3-6; Hacksaw blade oscillator

3.6 EQUATION OF FORCED OSCILLATION AND ITS

SOLUTION
These are vibrations that are driven by an external force. A simple example
of forced vibrations is a child’s swing: as you push it, the amplitude increases.
A loudspeaker is also an example of forced oscillations; it is made to vibrate
by the force of the magnet and the current on the coil fixed in the speaker
cone.
In addition to the restoring and damping forces in the spring, one may have
an external force which keeps the oscillation going. This is called a driving
force. In many cases, this force will be sinusoidal in time with maximum
force F0:
Fdriving = F0cos wt .......... Equation 3-15
So the total force acting on the mass is given by;
Fnet = Fdamping + Frestoring + Fdriving
d2 x = + F0cos wt
m
dt2
d2 x dx
+b
m + kx = F0cos wt .......... Equation 3-16
dt 2 dt
This equation differs from Equation 3-5 by the term on the right, which
makes it inhomogeneous.
The theory of linear differential equations tells us that any solution of the

62 Physics Senior Five

inhomogeneous equation added to any solution of the homogeneous equation
will be the general solution.
x(t) = xt(t) + xss(t)
We call the solution to the homogeneous equation the transient solution
since for all values of b, the solution damps out to zero for times large
relative to the damping time t.
We shall see that the solution of the inhomogeneous equation does not
vanish and so we call it the steady state solution and denote it by xss(t). It is
this motion that we will now consider.
The driving term forces the general solution to be oscillatory. In addition,
there will likely be a phase difference between the driving term and the
response. The derivations below gives the general solution in terms of the
amplitude A and phase angle F.
To solve equation 3-16 for xss(t), assume that;
xss(t) = C1 cos wt + C2 sin wt .......... Equation
3-17
dxss
= – C1w sin wt + C2w cos wt
dt
d2 xss
2
= – C1w 2cos wt + – C2w2 sin wt
dt
From equation 3-16;
m(– C1w 2cos wt – C2w2 sin wt) + b(– C1w sin wt + C2w  cos wt) + k(C1 cos wt +
C2 sin wt) ≡ F0 cos wt
Simplifying this equation gives;

Comparing both sides gives;

.......... Equation 3-18

Solving the simultaneous equations of equation 3-18 gives

C1 = , C2 =

Substituting these values in equation 3-17 gives;

xss(t) = ....... Equation 3-19

Physics Senior Five 63

Considering F as a phase angle and A as the amplitude, from equation
3-17, if;

and .......... Equation 3-20

then xss(t) = A sin F cos wt + A cos F sin wt

\ xss(t) = A sin (wt + F) .......... Equation 3-21
The values of the amplitude A and phase angle F in the equation 3-21 can
be calculated as shown below. Squaring both sides of equations 3-20 and
adding,
A= C12 + C22

    ....... Equation 3-22

Equation 3-23
Dividing expressions of equation 3-20 gives the value of the phase angle F;

.......... Equation 3-24

3.7 VARIATION OF FORCED FREQUENCY ON GRAPH

AT AMPLITUDE CLOSE TO NATURAL FREQUENCY
OF VIBRATION.
If an oscillating object is made to perform forced oscillations, closer is the
frequency of force applied to the natural frequency, larger is the oscillation.
However the amplitude rises and falls as the object will be assisted to
oscillate for a short time and then the forces will oppose its motion for a short
time. The graph shows the variation of the amplitude of the oscillations
with time.

Fig.3-7; The applied force has a frequency closer to the natural frequency
In figure 3.7, the applied force has a frequency closer to the natural

64 Physics Senior Five

frequency. The amplitude of the oscillation has increased and there is time
when the force helps and then hinders the oscillations.

Fig.3-8; Variation of forced frequency on graph at amplitude close to natural frequency of

vibration.
The largest amplitude is produced when the frequency of the applied force
is the same as the natural frequency of the oscillation. When the energy
input from the applied force is equal to the energy loss from the damping,
the amplitude stops increasing.

3.8 RESONANCE
Resonance occurs when an object capable of oscillating, has a force applied
to it with a frequency equal to its natural frequency of oscillation.
Each time the force is applied it transfers energy to the oscillation and
increases its amplitude. A very large amplitude occurs after a short time.
e.g. pushing a child on a swing. You record your pushes to have the same
frequency as the swing. The windows rattle when a truck goes by if the
frequency of the sound made by the truck’s engine is the same as the natural
frequency of the glass when it is tapped.
The oscillator resonates when the amplitude in equation 3-22 is maximum,
and this occurs if;
dA
=0
dω
This condition of deriving the amplitude A with respect to frequency w gives;

w= .......... Equation 3-25

w=

b k
w= but = 2g and =
m m
w02

w= .......... Equation 3-26

Physics Senior Five 65
In these equations, g is the damping coefficient and w0 is the natural
frequency.

3.9 APPLICATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF RESONANCE

IN EVERYDAY LIFE
The phenomenon of resonance depends upon the whole functional form of
the driving force and occurs over an extended interval of time rather than
at some particular instant. Below are examples of resonance in different
applications;

3.9.1 A washing machine

A washing machine may vibrate quite violently at particular speeds. In
each case, resonance occurs when the frequency of a rotating part (motor,
wheel, drum etc.) is equal to a natural frequency of vibration of the body of
the machine. Resonance can build up vibrations of large amplitude.

Fig.3-9; A washing machine

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3.9.2 Breaking the glass using voice
You must have heard the story of an opera singer who could shatter a glass
by singing a note at its natural frequency. The singer sends out a signal
of varying frequencies and amplitudes that makes the glass vibrate. At
a certain frequency, the amplitude of these vibrations becomes maximum
and the glasss fails to support it and breaks it. This scenarion is shown on
Fig.3-10 below.

Fig.3-10; Opera singer breaking the glass

3.9.3 Breaking the bridge

The wind ,blowing in gusts, once caused a suspension bridge to sway with
increasing amplitude until it reached a point where the structure was over-
stressed and the bridge collapsed. This is cuased by the oscillations of the
bridge that keep varying depending on the strength of the wind. At a certain
level, the amplitude of oscillation becomes maximum and develops crack on
it and suddenly breaks.

Fig.3-11; Vibrations breaking the bridge

Physics Senior Five 67

3.9.4 Musical instruments
Wind instruments such as flute, clarinet, trumpet etc. depend on the idea
of resonance. Longitudinal pressure waves can be set up in the air inside
the instrument. The column of air has its own natural frequencies at
which it can vibrate. When we blow, we use the mouthpiece to start some
vibrations. Those which happen to match exactly the natural frequencies of
the instrument are picked out and magnified.

Fig.3-12; Howard Johnson’s musical

trailblazing

3.9.5 Tuning circuit

The another example of useful resonance is the tuning circuit on a radio
set. Radio waves of all frequencies strike the aerial and only the one which
is required must be picked out. This is done by having a capacitance-
inductance combination which resonates to the frequency of the required
wave. The capacitance is variable; by altering its value other frequencies
can be obtained.

Fig.3-13; Radio receiver tuning circuit

68 Physics Senior Five

3.9.6 Microwave Ovens
Microwave ovens use resonance. The frequency of microwaves almost
equals the natural frequency of vibration of a water molecule. This makes
the water molecules in food to resonate. This means they take in energy
from the microwaves and so they get hotter. This heat conducts and cooks
the food.

Fig.3-14; Micro wave oven

3.9.7 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

The picture showing the insides of the body was produced using magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI). Our bodies contain a lot of hydrogen, mostly in
water. The proton in a hydrogen spins. A spinning charged particle has a
magnetic field, so the protons act like small magnets. These are normally
aligned in random directions. Placing a patient in a strong magnetic field
keeps these mini magnets align almost in line. Their field axis just rotates
like a spinning top. This is called processing.

Fig.3-15; Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Physics Senior Five 69

ACTIVITY 3-3: Energy Conversions

Aim: The activity aims at understanding the causes and conversion

trends of energies and forces for applications of resonance in everyday life.

PROCEDURE: clearly analyse the pictures shown below and answer

the questions that follow:

a) Parts 1, 2 and 3 of the figure are the kinds of forces. Name these types
of forces.

b) Explain the concept of these forces and how they can result into
breaking of the bridge.

c) Part 4 of the figure is the side view of an interior structure of the

applications explained in this section.

d) Explain the use of the instrument in (c) above.

e) Part 5 of the figure is the inner parts of one of the applications

discussed in this section. What do you thinks it is?

f) Label each part of the instrument in (e) above and explain how they are
used in everyday life.

3.10 EFFECT OF RESONANCE ON A SYSTEM

◊ Vibrations at resonance can cause bursting of the blood vessel.
◊ In a car crash a passenger may be injured because their chest is

70 Physics Senior Five

 thrown against the seat belt.
◊ The vibration of kinetic energy from the wave resonates through
the rock face and causes cracks.
◊ It is also used in a guitar and other musical instruments to
give loud notes.
◊ Microphones and diaphragm in the telephone resonate due to radio
waves hitting them.
◊ Hearing occurs when eardrum resonates to sound waves hitting it.
◊ Soldiers do not march in time across bridges to avoid resonance
and large amplitude vibrations. Failure to do so caused the loss of over
two hundred French infantry men in 1850.
◊ If the keys on a piano are pushed down gently enough it is possible to
avoid playing any notes. With the keys held down, if any loud noise
happens in the room (e,g. Somebody shouting), then some of the notes
held down will start to sound.
◊ An opera singer claims to be able to break a wine glass by loudly
singing a note of a particular frequency.

EXAMPLES
1. Solve the following initial value problem and determine the natural
frequency, amplitude and phase angle of the solution.
d2 y dy
+ y = 0, y(0) = 5, =–5
dt2 dt

Solution
Auxiliary quadratic equation;
m2 + 1 = 0
m = ± j1
The solution has the form
y(t) = C1cos w0t + C2cos w0t = C1cos t + C2sin
t
y(0) = C1 = 5
y′(t) = – C1sin t + C2 cos t
y′(0) = C2 = – 5
y(t) = 5 cos t – 5 sin t

Physics Senior Five 71

2. Solve the following initial value problem. For each problem, determine
whether the system is under, over, or critically damped:
d2 y dy dy
+6 + 9y = 0, y(0) = 1, =1
dt 2 dt dt
Solution
m2 + 6m + 9 = 0

The value under the root is zero which means that

b = ± 2 mk
This oscillation is critically damped and its displacement is given by;
bt
–
y(t) = e 2m (C + C t)
1 2
y(t) = e–3t(C1 + C2t)
y(0) = C1 = 1
y′(t) = – 3e–3t(C1 + C2t) + C2e–3t
y′(0) = – 3C1 + C2 = 1
\ C2 = 4
y(t) = – 3e–3t(1 + 4t)

END OF UNIT QUESTIONS

1. Solve the following initial value problem and determine the natural
frequency, amplitude and phase angle of each solution.
d2 y dy
+ 25 y = 0, y(0) = – 2, = 10 3
dt2 dt

72 Physics Senior Five

2. Solve the following initial value problem. For each problem, determine
whether the system is under, over, or critically damped.

d2 y dy dy
3 + 24 + 48y = 0, y(0) = – 5, =6
dt 2 dt dt
d2 y dy
3. Consider a mass-spring system described by the equation 2 +3 + ky
dt 2 dt
= 0. Give the value(s) of k for which the system is under, over, and
critically damped.

UNIT SUMMARY
Damping is a dissipating force that is always in the opposite direction
to the direction of motion of the oscillating particle and is represented by
equation;
d2 x dx
m + b + kx = 0
dt2 dt

The natural frequency of an object is the frequency of oscillation when

released. e.g. a pendulum.
A forced oscillation is where an object is subjected to a force that causes it
to oscillate at a different frequency than natural frequency. It is represented
by differential equation;
d2 x dx
m +b + kx = F0cos wt
dt 2 dt
Resonance occurs when an object capable of oscillating, has a force applied
to it with a frequency equal to its natural frequency of oscillation. Resonance
occurs when angular frequency of oscillation is related to natural angular
frequency according to equation;
w=
In real life, resonance is applied in;
• A washing machine
• Breaking the glass using the voice
• Breaking the bridge
• Musical instruments
• Tuning circuit
• Microwave ovens
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Physics Senior Five 73

74 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES
Sub-Topic Area: Waves
UNIT
PROPAGATION OF
4
MECHANICAL WAVES

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit I should be able to

evaluate the propagation of mechanical waves.

Unit Objectives:

By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ Explain the terms, concept and characteristics of waves properly.

◊ Explain the properties of waves.
◊ Explain the behavior of waves in vibrating strings and applications
of waves properly.

Physics Senior Five 75

4.0 INTRODUCTION
When we think of the word “wave”, we usually visualize someone moving
his hand back and forth to say ‘hello’ or maybe we think of a tall curling
wall of water moving in from the ocean to crash on the beach.
In physics, a wave is a disturbance that occurs in a material medium and
in such process, energy is transferred from one place to another. When
studying waves, it’s important to remember that they transfer energy, not
matter.
There are lots of waves all around us in everyday life. Sound is a type of
wave that moves through matter and then vibrates our eardrums and we
hear. Light is a special kind of wave that is made up of photons that helps us
to see. You can drop a rock into a pond and see wave formation in the water.
We even use waves (microwaves) to cook our food really fast. Application of
this concept is extensively used in telecommunication and music.

Classroom demonstration
(a) Arrange the students in the form of a circle with their right shoulders
pointing towards the centre.
(b) Ask one student to raise arms and then lower them. Then the next
student raises arms and lowers them, and so on around the circle. It
should be like the “wave” in a football stadium.
(c) After the students have the hang of it, ask them what the disturbance
in the wave was.
(d) Ask them if the disturbance travels up and down or horizontally around
the circle.
(e) Let one student gently push the back of the next student and then the
pushed student should gently push the next student and so on, which
will make a wave travel around the ring.
(f) Ask students: What is the disturbance? Is the disturbance travelling
up and down or around the ring? Which way does the wave travel?
Because this disturbance travels in the same direction as the wave, it
is a longitudinal wave.

4.1 THE CONCEPT OF WAVES

Waves can be defined as a disturbance in a medium that transfers energy
from one place to another, although the medium itself does not travel.
The term wave is often intuitively understood as referring to a transport
of spatial disturbances that are generally not accompanied by a motion

76 Physics Senior Five

of the medium occupying this space as a whole. In a wave, the energy of
a vibration is moving away from the source in the form of a disturbance
within the surrounding medium.
Other properties, however, although usually described in terms of origin,
may be generalized to all waves. For such reasons, wave theory represents
a particular branch of physics that is concerned with the properties of wave
processes independently of their physical origin.

4.2 TERMS USED AND CHARACTERISTICS OF WAVES

All waves are characterized by the following terms;
The Time period (T) of the wave is the time it takes for one wavelength of
the wave to pass a point in space or the time for one cycle to occur. It is also
defined as the time taken between two successive wave crests or trough. It
is measured in seconds (s).
The frequency (f ) is the number of wavelengths that pass a point in
space per second. In another words, it can be defined as the number of
complete oscillations or vibrations per second. Its SI unit is hertz (Hz).
Mathematically;
1
f=  .......... Equation 4-1
T
The wavelength (l) is the horizontal distance in space between two nearest
points that are oscillating in phase (in step) or the spatial distance over
which the wave makes one complete oscillation. Its SI unit is metre (m).
The wave speed (v) is the speed at which the wave advances. Its SI unit
is m/s.
Speed = distance travelled = λ .......... Equation 4-2
time period T
1
v = l f[Q = f]
T
That is, wave speed = wavelength × frequency.
This is the relationship between wavelength, frequency and velocity.
Amplitude is defined as the maximum distance measured from equilibrium
position (mean position). The amplitude is always taken as positive and is
measured in metres.
Phase difference (phase angle) is the angular difference between two
points on the wave or between two waves. Consider, two points O and P on
the wave as shown in Fig. 4-4.
Phase difference is a whole number and is calculated using simple proportions;

Physics Senior Five 77

 .......... Equation 4-3
The wave number, also called the propagation number k, is the spatial
frequency of a wave, either in cycles per unit distance or radians per unit
distance. It can be envisaged as the number of waves that exist over a
specified distance (analogous to frequency being the number of cycles or
radians per unit time). Its unit is per metre (m–1). Mathematically;
Φ 2π
k= x = .......... Equation 4-4
λ
The Intensity (I) of a wave or the power radiated by a source are proportional
to the square of the amplitude (x).
I ∝ x2 .......... Equation 4-5
Wavefront is a line or surface in the path of the wave motion on which the
disturbance at every point have the same phase. This can also be defined
as the surface which touches all the wavelets from the secondary sources of
waves. Consider the Huygens construction principle for the new wavefront.

Fig. 4.1: Formation of the wavefront

4.3 TYPES OF WAVES

There are two types of waves called mechanical waves and
electromagnetic waves. These waves are classified based on conditions
necessary for the wave to propagate.

78 Physics Senior Five

4.3.1 Mechanical waves
These waves are produced by the disturbance in a material medium and
they are transferred by particles of the medium. These waves include waves
in strings, water waves and sound waves. Mechanical waves are classified
as progressive or standing waves.

4.3.1.1 Progressive waves

A progressive wave is also called a travelling wave which consists of
a disturbance moving from one point to another. As a result, energy
is transferred between points. Progressive mechanical waves can be
categorised according to the direction of the effect of the disturbance relative
to the direction of travel. Progressive waves are classified as longitudinal
and transverse waves.
4.3.1.1.1 Longitudinal waves
When a wave propagates through some medium and the local displacements
of the medium that constitute the disturbance are in the direction of travel
of the disturbance, then the wave is longitudinal.
An example of a longitudinal wave is the pulse that can be sent along a
stretched slinky by shaking one end of the slinky along its length. The pulse
moves along the line of the slinky and ultimately makes the other end move.
Notice that in this case, the individual coils of the slinky vibrate back and
forth about some equilibrium position, but there is no net movement of the
slinky itself.

Fig. 4.2: Longitudinal wave

4.3.1.1.2 Transverse waves

These are waves in which the direction of disturbance is perpendicular to
the direction of travel of the wave. The particles do not move along with the
wave; they simply oscillate up and down about their individual equilibrium
positions as the wave passes by.

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 Fig. 4.3: Transverse waves

4.3.1.1.3 Equation of a progressive wave

An equation can performed to represent displacement y of a vibrating
particle in a medium in which a wave passes. Suppose a wave moves from
left to right and that a particle at the origin moves with displacement given
by equation.
yA = A sin wt .......... Equation 4-6

Fig. 4-4: Curve of Transverse wave

A particle at P will be out of phase from the particle at O, so, its displacement
is given by;
yP = A sin (wt – F)
2πx
But the phase angle F=
λ

.......... Equation 4-7

Various forms of progressive wave function are listed below;
.......... Equation 4-8

.......... Equation 4-9

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 .......... Equation 4-10

.......... Equation 4-11

where y = displacement A = amplitude

w = angular frequency f = frequency
k = propagation constant T = time period
l = wave length v = wave velocity
t = instantaneous time x = position of particle from origin
Equations 4.7 to 4.11 represent plane progressive waves. The negative sign
indicates that the wave is moving from left to right and all points on the
right of O will lag behind O.
A wave travelling in opposite direction; from right to left arrives at P before
O. So, vibrations at P will read that at O and then displacement is given by;

.......... Equation 4-12

.......... Equation 4-13

.......... Equation 4-14

.......... Equation 4-15

.......... Equation 4-16

EXAMPLE 1
A travelling wave is described by the equation y(x, t) = 0.003 cos (20x + 200t)
where y and x are measured in metres and t in seconds. What is the direction
in which the wave is travelling? Calculate the following physical quantities:
(a) angular wave number
(b) wavelength
(c) angular frequency
(d) frequency
(e) time period

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(f) wave speed
(g) amplitude
(h) particle velocity when x = 0.3 m and t = 0.02 s
(i) particle acceleration when x = 0.3 m and t = 0.02 s
Solution:
The equation y(x, t) = 0.003 cos (20x + 200t) has the form y = A sin (wt + F).
So, it is travelling towards-x direction.
Φ 20x
(a) Angular wave number or propagation constant, k = = = 20 m–1
x x
2π 2π 2π
(b) Wavelength: k = ⇒ l= = = 0.31 m.
λ k 20
(c) Angular frequency, w = 200 rad/s
ω 200
(d) Frequency, f = = = 32 Hz
2π 2π
1 1
(e) Time Period, T = = = 0.031 s
f 32
(f) Wave speed, v = l f = 0.31 × 32 = 10 m/s (approx.)
(g) Amplitude, A = 0.003 m
(h) Given; x = 0.3 m, t = 0.02 s
dy
∴ v= = – 0.003 × 200 sin (20x + 200t) = – 0.6 sin 10 = + 0.33 m/s
dt
(i) Given; x = 0.3 m, t = 0.02 s
dv
∴ a= = – 0.6 × 200 cos (20x + 200t) = – 120 cos 10 = + 101 m/s2
dt
4.3.1.2 Principle of superposition
The displacement at any time due to any number of waves meeting
simultaneously at a point in a medium is the vector sum of the individual
displacements of each one of the waves at that point at the same time.
This means that when two waves travel in a medium, their combined effect
at any point can be determined using this principle. Consider two waves of
displacements y1 and y2 passing through the same medium. The resultant
displacement after superposition is:
y = y1 + y2 .......... Equation 4-17

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When two pulses of equal or different
amplitudes on a string approach each
other, then on meeting, they superimpose
to produce a resultant pulse of amplitude
greater than any of the two. After crossing,
the two pulses travel independently.
4.3.1.3 Stationary waves
A stationary wave (or a standing wave)
is a wave which results when two waves
travelling in opposite directions and
having the same speed, frequency and
approximately equal amplitudes are
superposed. A standing wave is shown in
Fig. 4.6 below. Fig. 4-5: Superposition of waves

Fig. 4-6: Nodes and antinodes of a standing wave.

Here, A denotes the antinodes and N denotes the nodes.

Mathematical treatment of standing waves

Consider the displacement y1 = a sin (wt – F) of a progressive sinusoidal
wave at time t and at a distance x from the origin and moving to right.
Consider also the displacement y2 of an identical wave travelling in opposite
direction given by;
y2 = a sin (wt + F).
If these waves are superposed, the resultant displacement y is given by;
y = y1 + y2 ⇒ y = a sin (wt – F) + a sin (wt + F)
⇒ y = 2a cos F sin wt
=2a cos kx sin wt .......... Equation
4-18
[ F = kx, Eq.(4.4)]
The only variable part of equation 4.18 is sin wt. This means that the
amplitude of the resultant displacement is given by equation

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 A = 2a cos kx .......... Equation 4-19
Position of nodes
A node is defined as the point of zero amplitude. This means
A = 2a cos kx = 0
⇒ cos kx = 0 .......... Equation 4-20
⇒ kx = cos (0)
–1

π 3π 5π 7π
\ kx = , , , , ...
2 2 2 2
2π
But k = [Eq. (4.4)]
λ
l 3l 5l 7l
\ x = , , , , ...
4 4 4 4
mλ
That is, x = .......... Equation 4-21
4
where m = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...
Equation (4.21) means that nodes are obtained when the horizontal
displacement of waves are odd quarter values of wavelength.
Position of antinodes
Antinodes are points of maximum displacements. So, antinodes are obtained
when the value of Equation 4.19 is maximum. This occurs when;
cos kx = 1 .......... Equation 4-22
⇒ kx = cos (1)
–1

⇒ kx = 0, p, 2p, 3p, 4p, 6p, ...

l 2l 3l 4l 5l 6l
x = 0, , , , , , , ...
2 2 2 2 2 2
nλ
That is x = .......... Equation 4-23
2
where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...
This means that antinodes are obtained when horizontal displacement x is
λ
a multiple of .
2
λ
Note: The separation of adjacent nodes and adjacent antinodes are .
2

.......... Equation 4-24

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EXAMPLE 2
Find the path difference between the two waves y1 = sin c ωt − m and
2πx
λ

Solution:
Phase difference =

2π
Path difference = × Phase difference =
λ
4.3.1.4 Examples of mechanical waves
Mechanical waves, being progressive and stationary, are seen in different
forms as described in this section.

Sound waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Sound
waves travel fastest in solids, slower in liquids
and slowest in gases. This means the air
particles (or particles of the medium) move
back and forth on paths that are parallel to the
direction of wave propagation and thus take
the form of compressions and rarefactions of
the molecules in the air itself.
Fig. 4.7: Sound waves

Water waves
Water waves are a combination of both
transverse and longitudinal waves.
These waves are periodic disturbances
that move away from the source and
carry energy as they go.

Fig. 4.8: Water waves

Ocean waves
These waves are longitudinal waves that are observed moving through the
bulk of liquids, such as our oceans. Ocean waves are powerful forces that
erode and shape of the world’s coastlines. Most of them are created by the
wind. Winds that blow over the top of the ocean, create friction between
the air and water molecules, resulting in a frictional drag as waves on the
surface of the ocean.

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 Fig. 4.9: Ocean waves

Earthquake waves
Earthquakes occur when elastic energy is accumulated slowly within the
Earth’s crust (as a result of plate motions) and then released suddenly
along fractures in the crust called faults. Earthquake waves are also called
seismic waves and actually travel as both transverse and longitudinal
waves.
The P waves (Primary waves or compressional waves) in an earthquake
are examples of longitudinal waves. The P waves travel with the fastest
velocity and are the first to arrive.

Fig. 4.10: P Seismic waves

The S waves (Secondary waves or shear waves) in an earthquake are
examples of transverse waves. S waves propagate with a velocity slower
than P waves, arriving several seconds later.

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 Fig. 4.11: S seismic waves

Body Waves
Body waves are of two types: compressional or primary (P) waves which
are longitudinal in nature and shear or secondary (S) waves which are
transverse in nature. P- and S- waves are called ‘body waves’ because they
can travel through the interior of a body, such as the Earth’s inner layers,
from the focus of an earthquake to distant points on the surface. The Earth’s
molten core are only travelled by compressional waves.

Surface Waves
When waves occur at or near
the boundary between two
media, a transverse wave and a
longitudinal wave can combine to
form a surface wave. Examples
of surface waves are a type of
seismic wave formed as a result of
Fig.4.12: Surface water waves.
an earthquake and water waves.

4.3.2 Electromagnetic waves

These waves consist of disturbances in the form of varying electric and
magnetic fields. No material medium is necessary for their movement and
they travel more easily in vacuum than in matter.

Fig. 4-13: Electromagnetic waves

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Examples of electromagnetic waves are: Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared
radiation, Visible light, Ultraviolet light, X-rays and Gamma rays. These
waves vary according to their wavelengths.

Fig. 4-14: Examples of electromagnetic waves

4.4 PROPERTIES OF WAVES

This section introduces the properties of waves and wave motion to describe
the behaviour of waves in detail.

4.4.1 Reflection
This is the property of waves to bounce back from the surface on which they
hit. Huygens principle can also be applied to reflection. Consider a parallel
beam of light incident on the reflecting surface such that its direction of
travel makes an angle i with the normal to the surface.

Fig. 4-15: Reflection of waves

Consider that side A of an associated wavefront AB has just reached the

surface. In the time that light from side B of the wavefront travels to B′, a
secondary wavelet of radius equal to BB′ will be generated by A. Because of
the reflecting surface, this wavelet is a semicircle above the surface.
The new wavefront generated by reflection will be the tangent to this

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wavelet and will also contain point B′. The reflected wavefront will be A′B′.
Triangles ABB′ and B′A′A are congruent as
∠A′AB′ = ∠B B′A .......... Equation 4-25
∠A′AB′ = 90-r
∠B B′A=90-i
90-r = 90-i
\ i=r .......... Equation 4-26
We conclude by saying that all laws of reflection are obeyed. So, any
wavefront can reflect.

4.4.2 Refraction
Consider a parallel beam of waves (for example light waves) incident on
a refracting surface between two media such that its direction of travel
makes angle q1 with the normal to the refracting surface.
Consider side A of the wavefront AB has reached the surface before B. If the
ray from the other side B of the beam consequently travels to C at time t,
BC = C1t .......... Equation 4-27
Assuming: C1 → speed of light in medium 1
C2 → speed of light in medium 2
t → time taken for the ray to move from B to C

Fig. 4-16: Refraction of waves

At the same time, wavelets from A travel distance AD in medium 2. Here, a

refracted wavefront CD is formed by many wavelets in the beam. Fig.4-16
above illustrates this description.

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 AD = C2t .......... Equation 4-28
Considering triangle ABC and ADC:
BC C1 t
sin q1 = = .......... Equation 4-29
AC AC
AD C2 t
sin q2 = = .......... Equation 4-30
AC AC
Dividing Equation 4.29 by Equation 4.30 gives:
sin q1 C1
= .......... Equation 4-31
sin q 2 C2
By Snell’s law:
sin q1 C1
= = Constant .......... Equation 4-32
sin q 2 C2
Equation 4-32 confirms Snell’s law meaning that waves behave like normal
light during reflection.

4.4.3 Interference
In the region where wave trains from coherent sources (sources of the same
frequency) cross, superposition occurs giving reinforcements of waves at
some points which is called constructive interference and cancellation at
others which is called destructive interference. The resulting effect is called
interference pattern or the system of fringes.

Fig.4.17; Interference of waves

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4.4.4 Diffraction
This is a phenomenon in which waves from one source meet an obstacle
and spread around it. Diffraction is normally observed when these waves
pass through narrow slits. There are two types of diffraction and these are;
Fresnel’s diffraction and Fraunhofer diffraction.
4.4.4.1 Fresnel’s diffraction
This is a type of diffraction in which either the source of waves or screen
on which diffraction is observed or both are at finite distances from the
obstacle that cause diffraction. Below are different cases to explain this
diffraction.

Case 1: the source and the screen

placed at finite distances.

Fig. 4.18: Fresnel’s diffraction case 1

Case 2: the source is placed at infinite distance from obstacle and the screen
is near.

Fig. 4.19: Fresnel’s diffraction case 2

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Case 3: the screen is placed at infinite distance from obstacle and the source
is near.

Fig. 4.20: Fresnel’s diffraction case 3.

4.4.4.2 Fraunhofer Diffraction

This is a type of diffraction in which the source of waves and the screen
on which diffraction is observed are effectively at infinite distances from
the obstacle. This phenomenon is practically complicated but theoretically
understood. To obtain waves to or from infinite source in laboratory,
biconvex lenses are used.

Fig. 4.21: Fraunhofer diffraction

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4.5 YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
In this experiment, a source S of monochromatic waves is used to illuminate
two narrow and parallel slits S1 and S2 that are apparent sources of light.
The arrangement is shown in Fig.4.22.

Fig. 4.22: Young’s double slit experiment.

From the above experiment, a narrow slit S diffracts light falling on it

and so illuminates S1 and S2. Diffraction also takes place at S1 and S2 and
interference takes place in the region where light from S1 overlaps the light
from S2. Light from S1 and S2 is from a monochromatic source, hence S1 and
S2 act as coherent sources (they are also monochromatics).

4.6 WAVE ON A VIBRATING STRING

When a string is fixed at one end and the other end is moved up and down,
a transverse wave is formed. The simplest mode of vibration is the one in
which both ends are nodes. Let us use l as the wavelength, l as the length
of the string, c as the speed of the wave and f as the frequency of the wave.

Fig. 4-23: Fundamental mode of vibrating string

λ
l = ⇒ l = 2l
2
c
From f =
λ
c
f1 = .......... Equation 4-33
2l

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The figure above shows the simplest mode of vibration which is the first
harmonic (fundamental mode) and its frequency f1 is called the fundamental
frequency. Higher order frequencies are called overtones. The second
harmonic is the first overtone and has the mode shown by Fig.4-24.

Fig.2-24: First overtone of a vibrating string

It is seen that:
l = l
c
f2 = .......... Equation 4-34
l
Substituting equation 4.33 into equation 4.34 gives:
f2 = 2 f1 .......... Equation 4-35

The third harmonic, which is the second overtone, is shown in Fig.4.25.

Fig. 4.25: Second overtone

If l is the length of string used, then
3λ 2l
l = ⇒ l=
2 3
3c
\ f3 = .......... Equation 4-36
2l
Substituting equation 4.33 into equation 4.36 gives;
f3 = 3 f1 .......... Equation 4-37
From the above derived expressions of harmonic frequencies, we note that
generally;
nc
fn = .......... Equation 4-38
2l
where n is the number of harmonics. The frequency nth harmonic is given
v
by fn = where c is the velocity of progressive wave that produces the
λn
standing wave. If l is the length of the string, T is the tension in the string
and m is the mass on the scale pan, then the velocity is given by:

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 T
c = µ .......... Equation 4-39
where m is the mass per unit length, i.e.
m = m .......... Equation 4-40
l
Tl
\ From Equation (4.39), c = m .......... Equation 4-41
Substituting equation 4.41 in equation 4.38 gives:
n Tl
fn = m .......... Equation 4-42
2l
EXAMPLE 4
A wire of length 400 mm and mass 1.2 × 10–3 kg is under a tension of 120 N.
What is
(a) the fundamental frequency of vibration?
(b) the frequency of the third harmonic?

Solution:
(a) The fundamental frequency is obtained by substituting n = 1 in the
equation 4.42.
1 120 × 400 × 10 –3
f1 = = 250 Hz
2 × 400 × 10 –3 1.2 × 10 –3
(b) For third harmonic, using equation (4.37)
f3 = 3f1 = 3 × 250 = 750 Hz

ACTIVITY 4-1: Propagation of Waves

Learning Objectives
• To observe the propagation of vibrations through a solid
• To understand how sound is transmitted through a medium
Required Materials
Spoon, string of length 1 m

Procedure
(a) Tie the spoon into the middle of the length of string so that it will hang
freely when you hold the string ends.
(b) Hold the string ends to your temples or the bone just under your ears
as you strike the spoon with a pen or other object.

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 Fig. 4.26: Second overtone

Discussion Questions
1. What causes the sound to be loud when the string is held to your head?
2. Why does the bone in front of your ear transmit vibrations more easily
than other bones?
3. What is the purpose of the string in this activity?

4.7 APPLICATIONS OF WAVES

1. They are used in radar, broadcasting and radio communication.
2. They are used in MRI in hospitals.
3. They are also used in radio communication which forms an integral
part of wireless communication.

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 END OF UNIT QUESTION

Requirements: a manila paper with the drawing of the wave

shown below

a) How do you call the distance represented by arrow z?

b) What letter is labelling the wave’s trough?

c) What letter is labelling a wave’s crest?

d) The number of waves that pass the poster per second is called

the …………….. of the waves.

e) If the knot (w) travels 2 meters in 1 second, we say that it has …………

….. of 2 m/s.

f) If the wavelengths were shortened, would the frequency be higher

or lower?

g) The greatest distance the knot (w) travels from its resting position

is called…………….. of the wave.

h) What kind of wave are these in the rope?

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Activity 4 - 2: Properties of Waves

Use the following descriptions in waves ad fill in the crossword

puzzle bellow:

Across
1. How fast something is moving or how much distance is covered
in a certain amount of time.
3. The time it takes for a wave to repeat itself
4. The lowest point of a wave beneath the line of origin
9. Waves that require a medium
10. The highest point of a wave above the line of origin
11. Particles of light
12. A push or a pull
13. The tendency of an object at rest to remain at rest or in motion
until acted upon

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Down
2. Waves that do not require a medium
5. The bouncing back of a wave when it meets the surface or boundary
6. The matter through which a wave travels
7. Distance in a given direction
8. The vertical distance between the line of origin and the crest of a wave

Activity 4 - 3: Propagation of Mechanical Waves

Use the following descriptions in waves and fill the puzzle

Down:
1) The part of a longitudinal wave where the particles of the medium
are close together.
2) A wave which needs to travel through a medium.
3) A repeated back-and-forth or up-and-down motion.
6) A wave which moves the medium in a direction across the direction.
the energy is traveling.
8) The ability to do work.
Across:
4) A disturbance that transfers energy from place to place.
5) The highest point of a wave.
7) The part of a longitudinal wave where the particles of the mediu
are far apart.
9) A wave which moves the medium in the same direction as the energy
is traveling.
10) The lowest part of a transverse wave.
11) The material through which a wave travels.

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 END OF UNIT PROJECT
Materials to choose from:
3 white screens, 3 biconvex lenses ( ), 3 biconcave lenses( ), 3 biconvex
mirrors( ), 3 biconcave mirrors( ), 3 boards with a hole, 3 laser pens, 3 big
torches, 3 very bright open lamps, 1 plane mirror.
The question:
Explain how you can perform Fresnel’s diffraction and Fraunhofer
diffraction in the laboratory.
Hypothesis:
Write a hypothesis about how diffraction is obtained in the lab.
Procedure
1. Decide which materials you will need (from the list) to
test the hypothesis.

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2. Plan your investigation.
a. Which arrangements best gives the idea of diffraction?
b. Which adjustments do you care to take care of ?
3. Write a procedure and show it to your teacher. Do not proceed
any further until it is approved.
4. Carry out your investigation.
Collecting Data

Make sure you have recorded at least the following information:

◊ the hypothesis
◊ your procedure
Analyzing and Interpreting
Share and compare your results with your classmates. Which idea is
important to be used and achieve the proper arrangement of apparatus to
achieve your objective?
Forming Conclusions

Make a brief report of your project with neat diagrams. In this project
what is needed is the concept not the analysis of the fringes formed.

UNIT SUMMARY
Waves can be defined as a disturbance in a material medium that transfers
energy from one place to another.
The time period (T) of the wave is the time it takes for one complete
vibration of the wave.
The frequency f is the number of wavelengths that pass a point in space
in one second.
The wavelength l is the horizontal distance in space between two nearest
points that are oscillating in phase.
The wave speed v is the speed at which the wave advances.
Phase difference (phase angle) is the angular difference between two
points on the wave or between two waves.
The wave number also called the propagation number k is the spatial
frequency of a wave.

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The Intensity of a wave or the power radiated by a source are proportional
to the square of the amplitude.
Wavefront is a line or surface in the path of the wave motion on which the
disturbance at every point have the same phase.
Mechanical waves are waves produced by the disturbance in a material
medium.
A progressive wave consists of a disturbance moving from one point to
another.
Longitudinal wave propagates through some medium with vibrations in
the direction of propagation of the disturbance.
In Transverse waves, the direction of vibrations is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
Equation of a progressive wave is given by:

Principle of superposition states that the resultant displacement at any

time is the vector sum of the individual displacements.
Stationary waves are waves which seem to be at rest.
mλ
The positions of nodes are x = where m = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ...
4
nλ
The positions of antinodes are x = where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ...
2
Electromagnetic waves are disturbances in form of varying electric and
magnetic fields.
All kinds of waves reflect, refract, interfere and also spread around the
obstacle.
Other than the superposition of waves meeting at a point, other conditions
for interference are:
• The sources of the waves must be coherent, which means they emit
identical waves with a constant phase difference.
• The waves should be monochromatic - they should be of a single
wavelength.

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 Topic Area: ELECTRICITY
Sub-Topic Area: Current Electricity
UNIT
5 COMPLEX ELECTRICAL
CIRCUIT

Key topic competence: By the end of the unit I should be able to

construct and to analyze a complex electrical circuit.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners should be able to:
◊ analyse complex electrical circuits well.
◊ use Kirchhoff’s laws in circuit analysis accurately
◊ analyse simple potentiometer circuits clearly.

5.0 INTRODUCTION
A complex circuit configuration is one that contains components that are
connected either in parallel or in series with each other. If a circuit can
be reduced to a single resistor, it is a series or parallel circuit. If not, it is
a complex circuit. If the circuit is complex and is mixed with series and
parallel networks of resistors and supplies, we may want to look if it is
feasible to reduce these to a single power supply and a single resistor which
would make them either a series or a parallel simple circuit.

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Most electronic devices we use at home have built-in complex circuits to
perform different tasks. Also the concept of this unit is helpful in other
subjects like electrons and conductors (in Chemistry), volume adjustment
circuits in radios.

Opening questions

1. A combination circuit is shown in the diagram of Fig.5.1. Use the

diagram to answer the following questions.

a. The current at location A is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location B.

b. The current at location B is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location E.

c. The current at location G is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location F.

d. The current at location E is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location G.

e. The current at location B is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location F.

f. The current at location A is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location L.

g. The current at location H is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than)
the current at location I.

2. Consider the combination circuit in the diagram of Fig.5.1. Use the

diagram to answer the following questions. (Assume that the voltage
drop in the wires is negligibly small.)

a. The electric potential difference (voltage drop) between points

B and C is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than) the electric
potential difference (voltage drop) between points J and K.

b. The electric potential difference (voltage drop) between points

B and K is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than) the electric
potential difference (voltage drop) between points D and I.

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 c. The electric potential difference (voltage drop) between points E and
F is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than) the electric potential
difference (voltage drop) between points G and H.

d. The electric potential difference (voltage drop) between points E and

F is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than) the electric potential
difference (voltage drop) between points D and I.

e. The electric potential difference (voltage drop) between points J and

K is _____ (greater than, equal to, less than) the electric potential
difference (voltage drop) between points D and I.

f. The electric potential difference between points L and A is _____

(greater than, equal to, less than) the electric potential difference
(voltage drop) between points B and K.
B 8W C

D
A
E G

12 V 3W 5W

L F H

K J
6W

Fig. 5.1; Mixed network of resistors

5.1 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS

Next to Ohm’s Law in the fundamental rules which govern the behaviour
of electric circuits are Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws. Gustav Kirchhoff in
1845 formulated two circuit laws, one of which essentially establishes
the conservation of charge and the other establishes the conservation of
potential.

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 ACTIVITY 5-1
The 16 puzzle pieces associated with this problem represent different
circuit elements. Arrange the circuit pieces to form a four-by-four-piece
square, with the “sun” symbol appearing somewhere within the puzzle.
If all of the puzzle pieces are placed appropriately, the sun will be in a
specific position.

0.260 A

Fig.5.2; Kirchhoff’s law puzzle

Sign conventions
• The potential change across a resistor is – IR if the loop is traversed
along the chosen direction of current (potential drops across a resistor).
• The potential change across a resistor is + IR if the loop is traversed
opposite the chosen direction of current.
• If an emf source is traversed in the direction of the emf, the change in
potential is positive.
• If an emf source is traversed in the opposite direction of the emf, the
change in potential is negative.

5.1.1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Kirchhoff’s first law, known as Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) or Kirchhoff’s
Junction Rule, essentially expresses the conservation of charge, which can
be thought of as the conservation of matter. This implies that charge cannot

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appear from anything at any point in a circuit, neither can it disappear into
oblivion at any point.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that “the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing at a node or junction in an electric circuit is zero”.
This means that currents are added with respect to their directions. Let us
consider the junction shown on Fig. 5.3 below.

I1 I2

I6 I3

I5 I4

Fig.5.3; A circuit node with several associated currents

From the figure;
SI = 0
I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 + I5 – I6 = 0
I1 + I2 + I5 = I3 + I4 + I6 ....Equation 5.1
Note that both forms are completely mathematically consistent.

EXAMPLE 5.1
In the circuit of Fig. 5.4, the magnitudes of the currents are as follows:
I1 = 2.5 A, I2 = 4A, I4 = 7.5 A, I6 = 6A and I3 = 2I5. Determine the values of I2
and I5.
I3
I1 I2

I6

I4
I5

Fig.5.4; Current at circuit nodes

Solution: Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law,

I1 + I2 – I3 – I4 + I5 – I6 = 0

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 2.5 + 4 – I3 – 7.25 + I5 – 6 = 0
\ I5 – I3 – 6.75 = 0
I5 – 2I5 = 6.75 A
–I5 = 6.75 A
I5 = –6.75 A
I3 = 2I5 = –13.5 A
Notes: Any calculated value of current which works out to be negative
simply indicates that in practice, the current is actually flowing in a
direction opposite to that assigned in the schematic diagram of the circuit.

5.1.2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Kirchhoff’s second circuit law, known as Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) or
Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule, essentially formulates the conservation of energy in
the form of electric potential around a circuit in which current is flowing.
This means that no net voltage can be created or destroyed around the loop
of a closed circuit.
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that “the algebraic sum of the potentials
around a closed electric circuit is zero.”
Consider an electrical network shown in Fig. 5.5 below.
E2
R1

+ –
+ –
V1
+

+ V2 R2
Assigned
E1
current –
–
direction

+
V3 E3
–
– + + –

R2
E4

Fig. 5.5; Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law applied to a closed circuit

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law gives:
SV = 0
E1 – V1 – E2 – V2 – E3 + E4 – V3 = 0
E1 – E2 – E3 + E4 = V1 + V2 + V3 ...Equation 5.2

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EXAMPLE 5.2
In the circuit of Fig.5.5, the magnitudes of the potentials are as follows:
E1 = 12V, E2 = 2V, E3 = 5V, E4 = 4.5V, V1 = 2V, and V2 = 2V3. Determine the
values of the potentials V2 and V3.

Solution: Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage law gives:

E1 – V1 – E2 – V2 – E3 + E4 – V3 = 0
12 – 2 – 2 – V2 – 5 + 4.5 – V3 = 0
12 – 2 – 2 – 5 + 4.5 = V2 + V3
V2 + V3 = 7.5V
3V3 = 7.5V
\ V3 = 2.5V
V2 = 2V3 = 5V

5.2 DESIGN OF COMPLEX AND SIMPLE ELECTRIC

CIRCUITS
An electric circuit is a collection of electrical components connected by
conductors. A simple electric circuit consists of a supply with either series
or parallel network of resistors.

Switch Connecting Wire

A lamp

Power supply

Fig.5.6; Simple electric circuit

This circuit contains neither simple series nor simple parallel connections.
It contains elements of both. Because the circuit is a combination of both
series and parallel, we cannot apply the rules for voltage, current and
resistance “across the table” to begin its analysis. This is shown below;

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 Fig.5.7; Simple electric circuit

ACTIVITY 5-2
Aim: to know different components of the circuit and why they are needed
in the circuit.
Instructions: match the following terms are used in electric circuits
A. A circuit with two or more 1. Electric charge
braches for the current to flow 2. Insulator
B. A material that electrons can 3. Conductor
move through 4. Electroscope
C. Flow of electrons through a 5. Electric current
conductor
6. Resistance
D. Made up of series and parallel
7. Battery
circuits
8. Circuit
E. Device to break a circuit
9. Series circuit
F. Poor conductor of electricity
10. Parallel circuit
G. Unit for measuring rate of
electron flow in a circuit 11. Complex circuit

H. Having too many or too few 12. Volt

electrons 13. Ampere
I. A temporary source of electric 14. Switch
current 15. Power
J. Rate at which a device converts
electrical energy to another form of
energy.

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K. Path of electric conductors
L. Electric charge built up in one
place
M. Device that detects electric
charges
N. Opposition to the flow of
electricity
O. Electric circuit where current
flows through all parts of the circuit
P.Unit to measure electric potential

ACTIVITY 5-3
For each of the following circuits state if it is series, parallel or
complex if any. In each case comment on the current flowing and the
brightness of the bulb.

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5.3 RESISTORS AND ELECTROMOTIVE FORCES IN
SERIES AND PARALLEL COMPLEX CIRCUITS
This section examines how Kirchhoff’s voltage and current laws are applied
to the analysis of complex circuits. In the analysis of such series-parallel
circuits, we often simplify the given circuit to enable us to clearly see how
the rules and laws of circuit analysis apply. We might need to redraw
circuits whenever the solution of a problem is not immediately apparent.
Resistors are said to be in series if they are arranged side by side in a
such way that the total potential difference is shared by all resistors and
the current flowing through them is the same. This arrangement is shown
below:

Fig.5.8; Resistors in series

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which the resistors are arranged with their
heads connected together, and their tails connected together. The current
in a parallel circuit breaks up, with some flowing along each parallel branch
and re-combining when the branches meet again. The voltage across each
resistor in parallel is the same.

Fig.5.9; Resistors in parallel

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The same idea of series and parallel resistors is applied in series and parallel
cells. For series e.m.fs the total e.m.f is equivalent to the sum of individual
e.m.fs with respect to the direction of currents they generate.

Fig.5.10; E.m.fs in series

When these cells are connected in parallel, the total e.m.f e equivalent to
the e.m.f of only one cell.

Fig.5.11 E.m.fs in Parallel

To solve the resistor circuits using Kirchhoff’s rules,
1. Define the various currents
• This can be done by either defining branch (segment) currents for
each element in the circuit, or defining loop currents for each loop
in the circuit.
2. If using branch currents, use Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule to look for
interdependent currents. This allows for reducing the number of
variables being solved for.
3. Use Loop Rule to define voltage equations for each loop, using previously
defined currents.
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4. Solve set of simultaneous equations using algebraic manipulation.

EXAMPLE 5.3
Using Kirchhoff’s rules, calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3 in the three
branches of the circuit in Fig.5.12.
30 W h

I1 E2 =
40 W I3 r = 1 W 45 V
a d
b c
20 W
I2
E1 = 80 W r =1 W

g f e

Fig. 5.12; Calculating branch currents using Kirchhoff’s rules

Solution: Using junction rule;

At junction a; I3 = I1 + I2
Using the loop rule in loop ahdcba.
I3(40 + 1) + 30 I1 = 45
(I1 + I2) (40 + 1) + 30 I1 = 45
71I1 + 41I2 = 45 ...Equation 5.3
In loop agfedcba, I3(40 + 1) +I2(20 + 1) = 80 + 45
(I1 + I2) (40 + 1) + I2(20 + 1) = 80 + 45
41I1 + 62I2 = 125 ...Equation 5.4
Solving equations 5.3 and 5.4 simultaneously gives;
I1 = –0.87A
I2 = 2.6A
I3 = 1.7A

Ammeter
An ammeter is a device which is used to measure electric current flowing
through a branch of a circuit. Electric current is measured in amperes (A).
Smaller currents are measured by milliammeters (mA) and microammeters
(mA). Ammeters are of various types–moving coil ammeter, moving magnet
ammeter, moving iron ammeter, hot wire ammeter, etc. Nowadays, digital

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ammeters are used to measure current accurately which use ADC (analog
to digital converter). An ammeter is connected in series with the circuit
through which current is flowing.

Fig. 5.13; Ammeter

Voltmeter
A voltmeter is a device which is used to measure electric potential difference
between two points in an electrical circuit. Electric p.d. is measured in
along a calibrated scale in proportion to circuit voltage. Digital voltmeters
are now frequently used to give a display of voltage using ADC. A voltmeter
is always connected in parallel to the component across which p.d. is to be
measured.

Fig. 5.14; Voltmeter

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5.4 SIMPLE POTENTIOMETER CIRCUITS
A simple potentiometer is a device used for taking a number of electrical
measurements. It is a piece of resistance wire, usually a metre long, fixed
between two points A and B with a cell of output voltage, V, connected
between the two ends.
The potential difference to be measured is put into a circuit together with
an opposing variable p.d. from the voltage divider. The voltage divider is
then adjusted until its p.d., VAC equals the p.d. being measured. Fig. 5.15
illustrates this.

Vdriver

l0

l C
A B

G Zero centre galvanometer

E
R

Fig.5.15; Potentiometer wire at balance point

The sliding contact in the above diagram is moved until the galvanometer
indicates zero. This position is referred to as the balance point. The current
in the lower part of the circuit is zero because the p.d., VAC equals the p.d.
E provided by the cell under test. The protective resistor serves only to
prevent the galvanometer from the damage.
Electromotive force of the wire is always proportional to the length of the
wire. So, the approximate value of E is determined as follows:
E∝l
E = kl ...Equation 5.5
Vdriver ∝ l0
Vdriver = kl0 ...Equation 5.6
Dividing equation 5.5 by equation 5.6 gives;
E kl
——— = ——
Vdriver kl0
Vdriver × l
\ E = —————  ...Equation 5.7
l0

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EXAMPLE 5.4
A potentiometer is set up as shown in the Fig.5.16 and the balance point for
the unknown e.m.f., E is found at 84 cm from the left hand end of the meter
wire. If the driver cell has e.m.f. of 1.5V and negligible internal resistance,
find the value of unknown e.m.f.
1.5 V

84 cm
C
A B

G
E
R

Fig. 5.16; Potentiometer wire

Solution: From Fig.5.14,

Vdriver = 1.5 V, l = 84 cm, l0 = 100 cm. Using equation 5.7;
Vdriver × l 1.5 × 84
E = ————— = ————— = 1.26 V
l0 100
EXAMPLE 5.5
What value of resistance is needed in series with a driver cell of negligible
internal resistance and approximately 3V e.m.f. to arrange that — 2 of the
6 W slide wire is required to balance a p.d. of 1.5V? 3
3V

2 6W Slide wire
— AB
3 C
A B

G
1.5 V

Fig.5.17; Use of the potentiometer to determine the unknown resistance

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Solution: At the balance point or null point, no current flows through the
galvanometer, i.e. in the lower loop of the circuit. But in the lower loop of
the circuit, a current I f lows. Since the current in the lower loop is zero.
2
VAC = 1.5V = VAB
3

VAB 2.25
And I= = = 0.375 A
R AB 6
From E = I × Rtotal
3 = 0.375 × (R + 6) [At balance point]
So R=2 W

5.4.1 Comparison of e.m.f.s

A potentiometer may sometimes be used to compare e.m.f’s of a cell with
that of a standard cell. Consider the circuit of Fig. 5.18 below.
Vdriver

l0
C D
A B

G
E0

E1

Fig. 5.18; Comparison of e.m.f.s

The balance point is first found with the standard cell of e.m.f E0 at a balance
length l0. A new balance length l is then found with the cell e.m.f. E1.
\ E0 = VAC and E1 = VAD
Since VAC ∝ l0 and VAD ∝ l;
 ...Equation 5.8

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So if the standard e.m.f. E0 is known, lengths l0 and l are known, then E1
can be calculated.

EXAMPLE 5.6
In Fig.5.19, AB is a uniform wire of length 1.2 m and resistance 8 W. A
driver cell of e.m.f. 3V and internal resistance 1W is driving a current Ip as
shown. Calculate the e.m.f. of the cell Ex if the balance length is 66.5 cm.
3V, 1W

66.5 cm
C
A B

G
EX

Fig. 5.19; Determination of unknown e.m.f. by comparison

Solution:
Data given: lAC = 66.5 cm,
lAB = 120 cm,
RAB = 8 W,
VAB = 3V
VAB 3 1
Ip = = = A
R AB 8 + 1 3

R AC l
= AC
R AB l AB

1
VAC = Ex = IpRAC = × 4.43 = 1.48 V
3
5.6.2 Measurement of internal resistance of a cell
The circuit is arranged as shown in Fig. 5.20 with the cell, whose internal

Physics Senior Five 119

resistance r is to be found, is connected in parallel with a resistor with
resistance R and a switch. The driver cell as usual is in the upper loop of
the circuit.
Driver cell

l
C
A B

G
Es r

Fig.5.20; Measurement of internal resistance of a cell

The balance point l is found with the switch open. Since at balance point, no
current is flowing through G; E is then measured. The switch is then closed
and the new balance point l1 is found. Balance length l1 is proportional to
output voltage V (across the resistor R); i.e.
V ∝ l1
E∝l
E l
\ =  ...Equation 5.9
V l1
But in the lower circuit;
E = V + Ir ...Equation 5.10
Substituting equation 5.10 into equation 5.9 gives;
V + Ir l
=
V l1
But V = IR
\

...Equation 5.11

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EXAMPLE 5.7
In the circuit of Fig. 5.21 below, AB is a uniform wire of length 1m and
resistance 4.0 W. C1 is an accumulator of e.m.f. 2 V a negligible internal
resistance. C2 is a cell of e.m.f. 1.5 V.
C1 2V
1.0 W

l
D
A B

2.0 W

C2 1.5V

Fig.5.21; Determination of internal resistance using a potentiometer wire

(a) Find the balance length AD when the switch is open.
(b) If the balance length is 75.0 cm when the switch is closed, find the
internal resistance of C2.

Solution:
(a) When the switch is open at balance D, no current flows in the lower
part of the circuit.

150 75
l= =
4I 2I

   In the upper loop; E = I × Rtotal

\ 2 = I(1 + RAB)
2 = I(1 + 4)
I = 0.4 A

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 \

(b) When the switch is closed, the internal resistance of the cell can be
calculated from equation 5.15.
5.5 MEASUREMENT OF CURRENT BY POTENTIOMETER

Consider the circuit of Fig. 5.22 shown below. Current through a resistor
can be calculated at the balance point.
E0

l0

l
D
A B

I1
G

Fig. 5.22; Measurement of current by potentiometer

The potential difference, p.d. across R can be found by finding the balance
point on the potentiometer such that if the balance point is at C then VAC
balances the p.d. across R. If R is known, then the current can be found.

VAC ∝ l

E0 ∝ l0

VAC l
\ =
E0 l0

 VAC = I1R

I1 R l
=
E0 l0

lE0
⇒ I1 = ...Equation 5.12
l0 R

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ACTIVITY 5-4
To measure the e.m.f. of an unknown cell using a potentiometer.
Procedure:
(a) Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 5.23. Voltage supply is set at its
appropriate value, so the current is fairly small. This is to protect
the galvanometer.
(b) Close the DPDT (Double Pole Double Throw) switch to the standard
cell side and calibrate the potentiometer by finding what length of
wire corresponds to the voltage of the standard cell. This is done by
finding the location of the sliding contact where the galvanometer
does not deflect when the key switch is closed.
(c) Calculate the constant, k, using the e.m.f. of the standard cell and
the length, LS measured to the sliding contact-use equation E = kLs.
(d) Throw the DPDT switch to connect the unknown battery in the
circuit and move the sliding contact until the galvanometer indicates
zero current as in Step 2. (Do not adjust Rheostat Rt since this will
change the voltage across the potentiometer wire and upset your
calibration). Read the length Lv measured on the sliding contact.
(e) Calculate the e.m.f. of the unknown battery by the formula: E = kLv
(f) Now measure the voltage of the unknown battery with the voltmeter.
Explain the difference.

Fig.5.23; To measure the e.m.f. of an unknown cell using a potentiometer

Physics Senior Five 121

 ACTIVITY 5-5
Determination of the constant f of the wire.
Procedure:
(a) Fix the wire provided firmly on the bench.

Dry cell
K

Cellotape

Fig. 5.24; Determination of the constant f of the wire

(b) Connect the circuit as shown on the figure above starting with a
length of the wire, y, equal to 30 cm.
(c) Close the switch K.
(d) Read and record the reading V of the voltmeter.
(e) Open the switch K.
(f) Repeat procedures (c) to (e) for the values of y = 40, 50, 60 and
70 cm.
(g) Record your results in a suitable table including the values of
1 1
and .
v y
1 1
(h) Plot a graph of (along the vertical axis) against (along the
v y
horizontal axis).
(i) Find the slope s of the graph.
1
(j) Determine the intercept c on axis.
v
100c
(k) Calculate the constant of the wire from the expression f = .
s

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 EXERCISE 5.1
1. A potentiometer is set up as shown in Fig. 5.25. Given that the balancing
point for the unknown e.m.f. E is found to be 74.5 cm from the left hand
end of the meter wire (1m). If the driver cell has an e.m.f. of 1.5 V and
negligible internal resistance. Find the value unknown e.m.f.
1.5 V

l0

74.5 cm
D
A B

Fig. 5.25; Calculating unknown e.m.f.

2. A certain cell is connected to a potentiometer and a balance point
is obtained at 84 cm along the meter wire. When its terminals are
connected to a 5W resistor, the balance point changes to 70 cm. Calculate
the balance when a 5W resistor is now replaced by a 4W resistor.

70 cm

84 cm
D
A B

G
E, r

5W

Fig. 5.26; Calculation of the balance length

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5.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF
POTENTIOMETER
Wear: Most potentiometers last only a few thousand rotations before the
materials wear out. Although it means years of service in some applications,
it takes special designs to stand up to daily, demanding use. It means they
can’t be used for machine sensing where rapid cycling would wear them out
in a matter of minutes.
Noise: The action of the wiper moving across the element creates a noise
called “fader scratch.” In new pots, this noise is inaudible, but it can get
worse with age. Dust and wear increase the bumpiness of the action and
make the noise noticeable. Small cracks can appear in the element, and
these make noise as the wiper moves over them.
In addition to these mechanically caused noises, carbon elements, in
particular, are prone to producing electrical noise. This noise is heard as a
soft, steady hiss that can degrade sound recordings. The resistive materials
have improved over the years, so newer pots are quieter.
Inertia: The friction between the potentiometer’s wiper and resistive
element creates a drag or inertia that the pot must overcome before it
turns. Although this drag is not large, it prevents the pot from being used
as a rotary sensor in more sensitive applications.
Limited Power: Out of necessity, most potentiometers can dissipate only a
few watts of power. To handle more power, they have to be larger and hence
expensive. Engineers work around this problem by putting the potentiometer
in low-power parts of circuits. They control small currents, which, in turn,
control transistors and other components with greater power ratings.

END OF UNIT QUESTION

1. What are Kirchhoff’s rules for understanding a circuit?

2. Explain why Kirchhoff’s junction rule must be true if the Law of
Conservation of Charge (that no charge may be created or destroyed) is
true.
3. Explain why Kirchhoff’s loop rule must be true if the Law of Conservation
of Energy is true.
4. Find the branch currents of the circuit shown below.

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 E1

E2

Fig.5.27; Calculation of branch currents 1

5. Solve the circuit for currents I1, I2, and I3, using Kirchhoff’s rules.

Fig.5.26; Calculation of branch currents 2

6. Find the current flowing in the resistor R3 of 40Ω.

Fig.5.27; Calculation of branch currents 3

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7. Find the value of current in resistance R3 as shown in figure 5.28 below,
where R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 2 Ω, R4 = 3 Ω, R5 = 6 Ω, R3 = 2 Ω and E1 = 10 V.

Fig. 5.23; Applying Kirchhoff’s laws on the bridge of resistors

8. Apply Kirchhoff’s loop rule to as many closed loops of the circuit as are
necessary and calculate the loop currents.
+ –

I1 I2

I3

Fig. 5.24; Calculation of branch currents 3

9. For the following circuit, set up the appropriate number of current/node
equations and voltage/loop equations on a separate sheet of paper. Do
not attempt to evaluate the current values.

R8

Fig. 5.25; Calculation of branch currents 4

10. (a) 
Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to the following circuit to find a set of
equations that describe how charges behave inside the circuit.

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 Fig. 5.26
(b) Solve the equations to find the current through each resistor in the
circuit.
11. (a) 
Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to the following circuit to find a set of
equations that describe how charges behave inside the circuit.
23 W

17 W 17 W
11 W 3V
5W

Fig.5.27
(b) Solve the equations to find the current through each resistor in the
circuit.
12. (a) 
Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to the following circuit to find a set of
equations that describe how charges behave inside the circuit.
18 W
15 W

8W

4W

25 V
9W

16 V

Fig.5.28
(b) Solve the equations to find the current through each resistor in the
circuit.
13. (a) 
Apply Kirchhoff’s rules to the following circuit to find a set of
equations that describe how charges behave inside the circuit.

Physics Senior Five 127

 23 W

17 W
7W 91 V

11 W
5W

3
W
Fig.5.29
(b) Solve the equations to find the current through each resistor in the
circuit.

UNIT SUMMARY

Kirchhoff’s laws
There are two Kirchhoff’s laws: Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that “the
algebraic sum of the currents flowing at a node or junction in an electric
circuit is zero.”
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law states that “the algebraic sum of the potentials
around a closed electric circuit is zero.”

To solve the resistor circuits using Kirchhoff’s rules

1. Define the various currents
• Can either define branch (segment) currents for each element in
the circuit
• Or can define loop currents for each loop in the circuit
2. If using branch currents, use Kirchhoff’s Junction Rule to look for
interdependent currents. This allows for reducing the number of
variables being solved for.
3. Use Loop Rule to define voltage equations for each loop, using previously
defined currents.
4. Solve set of simultaneous equations using algebraic manipulation.
A simple potentiometer is a device used for taking a number of electrical
measurements. It is a piece of resistance wire, usually a metre long,
fixed between two points A and B with a cell of output voltage, V,

128 Physics Senior Five

connected between the two ends.
Potentiometer can be used to
(i) compare e.m.f.’s of two primary cells.
(ii) measure internal resistance of a cell.

Physics Senior Five 129

130 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: ENERGY, POWER
AND CLIMATE CHANGE
UNIT
6 FOSSIL AND NON-FOSSIL FUEL
AND POWER PRODUCTION

Key unit competence: By the end of this chapter, I should be able to

evaluate fossil and non-fossil fuel for power production.

Unit Objectives:

By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ explain the concept of fossil and no-fossil fuels and their use in
power production properly.

◊ explain the differences between fossil and no-fossil fuels properly.

◊ explain Nuclear fuel and nuclear fission and their use in energy
production and associated dangers properly.
◊ explain the environmental problems of fossil fuels and suggest
their solution clearly.

Physics Senior Five 131

6.0 INTRODUCTION
Fossil fuel is a source of conventional or non-renewable energy. There are
many examples of fossil fuels which we use in our daily lives. In fact, most
of the energy that we consume comes from fossil fuels. Coal, petroleum
and natural gas are called fossil fuels. Millions of years ago, during the
carboniferous age, due to the change in atmospheric conditions and other
changes, the forests were destroyed and they were fossilized. With the action
of bacteria and other microorganisms on the surface of the earth, these
trees and other vegetations were decayed and disintegrated. Years after
these trees were available in solid, liquid and gaseous state. The solid form
is coal. It is the most widely used form of fossil fuel for domestic purposes.

ACTIVITY 6.1: The Atmosphere

Crossword puzzle: Fill the missing words in the crossword puzzle given
below.
Down
1. __________ _________ refers to the rise in the world’s average
temperature due to air pollution.
2. _________ _______ are gases in the atmosphere that absorb and emit
radiation, causing the greenhouse effect.
3. ______________ is a mixture of smoke and fog in the atmosphere.
4. ____________ ________is a non-renewable source of energy formed
from the remains of dead plants and animals.
Across
5. ______ _____ is the reduction of the amount of ozone
6. The water sources and the land are polluted by ______ ________ when
exhaust gases dissolve in the rain.

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 1 2 3
4
5

ACTIVITY 6-2: Pollution

Word splash
The following are the key words we learn about air pollution.

Physics Senior Five 133

 Use the words to complete the diagram below:
Air pollution

Air pollution is Air pollutants come Air pollution

caused by: from: leads to:

6.1 FOSSIL FUELS AND NON-FOSSIL FUELS

6.1.1 Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed
from the remains of dead plants and animals. In common dialogue, the
term ‘fossil fuel’ also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources
that are not derived from animal or plant sources.

Atmosphere 750
CO2

0.5
5.5
121.3
Vegetation 610 Fossil fuels and
60 cement production
1.6
4,000
60

Soils 92
1.580 Rivers
90
50 Surface ocean 1,020

Marine Biota 3 40 91.6 100

6
4 Deep Ocean
Dissolved organic 38,100
carbon < 700 6 0.2
Sediments 150

Fig. 6.1. Fossil fuels in nature

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Coal, oil and natural gas are called ‘fossil fuels’ because they have been
formed from the fossilized remains of prehistoric plants and animals. Fossil
fuels are non-renewable energy source since they take millions of years to
form. They ultimately get their energy from the sun.

Types of Fossil Fuels

Coal
Coal is a hard, black coloured rock-like substance formed when dead plants
were subjected to extreme heat and pressure for millions of years. It is made
up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and varying amounts of sulphur.
There are two ways to mine coal: surface mining and underground mining.

Natural Gas
Natural gas is formed from the remains of tiny sea animals and plants that
died millions of years ago. The gas then became trapped in layers of rock-
like water in a wet sponge. Raw natural gas is a mixture of different gases.
Its main ingredient is methane. The strange smell of natural gas (like
rotten eggs) comes from a chemical added by the companies. It is called
mercaptan. This is added to detect the gas leakage.

Oil (Petroleum)
Oil is formed from the remains of animals and plants that died millions of
years ago. The organic material was then broken down into hydrogen and
carbon atoms and a sponge-like rock was formed, full of oil.
Oil cannot be used as it is when it is drawn from the ground. Oil refineries
clean and separate the oil into various fuels and byproducts. The most
important of these is gasoline.
Fossil fuels are used to generate electrical energy in a series of energy
transformations as shown in Fig.6.2.
Heat water Steam Turbines Electrical power
Burn to make turns turn sent around the
fuel steam turbines generators country

Fig. 6.2. Generation of electrical energy using fossil fuels

6.1.2 Non-fossil fuels

Non-fossil fuels are alternative sources of energy or renewable sources
of energy that do not rely on burning up limited supplies of coal, oil or
natural gas. Examples of these fuels include: nuclear energy, wind or water
generated energy and solar power. These tend to be renewable energy

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sources, or means of generating power that can be utilized indefinitely.
Non-fossil fuels are considered to be extremely important for power creation.
This is because they are usually renewable energy sources that could be
tapped for hundreds of years and not run out. In addition, energy production
using nonfossil-based fuels usually generates much less pollution than
fossil-based energy sources.

6.2 STORAGE AND TRANSPORTATION OF DIFFERENT

TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS
6.2.1 Coal
Types of coal
• Peat
• Lignite
• Semi bituminous
• Bituminous
• Anthracite
Means of transporting coal
• Transportation by rail
• Transportation by ropeways
• Transportation by sea or river
• Road transport
• Transport by pipeline
Coal storage
Storage of coal is undesirable because it costs more as there is:
• Risk of spontaneous combustion,
• Weathering,
• Possibility of loss and deterioration during storage,
• Interest on capital cost of coal lying dormant,
• Cost of protecting the stored coal from deterioration.
Types of coal storage
1. Dead storage:
This storage supplies the coal to places where there is a shortage of coal in
plant due to failure of normal supply of coal. This is a long-term storage and
comprises 10% of annual consumption, so, it requires protection against
weathering and spontaneous combustion.

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2. Living storage:
It supplies coal to plant for day-to-day usage. The capacity of live storage
is less than that of dead storage. It is usually stored in vertical cylindrical
bunkers or coal basins or silos, e.g. coal is transferred to boiler grate.
Bunkers are normally diamond-shaped cross-section storage areas made
up of steel or reinforced concrete.

Purpose of dead coal storage of coal

• To prevent shutdown of power plant in case of failure of normal
supplies of coal due to coal strike, failure of the transport system, etc.
• To permit choice of purchase allowing management to take advantage
of seasonal market conditions.
Means of coal storage
1. Storage in coal heaps
It is required to:
• Keep coal at low temperature (>70 oC).
• Prevention of air circulation from bottom of coal piles.
• Proper drainage of rainy water to prevent weathering–drainage
should not be rapid to prevent washing of coal.
Hence, ground used for stocking should be dry and levelled for proper
drainage. It should have concrete floor to prevent flow of air from bottom.
Coal is piled up to a height of about 10 to 12 m in layers of 15 to 30 cm.
In dead storage, coal pile is sealed by asphalt, fine coal dust, bituminous or
other coating materials.

2. Underwater storage
Possibility of slow oxidation and spontaneous combustion can be completely
eliminated by storing coal under water.

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 Fig. 6.3. Coal dead storage

Site selection for coal dead storage

• The storage should be free from standing water
• If well drainage is not available, artificial drainage should be provided.
• It should be free from all foreign materials like wood, paper rags,
waste oil or materials having low ignition temperature.
• Handling cost should be minimum.
• Pile should build up in successive layers and be compact.
• Pile should be dressed to prevent entry of rainy water.
• Alternative drying and wetting should be avoided.
• Stoker size coal should be oil treated to prevent absorption of water
and oxygen.
• Side of pile should not be steep.
• Air may circulate freely through pile for proper ventilation to keep
temperatures low.
• Hot surfaces or boiler blow down or hot water or steam pipe and tanks
should be kept far from coal storage
• Hot bright days should be avoided.
• There should be provision for temperature measurement at different
points.
• Conical piling should be avoided.
• Fire fighting equipment should be easily available.
Coal Transfer
Equipments used in coal transfer are:

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A: Belt conveyor
It can transfer large quantities of coal over large distance economically. It
has low initial cost and ensures low power consumption.

Fig. 6.4. Belt conveyor

Advantages:
• Economical, low power consumption
• Large capacity
• Rate of coal transfer rapidly change
• Low maintenance cost
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for shorter distance and inclination > 200.
• Not suitable for dust particles and slurry.
B: Flight conveyor
It is used when coal is discharged at different points in bins situated below
the conveyor. All parts are made of steel and iron, so it can handle hot
materials. It is totally enclosed, so dust of coal can get transferred. It can
transfer coal at high inclination
Scraper

Chain Roller

Vanita Thakkar 30

Fig. 6.5. Flight conveyor

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Advantages
• It requires small head room.
• Speed and material transfer rate can easily change.
• It can handle hot materials also.
Disadvantages
• High wear and tear, so, it has short life.
• High maintenance required.
• Speed is limited up to 300 m/min due to abrasive action of material.
• High power consumption per unit of material transfer.
C: Screw conveyor

Fig. 6.6. Screw conveyor

• It is used for shorter distance.
• It is totally enclosed from atmosphere.
• Coal dust can also be transferred easily.
• It is generally used in metering of coal.
• Driving mechanism is attached at the end of the shaft.
• Diameter: 15 cm to 50 cm.
• Speed: 70 rpm to 120 rpm.
• Capacity: 125 tones/h (max)
Advantage
• Cheap initial cost.
• Simple and compact.
• Dust tight.
• It can transfer coal at high inclination also.

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 • Most suitable for short distance.
Disadvantages
• High power consumption.
• Length is limited up to 30 m.
• High maintenance due to high wear and tear.
D: Bucket elevator
It is used for vertical lifts. Buckets are fixed on chain which moves on two
wheels or sprockets. Buckets are loaded at bottom and discharged at top.

Fig. 6.7. Bucket elevator

E: Grab bucket elevator

• It is used for lifting as well as transfer material.
• It can be used with crane or tower.
• Initial cost is high but operating cost is less.
• It is used when another arrangement is not possible.
• Bucket capacity: 2 to 3 m3
• Distance: 60 m
• Capacity: 100 tonnes/h.

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 Fig. 6.8. Grab bucket elevator

6.2.2 Transporting Natural Gas and Crude Oil

Transporting natural gas and crude oil thousands of miles through pipelines
is the safest method of transportation. The transportation system for
natural gas consists of a complex network of pipelines, designed to transport
natural gas from its origin to the areas of high natural gas demand quickly
and efficiently. In general, pipelines can be classified in three categories
depending on the purpose:

Gathering pipelines
These are smaller interconnected pipelines forming complex networks with
the purpose of bringing crude oil or natural gas from several nearby wells to
a treatment plant or processing facility. In this group, pipelines are usually
short — a couple of hundred metres — and with small diameters. Also sub-
sea pipelines for collecting product from deep water production platforms
are considered gathering systems.

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 Fig. 6.9. Gathering pipelines

Transportation pipelines
These are long pipes with large diameters, moving products (oil, gas,
refined products) between cities, countries and even continents. These
transportation networks include several compressor stations in gas lines or
pump stations for crude and multi-products pipelines.

Fig. 6.10. Transportation pipelines

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Distribution pipelines
These are composed of several interconnected pipelines with small diameters,
used to take the products to the final consumer. Feeder lines to distribute
gas to homes and business downstream, and pipelines at terminals for
distributing products to tanks and storage facilities, are included in this
group.

Fig. 6.11. Distribution pipelines

6.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF FOSSIL

FUELS
Fossil
Advantages Disadvantages
Fuel
1. Large quantities. 1. Causes Acid rain and
2. Well-distributed. global warming.
3. Converted into synthetic liquid 2. Not so readily
fuels and gases. transported.
Coal 4. Yields far more energy than 3. Mining is dangerous.
renewable sources. 4. Leaves solid residue
5. Safer than nuclear power. and releases toxic
6. Longer life span than oil or gas. gases in air, causing
7. Feedstock for organic chemicals. pollution.

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 1. Easy transportation (pipelines/ 1. Acid rain + Global
tankers) warming
2. Use in cars, lorries, etc. 2. Limited lifespan
Oil
3. Feedstock for organic chemicals 3. Uneven distribution
4. Risk of pollution during
transportation
1. Clean fuel 1. Global warming
2. Easily transported (pipelines, 2. Limited lifespan
Natural pressurized containers) 3. Uneven distribution
Gas 3. Does not contribute to acid rain 4. Risk of explosions due
4. Higher quantity of energy per to leakage
kg than coal or oil

6.4 ENERGY PRODUCTION USING FOSSIL FUELS

A fossil-fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuels, such as
coal, natural gas or petroleum to produce electricity. Central station fossil-
fuel power plants are designed on a large scale for continuous operation.

Boiler
(furnace)
Turbine

Steam
Transmission
Lines
Coal

Water Generator
Transformer
River

Condenser Cooling Water Condenser

Fig. 6.12. Fossil fuel power plant

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There are two main cycles in a power plant; the steam cycle and the gas
turbine cycle. The steam cycle relies on the Rankine cycle in which high
pressure and high temperature steam raised in a boiler is expanded through
a steam turbine that drives an electric generator. The generator then
transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy which is distributed
for local use.
The steam gives up its heat of condensation to a heat sink, such as water
from a river or a lake and the condensate can then be pumped back into
the boiler to repeat the cycle. The heat taken up by the cooling water in the
condenser is dissipated mostly through cooling towers into the atmosphere.

6.5 NUCLEAR FUEL AND NUCLEAR FISSION

Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy.
The nuclear fuel can be made to undergo nuclear fission chain reactions in
a nuclear reactor. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U (uranium 235)
and 239Pu (plutonium 239). Not all nuclear fuels are used in fission chain
reactions.
Nuclear fission is a process, by which a heavy nucleus splits into two or
more simpler pieces. This process releases a lot of energy.
When a neutron strikes an atom of uranium, the uranium nucleus splits
into two lighter atoms and releases heat simultaneously. Fission of heavy
elements is an exothermic reaction which can release large amounts of
energy both as electromagnetic radiation and as kinetic energy of the
fragments.

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 91 Kr
36
1n
0

1n
0
235 U
92 1n
0
142 Ba
56
91 Kr
36
91 Kr
1n 36
0 1n
235 U
92 0

1n
1n 0
1n 0
0 1n
1n 0
235 U 0
92 142 Ba
142 Ba 56
56
Neutron (n) 91 Kr
36
1n
0
235 U
92
1n
0

1n
0

142 Ba
56

Fig. 6.13. Fission of Uranium 235

A chain reaction refers to a process in which neutrons released in fission
produce an additional fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus
in turn produces neutrons, and the process continues. If the process is
controlled it is used for nuclear power or if uncontrolled it is used for nuclear
weapons. Fig.6.13 illustrates a chain reaction of uranium 235.
The equation of reaction is:

U235 + n1 → Ba144 + Kr91 + 3( n1) ………. Equation 6-1

92 0 56 36 0

6.6 CONTROLLED FISSION (POWER PRODUCTION)

Of the three neutrons, liberated during a fission reaction, only one triggers
a new reaction and the others are simply captured. The system is in
equilibrium. One fission reaction leads to one new fission reaction, which
leads to one more, and so on. This is known as controlled fission.

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 91 Kr
36
1n
0

1n
0
235 U
92
1n
0
142 Ba
56
91 Kr
36
1n
0

1n
0
1n
0
1n
235 U 0
92
142 Ba
56
Neutron (n)

Fig. 6.14. Controlled fission reaction

In a nuclear power station, the uranium is first formed into pellets and
then into long rods. The uranium rods are kept cool by submerging them
in water. When they are removed from the water, a nuclear reaction takes
place causing heat production. The amount of heat required is controlled by
raising and lowering the rods. If more heat is required, the rods are raised
further out of the water and if less heat is needed, they are lowered further
into it.

6.7 UNCONTROLLED FISSION (NUCLEAR WEAPONS)

A fission reaction which is allowed to proceed without any moderation (by
removal of neutrons) is called an uncontrolled fission reaction. Here more
and more neutrons are given out and cause more fission reactions, thus,
releasing large amounts of energy. An uncontrolled fission reaction is used
for nuclear bombs.
Using the energy released from the nuclear fission of uranium-235, an
explosive device can be made by simply positioning two masses of U-235 so
that they can be forced together quickly enough to form a critical mass and
result in a rapid, uncontrolled fission chain reaction.
This is not an easy task to accomplish. First, you must obtain enough uranium
which is highly enriched to over 90% U-235, since natural uranium is only
0.7% U-235. This enrichment is an exceptionally difficult task, a fact that
has helped control the proliferation of nuclear weapons. Once the required
mass is obtained, it must be kept in two or more pieces until the moment
of detonation. Then the pieces must be forced together quickly and in such
a geometry that the generation time for fission is extremely short. This
leads to an almost instantaneous build up of the chain reaction, creating a

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powerful explosion before the pieces can fly apart. Two hemispheres which
are explosively forced into contact, can produce a bomb, such as the one
detonated at Hiroshima in 1945.

Uranium 235

Detonator

Conventional Charge

Fig. 6.15. Nuclear atomic bomb of Uranium 235.

6.8 IMPACTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

There are five immediate destructive effects from a nuclear explosion:
1. The initial radiation, mainly gamma rays;
2. An electromagnetic pulse, which in a high altitude explosion can knock
out electrical equipment over a very large area;
3. A thermal pulse, which consists of bright light (even many miles away)
and intense heat equal to that at the centre of the sun);
4. A blast wave that can flatten buildings; and
5. Radioactive fallout, mainly in dirt and debris that is sucked up into the
mushroom cloud and then falls to earth.
There are three long-term effects of a nuclear explosion:
1. Delayed radioactive fallout, which gradually fall over months and even
years to the ground, ofen in rain;
2. A change in the climate (possibly by lowering of the earth’s temperature
over the whole hemisphere which could ruin agricultural crops and cause
widespread famine);
3. A partial destruction of the ozone layer, which protects the earth from the
sun’s ultraviolent rays. If ozone layer is depleted, unprotected Caucasians
would get an incapacitating sunburn within 10 minutes, and people would
suffer a type of snow blindness from the rays which, if repeated, would lead
to permanent blindness. Many animals would suffer the same fate.

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6.9 ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS IN A NUCLEAR
POWER STATION
In a nuclear power plant, Nuclear Steam Supply System (NSSS) consists
of a nuclear reactor and all of the components necessary to produce high
pressure steam, which will be used to turn the turbine for the electrical
generator.

Containment structure

Steam Transmission lines

Turbine Electric
generator
Control
rods
Pressure
vessel
Nonradioactive
water vapour
Steam
generator Warm condenser
water
Warm
Water moist air
pump
Core
Condenser Water
spray

Water pump Water Cool condenser water

Cool water basin
Cooling tower
NUCLEAR REACTOR
Intake from river or lake

Fig. 6.16. Nuclear power plant

The nuclear reactor contains some radioactive isotopes like uranium which
undergo fission reaction when bombarded with some neutrons and a large
amount of heat energy is evolved. This heat energy converts water into
steam, which is piped to the turbine. In the turbine, the steam passes
through the blades, which spins the electrical generator, resulting in a flow
of electricity. After leaving the turbine, the steam is converted (condensed)
back into water in the condenser. The water is then pumped back to the
nuclear reactor to be reheated and converted back into steam.

6.10 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE

PRODUCTION OF NUCLEAR POWER
• The problem of radioactive waste is still unsolved. The waste from
nuclear energy is extremely dangerous and it has to be carefully looked

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 after for several thousand years (10,000 years according to United
States Environmental Protection Agency standards).
• High risks: Despite a generally high security standard, accidents
can still happen. It is technically impossible to build a plant with
100% security. A small probability of failure will always last. The
consequences of an accident would be absolutely devastating both for
human beings and the nature. The more nuclear power plants (and
nuclear waste storage shelters) are built, the higher is the probability
of a disastrous failure somewhere in the world.
• Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear waste could be preferred
targets for terrorist attacks. Such a terrorist act would have
catastrophic effects for the whole world.
• During the operation of nuclear power plants, radioactive waste is
produced, which, in turn, can be used for the production of nuclear
weapons. In addition, the same is used to design nuclear power plants
can to a certain extent be used to build nuclear weapons (nuclear
proliferation).
• The energy source for nuclear energy is Uranium. Uranium is a
scarce resource; its supply is estimated to last only for the next 30 to
60 years depending on the actual demand.
• The timeframe needed for formalities, planning and building of a new
nuclear power generation plant, is in the range of 20 to 30 years in the
western democracies. In other words, it is an illusion to build new
nuclear power plants in a short time.

6.11 ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF FOSSIL FUELS

Climate Change/Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
The earth’s atmosphere allows a lot of sunlight to reach the earth’s surface
but reflects much of that light back into space. Some gases trap more sunlight,
therefore, less light is reflected back into space. These gases are called
Greenhouse Gases, because the effect is like being in a plant glasshouse,
or in a car with the windows wound up. The result is a gradual increase in
the earth’s temperature or Global Warming. The major greenhouse gases
are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
The main man made causes are thought to be carbon dioxide and methane
from factory, power station and car emissions, the waste products of
respiration, the mining of fossil fuels and the breakdown of plant matter in
swamps. The long-term effects may include melting of glaciers and a rise in

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sea level and a global change in climate and type of vegetation.

‘Hole’ in the Ozone Layer

Ozone is a gas in the earth’s upper atmosphere whose chemical formula is
O3. Ozone acts to block out much of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation which
causes skin cancer and contributes to the fluctuations of global climatic
conditions that affect the environment. Above Antarctica, there is a thinner
layer of ozone caused by the destruction of ozone gas by emissions of
chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons which are propellants
in pressure-pack spray cans and refrigerants in refrigerators and air-
conditioning units.

Acid Rain
When gases, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water
in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, they form an acidic
‘rain’ which can destroy vegetation. Some of these gases are from natural
sources, such as lightning, decomposing plants and volcanoes. However,
much of these gases are the result of emissions from cars, power stations,
smelters and factories.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the release of excessive amounts of harmful gases (e.g.
methane, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides) as well as
particles (e.g. dust of tyre, rubber, lead from car exhausts) into the
atmosphere. To reduce emissions, the Australian government has legislated
that all new cars should use unleaded petrol and have catalytic converters
fitted to the exhausts.

Water Pollution
1. Sewage is the household waste water. Many detergents contain
phosphates which act as plant fertilisers. When these phosphates and
the sewerage reach rivers, they help water plants to grow in abundance,
reducing the dissolved oxygen in the river water. The result is death of
aquatic animals due to suffocation by the algal blooms. This harmful
effect is called eutrophication. Eutrophication is also caused by excessive
use of fertilizers in agricultural fields and subsequent surface run-off.
2. Biodegradable detergents are more environment-friendly because
they are readily broken down to harmless substances by decomposing
bacteria.

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3. Suspended solids in water, such as silt reduce the amount of light that
reaches the depths of the water in lakes and rivers. This reduces the
ability of aquatic plants to photosynthesise and reduce the plant and
animal life. Turbidity is the measure of ‘cloudiness’ or the depth to
which light can reach in water.

Introduced Species
They are species of plants or animals that have migrated or been brought
to Australia. Many fit into the natural ecosystems and are kept in control
by natural predators and parasites. However, some become pests as they
are well-adapted to that environment, readily obtain nutrients and lack of
natural predators or parasites. Examples include rabbits, foxes, carp and
prickly pear cactus plant.

Biological Control
It is an environment-friendly method to control these pests by the
introduction of species-specific, living organisms to control their numbers.
Successful examples include the myxoma virus and the calici virus for
rabbits, and the cactoblastis moth feeding on the prickly pear. Unsuccessful
examples include the introduction of the cane toad to reduce the numbers
of natural cane beetles.

Biological Magnification
It is the accumulation in body tissues of certain chemicals, such as DDT,
pesticides and mercury. The higher it moves along the food chain, the
greater is the accumulation, sometimes to such toxic levels, which causes
birth defects and even death.

Soil Salinity
Soil salinity has increased greatly since the widespread logging of trees by
farmers. Deep tree roots normally draw water from the underground water
table. However, when logging of trees occurs, the water table rises close to
the surface bringing with it, salt from rocks. This makes the soil salty so
that vegetation cannot grow effectively. The result is loss of vegetation and
erosion.

Population Explosion
It is the rapid increase in population in developing countries causing famine,
and also in developed countries causing more demand for energy and with
that, it increases pollution and destruction of the environment.

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 ACTIVITY 6-3: Sources of Pollution

Aim: the aim of this activity is to find out the causes of pollution.
Procedure: analyse the figure below and answer the questions that follow

a) Outline some sources of water and air pollution shown on the figure.
b) Explain how each of the cause in (a) affect the environment.
c) Give and explain any other sources of air and/ or water pollution you
know.
d) Explain how air and water pollutions can be reduced.

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 ACTIVITY 6-4: Wate Pollution
Aim: to investigate the effect of water contamination

Source: internet and textbooks or journals.

Background Information
1. Scientists have studied the influence of chlorine on organic materials
in water supplies. Some of the chlorine reacts with this organic material
to form chloroform and other chlorine-containing chemicals. Research has
shown that some chlorine-containing chemicals can increase the risk of
cancer.
2. Working with your group, find out more about the benefits and costs
of using chlorine in the water supply. Have each member of your group
research information on one of the following:
a) The risk to health of not treating water supplies with chlorine
b) The risk to health of using chlorine in water treatment
c) Alternatives to using chlorine for water treatment
d) Scientific research underway on chlorine use
e) What (if anything) is used to treat your local water supply

Support Your Opinion

3. When you have finished your research, share your information with
your group. Design a presentation to summarize your group’s findings. Be
prepared to share your group’s findings with the rest of the class.
4. Do you think that the amount of chlorine in our water should be increased
at certain times of the year? Give reasons to support your opinion

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6.12 SAFETY ISSUES AND RISKS ASSOCIATED
WITH NUCLEAR POWER
6.12.1 Nuclear Meltdown
A nuclear meltdown is an informal term for a severe nuclear reactor accident
that results in core damage from overheating.

Fig. 6.17. Reactor meltdowns at Fukushima Daiichi.

A nuclear meltdown occurs when a nuclear power plant system or component
fails so the reactor core becomes overheat and melts. Usually, this occurs
due to the lack of coolant that decreases the temperature of the reactor.
The commonly used coolant is water but sometimes a liquid metal, which is
circulated past the reactor core to absorb the heat, is also used. In another
case, a sudden power surge that exceeds the coolant’s cooling capabilities
causes an extreme increase in temperature which leads to a meltdown. A
meltdown releases the core’s highly radioactive and toxic elements into the
atmosphere and environment.
The causes of a meltdown occur due to:

A: A loss of pressure control

The loss of pressure control of the confined coolant may be caused by the
failure of the pump or having resistance or blockage within the pipes. This
causes the coolant to cease flow or insufficient flow rate to the reactor; thus,

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the heat transfer efficiency decreases.

B: A loss of coolant
A physical loss of coolant, due to leakage or insufficient provision, causes
a deficit of coolant to decrease the heat of the reactor. A physical loss of
coolant can be caused by leakages. In some cases, the loss of pressure
control and the loss of coolant are similar because of the systematic failure
of the coolant system.

C: An uncontrolled power excursion

A sudden power surge in the reactor is a sudden increase in reactor
reactivity. It is caused by an uncontrolled power excursion due to the failure
of the moderator or the control that slows down the neutron during chain
reaction. A sudden power surge will create a high and abrupt increase
of the reactor’s temperature, and will continue to increase due to system
failure. Hence, the uncontrollable increase of the reactor’s temperature will
ultimately lead to a meltdown.

6.12.2 Nuclear (Radioactive) Wastes

Nuclear wastes are radioactive materials that are produced after the
nuclear reaction. Nuclear reactors produce high-level radioactive (having
high levels of radioactivity per mass or volume) and low-level (having low
levels of radioactivity) wastes. The wastes must be isolated from human
contact for a very long time in order to prevent radiation.

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 Fig. 6.18. High level waste being stored in underground repository.
The ‘high-level wastes’ will be converted to a rock-like form and placed in a
natural habitat of rocks, deep underground. The ‘low-level wastes’, on the
other hand, will be buried in shallow depths (typically 20 feet) in soil.
A number of incidents have occurred when radioactive material was
disposed improperly, where the shielding during transport was defective,
or when the waste was simply abandoned or even stolen from a waste store.
The principal risks associated with nuclear power arise from health effects
of radiation, which can be caused due to contact with nuclear wastes. This
radiation consists of sub-atomic particles travelling at or near the velocity
of light (186,000 miles per second). They can penetrate deep inside the
human body where they can damage biological cells and thereby initiate a
cancer. If they strike sex cells, they can cause genetic diseases in progeny.

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 Atmosphere

Contamination
People
Source
Crops

Water
source

Ground water
Animals

Fig. 6.19. Effects of poorly deposited nuclear wastes.

END OF UNIT QUESTION

1. Why should solar energy be harnessed to take care of our electric power
needs?
2. How do we confirm that the ‘greenhouse effect’ is real?
3. How does acid rain destroy forests and fish?
4. Is it possible to eliminate the air pollution from coal burning?
5. Radioactivity can harm us by radiating from sources outside our bodies,
by being taken in with food or water or by being inhaled into our lungs.
But we consider only one of these pathways. Why is it so?
6. Cancers from radiation may take up to 50 years to develop, and genetic
effects may not show up for a hundred years or more. How, then, can
we say that there will be essentially no health effects from the Three
Mile Island accident?
7. Air pollution may kill people now, but radiation induces genetic effects
that will damage future generations. How can we justify our enjoying
the benefits of nuclear energy while future generations bear the

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 suffering from it?
8. Can the genetic effects of low-level radiation destroy the human race?
9. Isn’t the artificial radioactivity created by the nuclear industry, more
dangerous than the natural radiation which has always been present?
10. Can radiation exposure to parents cause children to be born with two
heads or other such deformities?
11. Can a reactor explode like a nuclear bomb?
12. If reactors are so safe, why don’t home owners’ insurance policies cover
reactor accidents? Does this mean that insurance companies have no
confidence in them?
13. How is radioactive waste disposed off?
14. How long will the radioactive waste be hazardous?
15. How will we get rid of reactors when their useful life is over?

UNIT SUMMARY
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal, fuel oil or natural gas, formed
from the remains of dead plants and animals.
Types of Fossil Fuels
• Coal
• Natural Gas
• Oil (Petroleum)
Types of coal storage
• Dead storage
• Living storage
Means of coal storage
• Storage in coal heaps
• Underwater storage
Energy production using fossil fuels
A fossil-fuel power station is a power station which burns fossil fuel, such
as coal, natural gas or petroleum to produce electricity.
Nuclear fuel and nuclear fission
Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive nuclear energy.
Controlled fission (power production)
When a fission reaction leads to a new fission reaction, which leads to
another one and so on, it is called controlled fission. The amount of heat

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required is controlled by raising and lowering the rods in the reactor.

Uncontrolled fission (nuclear weapons)

A fission reaction whereby the reaction is allowed to proceed without
any moderation (by removal of neutrons) is called an uncontrolled fission
reaction. An uncontrolled fission reaction is used for nuclear bombs.

Problems associated with the production of nuclear power

• problem of radioactive waste.
• high risks.
• targets for terrorist attacks.
• nuclear weapons.
• uranium is a scarce resource.
• illusion to build new nuclear power plants.
Environmental problems of fossil fuels
Climate Change / Global Warming and Greenhouse Effect
The earth’s atmosphere allows a lot of sunlight to reach the earth’s surface,
but reflects much of that light back into space.
The result is a gradual increase in the earth’s temperature or Global
Warming.
‘Hole’ in the Ozone Layer
Ozone acts to block out much of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation which causes
skin cancer and contributes to the fluctuations of global climatic conditions
that affect the environment.

Acid Rain
When gases, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides react with water
in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, they form an acidic
‘rain’ which can destroy vegetation.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the release into the atmosphere of excessive amounts of
harmful gases as well as particles.
Other environmental problems of fossil fuels include:
• Biological Control
• Biological Magnification
• Introduced Species
• Soil Salinity
• Population Explosion

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162 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: Motion in fields
Sub-Topic Area: Electric field Potential and Energy
UNIT
7 ELECTRIC FIELD POTENTIAL AND
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, I should be able to

analyze electric field potential and gravitational potential.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit, learners will be able to;

◊ list the properties of an electric and gravitational fields and the

variation of potentials properly.
◊ explain the working mechanism of a cathode ray tube, TV tubes
and computer monitors properly.
◊ explain the everyday applications of electric and magnetic fields.

7.0 INTRODUCTION
Electricity might be leading technological advancement, but its study began
with nature. Electrical storms are a very dramatic example of natural
phenomena involving electricity. Other examples are found in animals.
Some use electricity as a tool for survival – as a weapon (by electric eels) or
to sense live food (by platypus and sharks). Animals routinely use electricity

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to control their bodies. The story of Frankenstein’s monster, brought to
life during an electrical storm, was inspired by early experiments where
the legs of a dead frog were made to twitch by sending electrical current
through them. Today we use electrical technology not just to support our
everyday lives in a myriad of ways, but also to diagnose muscle and nerve
activity inside the body, and to assist faulty signaling in the body.

7.1 ELECTRIC FIELD AND ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

DUE TO A POINT CHARGE
Electric field is defined as the electric force
experienced by a unit charge. The direction
of electric field is taken to be the direction
of the force it would exert on a positive test
charge. The electric field is radially outward
from a positive charge and radially in,
towards a negative point charge.
The direction of field lines at a point indicates
the direction of the force to be exerted on a
charge placed at any point in that field. Fig. 7.1. Electric field at a point.

Electric potential at a point in electric field is the work to be done or energy

required in moving one coulomb of charge from infinity to that point against
electrostatic force. Mathematically,
Work done Energy to be applied
Potential, V = or Potential V =
Unit charge Unit charge
And Work done = Felec × displacement or W = Felec × dx
Now consider two charges q1 and q2 deperated by distance x . The work
done in moving one charge through a small distance dx is given by;

1 qq
W= . 1 2 2 × dx
4πε0 ε r x
q1 q2
Felec = dx
4πε0 ε r x2
Work done in moving charge from ∞ to a point at a distance r,

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  .......... Equation 7-1

W q1
V= =−  .......... Equation 7-2
q2 4πε0 ε r r
For the free space, er = 1 and if q1 = q, then
q
V= −  .......... Equation 7-3
4πε0 r
Equation 7-3 represents electric potential at any point in free space.
q
From this equation, is constant (for given charge q), where
1 4πε0
= 9 × 109 Nm2 C –2
4πε0
1
∴ Va  .......... Equation 7-4
r
Plotting Equation 7-4 gives an exponential curve Fig. 7.2 given below,

Fig. 7.2. Variation of electric potential with distance from a point charge.

7.2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY AND

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
To apply conservation of energy, we first need to define electric potential
energy. As we saw in level four, potential energy can be defined only for
conservative forces. The work done by a conservative force in moving an
object between any two positions is independent of the path taken. The
electrostatic force between any two charges is conservative because of
its dependence on position just like gravitational force. Hence, we define
the potential energy for electrostatic force, assuming potential energy at
infinity to be zero as

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 Potential Energy U = Work done on a charge
From Equation 7-1, the potential energy is mathematically defined as
qq
U= − 1 2  .......... Equation 7-5
4πε0 ε r r
And the change in electrical energy between two points A and B, UA and UB
respectively is given by:

.......... Equation 7-6

High PE Low PE

High Low
potential potential

Fig. 7.3. Work is done by the electric field E in moving

a positive charge from position A to position B.
Thus, we define the change in electric potential energy (UB – UA), when a
point charge q moves from point A to point B, as negative of work done by
the electric force on the charge as it moves from point A to point B.
For example, consider the electric field between two equally but oppositely
charged parallel plates. We assume their separation is small as compared
to their width and height. So, the field will be uniform over most of the
region (Fig. 7.4). Now consider a tiny positive point charge q placed at the
point “A” very near to the positive plate as shown. This charge q is so small
that it has no effect on E . If this charge q at point A is released, the electric
force will do work on the charge and accelerate it towards the negative plate.
The work W done by the electric field E to move the charge by distance d is:
W = F × d = qEd .......... Equation 7-7
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 UB – UA = –qEd .......... Equation 7-8
The potential difference is calculated by considering the potential between
two different points in an electric field of a single positive charge q. Assume
that points A and B lie along a line of force at distances rA and rB respectively
from charge q.

rB
A

E
rA

Fig. 7.4. Potential difference between two points A and B.

The potential difference between these two points can be calculated as the
difference between their respective electrical potentials as:
q q
VA = − and VB = −
4πε0 rA 4πε0 rB

 .......... Equation 7-9

7.3 EQUIPOTENTIAL LINES AND SURFACES

The electric potential can be represented by drawing equipotential lines
or equipotential surfaces. An equipotential surface is the one on which
all points are at the same potential. The potential difference between any
two points on the surface is zero, so no work is required to move a charge
from one point on the surface to the other. An equipotential surface
must be perpendicular to the electric field at any point. If this was not
so—that is, if there was a component of E parallel to the surface—it would

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require work to move the charge along the surface against this component
of E ; and this would contradict the idea that it is an equipotential surface.
The fact that the electric field lines and equipotential surfaces are mutually
perpendicular, helps us locate the equipotentials when the electric field lines
are known. In a normal two-dimensional drawing, we show equipotential
lines, which are the intersections of equipotential surfaces with the plane
of the electric field line.

Fig. 7.5. Equipotential lines between two charged parallel plates are
always perpendicular to the electric field.
In Fig. 7.5, a few of the equipotential lines are drawn (dashed green lines)
for the electric field (red lines) between two parallel plates maintained at a
potential difference of 20 V. The negative plate is arbitrarily chosen to be
zero volts and the potential of each equipotential line is indicated.
Note that E points towards lower values of V.

7.4 POTENTIAL DUE TO ELECTRIC DIPOLE

The equipotential lines for the case of two equal but oppositely charged
particles are shown in Fig. 7.6 as green dashed lines.

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 Fig. 7.6. Two equal but oppositely charged particles (an “electric dipole”).
Unlike electric field lines, which start and end on electric charges,
equipotential lines and surfaces are always continuous curves, and continue
beyond the borders indicated in Figs. 7.5 and 7.6.

7.5 CONSERVATION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Energy is conserved in the movement of a charged particle through an
electric field, as it is in every other physical situation. Electric charge
cannot be created or destroyed (though positive and negative charges can
neutralise each other).
Given a stationary test charge at a certain location, an applied electric field
will cause the charge to move to one end or the other, depending on the
charge.
Positive test charges will move in the direction of the field; negative charges
will move in the opposite direction.
At the instant at which the field is applied, the motionless test charge has
zero kinetic energy, and its electric potential energy is at the maximum.
Now the charge accelerates, and its kinetic energy (due to motion) increases
as its potential energy decreases. The sum of energies is always constant.
The formula illustrating conservation of energy can be written in many
ways, but all expressions are based on the simple premise of equating the
initial and final sums of kinetic (Ekin) and potential (Epot) energy.
(Ekin + Epot)initial = (Ekin + Epot)final .......... Equation 7-10
{(Epot)initial – (Epot)final} + {(Ekin)final – (Ekin)initial} = 0
This equation can be written as:
DEpot + DEkin = 0
For small changes:

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 dEpot + dEkin = 0
This means that:
Epot + Ekin = constant .......... Equation 7-10

7.6 CATHODE RAY TUBE

The CRT is a vacuum tube in which a beam of electrons is accelerated and
deflected under the influence of electric or magnetic fields. The electron
beam is produced by an assembly called an electron gun located in the
neck of the tube. These electrons, if left undisturbed, travel in a straight-
line path until they strike the front of the CRT, the “screen’’, which is coated
with a material that emits visible light when bombarded with electrons.
The operation of a CRT depends on thermionic emission, discovered
by Thomas Edison (1847–1931). Consider a voltage applied to two small
electrodes inside an evacuated glass “tube” as shown in Fig. 7.7: the cathode
is negative, and the anode is positive. If the cathode is heated (usually by
an electric current) so that it becomes hot and glowing, it is found that
negative charges leave the cathode and flow to the positive anode. These
negative charges are now called electrons, but originally they were called
cathode rays because they seemed to come from the cathode.
Fig. 7.7 is a simplified sketch of a CRT which is contained in an evacuated
glass tube. A beam of electrons, emitted by the heated cathode, is accelerated
by the high-voltage anode and passes through a small hole in that anode. The
inside of the tube face on the right (the screen) is coated with a fluorescent
material that glows at the spot where the electron hits. Voltage applied
across the horizontal and vertical deflection plates can be varied to deflect
the electron beam to different spots on the screen. The instruments used in
the laboratory to display, measure and analyse the waveforms of different
circuits is known as cathode ray oscilloscope.

Fig. 7-7: Cathode ray oscilloscope

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7.7 TV AND COMPUTER MONITORS
In TV and computer monitors, the CRT electron beam sweeps over the
screen in the manner shown in Fig. 7.8 by carefully synchronizing voltages
applied to the deflection plates. This is called scanning.
During each horizontal sweep of the electron beam, the grid receives a
signal voltage that limits the flow of electrons at each instant during the
sweep; the more negative the grid voltage is, the more electrons are repelled
and fewer pass through, producing a less bright spot on the screen. Thus,
the varying grid voltage is responsible for the brightness of each spot on
the screen. At the end of each horizontal sweep of the electron beam, the
horizontal deflection voltage changes dramatically to bring the beam back
to the opposite side of the screen, and the vertical voltage changes slightly
so the beam begins a new horizontal sweep slightly below the previous one.
The difference in brightness of the spots on the screen forms the “picture”.
Colour screens have red, green, and blue phosphors which glow when
struck by the electron beam. The various brightnesses of adjacent red,
green and blue phosphors (so close together we don’t distinguish them)
produce almost any colour. With 30 new frames or pictures every second
(25 in countries with 50-Hz line voltage), a “moving picture” is displayed on
the TV screen. The commercial movies present 24 frames per second as the
film runs.

Fig. 7.8. Scanning across a CRT television screen in a succession of horizontal lines.

7.8 TRAJECTORY OF A CHARGE MOVING

IN A CATHODE RAY TUBE
If electrons enter an electric field in a CRT acting at right angles to their
direction of motion, they are deflected from their original path. In Fig. 7.9,
a p.d is applied between the plates P and Q of length l, creates an electric
field of intensity E. Consider an electron of charge e, mass m and velocity v
entering the field.

Physics Senior Five 171

 l

Q – – – – – – – – – – – – y
v1 i
–
(0, 0)
D x
V (x, y)
E
–
P + + + + + + + + + + + +

Fig. 7.9. Deflection of electrons in a magnetic field.

The value of z is measured from the centre of plates. Assume that the
separation of plates is d.
Field intensity E is given by;
F
E=
e
F = Ee .......... Equation 7-11
Potential gradient between plates is given by:
V
E=  .......... Equation 7-12
d
Substituting equation 7-12 into equation 7-11 gives:
Ve
F=  .......... Equation 7-13
d
Since E is vertical, there is no horizontal force acting on the electron. Hence,
the horizontal velocity is not affected, i.e. it remains constant.

Vertical motion
Displacement y after time t is given by:
1 2
y = ut + at  .......... Equation 7-14
2
Initially, u = 0 m/s because an electron enters in the field when it is moving
horizontally.
1
y = at2  .......... Equation 7-15
2
From F = ma and F = Ee;
Ee
a=  .......... Equation 7-16
m

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Substituting equation 7-16 into equation 7-15 gives:
Eet2
y=  .......... Equation 7-17
2m
Substituting equation 7-12 in equation 7-14 gives:
Vet2
y=  .......... Equation 7-18
2dm

Horizontal motion
Displacement x after time t is given by:
x = vt .......... Equation 7-19
x
t=  .......... Equation 7-20
v
Substituting equation 7-20 into equation 7-18 gives:
Vex2
y=  .......... Equation 7-21
2mdv2
Note that equation 7-21 takes the form:
y = kx2
Ve
where k=
2dmv2
\  y a x2 .......... Equation 7-22
Equation 7-22 shows that when electron is in the field, its path is parabolic
and is called the equation of trajectory. When an electron just passes the
plates, x = l. So,
Vel2
y=  .......... Equation 7-23
2mdv2
The beam then moves in a straight line after the plates. The time for which
electron is between the plates is obtained from:
l
t=  .......... Equation 7-24
v
Thus, a component of velocity v gained in the direction of the field during
this time is given by:
vy = at
Vel
vy =
dmv

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The angle q at which the beam emerges from the field is given by:
v
tan q = y  .......... Equation 7-25
v
Vel
tan q =  .......... Equation 7-26
dmv2
 .......... Equation 7-27

The vertical deflection D of electron on the screen from initial direction of

motion can be obtained by using the fact that it continues in a straight line
after leaving the field.
D
From Fig. 7.9, tan q =  .......... Equation 7-28
z
Equating equation 7-28 and 7-25 gives:
D Vel
=
z dmv2
Velz
D=  .......... Equation 7-29
dmv2
EXAMPLE 7.1
A beam of electrons moving with velocity 1 × 107 m/s enters mid-way between
two horizontal parallel plates P and Q in a direction parallel to the plates as
shown on Fig.7-10. P and Q are 5 cm long and 2 cm apart, and have a p.dV
applied between them.

Fig. 7.10. Beam of charges entering mid-way between plates.

Calculate V if the beam is deflected so that it just grazes the edge of the
e
lower plate Q. (Assume = 1.8 × 1011 C/kg)
m e
y = 1 cm = 1 × 10–2 m d = 2 × 10–2 m = 1.8 × 1011 C/kg v = 1 × 107 m/s
m
Vel2
From y= ;
2mdv2
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 2mdv2 y
V= =
el2
V = 88.89V

EXERCISE 7-1
1. Fig. 7.11 shows two metal plates 2.0 cm long placed 5 mm apart. A
fluorescent screen is placed 20.0 cm from one of the plates. An electron
of kinetic energy 3.2 × 10–6 J is incident mid-way between the plates.
Calculate the voltage applied across the plates to deflect the electron
2.1 cm on the screen. Assume that the electron moves through vacuum.

Fig. 7.11. Beam falling on the screen 20.0 cm away from the screen.
2. In the diagram of Fig. 7.12, P and Q are parallel metal plates each of
length l = 4 cm. A p.d of 12V is applied between P and Q. The space
between P and Q is virtual. A beam of electrons of speed 1.0 × 106 m/s
is directed mid-way between P and Q at right angles to the electric
field between P and Q. Show that the electron beam emerges from the
space between P and Q at an angle of 64.6° to the initial direction of the
beam.

Fig. 7.12: Electron entering mid-way between parallel plates.

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7.9 ELECTRODYNAMICS
This is the study of phenomena associated with charged bodies in motion
and varying electric and magnetic fields. Since a moving charge produces a
magnetic field, electrodynamics is concerned with effects such as magnetism,
electromagnetic radiation and electromagnetic induction, including some
practical applications as the electric generator and the electric motor.
This area of electrodynamics, often known as classical electrodynamics,
was first systematically explained by the physicist James Clarke Maxwell.
Maxwell’s equations, a set of differential equations, describe the phenomena
of this area with great generality. A more recent development is quantum
electrodynamics, which was formulated to explain the interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with matter, to which the laws of the quantum
theory apply.
When the velocities of the charged particles under consideration become
comparable with the speed of light, corrections involving the theory of
relativity must be made; this branch of the theory is called relativistic
electrodynamics. It is applied to phenomena involved with particle
accelerators and with electron tubes that are subject to high voltages and
carry heavy currents.

7.10 GRAVITATIONAL FIELD AND GRAVITATIONAL

POTENTIAL
An approach to describing interactions between objects that are not in
contact enables us to look at the gravitational interaction in a different
way, using the concept of a gravitational field that exists at every
point in space. When a particle of mass m is placed at a point where the
gravitational acceleration is g , the particle experiences a force Ff = mg.
In other words, we imagine that the field exerts a force on the particle
rather than considering a direct interaction between two particles. The
gravitational field g is defined as:
Fg
g=  .......... Equation 7-30
m
The gravitational potential V at a point is defined numerically as work
done in taking a uniform mass from infinity to that point. The potential at
infinity is conventionally taken as zero. Consider a unit mass which is taken
from infinity to point x, i.e. at a distance r from the center of the earth.

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 Fig. 7.13: Gravitational potential at a point.
Let Me be the mass of the earth;
The force of attraction between the earth and the mass m is:
GMe m
F=  .......... Equation 7-31
r2
Where r is the distance of the mass from the centre of the earth. The work
done by gravitational force in moving a mass through a distance dr towards
the earth is:
GMe m
dv = Fdr = dr
r2
Since we are considering a unit mass, m = 1 kg
GM
\ dv = 2 e dr
r
So the total work done in moving a unit mass from infinity to a point located
at distance R from the centre of the earth is obtained by integration:

GMe
V= −  .......... Equation 7-32
R
Notes
The negative sign indicates that potential at infinity is higher than potential
at a point closer to the centre of the earth.

7.11 ESCAPE VELOCITY FOR A PLANET

If the rocket is fired from the surface of the earth with velocity v such that

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it just escapes from the influence of the earth’s gravitational pull, then this
velocity is called escape velocity.
Work done W.d. on a mass m at the surface of the earth of mass Me and
radius Re is:
GMe m
W.d. =
Re
From work energy theorem, this work done equals the kinetic energy of the
rocket as it escapes from the earth’s surface.
1 GMe m
mv2 =
2 Re
2GMe
v=  .......... Equation 7-33
Re
When the object of mass m is on the surface of the earth, the gravitational
force equals the weight of the object;
GMe m
mg =
r2
This time the distance r equals the radius of the earth Re. This gives;

GMe = gRe2
v= 2gRe  .......... Equation 7-34
v=
= 11.2 × 103 m/s =11.2 km/s

Notes
With an initial velocity about 11 km/s, a rocket will completely escape from
the gravitational attraction of the earth and the velocity is independent of
the mass of the rocket.

7.12 ENERGY CONSERVATION IN GRAVITATIONAL

FIELDS
Conservation of energy tells us that the total energy of the system is
conserved, and in this case, the sum of kinetic and potential energy must
be constant. This means that every change in the kinetic energy of a system
must be accompanied by an equal but opposite change in the potential
energy.
Satellites have kinetic energy due to their motion and potential energy due
to their position with respect to the centre of the earth. A satellite of mass

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m in orbit round the earth moving at a velocity v has kinetic energy. If
the satellite is circling the earth at a radius r it has a centripetal force
which balances with gravitational force of attraction with which the earth
is attracting the satellite. If Me is the mass of the earth,
Centripetal force = Gravitational force
mv2 GMe m
=
r r2
GMe m
mv2 =
r
1 GMe m
mv2 =
2 2r
GMe m
\ k.e. =  .......... Equation 7-35
2r
Assuming the zero potential energy in the earth’s field at infinite, then at
a distance r.
GMe m
p.e = −  .......... Equation 7-36
r
It is possible for a satellite at a point to possess both kinetic and potential
energy. So, adding expressions of equations 7-35 and 7-36 gives:
Total energy E = k.e. + p.e.
GMe m GMe m
E= −
2r r
GMe m
E= −  .......... Equation 7-37
2r
Note that as we should expect for a closed orbit E is less than zero. It is this
last expression for E which can be generalised to the general elliptical case:
GMe m
E= −  .......... Equation 7-38
2r
where a is the semi-major axis of the elliptical orbit. So, the total mechanical
energy is constant and takes on similar forms for circular and elliptical
orbits. In the circular orbit, since speed is constant, kinetic energy and
potential energy are constants. Specifically we see that
p.e. = 2E .......... Equation 7-39
1
And k.e. = –E = − P.e .......... Equation 7-40
2
In contrast, the kinetic and potential energy in elliptical orbits are not
constant but vary so that one is large when the other is small and vice versa.

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 END OF UNIT QUESTION
1. Four particles of masses m, 2 m, 3 m and 4 m are kept in sequence at
the corners of a square of side a. Find the magnitude of gravitational
force acting on a particle of mass m placed at the centre of the square.

Fig. 7.14. System of four masses.

2. Mass M is divided into two parts xM and (1 – x)M. For a given separation,
the value of x for which the gravitational attraction between the two
pieces becomes maximum. Find this maximum value of x.
3. Three identical point masses, each of mass 1 kg lies in the x – y plane at
points (0, 0), (0, 0.2 m) and (0.2 m, 0). Find the net gravitational force
on the mass at the origin.

Fig. 7.15. Three identical masses in space.

4. Two positive charges sit in an (x, y)-coordinate system. The first one
has charge 1 = 0.40 µC and sits at (–0.30 m, 0). The second one has
charge q2 = 0.30 µC and sits at (0, +0.30 m). Find the electric potential
at the origin.
5. (a) Find the electric potential energy of the system of two charges
shown in the Figure 7.16.

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 Fig. 7.16. System of charges.
(b) Find the electric potential energy of the system if a third charge
q3 = –0.10 µC is placed at the origin.
6. Two rectangular copper plates are oriented horizontally with one
directly above the other. They are separated by a distance of 25 mm.
The plates are connected to the terminals a 5.0 volt flashlight battery.
The positive plate (the one at the higher electric potential) is at the
bottom; the negative plate (the one at the lower electric potential) is at
the top.

Fig. 7.17. Two rectangular copper plates are oriented horizontally with a supply.
If an electron is placed on the upper plate, then released, with what
speed will it strike the lower plate? Use conservation of energy.
7. A charge of +2.82 µC sits in a uniform electric field of 12.0 N/C directed
at an angle of 60° above the +x axis. The charge moves from the origin
(point A) to the point (1.40 m, 0) (point B) on the x-axis.

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 Fig. 7.18. System of forces.
a. Find the force exerted on the charge by the electric field.
b. Find the work done on the charge by the electric field as the charge
moves from A to B.
c. Find the change in the charge’s electric potential energy as it moves
from A and B.
d. Find the electric potential difference between points A and B.

UNIT SUMMARY
Electric Field and Electric Potential Due to a Point Charge
The direction of electric field is taken to be the direction of the force it would exert on
a positive test charge.
Work done Energy to be applied
potential V = or Potential V =
Unit charge Unit charge
q
V= −
4πε0 r
Electric Potential Energy and Potential Difference
The work done by a conservative force in moving an object between any two
positions is independent of the path taken. Hence, we define the potential
energy for electrostatic force mathematically as:
Potential Energy U = Work done on a Charge
And the change in electrical energy between two points A and B is given by:

UB – UA = –qEd

Equipotential Lines and Surfaces

An equipotential surface is one on which all points are at the same potential.
An equipotential surface must be perpendicular to the electric field
at any point.

Potential due to Electric Dipole

Unlike electric field lines, which start and end on electric charges,
equipotential lines and surfaces are always continuous closed curved.

Conservation of Electrical Energy

At the instant at which the field is applied, the motionless test charge has

182 Physics Senior Five

zero kinetic energy, and its electric potential energy is at a maximum. Then,
the charge accelerates, and its kinetic energy (from motion) increases as its
potential energy decreases. The sum of energies is always constant.
Epot + Ekin = constant

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The CRT is a vacuum tube in which a beam of electrons is accelerated and
deflected under the influence of electric or magnetic fields.
These electrons, if left undisturbed, travel in a straight-line path until they
strike the screen of the CRT, which is coated with a material that emits
visible light when bombarded with electrons.
TV and Computer Monitors
In TV and computer monitors, the CRT electron beam sweeps over the
screen in the manner of carefully synchronized voltages applied to the
deflection plates and is called scanning.
Trajectory of a charge moving in a cathode ray tube
The equation of motion of a charge in a field is calculated by considering
vertical and horizontal displacements and is given by:
Vex2
y=
2mdv2
\ y a x2
This equation shows that when electron is in the field, its path is parabolic
and is called the equation of trajectory.
The vertical deflection D of electron on the screen from initial direction of
motion can be obtained by using equation:
Velz
D=
dmv2

Electrodynamics
When the velocities of the charged particles under consideration become
comparable with the speed of light, corrections involving the theory of
relativity must be made; this branch of the theory is called relativistic
electrodynamics.

Gravitational Potential
The gravitational potential V at a point is defined numerically as work done
in taking a uniform mass from infinity to that point.
GMe
V= −
R

Physics Senior Five 183

Escape Velocity for a Planet
If the rocket is fired from the surface of the earth with velocity v such that
it just escapes from the influence of the earth’s gravitational pull. Then this
velocity is called escape velocity.
v= 2gRe
v=
= 11.2 × 103 m/s = 11.2 km/s

Energy Conservation in Gravitational Fields

Conservation of energy tells us that the total energy of the system is
conserved, and in this case, the sum of kinetic and potential energy must
be constant. This means that every change in the kinetic energy of a system
must be accompanied by an equal but opposite change in the potential
energy.
Total energy E = k.e. + p.e.
GMe m
E= −
2r

184 Physics Senior Five

 Topic Area: MOTION IN FIELD
Sub-Topic Area: PLANETARY MOTION
UNIT
8 MOTION IN ORBITS

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, I should be able to

evaluate Newton’s law of gravitation and apply Kepler’s laws of
planetary motion.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ Explain the terms, concept and characteristics of waves properly.

◊ Explain the properties of waves.
◊ Explain the behavior of waves in vibrating strings and applications
of waves properly.

Physics Senior Five 185

8.1. INTRODUCTION
Gravity is the mysterious force that makes everything fall down towards
the Earth. But after research it has turned out that all objects have gravity.
It’s just that some objects, like the Earth and the Sun, have a stronger
gravity than others. How much gravity an object has depends its mass.
It also depends on how close you are to the object. The closer you are, the
stronger the gravity.
Gravity is very important to our everyday lives. Without Earth’s gravity
we would fly right off it. If you kicked a ball, it would fly off forever. While
it might be fun to try for a few minutes, we certainly can’t live without
gravity. Gravity also is important on a larger scale. It is the Sun’s gravity
that keeps the Earth in orbit around the Sun. Life on Earth needs the Sun’s
light and warmth to survive. Gravity helps the Earth to stay at just the
right distance from the Sun, so it’s not too hot or too cold.

8.2. NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION

This is also called the universal law of gravitation or inverse square
law. It states that “the gravitational force of attraction between two
masses m1 and m2 is directly proportional to the product of masses
and inversely proportional to the square of their mean distance
apart.”
Remember two objects exert equal and opposite force of gravitation on each
other.
r
m1 m2

Fig. 8.1: Gravitational force between two masses

Mathematically:
m1 m2
F∝
r2
Gm1 m2
F= ……… Equation 8-1
r2
where G = 6.7 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2 and is called the universal gravitational
constant.

Notes:
• The value of G in the laboratory was first determined by Cavendish
using the torsional balance.
• The value of G is 6.67 × 10–11 N–m2 kg–2 in S.I.
• Dimensional formula [M –1 L3 T –2].

186 Physics Senior Five

 • The value of G does not depend upon the nature and size of the bodies.
• It also does not depend upon the nature of the medium between the
two bodies.
• As G is very small hence gravitational forces are very small, unless
one (or both) of the masses is huge.
Properties of Gravitational Force
• It is always attractive in nature while electric and magnetic force can
be attractive or repulsive.
• It is independent of the medium between the particles while electric
and magnetic forces depend on the nature of the medium between the
particles.
• It holds good over a wide range of distances. It is found true for
interplanetary to interatomic distances.
• It is a central force, i.e. it acts along the line joining the centres of two
interacting bodies.
• It is a two-body interaction, i.e. gravitational force between two particles
is independent of the presence or absence of other particles; so, the
principle of superposition is valid, i.e. force on a particle due to number
of particles is the resultant of forces due to individual particles, i.e.
F = F1 + F2 + F3 + ......
• On the contrary, nuclear force is a many-body interaction.
• It is the weakest force in nature : As Fnuclear > Felectromagnetic > Fgravitational.
• The ratio of gravitational force to electrostatic force between two
electrons is of the order of 10–43.
• It is a conservative force, i.e. work done by it is path independent or
work done in moving a particle round a closed path under the action
of gravitational force is zero.
• It is an action reaction pair, i.e. the force with which one body (say,
earth) attracts the second body (say, moon) is equal to the force with
which moon attracts the earth. This is in accordance with Newton’s
third law of motion.

8.3. KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARY MOTION

Planets are large natural bodies rotating around a star in definite orbits.
The planetary system of the star sun, called solar system, consists of nine
planets, viz. mercury, venus, earth, mars, jupiter, saturn, uranus, neptune
and pluto. Out of these planets mercury is the smallest, closest to the sun.
jupiter is the largest and has the maximum number of moons. Venus is

Physics Senior Five 187

closest to the earth and the brightest planet. Kepler, after a life time study,
worked out three empirical laws which govern the motion of these planets
and are known as Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. These are stated below.

1st Law: This law is called the law of orbits

Planet
and states that planets move in ellipses with Sun

the sun as one of their foci. It can also be X

stated that planets describe ellipses about

the sun as one focus. (Fig. 8.2) Focus

2nd Law: This is called the law of areas Fig. 8.2: Kepler’s first law
and states that the line joining the sun and
the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal T2
C S1 = S2
at T1 = T2
periods of time. (Fig. 8.3) S2
B
S1
T1
According to the law, if the time taken to D
Sun A

move from A to B equals the time taken to

move from C to D. Fig. 8.3: Kepler’s second law
Then: S1 = S2 ……… Equation 8-2

3rd Law: The law of periods states that

the square of the period T of revolution
of any planet is proportional to the Moon
Satellite #2

cube of its mean distance R from the

sun. (Fig. 8.4) r2
Satellite #1

T 2 ∝R3 Satellite #3
Moon r1
r3
"Body"

Fig. 8.4: Kepler’s third law

8.4. VERIFICATION OF KEPLER’S THIRD LAW OF

PLANETARY MOTION
Assuming that a planet’s orbit is circular (which is not exactly correct but is
a good approximation in most cases), then the mean distance from the sun
is constant –radius. Suppose, a planet of mass m2 moving around the sun of
mass m1. If the motion of the planet is circular, there are two types of forces:
(a) Gravitational force of attraction F1 between the sun and the
planet,

188 Physics Senior Five

 Planet m2

Sun Orbit of radius R

m1

Fig. 8.5: Gravitational force of attraction of the sun and the planet
Gm1 m2
F1 = ……… Equation 8-3
R2
(b) Centripetal force F2 responsible for keeping the planet moving in a
circular motion around the sun.
m v2
F2 = 2
R
For the planet to move around the sun in orbit of constant radius:
F1 = F2
m2 v2 Gm1 m2
=
R R2
Gm1
v2 = R
2π
But linear velocity v = wR and w = T where w is the angular velocity

4π2 R2 Gm1
So, =
T2 R
R = kT
3 2
……… Equation 8-4
This is true that R3 ∝ T2 ……… Equation 8-5

EXAMPLE 8.1:
The distance of a planet from the sun is 5 times the distance between the
earth and the sun. What is the time period of revolution of the planet?

Solution:
According to Kepler’s law
Rearth3 ∝ Tearth2
Rplanet3 ∝ Tplanet2
Dividing these equations and making Tplanet the subject gives

Physics Senior Five 189

 Tplanet2 = Tearth2 . Rplanet3/ Rearth3
But Rplanet =5 Rearth which gives
53 Rearth3 = Rplanet3

Tplanet2 =Tearth2 . (5)3

But Teath =1 year

EXAMPLE 8.2: S
A C
The planet is revolving around the sun as shown in
elliptical path.
The correct option is: D

(a) The time taken in travelling DAB is less than Fig. 8.6: Planet revolving
that for BCD. around the sun.

(b) The time taken in travelling DAB is greater

than that for BCD.
(c) The time taken in travelling CDA is less than that for ABC.
(d) The time taken in travelling CDA is greater than that for ABC.

Solution:
(a) When the planet passes nearer to sun, it moves fast and vice versa.
Hence, the time taken in travelling DAB is less than that for BCD.

ACTIVITY 8 -1: Kepler’s Laws

Background information:
Kepler’s third law (the Harmonic Law), relates the orbital period of a planet
(that is, the time it takes a planet to complete one orbit) to its mean
distance from the Sun. This law states that the closest planets travel
at the greatest speeds and have the shortest orbital periods.

Mercury Earth Ratio

190 Physics Senior Five

 Mass (1024 kg) 0.33011 5.9724 0.0553

Equatorial radius
2439.7 6378.1 0.383
(km)

Polar radius (km) 2439.7 6356.8 0.384

Volumetric mean
2439.7 6371.0 0.383
radius (km)

Venus Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 4.8675 5.9724 0.815

Equatorial radius
6051.8 6378.1 0.949
(km)

Polar radius (km) 6051.8 6356.8 0.952

Volumetric mean
6051.8 6371.0 0.950
radius (km)

Moon Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 0.07346 5.9724 0.0123

Equatorial radius
1738.1 6378.1 0.2725
(km)

Polar radius (km) 1736.0 6356.8 0.2731

Volumetric mean
1737.4 6371.0 0.2727
radius (km)

Mars Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 0.64171 5.9724 0.107

Equatorial radius
3396.2 6378.1 0.532
(km)

Polar radius (km) 3376.2 6356.8 0.531

Volumetric mean
3389.5 6371.0 0.532
radius (km)

Jupiter Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 1,898.19 5.9724 317.83

Physics Senior Five 191

 Equatorial radius
71,492 6,378.1 11.209
(1 bar level) (km)

Polar radius (km) 66,854 6,356.8 10.517

Volumetric mean
69,911 6,371.0 10.973
radius (km)

Saturn Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 568.34 5.9724 95.16

Equatorial radius
60,268 6,378.1 9.449
(1 bar level) (km)

Polar radius (1 bar

54,364 6,356.8 8.552
level) (km)

Volumetric mean
58,232 6,371.0 9.140
radius (km)

Uranus Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 86.813 5.9724 14.54

Equatorial radius
25,559 6,378.1 4.007
(1 bar level) (km)

Polar radius (1 bar

24,973 6,356.8 3.929
level) (km)

Volumetric mean
25,362 6,371.0 3.981
radius (km)

Neptune Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 102.413 5.9724 17.15

Equatorial radius
24,764 6,378.1 3.883
(1 bar level) (km)

Polar radius (1 bar

24,341 6,356.8 3.829
level) (km)

Volumetric mean
24,622 6,371.0 3.865
radius (km)

192 Physics Senior Five

 Pluto Earth Ratio

Mass (1024 kg) 0.01303 5.9724 0.0022

Equatorial radius
1187 6378.1 0.186
(km)

Polar radius (km) 1187 6356.8 0.187

Volumetric mean
1187 6371.0 0.186
radius (km)

Source of data: lunar and planetary science by National Aeronautics and

Space Administration (NASA)
Use the data provided in the tables above and find the orbital period for
each orbital radius for each planet. Enter the data into spreadsheets and
plot line graphs for the data, with each planet’s orbital radius on the X-axis
and its orbital period on the Y-axis.

Planet Orbital Radius (X) Orbital Period (Y)

Describe any general trends you see:

a) Is there a systematic relationship between period and radius for the
planets for each case?
b) How would you describe this relationship in words?
c) Is the relationship you observe consistent with Kepler’s third law?
d) How could you improve your test for consistency?

Physics Senior Five 193

 ACTIVITY 8-2: The Motion of Orbits
Using the cross and down clues write the correct words in the numbered
grid below.

Across

6. The second largest planet with many rings.

7. This planet’s blue color is the result of absorption of red light by methane
in the upper atmosphere.

8. A small body that circles the Sun with a highly elliptical orbit.

9. An object in orbit around a planet.

10. A large cloud of dust and gas which escapes from the nucleus of an
active comet.

DOWN

1. It is the brightest object in the sky except for the Sun and the Moon.

2. The largest object in the solar system.

3. The only planet whose English name does not derive from Greek/Roman
mythology.

4. An area seen as a dark spot on the photosphere of the Sun.

5. This planet is more than twice as massive as all the other planets
combined.

194 Physics Senior Five

8.5. ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY AT THE
SURFACE OF THE EARTH
The force of attraction exerted by the earth on a body m

is called gravitational pull or gravity. We know that

when force acts on a body, it produces acceleration. mg R

Therefore, a body under the effect of gravitational Earth

pull must accelerate. The acceleration produced
in the motion of a body under the effect of gravity Fig. 8.7: Acceleration
is called acceleration due to gravity (g). Consider a due to gravity at the
body of mass m lying on the surface of earth. Then surface of the earth.
gravitational force on the body is given by:
GMm
F= ……… Equation 8-6
R2
where M = mass of the earth and R = radius of the earth.
If g is the acceleration due to gravity, then the force on the body due to
earth is given by
Force = mass × acceleration
or F = mg ……… Equation 8-7
GMm
From equation 8-6 and 8-7 we have mg =
R2
GM
∴ g= 2
R

⇒ [As mass (M) = volume × density (r)]

4
∴ g = πρGR
3

Notes:
GM 4
• From the expression g = = πρGR it is clear that its value depends
R2 3
upon the mass, radius and density of planet and it is independent
of mass, shape and density of the body placed on the surface of the
planet. i.e. a given planet (reference body) produces same acceleration
in a light as well as heavy body.
• The greater the value of (M/R2) or rR, greater will be the value of g for
that planet.
• Acceleration due to gravity is a vector quantity and its direction is

Physics Senior Five 195

 always towards the centre of the planet.
• Dimensions of [g] = [LT –2]
• Average value of g is taken as 9.8 m/s2 or 981 cm/s2, on the surface of
the earth at mean sea level.
• In general, the value of acceleration due to gravity vary due to the
following factors: (a) Shape of the earth, (b) Height above the earth
surface, (c) Depth below the earth surface and (d) Axial rotation of the
earth.

EXAMPLE 8.3:
Acceleration due to gravity on moon is (1/6)th of the acceleration due to
gravity on earth. If the ratio of densities of earth (rm) and moon (re) is
ρe
e o = , find the radius of moon Rm in terms of radius of the earth Re.
5
ρm 3

Solution:
4
Acceleration due to gravity, g = πρGR \ g∝R
3
gm r R gm 1
or = m: m [As = and (given)]
ge r e Re ge 6
∴

5
\ Rm = R
18 e

EXAMPLE 8.4:
The moon’s radius is (1/4)th of that of earth and its mass is 1/80 times that
of the earth. If g represents the acceleration due to gravity on the surface
of the earth, what is acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the moon?
Solution:
GM
Acceleration due to gravity, g =
R2

16 g
gmoon = gearth × = .
80 5

196 Physics Senior Five

8.6. VARIATION OF ACCELERATION DUE TO
GRAVITY WITH HEIGHT
Consider a particle placed at a height h above the surface of the earth where
acceleration due to gravity is g′ as shown on the figure below.
g

h
r
g

Fig. 8.8: Variation of acceleration due to gravity with height

Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth
GM
g = ……… Equation 8-8
R2
Acceleration due to gravity at height h from the surface of the earth
GM
g′ = ……… Equation 8-9
(R + h) 2
From equations 8-8 and 8-9:

……… Equation 8-10

 r=R+h
R2
\ g′ = g
r2
Notes:
• As we go above the surface of the earth, the value of g decreases
1
because g′ ∝ 2 .
r
This expression can be plotted on the graph as:

Physics Senior Five 197

 g
Acceleration
due to gravity

R: the radius Distance from the

of the earth centre of the earth

Fig. 8.9: Curve of variation of acceleration due to gravity with height.

• If r = ∞ then g′ = 0, i.e. at infinite distance from the earth, the value

of g becomes zero.
• If h << R, i.e. height is negligible in comparison to the radius. Then
from equation (iii), we get

[As h << R]

• If h << R, then decrease in the value of g with height:

2hg
Absolute decrease, Dg = g – g′ =
R
∆g 2h
Fractional decrease, = =
g R
∆g 2h
Percentage decrease, × 100% = × 100%
g R

EXAMPLE 8.5:
The acceleration of a body due to the attraction of the earth (radius R) is
g. Find the acceleration due to gravity at a distance 2R from the surface of
the earth.

Solution:

EXAMPLE 8.6:

Find the height of the point above the earth’s surface, at which acceleration
due to gravity becomes 1% of its value at the surface is (Radius of the earth

198 Physics Senior Five

= R).

Solution:
Acceleration due to gravity at height h is given by

8.7. VARIATION OF GRAVITY WITH DEPTH

Consider a mass placed at point P below the surface of the g
earth as shown below: P
R g
Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth r

GM 4 O
g= = πρGR ……… Equation 8-11
R 2 3
Acceleration due to gravity at depth d from the surface of
Fig. 8.10
the earth of radius R
4
g′ = πρG (R − d) ……… Equation 8-12
3
Dividing equations 8-12 by 8-11, we get

Notes:
• The value of g decreases on going below the surface of the earth. From
equation 8-12, we get g′ ∝ (R – d). So it is clear that if d increases, the
value of g decreases.
g

R: the radius Distance from the

of the earth centre of the earth

Fig. 8.11: Variation of gravity with depth

Combining the graphs for variation of acceleration due to gravity
below and above the surface of the earth will give the graph as shown

Physics Senior Five 199

 below:
g

At the surface
g Variation of
Variation of acceleration acceleration due to
due to gravity below the gravity above the
surface of the earth surface of the earth

At the center R: the radius Distance from the

of the earth centre of the earth

Fig. 8.12: Curve of Variation of gravity with depth and height

• At the centre of earth d = R ∴  g′ = 0, i.e., the acceleration due to

gravity at the centre of earth becomes zero.
• Decrease in the value of g with depth
dg
Absolute decrease, Dg = g – g′ =
R
∆g d
Fractional decrease, = =
g R
∆g d
Percentage decrease, × 100% = × 100%
g R
• The rate of decrease of gravity outside the earth (h << R) is double to
that of inside the earth.

EXAMPLE 8.7:
Weight of a body of mass m decreases by 1% when it is raised to height h
above the earth’s surface. If the body is taken to a depth h in a mine, what
is the change in its weight?

Solution:
Percentage change in g when the body is raised to height h,
∆g 2h × 100
× 100% = = 1%
g R
Percentage change in g when the body is taken into depth d,
∆g d h
× 100% = × 100% = × 100% [As d = h]
g R R

Percentage decrease in weight =

EXAMPLE 8.8:

200 Physics Senior Five

What is the depth at which the effective value of acceleration due to gravity
g
is ? (R = radius of the earth)
4
Solution:

8.8. VARIATION IN G DUE TO ROTATION OF EARTH

As the earth rotates, a body placed on its 

surface moves along the circular path and hence

experiences centrifugal force. Due to it, the r P
fc

apparent weight of the body decreases. mg mg
Since the magnitude of centrifugal force varies
with the latitude of the place, therefore the
apparent weight of the body varies with latitude
due to variation in the magnitude of centrifugal
force on the body. Fig. 8.13: Variation in g
If the body of mass m lying at point P, whose due to rotation of earth.
latitude is l, then due to rotation of earth its
apparent weight can be given by the vector sum
of the weight of the body and centripetal force

or mg′ = (mg) 2 + (Fc) 2 + 2mg Fc cos (180º − λ)

⇒ mg′ = (mg) 2 + (mω2 R cos λ) 2 + 2mg mω2 R cos λ (− cos λ)

[As Fc = mw2 r = mw2 R cos l] ……… Equation 8-13

By solving we get, g′ = g – w2 R cos2 l ……… Equation 8-14

The latitude at a point on the surface of the earth is defined as the angle,
which the line joining that points to the centre of earth makes with equatorial
plane. It is denoted by l. For the poles, l = 90° and for equator, l = 0°.

Notes:
• Substituting l = 90° in the above expression, we get
gpole = g – w2 R cos2 90°.
\ gpole = g ……… Equation 8-15

Physics Senior Five 201

 i.e., there is no effect of rotational motion of the earth on the value of
g at the poles.
• Substituting l = 0° in the above expression, we get gequator = 0°.
\ gequator = g – w2 R ……… Equation 8-16
i.e., the effect of rotation of earth on the value of g at the equator is
maximum.
From the equations 8-15 and 8-16
gpole – gequator = Rw2 = 0.034 m/s2 ……… Equation 8-17
• When a body of mass m is moved from the equator to the poles, its
weight increases by an amount
m (gp – ge) = m w2 R ……… Equation 8-18
• Weightlessness due to rotation of earth: As we know that apparent
weight of the body decreases due to rotation of earth. If w is the
angular velocity of rotation of earth for which a body at the equator
will become weightless.
g′ = g – w2 R cos2 l
⇒ 0 = g – w2 R cos2 0° [As l = 0 for equator]
g
⇒ g = w2 R \ w =
R
2π R
or time period of rotation of earth, T = = 2π
ω g
Substituting the value of R = 6400 × 10–3 m and g = 10 m/s2, we get
1 rad
w = = 1.25 × 10–3
800 s
and T = 5026.5 s = 1.40 h.
1
• This time is about times the present time period of rotation of
17
earth. Therefore, if the earth starts rotating 17 times faster than all
objects on equator will become weightless.
• If earth stops rotating about its own axis, then, at the equator, the
value of g increases by w2 R and consequently the weight of body lying
there increases by mw2 R.
• Work done in planetary motion by gravity of sun is zero. This is
because force acting on the planet is towards the centre of sun while
the direction of displacement is tangentially forward. Since the two

202 Physics Senior Five

 are perpendicular, work done = becomes zero. This is
because, q = 90° ⇒ cos 90° = 0.

EXAMPLE 8.9:
What is the angular velocity of the earth with which it has to rotate so that
acceleration due to gravity on 60° latitude becomes zero? (Radius of earth
= 6400 km. At the poles g = 10 ms–2)

Solution:
Effective acceleration due to gravity due to rotation of earth,
g′ = g – w2 R cos2 l
ω2 R
⇒   0 = g – w2 R cos2 60° ⇒ =g
4
4g g 10
⇒   w = =2 =2 [As g′ = 0 and l = 60°]
R R 6400
⇒   

8.9. VARIATION OF ‘g’ DUE TO SHAPE OF EARTH

Earth is elliptical in shape. It is flattened at the poles and bulged out at the
equator.
gp

Rp

ge
Re

Fig. 8.14: Variation of g due to shape of earth.

The equatorial radius is about 21 km longer than polar radius.

GM
At equator, ge = ……… Equation 8-19
R e2
GM
At poles, gp = ……… Equation 8-20
R 2p
From equations 8-19 and 8-20
2
ge R p
=
g p R e2
Since Requator > Rpole ∴ gpole > gequator and gp = ge + 0.018 ms–2

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Therefore, the weight of body increases as it is taken from equator to the
pole.

8.10. ROCKETS
A rocket is a device that
produces thrust by ejecting
stored matter. A rocket moves
forward when gas expelled from
the rear of a rocket pushes it in
the opposite direction. From
Newton’s laws of motion, for
every action, there is an equal
and opposite reaction. In a
rocket, fuel is burned to make a
hot gas and this hot gas is forced
out of narrow nozzles in the
back of the rocket, propelling
the rocket forward. Fig. 8.15: Rocket

Spacecraft Propulsion
Spacecraft Propulsion is characterized in general by its complete integration
within the spacecraft (e.g. satellites). Its function is to provide forces and
torques in (empty) space to:
• transfer the spacecraft: used for interplanetary travel
• position the spacecraft: used for orbit control
• orient the spacecraft: used for altitude control

Fig. 8.16: Spacecraft

The jet propulsion systems for launching rockets are also called primary

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propulsion systems. Spacecrafts, e.g. satellites, are operated by secondary
propulsion systems.

Characteristics of Spacecraft Propulsion Systems

In order to fulfill altitude and orbit operational requirements of spacecraft,
spacecraft propulsion systems are characterized by:
• Very high velocity increment capability (many km/s)
• Low thrust levels (1 mN to 500 N) with low acceleration levels
• Continuous operation mode for orbit control
• Pulsed operation mode for altitude control
• Predictable, accurate and repeatable performance (impulse bits)
• Reliable, leak-free long time operation (storable propellants)
• Minimum and predictable thrust exhaust impingement effects
Classification of Propulsion Systems
Spacecraft propulsion can be classified according to the source of energy
utilized for the ejection of propellant:
• Chemical propulsion use heat energy produced by a chemical
reaction to generate gases at high temperature and pressure in a
combustion chamber. These hot gases are accelerated through a
nozzle and ejected from the system at a high exit velocity to produce
thrust force.
• Electric propulsion uses electric or electromagnetic energy to eject
matter at high velocity to produce thrust force.
• Nuclear propulsion uses energy from a nuclear reactor to heat
gases which are then accelerated through a nozzle and ejected from
the system at a high exit velocity to produce thrust force.

Propellant
tank

Turbine

Nuclear reactor

Reactor fuel element

Nozzle coolant jacket

Exhaust gas

Fig. 8.17: Nuclear propulsion

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Notes:
• While chemical and electric systems are used for the propulsion of
today’s spacecrafts, nuclear propulsion is still under study. Therefore,
only chemical and electric propulsion will be dealt with in this book.

8.12. SATELLITES
A satellite is an artificial or a natural body placed in orbit round the earth
or another planet in order to collect information or for communication.
Communication satellites are satellites that are used specifically to
communicate. Part of that communication will be the usual commands and
signals we get from any satellite. The payload of the satellite consists of
huge collection of powerful radio transmitters and a big dish or something
like that, to enable it to talk to things on the ground. And we’ll use them
to transmit TV signals, to transmit radio signals, and in some cases, it
might be to be transmit internet signals. So, all of that gets turned into
radio somehow and transmitted up into space and then bounced back down
somewhere else.
There is only one main force acting on a satellite when it is in orbit, and
that is the gravitational force exerted on the satellite by the Earth. This
force is constantly pulling the satellite towards the centre of the Earth.
A satellite doesn’t fall straight down to the Earth because of its velocity.
Throughout a satellite’s orbit there is a perfect balance between the
gravitational force due to the Earth, and the centripetal force necessary to
maintain the orbit of the satellite.

8.12.1. Orbital Velocity of Satellite.

Satellites are natural or artificial bodies describing h
orbit around a planet under its gravitational r

attraction. Moon is a natural satellite while INSAT- R

v
1B is an artificial satellite of the earth. Condition Earth

for establishment of artificial satellite is that the

centre of orbit of satellite must coincide with centre
of earth or satellite must move around great circle Fig. 8.18: Orbital Velocity
of earth. of Satellite

Orbital velocity of a satellite is the velocity required to put the satellite into
its orbit around the earth. For revolution of satellite around the earth, the
gravitational pull provides the required centripetal force.

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 mv2 GMm
=
r r2
GM
⇒ v = ……… Equation 8-21
r
gR2 g
v = = R  ……… Equation 8-22
R+h R+h
[As GM = gR2 and r = R + h] ……… Equation 8-23

Notes:
• Orbital velocity is independent of the mass of the orbiting body and is
always along the tangent of the orbit, i.e. satellites of deferent masses
have the same orbital velocity, if they are in the same orbit.
• Orbital velocity depends on the mass of central body and radius of
orbit.
• For a given planet, greater the radius of orbit, lesser will be the orbital
velocity of the satellite (v ∝ 1/ r ).
• Orbital velocity of the satellite when it revolves very close to the
surface of the planet:
GM GM
v= =
r R+h
GM
\ v= = gR [As h = 0 and GM = gR2]
R
For the earth v = 9.8 × 6.4 × 106 = 7.9 km/s ≈ 8 km/s
GM 2GM
• Close to the surface of planet, v = [As ve = ]
R R
ve
\ v= , i.e. vescape = 2 vorbital ……… Equation 8-24
2
It means that if the speed of a satellite orbiting close to the earth is
made 2 times (or increased by 41%) then it will escape from the
gravitational field.
• If the gravitational force of attraction of the sun on the planet varies
1
as F ∝ n , then the orbital velocity varies as:
r
1
v∝ n
. ……… Equation 8-25
r −1

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EXAMPLE 8.10:
Two satellites A and B go round a planet P in circular orbits having radii 4R
and R respectively. If the speed of the satellite A is 3V, what is the speed of
the satellite B?

Solution:
Orbital velocity of satellite
GM 1 vB rA
v = \ v= ⇒ =
r r vA rB
vB 4R
⇒ = ⇒ vB = 6V.
3V R
EXAMPLE 8.11:
A satellite is moving around the earth with speed v in a circular orbit of
radius r. If the orbit radius is decreased by 1%, what is its speed?

Solution:
Gm
Orbital velocity, v =
r
1
∴ v∝
[If r decreases, then v increases]
r
1 1
Percentage change in v = (percentage change in r) = (1%) = 0.5%
2 2
∴  Orbital velocity increases by 0.5%.

8.12.2. Time Period of Satellite

It is the time taken by satellite to go once around the earth.
circumference of the orbit
∴ T =
orbit velocity
2πr r GM
⇒ T = = 2πr [As v = ]
v GM r
r3 ( R + h) 3
⇒ T = 2π = 2π [As GM = g R2]
GM g R2
⇒

Notes:
r3
• From T = 2π , it is clear that time period is independent of the
GM
mass of orbiting body and depends on the mass of central body and

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 radius of the orbit.
r3
• T = 2π
GM
4π 2 3
⇒ T2 = r i.e. T 2 ∝ r3
GM
This is in accordance with Kepler’s third law of planetary motion.
• Time period of nearby satellite,
r3 R3 R
From T = 2π = 2π = 2π ……… Equation 8-26
GM gR2 g
[As h = 0 and GM = gR2]

For earth R = 6400 km and g = 9.8 m/s2

⇒ T = 84.6 minute ≈ 1.4 h.
• Time period of nearby satellite in terms of density of planet can be
given as

3π
T = ……… Equation 8-27
Gρ
• If the gravitational force of attraction of the sun on the planet varies as
n+1
1
F ∝ n , then the time period varies as T ∝ r 2 .
r
• If there is a satellite in the equatorial plane rotating in the direction of
earth’s rotation from west to east, then for an observer, on the earth,
angular velocity of satellite will be (wS – wE). The time interval between
the two consecutive appearances overhead will be
2π TS TE
T = = ……… Equation 8-28
ω S − ω E TE − TS

If wS = wE, T = ∞ i.e. satellite will appear stationary relative to earth.

Such satellites are called geostationary satellites.

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EXAMPLE 8.12:
A satellite is launched into a circular orbit of radius ‘R’ around earth while
a second satellite is launched into an orbit of radius 1.02 R. What is the
percentage difference in the time periods of the two satellites?

Solution:
Orbital radius of second satellite is 2% more than the first satellite.
3
So from T ∝ (r)3/2, percentage increase in time period = (Percentage
2
increase in orbital radius)
3
= (2%) = 3%.
2
EXAMPLE 8.13:
What is the periodic time of a satellite revolving above Earth’s surface at a
height equal to R, where R is the radius of Earth?

Solution:
(R + h) 3 (R + R ) 3
T = 2π = 2π
GM gR2
8R R
= 2π = 4 2π [As h = R (given)].
g g

8.12.3. Height of Satellite

r3 (R + h ) 3
As we know, time period of satellite T = 2π = 2π
GM gR2
gR2 T2
By squaring and rearranging both sides, = (R + h)3
4π 2

⇒  ……… Equation 8-29

By knowing the value of time period we can calculate the height of satellite
the surface of the earth.
EXAMPLE 8.14:
Given radius of earth ‘R’ and length of a day ‘T’, what is the height of a
geostationary satellite?
Solution:

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From the expression

\ [As gR2 = GM]

EXAMPLE 8.15:
A satellite is revolving round the earth in circular orbit at some height above
surface of the earth. It takes 5.26 × 103 seconds to complete a revolution
while its centripetal acceleration is 9.32 m/s2. What is the height of satellite
above the surface of earth? (Radius of the earth 6.37 × 106 m)

Solution:
v2 2πr
Centripetal acceleration (ac) = and T =
r v
ac T 2
From equations (i) and (ii) r = ⇒ R+h=
4π 2
h = 6.53 × 106 – R = 6.53 × 106 – 6.37 × 106 = 160 × 103 m = 160 km ≈ 170 km.

8.12.4. Geostationary Satellite

The satellite which appears stationary relative to earth is called
geostationary or geosynchronous satellite, e.g. communication satellite.
A geostationary satellite always stays over the same place above the earth.
Such a satellite is never at rest. It appears stationary due to its zero relative
velocity w.r.t. that place on earth.
The orbit of a geostationary satellite is known as the parking orbit.

Notes:
• It should revolve in an orbit concentric and coplanar with the equatorial
plane.
• Its sense of rotation should be same as that of earth about its own
axis, i.e. in anti-clockwise direction (from west to east).
• Its period of revolution around the earth should be the same as that of
earth about its own axis.
\ T = 24 hr = 86400 s
• Height of geostationary satellite
r3 (R + h ) 3
As T = 2π ⇒ 2π = 24 h
GM GM
Substituting the value of G and M we get R + h = r = 42000 km = 7R

Physics Senior Five 211

 \ Height of geostationary satellite from the surface of earth,
  h = 6R = 36000 km
• Orbital velocity of geostationary satellite can be calculated by
GM
v=
r
• Substituting the value of G and M, we get v = 3.08 km/s
8.12.5. Energy of Satellite
When a satellite revolves around a planet in its orbit, it possesses both
potential energy (due to its position against gravitational pull of earth) and
kinetic energy (due to orbital motion).

1. Potential energy:

1 GMm L2
2. Kinetic energy: K = mv2 = = 
2 2r 2mr2
− GMm GMm − GMm − L2
3. Total energy: E = U + K = + = =
r 2r 2r 2mr2
Notes
• Kinetic energy, potential energy or total energy of a satellite depends
on the mass of the satellite and the central body and also on the radius
of the orbit.
• From the above expressions we can say that
Kinetic energy (K) = – (Total energy)
Potential energy (U) = 2 (Total energy)
Potential energy (K) = – 2 (Kinetic energy)

Fig. 8.19: Energy of a satellite.

• If the orbit of a satellite is elliptical, then

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 − GMm
(a) Total energy (E) = = constant; where a is semi-major axis.
2a
(b) Kinetic energy (K) will be maximum when the satellite is closest
to the central body (at perigee) and maximum when it is farthest
from the central body (at apogee).
(c) Potential energy (U) will be minimum when kinetic energy is
maximum, i.e. when satellite is closest to the central body (at
perigee). Potential energy is maximum when kinetic energy is
minimum, i.e. the satellite is farthest from the central body (at
apogee).
• Binding Energy: Total energy of a satellite in its orbit is negative.
Negative energy means that the satellite is bound to the central body
by an attractive force and energy must be supplied to remove it from
the orbit to infinity. The energy required to remove the satellite from
its orbit to infinity is called Binding Energy of the system, i.e.
GMm
Binding Energy (B.E.) = –E =  ……… Equation 8-33
2r
EXAMPLE 8.17:
What is the Potential energy of a satellite having mass ‘m’ and rotating at
a height of 6.4 × 106­ m from the earth’s centre?

Solution:
GMm GMm GMm
Potential energy = − =− =− [As h = Re (given)]
r Re + h 2R e
gR e2 m
\ Potential energy = − = –0.5 mgRe[As GM = gR2]
2R e

EXAMPLE 8.18:
Two satellites are moving around the earth in circular orbits at height R
and 3R respectively, R being the radius of the earth. What is the ratio of
their kinetic energies?

Solution:
r1 = R + h1 = R + R = 2R and
r2 = R + h2 = R + 3R = 4R
1 (KE) 1 r 4R 2
Kinetic energy ∝ \ = 2 = = =2
r (KE) 2 r1 2R 1

Physics Senior Five 213

 EXERCISE 8-1
1. The distance of Neptune and Saturn from sun are nearly 1013 and 1012
metres respectively. Assuming that they move in circular orbits, what
will be their periodic times in the ratio?
2. A spherical planet far out in space has a mass M0 and diameter D0.
A particle of mass m falling freely near the surface of this planet will
experience an acceleration due to gravity which is equal to g. Derive
the expression of g in terms of D.
3. At surface of earth, weight of a person is 72 N. What is his weight at
height R/2 from surface of earth (R = radius of earth)?
4. Assuming earth to be a sphere of a uniform density, what is the value of
gravitational acceleration in a mine 100 km below the earth’s surface
(Given R = 6400 km)?
5. If the gravitational force between two objects was proportional to 1/R;
where R is separation between them, then a particle in circular orbit
under such a force would have its orbital speed v proportional to which
value?
6. An earth satellite S has an orbital radius which is 4 times that of a
communication satellite C. What is its period of revolution?

8.13 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF SATELLITE

SYSTEMS
Four different types of satellite orbits have been identified depending on
the shape and diameter of each orbit:
• GEO (Geo-stationary earth orbit)
• MEO (medium earth orbit)
• LEO (Low earth orbit) and
• HEO (Highly elliptical orbit)

Fig. 8.20: Types of satellite orbits

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GEO (geostationary orbit)
A geostationary orbit or geosynchronous equatorial orbit (GEO) has a
circular orbit 35,786 kilometres above the Earth’s equator and following the
direction of the Earth’s rotation. An object in such an orbit has an orbital
period equal to the Earth’s rotational period (one sidereal day) and thus
appears motionless, at a fixed position in the sky, to ground observers.

Fig. 8.21: Geostationary orbit

Most common geostationary satellites are either weather satellites or
communication satellites relaying signals between two or more ground
stations and satellites that broadcast signals to a large area on the planet.
All radio and TV, whether satellite etc. are launched in this orbit.

Advantages of Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit

1. It is possible to cover almost all parts of the earth with just 3 geo
satellites.
2. Antennas need not be adjusted every now and then, but can be fixed
permanently.
3. The life-time of a GEO satellite is quite high usually around 15 years.

Disadvantages of Geo-Stationary Earth Orbit

1. Larger antennas are required for northern/southern regions of the
earth.
2. High buildings in a city limit the transmission quality.
3. High transmission power is required.
4. These satellites cannot be used for small mobile phones.
5. Fixing a satellite at Geo stationary orbit is very expensive.

LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

Satellites in low Earth orbits are normally
military reconnaissance satellites that can
locate out tanks from 160 km above the

Physics Senior Five 215

Earth. They orbit the earth very quickly,
one complete orbit normally taking 90
minutes. However, these orbits have
very short lifetimes in the order of weeks
compared with decades for geostationary
satellites. Simple launch vehicles can
be used to place these satellites of large
masses into orbit.
Low Earth Orbit is used for things that we want
to visit often with the Space Shuttle, like the
Hubble Space Telescope and the International Fig. 8.22: Low Earth Orbit
Space Station. This is convenient for installing
new instruments, fixing things that are broken, and inspecting damage. It
is also about the only way we can have people go up, do experiments, and
return in a relatively short time.
A special type of LEO is the Polar Orbit. This
is a LEO with a high inclination angle (close to
90 degrees). This means the satellite travels over
the poles.

Advantages of Low Earth Orbit Fig. 8.23: Polar Orbit

1. The antennas can have low transmission power of about 1 watt.
2. The delay of packets is relatively low.
3. Useful for smaller foot prints

Disadvantages of Low Earth Orbit

1. If global coverage is required, it requires at least 50-200 satellites in this
orbit.
2. Special handover mechanisms are required.
3. These satellites involve complex design.
4. Very short life: Time of 5-8 years. Assuming 48 satellites with a life-time
of 8 years each, a new satellite is needed every 2 months.
5. Data packets should be routed from satellite to satellite.

MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit)

Medium Earth Orbit satellites move around the earth at a height of 6000-
20000 km above earth’s surface. Their signal takes 50 to 150 milliseconds

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to make the round trip. MEO satellites cover more earth area than LEOs
but have a higher latency. MEOS are often used in conjunction with GEO
satellite systems.

Advantages of Medium Earth Orbit

1. Compared to LEO system, MEO requires only a dozen satellites.
2. Simple in design.
3. Requires very few handovers.

Disadvantages of Medium Earth Orbit

1. Satellites require higher transmission power.
2. Special antennas are required.

HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit)

A satellite in elliptical orbit follows an oval-shaped path. One part of the
orbit is closest to the centre of Earth (perigee) and another part is farthest
away (apogee). A satellite in this type of orbit generally has an inclination
angle of 64 degrees and takes about 12 hours to circle the planet. This
type of orbit covers regions of high latitude for a large fraction of its orbital
period.
Slow moving long dwell
time over desired area

Desired area of satellite

coverage

Very fast short

dwell time

Fig. 8.24: Highly Elliptical Orbit

8.14. COSMIC VELOCITY (FIRST, SECOND AND THIRD)

The cosmic velocity is the initial velocity which a body must have to be able
to overcome the gravity of another object.
We have:
1. The first cosmic velocity
2. Second cosmic velocity (escape velocity)
3. The third cosmic velocity

Physics Senior Five 217

4. The fourth cosmic velocity
8.14.1. The first cosmic velocity
As you know the satellites which were sent by a human are orbiting around
the Earth. They had to be launched with a very high velocity, namely, with
the first cosmic velocity.

Fig. 8.25: Orbiting satellite

This velocity can be calculated using the gravitational force and the
centripetal force of the satellite:
mv12 GMe m
=
Re R e2
GMe
v1 = ……… Equation 8-34
Re
Where:
v = the value of the first cosmic velocity
Me = the mass of the Earth
Re = the radius of the Earth
G = the gravitational constant
We put the data into this formula and we obtain:

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Satellites must have extremely high velocity to orbit around the Earth. In
fact, satellites go around the Earth at the height h = 160 km in order not to
break into the atmosphere.

8.15.2. Second cosmic velocity (escape velocity)

In the previous section we calculated the velocity which a body has to have
to go around the Earth, which means that we calculated the value of the
first cosmic velocity. Now it is time to give attention to calculating the
second cosmic velocity -it is the speed needed to “break free” from the
gravitational attraction of the Earth.
In order to understand this issue we should know something about kinetic
and potential energy.
1 GMe m
mv22 =
2 Re
This value is calculated using the fact that as the body moves away from
the Earth, the kinetic energy decreases and the potential energy increases.
At infinity, both the energies are equal to zero, because, when the distance
between the body and the Earth increases, the kinetic energy decreases and
at infinity, it has the value of 0.
The potential energy at infinity has got the highest value but if we put
infinity in the previous formula, we will obtain zero (or an extremely small
fraction).
The value of the second cosmic velocity is calculated as follows;
1 GMe m
mv22 =
2 Re
2GMe
v2 =
Re

And finally, the practical curiosity.

v2 = 2 × v1  ……… Equation 8-35
We can also obtain the value of the second cosmic velocity by multiply the
value of the first cosmic velocity by the square root of two.

8.14.3. The third cosmic velocity

The third cosmic velocity is the initial velocity which a body has to have to
leave the Solar System and its value is:

Physics Senior Five 219

 v3 = 16.7 km/s
At the surface of the Earth, this velocity is about 42 km/s. But due to its
revolution, it is enough to launch the body with velocity 16.7 km/s in the
direction of this movement.

8.14.4. The fourth cosmic velocity

It is the initial velocity which a body should have to leave the Milky Way.
v4 = 130 km/s
This velocity is about 350 km/s but since Sun is going around the galaxy
centre, so it is enough to launch the body with the velocity of 130 km/s in
the direction of the Sun’s movement.

ACTIVITY 8-3: Concepts and terms in Motion of Orbits

The grid shown below contains terms used in this unit. Highlight at least
25 terms. Construct 10 sentences in context of motion in orbits using those
words found in the grid.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
A A A X P O T E N T I A L O R K O
B Q C V I Y O F U O D S T W O R K
C A S C C B X D Y O H X L I T A I
D S A O E Q T K I N E T I C A D S
E P T S C L G R Y O I L W I T I V
F S E M Z Y E N E R G Y B O I U E
G P L I O P A R O B H R H P O S L
H A L C K N R V A I T E A R N C O
I C I D E E T M O T I O N V Q X C
J E T Z P W H I G A I V O T I Y I
L C E I L T O B O L F O R C E T T
M R S G E O S T A T I O N A R Y Y
N A X M R N X Q Z O R O C K E T S
O F I W R O P R O P U L S I O N O
P T P L A N E T A R Y D O X B B S

220 Physics Senior Five

ACTIVITY 8-4: The Planets
Using the Across and Down clues, write the correct words in the numbered
grid below.

ACROSS
1. The only natural satellite of Earth.
5. An object in orbit around a planet.
6. The smallest planet and farthest from the Sun.
7. This planet probably got this name due to its red color and is sometimes
referred to as the Red Planet.
9. This planet’s blue color is the result of absorption of red light by methane
in the upper atmosphere.
10. It is the brightest object in the sky except for the Sun and the Moon.
DOWN
2. Named after the Roman god of the sea.
3. The closest planet to the Sun and the eighth largest.
4. A large cloud of dust and gas which escapes from the nucleus of an active
comet.
8. The largest object in the solar system.

END OF UNIT QUESTION

1. A satellite A of mass m is at a distance of r from the centre of the earth.
Another satellite B of mass 2m is at distance of 2r from the earth’s
centre. What is the ratio of their time periods?
2. Mass of moon is 7.34 × 1022 kg. If the acceleration due to gravity
on the moon is 1.4 m/s2, find the radius of moon. Use (G = 6.67 ×
10–11 Nm2/kg2).

Physics Senior Five 221

3. A planet has mass 1/10 of that of earth, while radius is 1/3 that of
earth. If a person can throw a stone on earth surface to a height of 90 m,
to what height will he be able to throw the stone on that planet?
4. If the distance between centres of d

earth and moon is D and the mass of P

m1 m2
earth is 81 times the mass of moon, FPA FPB
then at what distance from centre A B
x d
of earth the gravitational force will Fig. 8.26: Force between two masses
be zero?
5. What is the depth d at which the value of acceleration due to gravity
1
becomes times the value at the surface? [R = radius of the earth]
n
6. The distance between centre of the earth and moon is 384000 km. If the
mass of the earth is 6 × 1024 kg and G = 6.67 × 10–11 Nm2/kg2, what is
the speed of the moon?
7. One project after deviation from its path, starts moving round the
earth in a circular path at radius equal to nine times the radius at
earth R, what is its time?
8. A satellite A of mass m is revolving round the earth at a height ‘r’ from
the centre. Another satellite B of mass 2m is revolving at a height 2r.
What is the ratio of their time periods?

UNIT SUMMARY

Newton’s law of gravitation

This is also called the universal law of gravitation or inverse square
law. And sates that “the gravitational force of attraction between two
masses m1 and m2 is directly proportional to the product of masses
and inversely proportional to the square of their mean distance
apart.”
Gm1 m2
F=
r2
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
1st Law: This law is called the law of orbits and states that planets move in
ellipses with the sun as one of their foci. It can also be stated that planets
describe ellipses about the sun as one focus.
2nd Law: This is called the law of areas and states that the line joining the

222 Physics Senior Five

sun and the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal periods of time.
3rd Law: The law of periods states that the square of the periods T of
revolution of planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances
R from the sun.
T 2 ∝ R3

Verification of Kepler’s third law of planetary motion

Gravitational force of attraction of the sun and the planet
Gm1 m2
F1 =
R2
Centripetal force responsible for keeping the planet moving in a circular
motion around the sun.
m v2
F2 = 2
R
If F1 = F2 we get:
R3 = kT2
Which is true that T 2 ∝ R3

Acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth

At the surface of the earth acceleration due to gravity is given by;
GMe
g=
R2
This value is constant and it’s average value is taken to be 9.8 m/s2

Variation of acceleration due to gravity with height

The acceleration due to gravity at a point above the surface of the earth is
given by;

This value decreases as you move further from the surface of the earth.

Variation of gravity with depth

At a point below the surface of the earth, acceleration due to gravity is
given by;

The depth d is measured from the surface of the earth. The value of
acceleration due to gravity increases as we move towards the surface. At
centre of earth g = 0.

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Variation in g Due to Rotation of Earth
As the earth rotates, a body placed on its surface moves along the circular
path and hence experiences centrifugal force, due to which the apparent
weight of the body decreases.
By solving, the acceleration due to gravity is given by;
g′ = g – w2 R cos2 l

Variation of gravity g Due to Shape of Earth

The value of acceleration due to gravity will vary depending on someone’s
position at the surface of the earth as;
GM
   At equator ge = 2
Re
GM
   At poles gp =
R 2p
Rockets and spacecraft
A rocket is a device that produces thrust by ejecting stored matter. Spacecraft
Propulsion is characterized in general by its complete integration within
the spacecraft (e.g. satellites).

Satellites
A satellite is an artificial body placed in orbit round the earth or another
planet in order to collect information or for communication.

Orbital Velocity of Satellite

g
v= R
R+h
Time Period of Satellite
The period of a satellite is given by;

Height of Satellite
The height at which a satellite is launched is given by;

Geostationary Satellite
The satellite which appears stationary relative to earth is called
geostationary or geosynchronous satellite e.g. communication satellite.

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Angular Momentum of Satellite
The angular momentum of a satellite is given by;
L= m2 GMr
It is seen that angular momentum of satellite depends on both the mass of
orbiting and central body as well as the radius of orbit.

Energy of Satellite
When a satellite revolves around a planet in its orbit, it possesses both
potential energy (due to its position against gravitational pull of earth) and
kinetic energy (due to orbital motion).
− GMm
(1) Potential energy : U = mV =
r
1 GMm
(2) Kinetic energy : K = mv2 =
2 2r
− GMm
Total energy (E) = constant
2r
Types and applications of Satellite Systems
• GEO (Geo-stationary earth orbit)
• MEO (medium earth orbit)
• LEO (Low earth orbit) and
• HEO (Highly elliptical orbit)

Cosmic velocity

The first cosmic velocity

v1 = 7900 m/s
Second cosmic velocity
This is also called the escape velocity, v2 = 11200 m/s

Third cosmic velocity

The third cosmic velocity is the initial velocity which a body has to have to
escape the Solar System and its value is given by;
v3 = 16.7 km/s

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226 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: ATOMIC PHYSICS
Sub-Topic Area: QUANTUM PHYSICS
UNIT
9 ATOMIC MODELS AND
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit I should be able to

evaluate the atomic model and photoelectric effect

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ describe different atomic models by explaining their concepts

and drawbacks.

◊ explain the photoelectric effect and its applications in everyday

life.

Physics Senior Five 225

9.0 INTRODUCTION
An atomic theory is a model developed to explain the properties and
behaviours of atoms. An atomic theory is based on scientific evidence
available at any given time and serves to suggest future lines of research
about atoms.
The concept of an atom can be traced to debate among Greek philosophers
that took place around the sixth century B.C. One of the questions that
interested these thinkers was the nature of matter. Is matter continuous
or discontinuous? If you could break a piece of chalk as long as you wanted,
would you ever reach some ultimate particle beyond which further division
was impossible? Or could you keep up that process of division forever?
Such questions need the knowledge on the atomic structure and interaction
with photoelectric effect to be answered. This theory is helpful in Chemistry
(Atomic structure), Security (Alarm systems), Medicine, Archaeology, etc.

9.1 STRUCTURE OF ATOM

An atom is a sphere in which positively charged particles called protons
and negatively charged particles called electrons are found/embedded. As
the number of protons equals the number of electrons, the atom is said
to be neutral. This model is called plum pudding model by J.J Thomson.
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of atom. According to
this model, an atom is a solid sphere in which entire positive charge and
it’s mass is uniformly distributed and negative charges (i.e. electron) are
embedded like seeds in watermelon.

Success and failure

Thomson’s model explained the phenomenon of thermionic emission,
photoelectric emission and ionization. The model fails to explain the
scattering of a-particles and it is the origin of spectral lines observed in the
spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.

9.2 RUTHERFORD’S ATOMIC MODEL

Rutherford performed experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by
extremely thin gold foils and made the following observations;

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 E

e
ar
les
a rtic
Vacuum (P by
d
Nucleus e cte q)
Protons
fl
de ngl
e Moving microscope
a
Electrons q
E E
Source Zinc sulphide screen
(a-particle (detector)
beam strikes Metal foil
Neutrons the metal foil)

Fig. 9-1: Structure of an atom Fig. 9-2: Rutherford’s experiment

It was observed that:
• Some of α-particles are deflected through small angles.
• A few α-particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through the angle more
than 90°.
• A few α-particles (very few) returned back i.e. deflected by 180°.
• Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension) is the minimum
distance from the nucleus up to which the α-particle approach. It is
denoted by r0. From figure
1
r0 = ; (9-1)
4πε0
1
E = mv2 (9-2)
2
Equation 9-2 is the equation of kinetic energy of α-particle.

b
ro

Nucleus

a-particle
(energy E)

Fig. 9-3: Scattering of alpha particles

From these experiments a new model of the atom was born called
Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom. The following conclusions were

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made to describe the atomic structure:
• Most of the mass and all of the charge of an atom is concentrated in a
very small region called atomic nucleus.
• Nucleus is positively charged and it’s size is of the order of
10–15 m .
• In an atom there is maximum empty space and the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in the same way as the planets revolve around the
sun.
Drawbacks : Rutherford's model could not explain the following:
• Stability of atom: It could not explain the stability of atom because
according to classical electrodynamics, an accelerated charged particle
should continuously radiate energy. Thus, an electron moving in a
circular path around the nucleus should also radiate energy and thus
move into and smaller orbits of gradually decreasing radius and it
should ultimately fall into nucleus.

electron

nucleus

Fig. 9-4: Death spiral of the electron

• According to this model, the spectrum of atom must be continuous
whereas practically it is a line spectrum.
• It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the nucleus.

9.3 BOHR’S ATOMIC MODEL

Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for
some lighter atoms in which a single electron revolves around a stationary
nucleus of positive charge Ze (called hydrogen like atom). Bohr’s model is
based on the following postulates:
• Each electron moves in a circular orbit centered at the nucleus.
• The centripetal force needed by the electron moving in a circle is

228 Physics Senior Five

 provided by electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and
electrons.
• The angular momenta p of electrons are whole number multiples of
h
where h is the Planck’s constant. i.e.
2π
nh
p= = mvr. (9-3)
2π
• When electron moves in its allowed orbit, it doesn’t radiate energy.
The atom is then stable. Such stable orbits are called stationary orbit.
• When an electron jumps from one allowed orbit to another, it radiates
energy. The energy of radiation equals energy difference between
levels.
hf = Ei – Ef (9-3)
where h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of radiation. When
electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E1) to lower energy orbit (E2),
then difference of energies of these orbits, i.e. E1 – E2 emits in the
form of photon. But if electron goes from E2 to E1 it absorbs the same
amount of energy.
E1 E1

E1 – E2 = hf E1 – E2 = hf

E2 E2

Emission    Absorption

Fig. 9-5: Emission and absorption of radiation

Notes:
• According to Bohr theory, the momentum of an electron revolving in
h
second orbit of H2 atom will be
π
• For an electron in the nth orbit of hydrogen atom in Bohr model,
circumference of orbit = nl; where λ = de-Broglie wavelength.
Bohr’s Orbits (For Hydrogen and H2-Like Atoms).
A: Radius of orbit
For an electron around a stationary nucleus, the electrostatics force of
attraction provides the necessary centripetal force, i.e.

...........Equation 9-4

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 nh
Also, mvr = ...........Equation 9-5
2π
From equation 9-4 and 9-5, radius of nth orbit

n2 h2 n2 h2 ε0 n2 -10
r n= = = 0 . 53 10 m
4π2 kZme2 πmZe2 Z
2
⇒ rn ∝ n   (9-6)
Z
Notes:
• The radius of the innermost orbit (n = 1) of hydrogen atom (z = 1) is
called Bohr’s radius a0, i.e. a0 = 0.53. 10-10m
B: Speed of electron
From the above relations, speed of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as

where (c = speed of light 3 × 108 m/s).

Notes:
• The ratio of speed of an electron in ground state in Bohr’s first orbit
e2 1
of hydrogen atom to velocity of light in air is equal to =
2ε0 ch 137
(where c = speed of light in air).
Drawbacks of Bohr’s atomic model
• It is valid only for single valency atoms, e.g. : H, He+2, Li+, Na+1 etc.
• Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfield these are
elliptical.
• Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.
• Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.
• It could not explain the minute structure in spectral lines.
• This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of spectral lines
in magnetic field) and Stark effect (splitting up in electric field)
• This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the
atoms like sodium (5890x10-10m & 5896x 10-10m)

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9.4 ENERGY LEVELS AND SPECTRAL LINES OF
HYDROGEN
When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited state (or
ground state) by emitting the energy it had absorbed earlier. This energy
is given out by the atom in the form of radiations of different wavelengths
as the electron jumps down from a higher orbit to a lower orbit. Transition
from different orbits causes different wavelengths. These constitute spectral
series which are characteristic of the atom emitting them. When observed
through a spectroscope, these radiations are imaged as sharp and straight
vertical lines of a single colour.
Photon of Spectrum
wave length l

+ + +

Emission spectra

Fig. 9-6: Energy spectrum of hydrogen atom

The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra
series. Mainly there are five series and each series is named after its
discover as Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series
and Pfund series.
First line of the series is called first member, for which line wavelength
is maximum (λmax). Last line of the series (n2 = ∞) is called series limit, for
which line wavelength is minimum (λmin).

Physics Senior Five 231

 an
Lym
s Ba
Serie lm
Se er
rie
s

Pasch
Ser
ies
en
+
1
2
3
4

Se

Br
5

ri

ac
6

es
ke
n=7

tt
Seri
es
Pfu
nd

Fig. 9-7: Energy levels of Hydrogen atom

9.5 THERMIONIC EMISSION ( THERMO ELECTRONIC

EMISSION)
Thermionic emission means the discharge of electrons from heated materials.
It is widely used as a source of electrons in conventional electron tubes (e.g.,
television picture tubes) in the fields of electronics and communications. The
phenomenon was first observed (1883) by Thomas A. Edison as a passage of
electricity from a filament to a plate of metal inside an incandescent lamp.
Hot cathode
Anode

Heater voltage
Electron beam

Wehnelt cylinder

_ +

Accelerating voltage Evacuated glass tube

Fig. 9-8: Thermionic emission

In thermionic emission, the heat supplies some electrons with at least the
minimal energy required to overcome the attractive force holding them in
the structure of the metal. This minimal energy, called the work function,

232 Physics Senior Five

is the characteristic of the emitting material and the state of contamination
of its surface.

9.6 APPLICATIONS OF CATHODE RAYS

9.6.1 Cathode ray oscilloscope
The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that
provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over
a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability and ease of operation
makes it suitable as a general purpose laboratory instrument.

Fig. 9-9: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O)

The main part of the C.R.O. is a highly evacuated glass tube housing parts
which generates a beam of electrons, accelerates them, shapes them into
a narrow beam and provides external connections to the sets of plates
changing the direction of the beam. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray
tube shown schematically in Fig.9-10;

Electron gun Y plates

cathode
Fluorescent screen

electron beam
anode

X plates
Cathode ray tube

Fig.9-10: C.R.O tube

Physics Senior Five 233

Working of a C.R.O
• An indirectly heated cathode provides a source of electrons for the
beam by ‘boiling’ them out of the cathode.
• The anode is circular with a small central hole. The potential of anode
creates an electric field which accelerates the electrons, some of which
emerge from the hole as a fine beam. This beam lies along the central
axis of the tube.
• The grid has the main function of concentrating the beam at the
centre controlling the potential of the grid that controls the number
of electrons for the beam, and hence the intensity of the spot on the
screen where the beam hits.
• X and Y are two deflection plates. The X plates are used for deflecting
the beam from left to right (the x-direction) by means of the ‘ramp’
voltage. The Y plates are used for deflection of the beam in the vertical
direction. Voltages on the X and Y sets of plates determine where the
beam will strike the screen and cause a spot of light.
• The screen coated on the inside with a fluorescent material which
shines with green light (usually) where the electrons are striking.
9.6.2 TV tubes
The picture tube is the largest component of a television set, consisting
of four basic parts. The glass face panel is the screen on which images
appear. Suspended immediately behind the panel is a steel shadow mask,
perforated with thousands of square holes. (Connected to the mask is a
metal shield to neutralize disruptive effects of the Earth’s magnetic field.)
The panel is fused to a glass funnel, which comprises the rear of the picture
tube. The very rear of the funnel converges into a neck, to which an electron
gun assembly is connected.

Fig. 9-11: TV picture tube

The inside of the panel is painted with a series of very narrow vertical
stripes, consisting of red, green and blue phosphors. These stripes are

234 Physics Senior Five

separated by a narrow black graphite stripe guard band. When struck by an
electron beam, the phosphors will illuminate, but the graphite will not. This
prevents colour impurity by ensuring that the electron beam only strikes
the phosphor stripes it is intended to light.
The electron beam is generated by the electron gun assembly, which houses
three electron guns situated side-by-side. Each of the three guns emits an
electron beam (also called a cathode ray) into the tube, through the mask
and onto the panel.
Electron gun

Phosphor
dots

Shadow mask

Black matrix

Fig. 9-12: Phosphors on the screen

Because the three beams travel side-by-side, the holes in the mask ensure
that each beam, because of its different angle of attack, will hit only a
specific phosphor stripe; red, green or blue. The three phosphors, lighted
in different combinations of intensity, can create any visible colour when
viewed from even a slight distance.
The three electron beams are directed across the screen through a series of
electromagnets, called a yoke, which draw the beams horizontally across
the screen in line at a time. Depending on the screen size, the beam draws
about 500 lines across the entire screen. Each time, the phosphors light up
to produce an image.
The electron guns and the yoke are electronically synchronized to ensure
the lines of phosphors are lighted properly to produce an accurate image. The
image lasts only for about a 1/30th of a second. For that reason, the picture
must be redrawn 30 times in a second. The succession of so many pictures
produces the illusion of movement, just like the frames on movie film.

Physics Senior Five 235

9.7 FLUORESCENCE AND PHOSPHORESCENCE
Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light
or other electromagnetic radiation. It is a form of photoluminescence.
In most cases, the emitted light has a longer wavelength, and therefore,
lower energy than the absorbed radiation. However, when the absorbed
electromagnetic radiation is intense, it is possible for one electron to absorb
two photons; this two-photon absorption can lead to emission of radiation
having a shorter wavelength than the absorbed radiation. The emitted
radiation may also be of the same wavelength as the absorbed radiation,
termed “resonance fluorescence”.
Fluorescence occurs when an orbital electron of a molecule or atom relaxes
to its ground state by emitting a photon of light after being excited to a
higher quantum state by some type of energy. The most striking examples
of fluorescence occur when the absorbed radiation is in the ultraviolet region
of the spectrum, and thus invisible to the human eye, and the emitted light
is in the visible region.
Triplet-Triplet
state
Singlet-singlet
state Non-radiative relaxation
Second excited state
Single photon absorption ISC relaxation

First excited state Second excited state

2 photon Excited state

absorption
phosphoresence
Ground state
fluorescence
Fig. 9-13: Energy scheme used to explain the difference between
fluorescence and phosphorescence
Phosphorescence is a specific type of photoluminescence related to
fluorescence. Unlike fluorescence, a phosphorescent material does not
immediately re-emit the radiation it absorbs. Excitation of electrons to
a higher state is accompanied with the change of a spin state. Once in a
different spin state, electrons cannot relax into the ground state quickly
because the re-emission involves quantum mechanically forbidden energy
state transitions. As these transitions occur very slowly in certain materials,
absorbed radiation may be re-emitted at a lower intensity for up to several
hours after the original excitation.

236 Physics Senior Five

9.8 PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION LAWS
Law 1:
The photocurrent is directly proportional to the intensity of light and is
independent of frequency.

Explanation
According to quantum theory, each photon interacts only with each
electron. When the intensity is increased more photons will come and they
will interact with more electrons. This will increase the amount of photo
current.

Law 2:
The kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to frequency
and is independent of intensity.

Explanation
According to Einstein’s equation, hf0 is constant. Then kinetic energy is
directly proportional to frequency.

Law 3:
Photoelectric effect does not happen when the incident frequency is less
than a minimum frequency (threshold frequency).

Explanation
From Einstein’s equation, if , then kinetic energy becomes negative
and it is impossible, in other words photoelectric effect does not happen.

Law 4:
There is no time lag between the incidence of photon and emission of
electrons. Thus, photoelectric process is instantaneous.

Explanation
According to quantum theory, each photon interacts with each electron.
So different electrons will interact with different photons at same instant.
Thus there is no time lag between incidence and emission.

9.9 PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from the surface of a
metal when electromagnetic radiation (such as visible or ultraviolet light)
shines on the metal. At the time of its discovery, the classical wave model

Physics Senior Five 237

for light predicted that the energy of the emitted electrons will increase as
the intensity (brightness) of the light increased. It was discovered that it
did not behave that way. Instead of using the wave model, treating light
as a particle (photon) led to a more consistent explanation of the observed
behaviour.
Incident light
Emitted electrons

Metal surface

Fig. 9-14: Photoelectric emission

From photon theory, we note that in a monochromatic beam, all photons
have the same energy (equal to hf). Increasing the intensity of the light
beam means increasing the number of photons in the beam but does not
affect the energy of each photon as long as the frequency is not changed.
From this consideration and suggestions of Einstein, the photon theory
makes the following predictions:
1. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the number
of photoelectrons ejected per second is directly proportional to the
intensity of the incident light.
2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency (f0) of
incident radiation below which no emission of photoelectrons takes
place. This frequency is called the threshold frequency or cutoff
frequency.
3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the
incident light but depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength) of
the incident light.
4. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and the emission of a
photoelectron is very small (less than 10-9 second).
This is evidence of the particle nature of light.

238 Physics Senior Five

9.10 FACTORS AFFECTING PHOTOELECTRIC
EMISSION
Photoelectric current is produced as a result of photoelectric effect. Therefore,
understanding the factors which influence the photoelectric effect is very
important. The previous studies on photoelectric effect have presented the
following factors which may have a direct impact on photoelectric effect.

Intensity of Light:
If a highly intense light of frequency equal to or greater than threshold
frequency falls on the surface of matter, the photoelectric effect is caused.
Studying the impact of this factor is the focus of this research study. One
thing which is very clear is that the emission of electrons does not depend
upon the intensity of light unless the frequency of light is greater than the
threshold frequency. The threshold frequency varies from matter to matter.
Number of Photoelectrons:
The increase in intensity of light increases the number of photoelectrons,
provided the frequency is greater than threshold frequency. In short, the
number of photoelectrons increases the photoelectric current.

Kinetic Energy of Photoelectrons:

The kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases when light of high energy
falls on the surface of matter. When energy of light is equal to threshold
energy, then electrons are emitted from the surface, whereas when energy
is greater than threshold energy, then photoelectric current is produced.
The threshold frequency is not same for all kinds of matter and it varies
from matter to matter.

9.11 PHOTON, WORK FUNCTION AND PLANCK'S

CONSTANT
The photon is the fundamental particle of visible light. In some ways,
visible light behaves like a wave phenomenon, but in other respects it acts
like a stream of high-speed, submicroscopic particles.
Minimum amount of energy which is necessary to start photo electric
emission is called Work Function. If the amount of energy of incident
radiation is less than the work function of metal, no photo electrons are
emitted.
Planck’s constant describes the behaviour of particles and waves on the
atomic scale. The idea behind its discovery, that energy can be expressed
in discrete units, or quantized, proved fundamental for the development of
quantum mechanics.

Physics Senior Five 239

Planck introduced the constant (h = 6.63 × 10–34 J.s) in his description of
the radiation emitted by a blackbody (a perfect absorber of radiant energy).
The constant’s significance, in this context, was that radiation (light, for
example) is emitted, transmitted and absorbed in discrete energy packets.

Project 9-1: Photoelectric Effect

Aim: this project aims at gaining the deep knowledge on photoelectric effect.
Question: Describe the observations made of the photoelectric effect and
how this supports the particle model and wave model of light studied in
unit 1.
Hypothesis: write a hypothesis on the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
Procedure
1. State the main principle of photoelectric effect.
2. Outline your observations on different conditions
Collecting Data
Use internet and textbooks to analyse the phenomenon of photoelectric
effect.
Report design
Write your report of at least five supporting points including the one given
in the format below:
Observation Wave model Particle model
Even weak, low Weak light waves Low intensity means
intensity light can should not provide fewer photons but
release electrons enough energy to do each photon can still
instantly this release an electron

9.12 EINSTEIN’S EQUATION

According to Einstein’s theory, an electron is ejected from the metal by
a collision with a single photon. In the process, all the photon energy is
transferred to the electron and the photon ceases to exist. Since electrons
are held in the metal by attractive forces, a minimum energy (W0) is
required just to get an electron out through the surface. W0 is called the
work function, and is a few electron volts (1eV = 1.6 × 10–19 J ) for most
metals.

240 Physics Senior Five

Definitions
Photoelectric emission is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from
the surface of metals when the radiations of suitable frequency and suitable
wavelength fall on the surface of the metal.
Work function is the minimum energy required to set free an electron
from the binding forces on the metal surface.
The Threshold Frequency is defined as the minimum frequency of
incident light required for the photoelectric emission.
If the frequency f of the incoming light is so low that hf is less than W0, then
the photons will not have enough energy to eject any electrons at all. If
hf > W0, then electrons will be ejected and energy will be conserved in the
process.
So Einstein suggested that the energy of the incident radiation hf was
partly used to free electrons from the binding forces on the metal and the
rest of the energy appeared as kinetic energy of the emitted electrons. This
is stated in the famous Einstein’s equation of photoelectric effect as stated
in equation 9-7 below.
hf = W0 + K.emax (9-7)
W0 = hf0 (9-8)
Equation 9-8 is called the Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
Many electrons will require more energy than the bare minimum W0 to get
out of the metal, and thus the kinetic energy of such electrons will be less
than the maximum.

ACTIVITY 9-1: Einstein Photoelectric Equation

Match the mathematical symbols and their descriptions

Stopping potential
The circuit is exposed to radiations of light of frequency f and the supply of
potential difference V is connected as shown in Fig.9-15 below. The cathode

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C is connected at the positive terminal of the supply and the anode P is
connected on the negative terminal of the supply.

Light rays

– +
P C
Photo electrons

G Senstive galvanometer

– +

Fig. 9-15: Photoelectric circuit

If the circuit is exposed to radiations with the battery reversed as shown in
Fig. 9-16, current reduces due to the fact that all electrons emitted are not
able to reach the anode P. If this potential difference is increased until no
electron reaches the anode P, no current flows and this applied potential is
called a stopping potential.

Light rays

– +
P C
Photo electrons

+ –

Fig. 9-16: Reverse potential on a Photoelectric circuit

For this case, the kinetic energy of electrons is given by;
1
mv2 = eVs (9-9)
2
where e is electron charge and Vs is the stopping potential. So, equation 9-7
becomes;

hf = W0 + eVs but,

W0 = hf0 therefore,

\ eVs = hf – hf0 (9-10)

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 h
⇒ Vs = (f – f0) (9-11)
e

EXAMPLE 9-1
The work function for lithium is 4.6 × 10-19 J.
(a) Calculate the lowest frequency of light that will cause photoelectric
emission.
(b) What is the maximum energy of the electrons emitted when the light of
frequency 7.3 × 1014 Hz is used?

Solution:
(a) Q W0 = hf0
W0
\ f0 =
h
4.6 × 10 −19
= −34
= 6.94 × 1014 Hz
6.63 × 10
(b) From equation 9.7, hf = W0 + K.emax
⇒ K.emax = hf – W0
⇒ K.emax = 6.63 × 10–34 × 7.30 × 1014 – 4.60 × 10–19
= 0.24 × 10–19 J
EXAMPLE 9-2
Selenium has a work function of 5.11 eV. What frequency of light would just
eject electrons?
Solution:
When electrons are just ejected from the surface, their kinetic energy is zero.
So, hf = W0
W0
⇒ f=
h
5.11 × 1.6 × 10 −19
=
6.63 × 10 −34
= 1.23 × 1015 Hz

Physics Senior Five 243

 EXERCISE 9-1
1. Complete table 1 below.
Table 1: Applying Einstein’s photoelectric equation in calculations
Maximum
Work Work Frequency KE of
Metal
Function/eV Function/J used /Hz Ejected
electrons/J
Sodium 2.28 6 × 1014
Potassium 3.68 × 10-19 0.32 × 10-19
Lithium 2.9 1 × 1015
Aluminium 4.1 0.35 × 10-19
Zinc 4.3 1.12 × 10-19
Copper 7.36 × 10-19 1 × 1015
2.The stopping potential when a frequency of 1.61 × 1015 Hz is incident
on a metal is 3 V.
(a) What is energy transferred by each photon?
(b) Calculate the work function of the metal.
(c) What is the maximum speed of the ejected electrons?

ACTIVITY 9-2:9-2 Einstein Photoelectric Equation

Aim: To know the concepts and use of photoelectric equation.
It is useful to observe the photoelectric effect equation represented
graphically.
(a) Express equation 9-7 in the form y = a + b, hence or otherwise,
explain how Planck’s constant can be calculated from the, graph.
(b) Express equation 9-8 in the form y = ax + b, hence or otherwise
explain how Planck’s constant can be calculated from the graph.

ACTIVITY 9-3:9-3 Application Photoelectric Equation

Aim: To graphically analyse the use of photoelectric equation.
In an experiment to measure the Planck’s constant, a light emitting
diode (LED) was used. Fig. 1-6 was plotted for varying energy of the
photon and frequency of the diode. Use the graph to answer the questions
that follow.

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 Plot of LED frequency (Hz) against photon energy (eV)
3.50

3.00
Photon Energy (eV)

2.50

2.00E-19
4.50 5.00 5.50 6.00 6.50
LED Frequency (Hz)

Fig. 9-17: Determination of Planck’s constant

(a) Determine the slope of the line.
(b) What are the intercepts of the graph?
(c) Write down the equation of the line.
(d) What do you think is the vertical intercept?
(e) What is the value of the Planck’s constant?
(f) Write the Einstein photoelectric equation in relation to the answer
of (e).

9.13 APPLICATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT

(PHOTO EMISSIVE AND PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS)
Photoelectric effect is applied in photoelectric cells or simply photocells.
These cells change light energy into electric current. Photoelectric cell
makes use of photoelectric effect and hence converts light energy into
electrical energy. The strength of the current depends on the intensity of
light falling on the cathode.
A photocell consists of an evacuated tube which is transparent to radiations
falling on it. It contains two electrodes; a semi-cylindrical cathode coated
with photosensitive material and an anode consisting of a straight wire or
loop.
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 Incoming
light

Sun

Wire anode

Electron
Photoelectric emission
cathode cathode anode

V Symbolic representation
of a photoelectric cell

Fig. 9-18: Photocell design and symbol

When radiations fall on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted which are
collected by the anode if it is positive with respect to the cathode. They,
then, go through the external circuit causing electric current. As intensity
of radiations increases, the number of electrons emitted by photoelectric
effect also increases. Hence current also increases.
An everyday example is a solar powered calculator and a more exotic
application would be solar panels and others.

Fig. 9-19: devices which use photocells

9.14 COMPTON EFFECT

Convincing evidence that light is made up of particles (photons) and photons
have momentum can be seen when a photon with high energy hf collided
with a stationary electron.
Compton effect says that when x-rays are projected on the target, they

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are scattered after hitting the target and change the direction they were
moving. This means that as a photon interacts with a free electron, the
process of photon absorption is forbidden by conservation laws, but the
photon scattering may occur. If the electron was originally at rest, then, as
a result of interaction, it acquires a certain velocity.
The energy conservation laws require that the photon energy decreases by
the value of the electron kinetic energy, which means that its frequency
must also decrease. At the same time, from the viewpoint of the wave
theory, the frequency of scattered light must coincide with the frequency of
incident light.
Y

Graphite target
material
Scattered x-rays with longer
wavelength

f
X
Incident x-rays q

Ejected electron

Fig. 9-20: Compton Effect

The momentum of the photon can be calculated as follows;
Energy of the photon (E) is, E = mc2
E
⇒ m= 2
c
And momentum, P = mc
E
\ P= ×c
c2
E
⇒ P= (9-12)
c
hc
But E = hf =
λ
hc 1
\ P= ×
λ c
h
⇒ P= (9-13)
λ

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The photon scattering on an electron can be considered as an elastic collision
of two particles obeying the energy and momentum conservation laws
END OF UNIT QUESTION
1. Describe briefly the two conflicting theories of the structure of the
atom.
2. Why was the nuclear model of Rutherford accepted as correct?
3. What would have happened if neutrons had been used in Rutherford’s
experiment? Explain your answer.
4. What would have happened if aluminium had been used instead of gold
in the alpha scattering experiment? Explain your answer.
5. What three properties of the nucleus can be deduced from the Rutherford
scattering experiment? Explain your answer.
6. Monochromatic light of wavelength 560 nm incident on a metal
surface in a vacuum photocell causes a current through the cell due to
photoelectric emission from the metal cathode. The emission is stopped
by applying a positive potential of 1.30 V to the cathode with respect to
the anode. Calculate:
(a) the work function of the metal cathode in electron volts.
(b) the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons when
the cathode is at zero potential.
7. In a Compton scattering experiment, the wavelength of scattered
X-rays for scattering angle of 45 degree is found to be 0.024 angstrom.
(a) What is the wavelength of the incident photon?
(b) What is the percentage change in the wavelength on Compton
scattering?
8. You use 0.124-nm x-ray photons in a Compton-scattering experiment.
(a) At what angle is the wavelength of the scattered x-rays 1.0%
longer than that of the incident x-rays?
(b) At what angle is it 0.050% longer?
9. (a) What is the energy in joules and electron volts of a photon of 420-
nm violet light?
(b) What is the maximum kinetic energy of electrons ejected from
calcium by 420-nm violet light, given that the binding energy (or
work function) of electrons for calcium metal is 2.71 eV?

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10. An electron and a positron, initially far apart, move towards each other
with the same speed. They collide head-on, annihilating each other and
producing two photons. Find the energies, wavelengths and frequencies
of the photons if the initial kinetic energies of the electron and positron
are
(a) both negligible and
(b) both 5.000 MeV. The electron rest energy is 0.511 MeV.
11. (a) Calculate the momentum of a visible photon that has a wavelength
of 500 nm.
(b) Find the velocity of an electron having the same momentum.
(c) What is the energy of the electron, and how does it compare with
the energy of the photon?
12. For an electron having a de Broglie wavelength of 0.167 nm (appropriate
for interacting with crystal lattice structures that are about this size):
(a) Calculate the electron’s velocity, assuming it is non-relativistic.
(b) Calculate the electron’s kinetic energy in eV.
13. When a certain photoelectric surface is illuminated with light of
different wavelengths, the following stopping potentials are observed:
Wavelength (nm) Stopping potential (V)
366 1.48
405 1.15
436 0.93
492 0.62
546 0.36
579 0.24
Plot the stopping potential on the vertical axis against the frequency of
the light on the horizontal axis. Determine;
(a) the threshold frequency;
(b) the threshold wavelength;
(c) the photoelectric work function of the material (in electron volts);
(d) the value of Planck’s constant h (assuming that the value of e is
known).
14. The human eye is most sensitive to green light of wavelength 505 nm.
Experiments have found that when people are kept in a dark room
until their eyes adapt to the darkness, a single photon of green light
will trigger receptor cells in the rods of the retina.

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 (a) What is the frequency of this photon?
(b) How much energy (in joules and electron volts) does it deliver to
the receptor cells?
(c) To appreciate what a small amount of energy this is, calculate
how fast a typical bacterium of mass 9.5 × 10–12 g would move if it
had that much energy?
15. The photoelectric work function of potassium is 2.3 eV. If light having
a wavelength of 250 nm falls on potassium, find
(a) the stopping potential in volts;
(b) the kinetic energy in electron volts of the most energetic electrons
ejected;
(c) the speed of these electrons.
16. Describe the photoelectric effect and discuss why the wave theory of
light cannot account for it.
17. Explain how the quantum theory of light accounts for the photoelectric
effect.
18. Compare the quantum and wave theories of light and discuss why both
are needed.
19. Give the basic ideas of the Bohr model of the atom and show how they
follow from the wave nature of moving electrons.
20. Define quantum number, energy level, ground state, and excited state.

UNIT SUMMARY

Structure of atom
An atom is a sphere in which positively charged particles called protons and
negatively charged particles called electrons are embedded.

Rutherford’s atomic model

Rutherford performed experiments by the scattering of alpha particles on
extremely thin gold foils. From these experiments, a new model of the atom
called Rutherford’s planetary model of the atom was born. The following
conclusions were made as regard as atomic structure:
• Most of the mass and all of the charge of an atom concentrated in a
very small region which is called atomic nucleus.
• Nucleus is positively charged and its size is of the order of 10–15 m ≈ 1

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 Fermi.
• In an atom, there is maximum empty space and the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in the same way as the planets revolve around the
sun.
Bohr’s atomic model
Bohr’s model is based on the following postulates:
• Each electron moves in a circular orbit centered at the nucleus.
• The centripetal force needed to the electron moving in a circle is
provided by electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus and
electrons.
h
• The angular momenta of electrons are whole number multiples of
2π
nh
where h is the Planck number. i.e. p = = mvr..
2π
• When electron moves in its allowed orbit, it doesn’t radiate energy.
The atom is then stable, such stable orbits are called stationary orbits.
• When an electron jumps from one allowed orbit to another it radiates
energy. The energy of radiation equals energy difference between
levels.
hf = Ei – Ef
Energy levels and spectral lines of Hydrogen
When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited (or ground
state) state by emitting the energy it had absorbed earlier. Transition from
different orbits cause different wavelengths. These constitute spectral
series which are characteristic of the atom emitting them.
The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra
series. Mainly there are five series and each series is named after its
discover as Lyman series, Balmer series, Paschen series, Brackett series
and Pfund series.

Thermionic emission
Thermionic emission or discharge of electrons from heated materials, is
widely used as a source of electrons in conventional electron tubes (e.g.,
television picture tubes) in the fields of electronics and communications.

Applications of cathode rays

• Cathode ray oscilloscope
• TV tubes

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Fluorescence and phosphorescence
Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light
or other electromagnetic radiation.
Phosphorescence is a specific type of photoluminescence related to
fluorescence. Unlike fluorescence, a phosphorescent material does not
immediately re-emit the radiation it absorbs.

Photoelectric emission laws’

Law 1: The photo current is directly proportional to the intensity of light
and is independent of frequency.
Law 2: The kinetic energy of the photo electrons is directly proportional to
frequency and is independent of intensity.
Law 3: Photoelectric effect does not happen when the incident frequency is
less than a minimum frequency (threshold frequency).
Law 4: There is no time lag between the incidence of photon and emission
of electrons.

Photoelectric effect
The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from the surface of a
metal when electromagnetic radiation (such as visible or ultraviolet light)
shines on the metal.

Factors affecting photoelectric emission

• Intensity of Light:
• Frequency:
• Number of Photoelectrons
• Kinetic Energy of Photoelectrons
Einstein’s equation photoelectric effect
Einstein suggested that the energy of the incident radiation hf was partly
used to free electrons from the binding forces on the metal and the rest
of the energy appeared as kinetic energy of the emitted electrons and his
famous equation is;
hf = Wo + K.emax
If the reverse potential difference applied on the circuit is increased until
no electron reaches the anode, no current flows and this applied potential
is called a stopping potential. This changes the Einstein’s photoelectric
equation to;
h
Vs = (f – fo)
e

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Application of photoelectric effect
Photoelectric effect is applied in photoelectric cells or simply photocells.
These cells change light energy into electric current. Photoelectric cell
makes use of photoelectric effect and hence converts light energy into
electrical energy. The strength of the current depends on the intensity of
light falling on the cathode.

Compton effect
Compton effect says that when x-rays are projected on the target, they
are scattered after hitting the target and change the direction they were
moving.
The Compton equation (or Compton shift) is given by;
h
l′ – l = (1 – cos f)
mc

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254 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY
Sub-Topic Area: ANALOG AND DIGITALSIGNALS
UNIT
10 ANALOG AND
DIGITAL SIGNALS

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit I should be able to

differentiate analog from digital signals.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ explain the transmission of information in a communication

system.

◊ explain with examples the use of digital and analog signals in

everyday applications

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10.1 INTRODUCTION
A signal is any kind of physical quantity that conveys information. Audible
speech is certainly a kind of signal, as it conveys the thoughts (information)
of one person to another through the physical medium of sound. Hand
gestures are signals too. This text is another kind of signal, interpreted by
your English-trained mind as information about electric circuits. In this
unit, the word signal will be used primarily in reference to an electrical
quantity of voltage or current that is used to represent or signify some other
physical quantity.
A communication system is made up of devices that employ one of two
communication methods (wireless or wired), different types of equipment
(portable radios, mobile radios, base/fixed station radios and repeaters)
accessories (examples include speaker microphones, battery eliminators and
carrying cases) and/or enhancements (encryption, digital communications,
security measures, and networking) to meet the user needs.
The most common processing of a signal in a communication system
consists of passing the signal through a linear time-invariant system. In
this context, such a system is often spoken of as a “filter”. These systems
are usually applied to reduce some undesirable components in the signal, to
compensate for some undesirable distortion of the signal, or to accentuate
some characteristic of a signal. This unit discusses digital and analog
signals and their use in modern communication.

10.2 INFORMATION TRANSMISSION
IN A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A communication system comprises of three sections or parts; transmitting
end, propagation medium and receiving end. This is shown on Fig. 10.1
below.
Transmitting end Propagation
medium
Information
Modulator Transmitter
source

Carrier wave

Receiving end

Reception of
Demodulator Receiver
information

The signals from information

Fig. 10.1: source
Block diagram are added
of information to the carrier in the
transmission

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modulator. The modulated signal is sent along a channel in the propagating
medium by a transmitter. The propagation medium is a channel through
which information is transmitted. This may be a cable or free space.
At the receiving end, the receiver may have to select and perhaps amplify the
modulated signal before the demodulator extracts from it the information
signal for delivery to the receptor of information.
A propagation or transmission medium can be classified as;
Linear medium: if different waves at any particular point in medium can
be superposed.
Bounded medium: if it is finite in extent, otherwise unbound.
Uniform medium or homogeneous medium: if its physical properties
are unchanged at different points.
Isotropic medium: if its physical properties are the same in different
directions.

10.3 COMMUNICATION TERMS AND CONCEPTS

ACTIVITY 10-1: Communication terms

Complete the chart below. Give the correct term where it misses.
Term description
1. Receiver 1. A party to whom the sender
transmits the message.
2. Channel
3. Noise
4. The process of sharing the mes-
sages through continuous flow of
symbols.
5. Code

1. Communication is the process of sharing the messages through

continuous flow of symbols.
2. Communicators (Sender/receiver) are the participants in communi-
cation. Typically the roles reverse regularly.
3. Message is a single uninterrupted verbal or nonverbal utterance.
4. Code means a system suitable for creating/carrying messages through

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 a specific medium.
• encode (put into code) and
• decode (take out of code)
5. Channels (verbal, nonverbal, etc.) means the specific mechanism
(“pipeline”) used to transmit the message.
6. Mode of communication (face-to-face, television, web, phone, etc.) -
form or technology of transmission — determines kind of code used.
7. Noise - interference with message — external (physical), internal
(mental) or semantic (misunderstanding/reaction).
8. Environment (part of context) - is that which surrounds and provides
a basis for the meaning of a message:
• Physical (surroundings)
• Temporal (point in time)
• Relational (the existing relationship between communicators -
friends, strangers, etc.)
• Cultural (language and behaviour of community and the
communicator(s) come from)
9. Feedback - checks effects of messages
• positive feedback eg. “keep doing what you’re doing”
• negative feedback eg. “change what you’re doing”.
10. Levels (contexts) of Communication
• Intrapersonal
• Interpersonal
• Public Communication
• Mass Communication (non-interactive)
• Computer Mediated Communication (interactive)

10.4 ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

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 ACTIVITY 10-1
ACTIVITY 10-2: Elements of Communication
Aim: To find out the elementes of communication in a basic
communication model.

Carefully analyse Fig. 10.2 below and describe the elements of commu-
nication available.

Fig.10-2; Communication between two people.

Communication is a two-way process that results in a shared meaning
or common understanding between the sender and the receiver. An
understanding of how communication works can help us to understand
and improve our communication. The basic communication model
consists of five elements of communication: the sender, receiver,
message, channel and feedback.

Sender
The sender is a party that plays the specific role of initiating communication.
To communicate effectively, the sender must use effective verbal as well as
nonverbal techniques. Such as:-
• Speaking or writing clearly.
• Organizing your points to make them easy to follow and understand.
• Maintaining eye contact.
• Using proper grammar.
• Giving accurate information.

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All the above components are essential in the effectiveness of your message.
One will lose the audience if it becomes aware of obvious oversights on ones
part. The sender should have some understanding of who the receiver is, in
order to modify the message to make it more relevant.

Receiver
The receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message.
A receiver can be one person or an entire audience of people. In the basic
communication model, the receiver is directly connected with the speaker.
The receiver can also communicate verbally and nonverbally. The best way
to receive a message is:-
• To listen carefully.
• Sitting up straight.
• Making eye contact.
• Don’t get distracted or try to do something else while you’re listening.
• Nodding and smiling as you listen.
• Demonstrate that you understand the message.

Message
The message is the most crucial element of effective communication which
includes the content a sender conveys to the receiver. A message can come
in many different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document,
an advertisement or just a comment. In the basic communication model, the
way from one point to another represents the sender’s message travelling to
the receiver. The message isn’t necessarily what the receiver perceive it to
be. Rather, the message is what the sender intends the message to be. The
sender must not only compose the message carefully, but also evaluate the
ways in which the message can be interpreted.

Channel
The channel is a medium through which a message travels from the sender
to the receiver. The message travels from one point to another via a channel
of communication. The channel is a physical medium stands between the
sender and receiver.
Many channels or types of communication exist, such as
• The spoken word,
• Radio or television,
• An Internet site or

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• Something written, like a book, letter or magazine.
Every channel of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. For
example, one disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in
a book, is that the receiver cannot evaluate the tone of the message. For this
reason, effective communicators should make written word communications
clear so receivers don’t rely on a specific tone of voice to convey the message
accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication
include its expansive reach to a wide audience and the sender’s ability to
further manipulate the message using editing and special effects.

Feedback
This describes the receiver’s response or reaction to the sender’s message.
The receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making
comments or just supporting the message that was delivered. Feedback
helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted the message
and how it can be improved.

10.5 TYPES OF INFORMATION AND REQUIREMENTS

Constructional/creative information: This includes all information
that is used for the purpose of producing something. Before anything can
be made, the originator mobilizes his intelligence, his supply of ideas, his
know-how, and his inventiveness to encode his concept in a suitable way.
Operational information: All concepts having the purpose of maintaining
some “industry” in the widest sense of the word are included under this kind
of information. Many systems require operational information in the form
of programs for proper functioning. Examples of operational information
include:
• the operating system of a computer (eg. DOS programs),
• the program controlling a robot or a process computer,
• warning systems for airplanes and ships,
• the hormonal system of the body
Communication information: This is composed of all other kinds of
information, eg. letters, books, phone calls, radio transmissions, bird songs
and also the message of the Bible. Aspect of such information does not
include the construction of a product, neither it is involved in maintaining
some process. The goals are transmission of a message, spreading joy,
amusement, instruction and personal confidences.

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10.6 SIMPLEX TRANSMISSION
Simplex transmission is a single one-way base band transmission. Simplex
transmission, as the name implies, is simple. It is also called unidirectional
transmission because the signal travels in only one direction. An example
of simplex transmission is the signal sent from the TV station to the home
television.
Data in a simplex channel is always one way. Simplex channels are not
often used because it is not possible to send back error or control signals to
the transmit end.

Fig.10-3: Simplex transmission

10.7 HALF-DUPLEX COMMUNICATIONS

Half-duplex transmission is an improvement over simplex transmission
because the traffic can travel in both directions. Unfortunately, the road is
not wide enough to accommodate bidirectional signals simultaneously. This
means that only one side can transmit at a time. Two-way radios, such as
police or emergency communications mobile radios, work with half-duplex
transmissions. If people at both ends try to talk at the same time, none of
the transmissions get through.

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 Fig. 10.4: Half duplex communication

10.8 FULL-DUPLEX COMMUNICATIONS

Full-duplex transmission operates like a two-way, two-lane street. Traffic
can travel in both directions at the same time.
A land-based telephone conversation is an example of full-duplex
communication. Both parties can talk at the same time, and the person
talking on the other end can still be heard by the other party while they are
talking. Although when both parties are talking at the same time, it might
be difficult to understand what is being said.
Full-duplex networking technology increases performance because data
can be sent and received at the same time. Digital subscriber line (DSL),
two‑way cable modem, and other broadband technologies operate in
full‑duplex mode. With DSL, for example, users can download data to their
computer at the same time they are sending a voice message over the line.

Fig. 10.5: DSL Communication

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10.9 BANDWIDTH AND SIGNAL FREQUENCY
Frequency is a parameter that determines how often the sinusoidal signal
goes through a cycle. It is usually represented with the symbol f, and it has
the unit hertz.
1
f=
T
Where T is a periodic time and is measured in seconds.
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal. It is typically measured
in hertz, and may sometimes refer to passband bandwidth or baseband
bandwidth, depending on context.

Amplitude

1000 5000 Frequency

Bandwith = 5000-1000=4000

a. Bandwidth of a periodic signal

Amplitude

1000 5000 Frequency

Bandwidth = 5000-1000=4000

b. Bandwith of a nonperiodic signal

Fig. 10.6: Bandwidth and frequency

Mathematically, the bandwidth is given by;
BW = fUSB – fLSB
Where fUSB and fLSB stand for upper side band and lower side band respectively.

10.10 ANALOG SIGNAL SYSTEM

A system is a physical set of components that take a signal and produces a
signal. In terms of engineering, the input is generally some electrical signal
and the output is another electrical signal.
Analog systems operate with values that vary continuously and have no

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abrupt transitions between levels. For a long time, almost all electronic
systems were analog, as most things we measure in nature are analog. For
example, your voice is analogous; it contains an infinite number of levels
and frequencies. Therefore, if you wanted a circuit to amplify your voice, an
analog circuit seems a likely choice.
In Rwanda recently analog systems were replaced by digital systems that
provide greater capacity of data transfer and increased reliability and
security.

10.9.1 Example of an analog electronic system

A public address system
A public address system (PA system) is an electronic sound amplification
and distribution system with a microphone, amplifier and loudspeakers, used
to allow a person to address a large public, for example for announcements
of movements at large and noisy air and rail terminals or a sports stadium.

Fig. 10.7: Public address system

10.11 ANALOG SIGNALS

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Analog signal is a continuous signal that contains time varying quantities.
An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave and may
vary in signal strength (amplitude) or frequency (time). The sine wave’s
amplitude value can be seen as the higher and lower points of the wave,
while the frequency (time) value is measured in the sine wave’s physical
length from left to right.
Amplitude

Time

Fig. 10.8: Analog signal

Analog signal can be used to measure changes in physical phenomenon
such as light, sound, pressure, or temperature. For instance, microphone
can convert sound waves into analog signal. Even in digital devices, there
is typically some analog component that is used to take in information from
the external world which will then get translated into digital form –using
analog to digital converter.

10.12 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

ANALOG SIGNALS
Advantages
• Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds.
• More accurate representation of sound.
• It is the natural form of sound.
• Because of editing limitations, there is little someone can do to tinker
with the sound, so what you are hearing is the original sound.

Disadvantages
• There are limitations in editing.
• Recording analog sound on tape is expensive.
• It is harder to synchronize analogous sound.
• Quality is easily lost if the tape becomes ruined.
• A tape must always be wound and rewound in order to listen to specific

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 part of sound which can damage it.
• Analog is susceptible to clipping where the highest and lowest notes of
a sound are cut out during recording.

10.13 DIGITAL SIGNALS

In electronic signal and information processing and transmission, digital
technology is increasingly being used because, in various applications, digital
signal transmission has many advantages over analog signal transmission.
Numerous and very successful applications of digital technology include the
continuously growing number of PC’s, the communication network ISDN as
well as the increasing use of digital control stations (Direct Digital Control:
DDC).
Unlike analog technology which uses continuous signals, digital technology
encodes the information into discrete signal states. When only two states
are assigned per digital signal, these signals are termed binary signals.
One single binary digit is termed a bit - a contraction for binary digit.
1 bit

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
Fig. 10.9: Digital signal

10.14. ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY

• More capacity from the same number of frequencies; that is, they
provide superior Spectral Efficiency. This is a result of the modulation
methods used, and the fact that, in many cases more than one
‘conversation’ can be accommodated within a single radio channel.
• Consistent voice clarity at low received signal levels near the
edge of coverage. The general consensus is that digital radios provide
better audio quality than analog ones. With analog FM radios, the audio
quality steadily declines as the received signal strength gets weaker.
Digital radios however, will have a consistent audio quality throughout
the full service area. The edges of the coverage area in a digital radio
system are similar to those experienced with cellular telephones.
• Data is defined in the standard. This means data implementations
are no longer proprietary, there are a wide variety of data mechanisms

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 and inter operability can extend into the data domain. With the accepted
increase of efficiency by using data communications over voice, this
will further increase the usability and effectiveness of digital radio
systems.
• Secure transmissions: In digital technologies, data and voice can
be secured using encryption without impacting voice quality using
industry standard encryption techniques.

10.15 COMPARING DIGITAL AND ANALOG SIGNALS

Analog Digital
Signal Analog signal is a continuous Digital signals are discrete time
signal which represents physical signals generated by digital
measurements. modulation.
Waves Denoted by sine waves Denoted by square waves
Representation Uses continuous range of values Uses discrete or discontinuous
to represent information values to represent information
Example Human voice in air, analog Computers, CDs, DVDs and
electronic devices. other digital electronic devices.
Technology Analog technology records Samples analog waveforms into
waveforms as they are. a limited set of numbers and
records them.
Data Subjected to deterioration by Can be noise-immune
transmissions noise during transmission and without deterioration during
write/read cycle. transmission and write / read
cycle.
Response to Noise More likely to get affected by Less affected since noise response
noise, reducing accuracy are analog in nature
Flexibility Analog hardware is not flexible. Digital hardware is flexible in
implementation.
Uses Can be used in analog devices Best suited for Computing and
only. Best suited for audio and digital electronics.
video transmission.
Applications Thermometer PCs, PDAs
Bandwidth Analog signal processing can be There is no guarantee that
done in real time and consumes digital signal processing can be
less bandwidth. done in real time and consumes
more bandwidth to carry out the
same information.
Memory Stored in the form of wave signal Stored in the form of binary bit

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Power Analog instrument draws large Digital instrument draws only
power negligible power
Cost Low cost and portable Cost is high and not easily
portable
Impedance Low High order of 100 megaohm
Errors Analog instruments usually Digital instruments are free
have a scale which is cramped at from observational errors like
lower end and give considerable parallax and approximation
observational errors. errors.

ACTIVITY 10-3
Question on digital and analogue signal.

1. The two basic types of signals are analog and:

A. Digilog

B. Digital

C. Vetilog

D. Sine wave

2. Which of the following characterizes an analog quantity?

A. Discrete levels represent changes in a quantity.

B. Its values follow a logarithmic response curve.

C. It can be described with a finite number of steps.

D. It has a continuous set of values over a given range.

3. Which type of signal is represented by discrete values?

A. Noisy signal

B. Nonlinear

C. Analog

D. Digital

4. A data conversion system may be used to interface a digital computer system to:

A. An analog output device

B. A digital output device

C. An analog input device

D. A digital printer

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10.16 LOGIC GATES
There are three basic logic gates each of which performs a basic logic
function. They are called NOT, AND and OR. All other logic functions can
ultimately be derived from combinations of these three. For each of the
three basic logic gates a summary is given including the logic symbol, the
corresponding truth table and the Boolean expression.

AND gate
A
A.B
B
AND

Fig. 10.10: AND gate

The AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) only if all
its inputs are high. A dot (.) is used to show the AND operation i.e. A.B. It
can also be written as AB.
2 input AND gate
A B AB
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
OR gate
A
A+B
B
OR

Fig. 10.11: OR gate

The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high output (1) if one or
more of its inputs are high. A plus (+) is used to show the OR operation.
2 input OR gate
A B AB
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOT gate

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 A A

NOT

Fig. 10.12: NOT gate

The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces an inverted version of
the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter. If the input variable
is A, the inverted output is known as NOT A. This is also shown as A′, or A.
as shown at the outputs.

NOT gate
A A
0 1
1 0
Another useful gate used in the digital logic circuits is EX–OR gate.

EXOR gate
A
A⊕B
B
EXOR

Fig. 10.13: EX–OR gate

The ‘Exclusive-OR’ gate is a circuit which will give a high output if either,
but not both, of its two inputs are high. An encircled plus sign (⊕) is used
to show the EX–OR operation.

2 input EX–OR gate

A B A⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
ACTIVITY 10-2

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ACTIVITY 10-4: Digital Numbers

Aim: this activity aims at giving the idea on digital numbers and
their applications in different operations.

Question: study the truth tables of OR, AND, NOT and EXOR gates and
complete the table below.

Hint: OR can be considered as the summation and AND can be considered

as multiplication. The last column represents the conversion of the binary
value in decimal. Follow the example given to complete the rest on the
cells in this column.

Use the skills gained above to complete this table:

ACTIVITY 10-5: Digital Circuits

Aim: To give skills on design of electric circuits for logic gates.

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1. Design electrical circuits for AND gate, OR gate and NOT gate.

EXERCISE 10.1
1. Produce a truth table from the following logic circuit (network)

Fig. 10.14: Logic circuit 1

2. For the logic circuits below produce the truth tables. Rember, if there are
2 inputs then there will be 4 outputs; if there are 3 inputs then there will
be 8 possible outputs. Use the ida shown in the logic circuits discussed in
section 10.6.

Fig. 10.15:Logic cicuit 2

UNIT SUMMARY

Information transmission in a communication system

The signals from information source are added to the carrier in the
modulator. The modulated signal is sent along a channel in the propagating
medium by a transmitter. The propagation medium is a channel through
which information is transmitted. This may be a cable or a free space.

Communication Terms and Concepts

• Communication
• Communicator
• Message

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• Medium
• Noise
• Environment
• Feedback
• Levels

Elements of communication
• Sender
• Receiver
• Message
• Channel
• Feedback

Types of information and requirements

• Constructional/creative information
• Operational information
• Communicational information

Simplex transmission
Simplex transmission is a single one-way base band transmission. Simplex
channels are not often used because it is not possible to send back error or
control signals to the transmit end.
Half-duplex communications
Half-duplex transmission is an improvement over simplex because the
traffic can travel in both directions. Full-duplex networking technology
increases performance because data can be sent and received at the same
time.
Bandwidth and signal Frequency
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.
Mathematically, the bandwidth is given by;
BW = fUSB – fLSB
Where FUSB and fLSB stand for upper side band and lower side band
respectively.

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• Medium
• Noise
• Environment
• Feedback
• Levels

Elements of communication
Analogue signal system
Analogue systems operate with values that vary continuously and have no
abrupt transitions between levels.
Analog signals
Analog signal is a continuous signal that contains time varying quantities.
An analog signal is a continuous wave denoted by a sine wave and may vary
in signal strength (amplitude) or frequency (time).
Digital signals
Unlike analog technology which uses continuous signals, digital technology
encodes the information into discrete signal states. Numerous and very
successful applications of digital technology include the continuously
growing number of PC’s, the communication net work ISDN as well as the
increasing use of digital control stations (Direct Digital Control: DDC).
Advantages of digital technology
• More capacity from the same number of frequencies.
• Consistent voice clarity at low received signal levels near the edge of
coverage.
• Data is defined in the standard.
• Secure transmissions.
Logic gates
There are three basic logic gates each of which performs a basic logic
function, they are called NOT, AND and OR. All other logic functions can
ultimately be derived from combinations of these three.

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276 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY
Sub-Topic Area: Analog and Digital Signals
UNIT
11 MOBILE PHONE AND
RADIO COMMUNICATION

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit I should be able to

distinguish mobile phone system from radio system of communication.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ explain the concept and principles of cellular radio network.

◊ explain the need for cellular system in modern mobile
communication.

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11.0 INTRODUCTION
The communication is the way of expressing our thoughts. In other words,
communication means sending or receiving message from one end to
other. We can express our feelings to others by speaking, writing or silent
indications. All living beings communicate to each other in different ways.
They have different types of voices and they understand meaning of voice
of their species. Human has also developed his dialect to communicate with
others. We learn different languages to understand meaning of other’s
dialects.
Devices used to talk, or to send message one end to other, or from one person
to other are called means of communication. Means of Communication are
the most necessary part of modern lifestyle. In modern age, there are many
types of means of communications like newspaper, Telephone, Mobile, TV,
Internet etc. They play very important role in our daily life activities.
This concept is closely related to the concepts of blood circulation (in Biology
and Medicine), transport networks, transmission of information etc.

11.1 CONCEPTS OF TRANSMISSION SYSTEM

In telecommunication, a communication system is a collection of individual
communication networks, transmission systems, relay stations tributary
stations and Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) usually capable of
interconnection and interoperation to form an integrated whole.

Fig.11-1; Basic communication system

In the transmission section, first of all, the source generated information is
fed to the input transducer, which converts energy of one form to another
form, usually in electrical form. This electrical signal or base band signal is
sent to the transmitter.

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Transmitter:
Transmitter modifies the information signal for efficient transmission.
It modulates the information signal with a high frequency carrier. After
processing the signal transmitter transmits the signal, through channel to
the receiver.

Channel:
Channel, media or path implies the medium through which the message
travels from the transmitter to the receiver. A channel acts partly as a filter
to attenuate the signal and distorts its waveform. The signal attenuation
increases with the length of the channel. There are different types of
channels for different communication systems, such as wire, coaxial cable,
wave-guide, optical fiber or radio link through which transmitter output is
sent.

Receiver:
Receiver reprocesses the signal received from the channel by undoing the
signal modifications made at the transmitter and the channel. The receiver
output is fed to the output transducer, which converts the electrical signal
to its original form. By this way, the signal reached to its destination, to
which the message is communicated.

Digital communication:
Digital communication system exchange (both transmit and receive)
information to /from digital sources.
A digital (information) source produces a finite set of possible messages.
Typewriter is a good example of a digital source. There is a finite no. of
characters thatcan be emitted by this source.

Analog communication:
Analog communication system exchange (both transmit and receive)
information to /from analog sources. A microphone is a good example of an
analog source. An analog information source produces messages that are
defined on a continuum.

Why do we use digital not analog?

Digital communication has a number of advantages:
• Relatively inexpensive digital circuits may be used.
• Digital systems are relatively easy to design and can be fabricated on
IC chips.
• Information storage is easy.

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 • Operation can be programmable to update with newly upcoming
technologies.
• Privacy is preserved by using data encryption.
• Greater dynamic range is possible.
• Data from voice, video and data sources may be merged and transmitted
over a common digital transmission system. i.e. it is easy to multiplex
several digital signals.
• In long distance communication system, noise does not accumulate
from repeater to repeater.
• Error detection and correction schemes can be employed by using
coding techniques.

Limitations of Digital communication system

• Generally, more bandwidth is required than that for analog system.
• Synchronization is required, which calls for more sophisticated device
and costs more.
A/D converter
We use analog to digital converter, to convert analog signals to digital
signals.
A/D conversion has three steps:

(a) Sampling
In this process, Continuous-time signal is converted to Discrete-time signal
obtained by taking samples of the continuous-time signal at discrete-time
instants.

(b) Quantization
In this process, a Discrete-time Continuous- valued signal is converted
into a Discrete-time Discrete-valued (digital) signal. The sampled signal is
rounding off to the fourth nearest value which is permitted for transmission
by the system. The process of rounding off is called Quantization, while the
possible levels permitted for transmission are called Quantizing levels.

(c) Coding
In the coding process, each discrete value is represented by 8-bit binary
sequence e.g. 10010101. It consists of combinations of 0 and 1.

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11.2 PRINCIPLE OF CELLULAR RADIO
The cellular concept was a major breakthrough in solving the problem of
spectral congestion and user capacity. It offered very high capacity output
in a limited spectrum allocation without any major technological changes.
The cellular concept is a system-level idea which calls for replacing a single,
high power transmitter (large cell) with many low power transmitters (small
cells), each providing coverage to only a small portion of the service area.
Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels
available to the entire system, and nearby base stations are assigned
different groups of channels so that all the available channels are assigned
a relatively small number of neighbouring base stations. Neighbouring base
stations are assigned different groups of channels so that the interference
between base stations (and the mobile users under their control) is
minimized.
By systematically spacing base stations and their channel groups throughout
a market, the available channels are distributed throughout the geographic
region and may be reused as many times as necessary so long as the
interference between co-channel stations is kept below acceptable levels.

11.3 STRUCTURE OF CELLULAR NETWORK

An overall cellular network contains a number of different elements from
the base transceiver station (BTS) itself with its antenna back through
a base station controller (BSC), and a mobile switching centre (MSC)
to the location registers (HLR and VLR) and the link to the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
Of the units within the cellular network, the BTS provides the direct
communication with the mobile phones. There may be a small number of
base stations linked to a base station controller. This unit acts as a small
centre to route calls to the required base station, and it also makes some
decisions about which base station is the best suited for a particular call.
The links between the BTS and the BSC may use either land lines of even
microwave links. Often the BTS antenna towers also support a small
microwave dish antenna used for the link to the BSC. The BSC is often
co-located with a BTS.
The BSC interfaces with the mobile switching centre. This makes more
widespread choices about the routing of calls and interfaces to the land line
based PSTN as well as the location registers.

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 Fig.11-2; Structure of cellular network

11.4 PRINCIPLE OF CELLULAR NETWORK

Increase in demand and the poor quality of existing service led mobile
service providers to research ways to improve the quality of service and
to support more users in their systems. Because the amount of frequency
spectrum available for mobile cellular use was limited, efficient use of the
required frequencies was needed for mobile cellular coverage. In modern
cellular telephony, rural and urban regions are divided into areas according
to specific provisioning guidelines.
Deployment parameters, such as amount of cell-splitting and cell sizes,
are determined by engineers experienced in cellular system architecture.
Provisioning for each region is planned according to an engineering plan
that includes cells, clusters, frequency reuse, and handovers.

Cells
A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The term cellular
comes from the honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region
is divided. Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas
that are represented as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending on the
landscape. Because of constraints imposed by natural terrain and man-
made structures, the true shape of cells is not a perfect hexagon

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Clusters
A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster.
Fig.11-2 illustrates a seven-cell cluster. In clustering, all the available
frequencies are used once and only once. As shown on Fig.11-3, each cell
has a base station and any mobile user moving remains connected due to
hand-offs between the stations.

Fig.11-3: Cluster

Frequency Reuse
Because only a small number of radio channel frequencies were available
for mobile systems, engineers had to find a way to reuse radio channels in
order to carry more than one conversation at a time. The solution was called
frequency planning or frequency reuse. Frequency reuse was implemented
by restructuring the mobile telephone system architecture into the cellular
concept.
The concept of frequency reuse is based on assigning to each cell a group of
radio channels used within a small geographic area. Cells are assigned a
group of channels that is completely different from neighbouring cells. The
coverage area of cells are called the footprint. This footprint is limited by a
boundary so that the same group of channels can be used in different cells
that are far enough away from each other so that their frequencies do not
interfere.

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 Fig.11.4; Frequency reuse.
Cells with the same number have the same set of frequencies. Here, because
the number of available frequencies is 7, the frequency reuse factor is 1/7.
That is, each cell is using 1/7 of available cellular channels.

Cell Splitting
Unfortunately, economic considerations made the concept of creating full
systems with many small areas impractical. To overcome this difficulty,

Fig.11.5; Cell splitting

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system operators developed the idea of cell splitting. As a service area
becomes full of users, this approach is used to split a single area into
smaller ones. In this way, urban centers can be split into as many areas
as necessary in order to provide acceptable service levels in heavy-traffic
regions, while larger, less expensive cells can be used to cover remote rural
regions.

Handoff
The final obstacle in the development of the cellular network involved the
problem created when a mobile subscriber travelled from one cell to another
during a call. As adjacent areas do not use the same radio channels, a call
must either be dropped or transferred from one radio channel to another
when a user crosses the line between adjacent cells. Because dropping the
call is unacceptable, the process of handoff was created. Handoff occurs
when the mobile telephone network automatically transfers a call from
radio channel to radio channel as a mobile crosses adjacent cells.

Fig.11.6; Handoff
During a call, two parties are on one voice channel. When the mobile unit
moves out of the coverage area of a given cell site, the reception becomes
weak. At this point, the cell site in use requests a handoff. The system

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switches the call to a stronger-frequency channel in a new site without
interrupting the call or alerting the user. The call continues as long as the
user is talking, and the user does not notice the handoff at all.

11.5 MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS

Mobile communication systems have become one of the hottest areas in the
field of telecommunications and it is predicted that within the next decade,
a considerable number of connections will become partially or completely
wireless. Rapid development of the Internet with its new services and
applications has created fresh challenges for the further development of
mobile communication systems.
We can say that mobile communication system is a high capacity
communication system arranged to establish and maintain continuity of
communication paths to mobile stations passing from the coverage of one
radio transmitter into the coverage of another radio transmitter. A control
center determines mobile station locations and enables a switching center
to control dual access trunk circuitry to transfer an existing mobile station
communication path from a formerly occupied cell to a new cell location.
The switching center subsequently enables the dual access trunk to release
the call connection to the formerly occupied cell.

ACTIVITY 11-1: The Concept of Communication

Aim: this activity aim at understanding the concept of
communication.
a) The figure below shows the Amahoro village. Explain all the possible
ways of communication according to the infrastructure shown.

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b) Use the equipment below and create 2 communication stories. You
must use at least 4 equipments.

11.6 RADIO TRANSMISSION (AM, FM, PM)

Modulation is a technique used for encoding information into a RF channel.
Typically the process of modulation combines an information signal with
a carrier signal to create a new composite signal that can be transmitted
over a wireless link. In theory, a message signal can be directly sent into
space to a receiver by simply powering an antenna with the message signal.
However, message signals typically don’t have a high enough bandwidth
to make efficient direct propagation. In order to efficiently transmit data,
the lower frequency data must be modulated onto a higher frequency wave.

Fig.11-7; Signal transmission

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The high frequency wave acts as a carrier that transmits the data through
space to the receiver where the composite wave is demodulated and the
data is recovered. There are a few general types of modulation; Frequency
Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM) and Amplitude modulation (AM).

Frequency modulation (FM)

This is a kind of modulation which is used in every high broadcasts. The
frequency of the carrier is altered at a rate equal to the frequency of the
audio frequency but the amplitude remains constant.

Fig.11-8; Frequency modulation

Frequency modulation is widely used for FM radio broadcasting. It is
also used in telemetry, radar, seismic prospecting monitoring newborns
(for seizures via Electroencephalography), two-way radio systems, music
synthesis, magnetic tape-recording systems and some video-transmission
systems. In radio transmission, an advantage of frequency modulation is
that it has a larger signal-to-noise ratio and therefore rejects radio frequency
interference better than an equal power amplitude modulation (AM) signal.
For this reason, most music is broadcast over FM radio.

Amplitude modulation (AM)

In amplitude modulation, the information signal is used to vary the
amplitude of the carrier so that it follows the wave shape of information
signal. Here, before the information is transmitted, it is first mixed to a
carrier signal so that it can be transmitted over a long distance with low
attenuation.

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 Fig.11-9; Amplitude modulation
The modulated signal contains other frequencies called side frequencies
which are created on either sides of the carrier. If the carrier frequency is
fc and modulated frequency is fm, two new frequencies are fc – fm and fc + fm.

Band width, BW = (fc + fm) – (fc – fm) = 2fm

Fig.11-10; Side frequencies of amplitude modulation

Phase modulation (PM)

Phase modulation is a form of modulation that encodes information as
variations in the instantaneous phase of the carrier wave. It is widely
used for transmitting radio waves and is an integral part of many digital
transmission coding schemes that underlie a wide range of technologies
like WiFi, GSM and satellite television. In this type of modulation, the
amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains unchanged after
PM. The modulating signal is mapped to the carrier signal in the form of
variations in the instantaneous phase of the carrier signal.

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Phase modulation is closely related to frequency modulation and is often
used as intermediate step to achieve FM.

Fig.11-11; Phase modulation

11.7 POST, TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE (PTT)

A postal, telegraph and telephone service (or PTT) is a government
agency responsible for postal mail, telegraph and telephone services. Such
monopolies existed in many countries, though not in North America or
Japan. Many PTTs have been partially or completely privatized in recent
years. In some of those privatizations, the PTT was renamed completely,
whereas in others, the name of the privatized corporation has been only
slightly modified.
Postal services transport mail and small packages to destinations around
the world, and they are mostly public corporations. However, there has
been increased privatization of postal operators in the past 20 years, and
government restrictions on private postal services have eased. Postal
authorities are often also involved in telecommunications, logistics, financial
services and other business areas.
Rwanda is part of the Universal Postal Union, which recommends a
maximum of 9,000 people per one post office branch. The ‘iPosita Rwanda’
is the company responsible for postal service in Rwanda.
A telegraph is a communication system in which information is transmitted
over a wire through a series of electrical current pulses, usually in the form
of Morse code. The basic components include a source of direct current, a
length of wire or cable, and a current-indicating device such as a relay,
buzzer or light bulb.

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Telephony is the technology associated with the electronic transmission
of voice, fax, or other information between distant parties using systems
historically associated with the telephone, a handheld device containing
both a speaker or transmitter and a receiver. With the arrival of computers
and the transmission of digital information over telephone systems and
the use of radio to transmit telephone signals, the distinction between
telephony and telecommunication has become difficult.

ACTIVITY 11-2: Structure of Communication Networks

Aim: The purpose of this activity is to give the real structure of

communication network and the terms used.

Procedure: Use the following clues to fill the puzzle. The sentences to help
in filling the puzzle are also given below.
ANTENNA, CAMERA , CELLULAR, FAX, FILM, HEADPHONE,
KEYBOARD, LENS, MICROPHONE, PEN, PLUG, PRINTER, RADIO,
SATELLITE, SPEAKER, TELEPHONE, TELEVISION, TRIPOD,
TURNTABLE, VIDEO.

ACROSS:
4. I’m out of my office. I’m calling you on my ………… telephone.
8. The signal bounces off a …………… high up in outer space.
10. The …………… needs a new link cartridge.
13. The …………… makes his voice sound much louder.
16. The sound from the radio can out of a …………….
17. I have the car ………………. tuned to my favorite station.
18. I used a …….. to write a letter.
20. I type on my computer ………………

DOWN:
1. You have to ……….. it in before it will work.
2. I bought a new …….. for my camera.
3. On the airplane everyone listened to the movie through …………
4. The ….. on my car helps distant radio stations come in more clearly.
5. My favorite ………. Channel is the one that carries Oprah.

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6. What is your ………… number? I’ll call you tomorrow.
7. That ……… was directed by Steven Spielberg
8. You play vinyl records on a ………….
9. He took photographs of their vacation with his digital ………….
10. The band shot a ……….. of their latest song.
11 …………… is short for facsimile.
12. The camera was perched on a ……………

END OF UNIT QUESTIONS

1. What is amplitude modulation?
2. What is modulation?
3. What are the different types of analog modulation?
4. What is the need for modulation?
5. What are the objectives met by modulation?
6. What is frequency modulation?

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 UNIT SUMMARY

Concepts of transmission system

In telecommunication, a communication system is a collection of
individual communication networks, transmission systems, relay stations,
tributary stations, and data terminal equipment (DTE) usually capable of
interconnection and interoperation to form an integrated whole.

Principle of cellular radio

The cellular concept is a major breakthrough in solving the problem of
spectral congestion and user capacity. It involves dividing the area into
small parts called cells. The neighbouring base stations are assigned
different groups of channels so that the interference between base stations
(and the mobile users under their control) is minimized. It offers very high
capacity in a limited spectrum allocation without any major technological
changes.

Structure of cellular network

An overall cellular network contains a number of different elements from
the base transceiver station (BTS) itself with its antenna back through
a base station controller (BSC) and a mobile switching centre (MSC) to
the location registers (HLR and VLR) and the link to the public switched
telephone network (PSTN).
The BSC is often co-located with a BTS. The BSC interfaces with the mobile
switching centre. This makes more widespread choices about the routing
of calls and interfaces to the land line based PSTN as well as the HLR and
VLR.

Principle of cellular network

Because the amount of frequency spectrum available for mobile cellular use
was limited, efficient use of the required frequencies was needed for mobile
cellular coverage. In modern cellular telephony, rural and urban regions
are divided into areas according to specific provisioning guidelines.

Modulation techniques
Modulation is a technique used for encoding information into a RF channel.
There are a few general types of modulation; Frequency Modulation (FM),
Phase Modulation (PM), and Amplitude modulation (AM).

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292 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: Relativity and Particle Physics
Sub-Topic Area: Concepts and Postulates
of Special Relativity
UNIT
12 RELATIVITY CONCEPTS AND
POSTULATES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit, I be able to analyse

Relativity Concepts and postulates of special relativity.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ Explain the concept of general and special relativity.

◊ Explain the concept of the frames of reference and apply it in other theories.

12.0 INTRODUCTION
The general theory of relativity developed in the early 20th century, originally
attempted to account for certain anomalies in the concept of relative motion.
But it has developed into one of the most important basic concepts in
physical science. The theory of relativity, developed primarily by German
American physicist Albert Einstein, is the basis for later demonstration by
physicists of the essential unity of matter and energy of space and time of
gravity and acceleration.

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12.1 DEFINITION OF RELATIVITY
This is a theory developed by Albert Einstein which says that anything
except light moving with respect to the time and space depends on the
position and movement of the observer. Einstein’s special theory of relativity
(special relativity) is all about what’s relative and what’s absolute about
time, space and motion.
The theory states that the laws of motion are the same for all inertial
(non‑accelerating) frames of reference and that the speed of light (in a
vacuum) is the same for all inertial reference frames. This leads to the
equivalence of mass and energy, time dilation, and length contraction.
Special relativity requires us to think of space and time as inextricably
linked. All our measurements of distance and time depend on the motion
of the observer. The effects of time dilation and length contraction are only
observed at very high speeds (close to the speed of light).

12.2 CONCEPT OF SPACE, TIME AND MASS

Time Dilation
Time dilation is the phenomenon where two objects, moving with respect
to each other (or even just a different intensity of gravitational field from
each other) experience different rates of time flow.
Time dilation becomes most apparent when one of the objects is moving at
nearly the speed of light, but it manifests at even slower speeds. Here are
just a few ways we know time dilation actually takes place:
• Clocks in airplanes click at different rates from clocks on the ground.
• Putting a clock on a mountain (thus elevating it, but keeping it
stationary relative to the ground-based clock) results in slightly
different rates.
• The Global Positioning System (GPS) has to adjust for time dilation.
Ground-based devices have to communicate with satellites. To work,
they have to be programmed to compensate for the time differences
based on their speeds and gravitational influences.
Let’s construct a light beam clock. It consists of two mirrors, one at a
distance D above the other. At t = 0, we launch a photon of light upwards
from the bottom of the mirror. It reflects from the top mirror and returns to
its starting position, use c as the speed of the photon;
t0 = 2 D ………. Equation 12-1
c
[Distance up and down (2D) divided by the speed of light.]

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 D

Fig. 12.1. Two mirrors, one at a distance D above the other.

This is the time for one tick of our clock. At least this shows how it seems
to someone at rest with respect to the clock. But how does this appear to an
observer watching us and our clock moves by at constant velocity v? This
observer sees the events as pictured below.

2 2
D +L

D
L L

Fig. 12.2. When the photon hits the top mirror and the whole clock has
moved a distance L to the right.
First, the photon is released. When the photon hits the top mirror, the
whole clock has moved a distance L to the right. Thus, the photon travelled
a longer distance D2 + L2 as seen by this other observer. When it returns
to the bottom mirror, it has travelled a distance 2 D2 + L2 still at speed c
(recall all observers measure this same speed). Thus, Dt (the time for 1 tick
according to the new observer)
2 D2 + L2
t= ……….Equation 12-2
c
Now, the clock is seen as moving at velocity v by our new observer.
2L = vt
4L2 = v2t2
Solve for t from equation 12-2
2 2
t= 2 D +L
c
So c2t2 = 4(D2 + L2)
Substituting in the above equation 4L2 =v2t2, we have
c2t2 = 4D2 + v2t2
⇒ 4D2 = c2t2 – v2t2
⇒ t2 = =

But t0 = 2D [from equation (12.1)]

c

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 2
so t02 = 4D2 and we find that
c
t2 =

⇒ t= ……….Equation 12-3

t = gt0 ……….Equation 12-4

where g= ……….Equation 12-5

Since nothing can travel faster than light, therefore, g ≥ 1 and it appears to the
observer who watches the clock go by at velocity v that it takes longer to tick
(Dt > Dt0) or runs slowly compared to his own clock. This is called time
dilation and is a property of time, not just our unusual clock.
EXAMPLE 12.1
An astronaut travels to a distant planet with a speed of 0.5c. According to
his clock, the trip takes one year.
(a) How long does the trip appear to take to an observer on the earth?
(b) How fast should the astronaut travel so that the travel time appears
two years to the observer on the earth?
Solutions
(a) The time measured in the spacecraft is the proper time since the
clocks in the spacecraft are at rest with respect to the astronaut. So,
1yr
Dt = = = 1.15 yr
1 – (0.5) 2

(b) Dt = 2DtP =

= 1/2
⇒ 1 – v /c = 1/4
2 2

v = 0.866c
Length Contraction
If we turn our light beam clock to face in the direction of motion, time
dilation implies length contraction. If the observer at rest with respect
to the clock (now a ruler) says it has proper length L0, then an observer
on the earth watching him and his clock/ruler by velocity v sees the ruler
having length L. Objects look shorter (they are contracted) in the direction
of motion.

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 L vt1

A A' C C'
Fig. 12.3. Length contraction.
t1 = time out
t2 = time back
L + vt1 = ct1 ⇒ t1 = ……….Equation 12-6

Similarly, L – vt2 = ct2 ⇒ t2 = L ……….Equation 12-7

c+v
t = t1 + t2 =

But t= (equation 12-3)

Since t is the total time (out and back), using equation (12-1);
ct0 = 2L0

L = L0 ……….Equation 12-8

Substituting equation (12-5) gives

………. Equation 12-9

EXAMPLE 12.2
A metre stick zips by you with a speed of 0.9c. The length of the stick is
along its direction of motion. How long does it appear to be?

Solution:
L = Lp = 1m 1 – (0.9) 2 = 0.44 m
Momentum, Mass and Energy
Einstein found that momentum;

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 p = gp0 and hence m = gm0
\
m= m
2
1 – v2
c

p= = gmv ………. Equation 12-10

EXAMPLE 12.3
A proton travels at a speed of 0.9c. Compare its relativistic and classical
momenta.
Solutions:
pcl = mv = (1.67 × 10­–27 kg)(0.9 × 3 × 108 m/s)
= 4.51 × 10–19kg.m/s

As v → c, m → ∞. Thus, infinite energy would be needed to accelerate an

object to the speed of light. Einstein showed the total energy of a free body;
E = mc2 = m0c2 + k.e
where m0c2 is the mass energy of the body.
As space and time are united in the theory, so are momentum and energy.
We see here m0 is rest mass, p is momentum and c is speed of light.
E2 = p2c2 + m02c4 ……….Equation 12-11
if no potential energy terms exist.
But also E = hf
\ h2f 2 = p2c2 + m02c4
If the rest mass is zero,
hf
p= E = = h ……….Equation 12-12
c e λ

EXAMPLE 12.4
An electron has a speed of 0.8c. What is its kinetic energy?

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Solution:

KE = mc2 – mc2
2 2
1 – v /c

= 1.37 × 10–13 J – 8.2 × 10–14 J = 5.5 × 10–14­ J

or comparison, the classical expression for KE would give

KE = 1 mv2 = 1 (9.11 × 10–31 kg)(0.8 × 3 × 108 m/s)2 = 2.62 × 10–14J

2 2

EXERCISE 12.1
1. An electron has a speed of 0.1c. What is its kinetic energy?
2. Calculate the rest mass energy of the electron in electron volts.
3. Find the kinetic energy released in the fusion reaction given below:
3
2
He + 12D → 24He + 11He
The rest mass energies of the nuclei are:
3
2
He : 2,809.4 MeV

2
1
D : 1,876.1 MeV

4
2
He : 3,728.4 MeV

1
1
He : 938.8 MeV

12.3 CONCEPT OF FRAME OF REFERENCE

Imagine you threw and caught a ball while you were on a train moving at
a constant velocity past a station. To you, the ball appears to simply travel
vertically up and then down under the influence of gravity. However, to an
observer stood on the station platform, the ball would appear to travel in
a parabola, with a constant horizontal component of velocity equal to the
velocity of the train. This is illustrated in Fig.12-4 below.

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 V V

Fig. 12.4. The concept of the frames of reference.

The different observations occur because the two observers are in different
frames of reference.
A frame of reference is a set of coordinates that can be used to determine
positions and velocities of objects in that frame; different frames of
reference move with respect to one another.
This means that when you are standing on the ground, that is your frame
of reference. Anything that you see, watch or measure will be compared to
the reference point of the ground. If a person is standing in the back of a
moving truck, the truck is now the frame of reference and everything will
be measured compared to it.

Types of Frame of Reference

There are two types of frames of reference.
Inertial Frame of Reference: It is a frame of reference in which a body
remains at rest or moves with constant linear velocity unless acted upon
by forces. Any frame of reference that moves with constant velocity with
respect to an inertial system is itself an inertial system. In other words, it
is the frame of reference in which Newton’s first law of motion holds good.
Non-inertial Frame of Reference: This is a frame of reference that is
undergoing acceleration with respect to an inertial frame. An accelerometer
at rest in a non-inertial frame will in general detect a non-zero acceleration.
In this frame of reference, Newton’s first law of motion does not hold good.

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 Fig. 12.5. Frames of reference.

12.4 GALILEAN EQUATION OF TRANSFORMATION

Galilean transformations, also called Newtonian transformations, are set
of equations in classical physics that relate the space and time coordinates
of two systems moving at a constant velocity with respect to each other.
Galilean transformations formally express the ideas that space and time
are absolute; that length, time, and mass are independent of the relative
motion of the observer; and that the speed of light depends upon the relative
motion of the observer.
Let there be two inertial frames of references S and S′ where S is the
stationary frame of reference and S′ is the moving frame of reference. At
time t = t′ = 0, i.e., in the start, they are at the same position, i.e., observers
O and O′ coincide. After that S′ frame starts moving with a uniform velocity
v along x axis.
Let an event happen at position A in
y y′
the frame S′. The coordinate of the P v

will be x′ according to O′, the observer

in S′ and it will be x according to O in x = vt + x′
A
S. The frame S′ has moved a distance vt x′
vt in time t. O′
O
The Galilean transformation relates x x′

the coordinates of events as measured

in both frames. Given the absolute
nature of time, Newtonian physics, it z z′
is the same for both frames. So, this
Fig. 12.6. Galilean Transformations.
may look over-elaborate if we write
t = t′

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It is seen that in direction y and z, displacements remain the same. So, we
may summarise these displacements as:
x = x′ + vt
y = y′
z = z′
This set of equations is known as the Galilean Transformation. They enable
us to relate a measurement in one inertial reference frame to another.

EXAMPLE 12.5
If a vehicle is moving in x-direction in system S, then what would be the
velocity of the vehicle in S’?

and
\

⇒
ACTIVITY 12-1: Frames of Reference

Aim: this activity aims at explaining the frames of reference.

a) How many passengers are moving? How many passengers are not
moving? Explain your answer

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b) How many images there on the frame? Explain your answer. (do not
consider the ground and the sky)

12.5 POSTULATES OF SPECIAL THEORY OF

RELATIVITY
With two deceptively simple postulates and a careful consideration of how
measurements are made, Einstein produced the theory of special relativity.
First postulate: The Principle of Relativity
This states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of
reference.
This postulate relates to reference frames. It says that there is no preferred
frame and, therefore, no absolute motion.
To understand the meaning of this postulate, consider the following
situation.
You are sitting in a train that is stopped at a railway station. Another train
is facing the opposite direction on the track directly beside you. Ten minutes
before your train is due to leave, you look out through the window at the
other train and see that it is slowly starting to move relative to yours. Your
first reaction would probably be one of surprise: your train was leaving

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early! After passing the train from your window, you might notice that the
station was still there, and you realize that it was the other train that was
moving.

Second postulate: The Principle of Invariant Light Speed

The speed of light is a constant, independent of the relative motion of the
source and observer.
The speed of light in vacuum (c = 3 × 108 m/s ) is so high that we do not notice
a delay between the transmission and reception of electromagnetic waves
under normal circumstances. The speed of light in vacuum is actually the
only speed that is absolute and the same for all observers as was stated in
the second postulate.

12.6 CONCEPT OF SIMULTANEITY

The concept of simultaneity says that two events that are simultaneous to
one observer are not necessarily simultaneous to a second observer. Both
observers are correct in their observations -- there is no best or preferred
frame of reference.
If the speed of light is the same in all moving coordinate systems, this means
that events that occur simultaneously in one system may not be observed as
being simultaneous in another coordinate system.
An example is illustrated in the Fig. 12.7 below.

v v

O′ O′
A′ A′ B′

A B A B
O O

(a) (b)
Fig. 12.7. The concept of simultaneity.
An observer O′ stands in the middle of a moving boxcar and another observer
O stands at rest beside the track. When the positions of the observers
coincide, a lightning bolt strikes at each end of the boxcar, leaving mass on
the ground and at each end of the boxcar. The light from the lightning strikes
at A and B reaches to observer O at the same time, so observer O′ concludes
that the lightning strikes occurred simultaneously. But to observer O′ in
the moving boxcar, the lightning strikes do not appear to occur at the same

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time. The light traveling from A′ to O′ travels further than the light from B′
to O′. Because of the motion, O′ moves towards the incoming beam from B′
and away from the incoming beam from A′. So to observer O′ the strike at
B′ appeared to occur before the strike at A′.

END OF UNIT QUESTIONS

1. If you were on a spaceship travelling at 0.50c away from a star, when
would the starlight pass you?
2. Does time dilation mean that time actually passes more slowly in
moving references frames or that it only seems to pass more slowly?
3. If you were travelling away from the Earth at 0.50c, would you notice
a change in your heartbeat? Would your mass, height, or waistline
change? What would observers on the earth using a telescope to see
you say about you?
4. What happens to the relativistic factor when objects travel
at normal everyday velocities?
5. A spaceship travels at 0.99c for 3 years ship time. How much time
would pass on the earth?
6. A spaceship is travelling at a speed of 0.94c. It has gone from the earth
for a total of 10 years as measured by the people of the earth. How
much time will pass on the spaceship during its travel?
7. A spaceship has gone from the earth for a total time of 5 years ship
time. The people on the earth have measured the time for the ship to
be away to 25 years. How fast was the ship travelling?
8. A 520 m long (measured when the spaceship is stationary) spaceship
passes by the earth. What length would the people on the earth say the
spaceship was as it passed the earth at 0.87c?
9. A 25 m long beam is shot past a stationary space station at 0.99c. What
length does the people on board the space station measure the beam to
be?
10. A 100 m long steel beam is moving past the earth. Observers on the
earth actually measure the steel beam to be only 50 m long. How fast
was the beam travelling?

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 UNIT SUMMARY

Definition of relativity
Anything except light moves with respect to time and space depends on the
position and movement of someone who is watching.

Concept of space, time and mass

• Time Dilation
Time dilation is the phenomenon where two objects moving relative
to each other (or even just a different intensity of gravitational field
from each other) experience different rates of time flow. The total
time is given by
t = gt0
where g= 1
1 – v2/c2
• Length Contraction
If we turn our light beam clock to face in the direction of motion, time
dilation implies length contraction.
L = L0 1 – v2/c2
Postulates of special theory of relativity
• First postulate
This states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference.
This postulate relates to reference frames. It says that there is no
preferred frame and, therefore, no absolute motion.
• Second postulate
This states that speed of light, c is a constant, independent of the
relative motion of the source and observer.

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 Topic Area: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Sub-Topic Area: EM WAVES AND
INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT
UNIT
13 INTERFERENCE OF
LIGHT WAVES

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit I should be able to

perform experiment for interference of light waves.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ explain the concept of wave interferences and their applications in our daily
life.

◊ explain the interaction of electromagnetic radiations with the earth.

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13.0. INTRODUCTION
Sun is a nuclear fireball spewing energy in all directions. The light that
we see it simply one part of the energy that the Sun makes that our eyes
can detect. When light travels between two places (from the Sun to the
Earth or from a flashlight to the sidewalk in front of you on a dark night),
energy makes a journey between those two points. The energy travels in the
form of waves (similar to the waves on the sea but about 100 million times
smaller)—a vibrating pattern of electricity and magnetism that we call
electromagnetic energy. If our eyes could see electricity and magnetism, we
might see each ray of light as a wave of electricity vibrating in one direction
and a wave of magnetism vibrating at right angles to it. These two waves
would travel in phase and at the speed of light.

13.1. NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer electrical and
magnetic energy. An electromagnetic wave consists of vibrating electric
and magnetic fields that move through space at the speed of light. In other
words electromagnetic waves have electric and magnetic fields varying
perpendicularly as shown on Fig.13.1.
Magnetic field

Source

Direction
Electric field

Fig. 13.1. Varying electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic wave.

13.1.1 Producing electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are produced by charged particles and every charged
particle has an electric field surrounding it. The electric field produces
electric forces that can push or pull on other particles.
When a charged particle moves, it produces a magnetic field which exerts

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magnetic forces that act on certain materials.
When this charged particle changes its motion, its magnetic field changes
and causes the electric field to change. When one field vibrates, so does the
other and the two fields constantly cause each other to change and this
produces an Electromagnetic wave.
Many properties of electromagnetic waves can be explained by a wave model
and some other properties are best explained by a particle model. Both a
wave model and a particle model are needed to explain all of the properties
of electromagnetic waves and in particular light.

13.1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation

Water waves transmit energy through space by the periodic oscillation of
matter (the water). In contrast, energy that is transmitted, or radiated,
through space in the form of periodic oscillations of electric and magnetic
fields is known as electromagnetic radiation. In a vacuum, all forms of
electromagnetic radiation—whether microwaves, visible light, or gamma
rays—travel at the speed of light (c), this is about a million times faster
than the speed of sound.
All forms of electromagnetic radiation consist of mutually perpendicular
oscillating electric and magnetic fields. Because the electromagnetic
radiations have same speed (c), they differ only in their wavelength and
frequency.

13.1.3 Electromagnetic spectrum

When you tune your radio, watch TV, send a text message, or pop popcorn
in a microwave oven, you are using electromagnetic energy. You depend on
this energy every hour of every day. Without it, the world you know would
not exist.
Electromagnetic energy travels in waves and spans a broad spectrum from
very long radio waves to very short gamma rays. The human eye can only
detect only a small portion of this spectrum called visible light. A radio
detects a different portion of the spectrum, and an x-ray machine uses yet
another portion.

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 Increasing energy

Increasing wavelength

0.0001nm 0.01nm 10nm 1000nm 0.01cm 1cm 1m 100m

Ultra
Gamma rays X-rays violet Infrared rays Radio waves
rays
Radar TV FM   AM

Visible light

400nm 500nm 600nm 700nm

Violet Blue Green Yellow orange Red
Fig. 13.2. Electromagnetic spectrum

Generation, properties and uses of those waves are summarized in the table
below:

Type Examples of Main properties and uses

generation
Gamma • Radioactive decay • Can not be deflected by electric
rays • Nuclear fission and and magnetic fields
fusion reactions • They have high penetrating
power.
• Have short wavelength
• Sterlize equipment
x-rays Rapid deceleration of • Not deflected by electric and
electrons magnetic fields
• They eject electrons from matter
• They produce fluorescence
• Can penetrate matter
• They kill cancer cells
Ultraviolet Atomic transitions e.g. • Produce fluorescence
in mercury vapour • Increase chemical reactions
lamps • Absorbed by glass
Visible Atomic transitions e.g. • Stimulates the retina
in laser, in lamps • Initiates photosynthesis
Infrared • Atomic transitions • Produces heating
• Molecular vibration • Used in right sights

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Microwave Magnetrons Radar
Radio Electrical oscillations Radio communication
waves

ACTIVITY 13-1: Spectrum of Electromagnetic Waves

Aim: In this activity, you will investigate the spectrum of visible

light

Materials needed: a white sheet of paper, a glass prism and colored pencils

Shine a light through a prism so that the light leaving the prism falls on an
unlined piece of paper. What colours do you see? As you hold the prism and
light steady, your partner will use coloured pencils to draw the colours on
the piece of paper. Switch places with your partner. Again, trace the colours
you see onto the piece of paper.

◊ What colours do you see on the paper? What is the order of the colours?
◊ Is it difficult to see where one colour ends and the next begins?
◊ Did the order of the colours on the paper ever change?
◊ The term spectrummeans a range. How do you think this term is related
to what you observed?

13.1.4 Radiation Interaction with the Earth

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach
the earth and interact with its surface. There are three forms of interaction
that can take place when energy strikes, or is incident upon the surface.
These are: absorption (A); transmission (T); and reflection (R).
Reflection: Reflected light is perceived by our eye as colour, e.g. chlorophyll
in plants reflects green light. All colours of the visible spectrum are absorbed.
Absorption: The incident energy might not get reflected or transmitted but
is transformed into another form, such as heat or absorbed by chlorophyll
in the process of photosynthesis.
Transmission: When energy propagates through a medium, what is
not absorbed or reflected, will be transmitted through. For instance, an
ultraviolet filter on a camera absorbs UV rays but allows the remaining
energy to expose the film. Changes in density can also slow the velocity of

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light resulting in refraction such as dispersion through a prism.

13.1.5 Radiation Interaction with the Atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere acts as a filter to remove radiations such as cosmic
rays, gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays, and large portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum through the process of absorption and scattering by gases, water
vapour, and particulate matter (dust).
Scattering occurs when particles or large gas molecules present in the
atmosphere cause the electromagnetic radiation to be redirected from its
original path. There are three types of scattering which take place: Rayleigh
Scattering, Mie Scattering, Non-selective Scatter.
Rayleigh scattering refers to the scattering of light off by the molecules of
air. It can be extended to scattering from particles of sizes up to about one-
tenth of the wavelength of the light. It is Rayleigh scattering of white light
by the molecules of the air which gives us the blue sky.

Fig. 13.3. Rayleigh scattering

Mie scattering is caused by pollen, dust, smoke, water droplets and other
particles in the lower portion of the atmosphere. It occurs when the particles
causing the scattering are larger than the wavelengths of radiation in
contact with them. Mie scattering is responsible for the white appearance
of the clouds, as seen below.

Fig. 13.4. Mie scattering

Non-Selective Scattering occurs when the particles are much larger than
the wavelength of the radiation. Water droplets and large dust particles can
cause this type of scattering and cause fog and clouds to appear white to our

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eyes because blue, green, and red light are all scattered in approximately
equal quantities (blue+green+red light = white light).

13.1.6 Atmospheric Absorption of electromagnetic waves

In addition to the scattering of EM radiation, the atmosphere also absorbs
electromagnetic radiation. The three main constituents of atmosphere
which absorb parts of solar radiation are Ozone, Carbon dioxide, and Water
Vapour.
Ozone serves to absorb the harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sun.
Without this protective layer in the atmosphere, our skin would burn when
exposed to sunlight. Ultraviolet rays can also cause skin cancer to people.

Fig. 13.5. The Ozone

Carbon Dioxide absorbs the far infrared portion of the spectrum which is
related to thermal heating and results in a ‘greenhouse’ effect.
Water Vapour absorbs energy depending upon its location and concentration,
and forms a primary component of the Earth’s climatic system.

13.2. CONDITIONS FOR INTERFERENCE WITH TWO

SOURCES OF LIGHT
When two waves of exactly same frequency (coming from two coherent
sources) travel in a medium, in the same direction simultaneously then due
to their superposition, at some points intensity of light is maximum while
at some other points intensity is minimum. This phenomenon is called
Interference of light.
There are two types of interference: constructive interference and
destructive interference.
A constructive interference is produced at a point when the amplitude of
the resultant wave is greater than that of any individual wave.

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A destructive interference is produced at a point when the amplitude of the
resultant wave is smaller than that of any individual wave.
Conditions for interference
When waves come together they can interfere constructively or destructively.
To set up a stable and clear interference pattern, two conditions must be
met:
• The sources of the waves must be coherent, which means they emit
identical waves with a constant phase difference.
• The waves should be monochromatic - they should be of a single
wavelength.

13.3. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION

The principle states that when two or more than two waves superimpose
over each other at a common particle of the medium then the resultant
displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacements
(y1 and y2) produced by individual waves. i.e. y = y1 + y 2
Resultant
1

y1 + y2 = y = y1 + y2

1 Resultant

y = y1 – y2
y1 + y2 =

Fig. 13.6. Superposition of waves

Consider two waves given as:
y1 = a1 sin ωt and y2 = a2 sin (ωt + f);
where a1, a2 = Individual amplitudes, φ = Phase difference between the
waves at an instant when they are meeting a point. I1, I2 = Intensities of
individual waves
After superimposition of the given waves resultant amplitude (or the
amplitude of resultant wave) is given by;

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A= a12 + a22 + 2a1 a2 cos φ ………. Equation 13-1

13.4. INTERFERENCE PATTERN OF TWO COHERENT

POINT SOURCES OF LIGHT
The sources of light which emit continuous light waves of the same
wavelength, same frequency and are in same phase (or have a constant
phase difference) are called coherent sources. Two coherent sources are
produced from a single source of light by using Young’s double slits.

Maximum

Maximum

Maximum
S1 Minima
Maximum Maxima
S2
Minima
Maximum

Maximum

Maximum

Fig. 13.7. Interference pattern of two coherent sources S1 and S2

From the Fig. 13.7. S1 and S2 are coherent sources and show interference
as light passes through two slits. It also shows the appearance of the
interference pattern on a screen placed in the path of the beam. You can
see the maxima and minima and the way in which the intensity changes.
Changing the wavelength of the light, the separation of the slits or the
distance of the slits from the screen will all give changes in the separation
of the maxima in the interference pattern.

13.5. YOUNG'S DOUBLE-SLIT EXPERIMENT

Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on two narrow slits S1 and
S2 which are very close together and act as two coherent sources. When
waves coming from two coherent sources superimpose on each other,
an interference pattern is obtained on the screen. In Young’s double slit

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experiment alternate bright and dark bands are obtained on the screen.
These bands are called Fringes.
Screen
4 Dark
3 Bright
3 Dark
2 Bright
2 Dark
S1 1 Bright
1 Dark
S d Central bright
1 Dark fringe
S2 1 Bright
2 Dark
2 Bright
3 Dark
3 Bright
4 Dark
D
Fig. 13.8. Interference on Young’s double slit experiment
Following points must be noted and observed in the above experiment:
• Central fringe is always bright, because at central position, f = 0° or
the path difference D = 0
• The fringe pattern obtained due to a slit is more bright than that due
to a point.
• If the slit widths are unequal, the minima will not be completly dark.
For very large slit width, uniform illumination occurs, i.e. bright and
dark fringes are not formed.
• If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit is illuminated
with blue light, no interference pattern is observed on the screen.
• If the two coherent sources consist of object and its reflected image,
the central fringe is dark instead of bright one.
Calculation of fringe separation/fringe width
Consider two coherent sources (slits) S1 and S2 separated by distance d.
The distance D from the plane of slits to the screen is much greater than d.
Consider a wave from S1 that meets another wave from S2 at point P.

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 P

B x
S1
q q
d
C
M
S2 y
N

Screen
D
Fig. 13.9. Young’s double slit experiment
From the figure, S2P – S1P is called the path difference between waves
reaching P from S1 and S2.
Considering DS2NP, using Pythagoras theorem;
(S2P)2 = (S2N)2 + (NP)2 ………. Equation 13-2
Considering DS1BP, using Pythagoras theorem;
(S1P)2 = (S1B)2 + (BP)2 ………. Equation 13-3
Subtracting equation 13.3 from equation 13.2,
(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = (S2N)2 + (NP)2 – ((S1B)2 + (BP)2)
(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = (S2N)2 + (NP)2 – (S1B)2 – (BP)2
But S1B = S2N
(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = (NP)2 – (BP)2
If S1P = r1 and S2P = r2, then

r22 − r12 = 2xd

(r1 + r2)(r2 – r1) = 2xd

………. Equation 13-4

But if S1 and S2 are very close to each other,

then r1 + r2 ≈ 2D
2xd
r2 − r1 =
2D
The path difference is given by;

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 xd
∆= .......... Equation 13.5
D
Also from the figure, the path difference is calculated from;
y
sin θ =
d
y = d sin q ………. Equation 13.6

Position for the dark and bright fringes

Note that a fringe is a region of net interference. A bright fringe is obtained
when the path difference is a whole number of wavelength.
r2 – r1 = nl where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,...
xd
= nλ
D
n λD
x= ………. Equation 13.7
d
A dark fringe is obtained when the path difference is an odd value of half
wavelength.
m
r2 − r1 = λ
2
mλD
x= ………. Equation 13.8
2d
Where m = 1, 3, 5, 7, ...

Notes
• x is fringe separation and its value increases by decreasing the slit
separation a.
1
x α ………. Equation 13.9
d
• Increasing the width of the slits increases the intensity of waves and
fringes become more blurred.

13.6. INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION OF FRINGE PATTERN

So far we have discussed the locations of only the centers of the bright
and dark fringes on a distant screen. We now direct our attention to the
intensity of the light at other points between the positions of maximum
constructive and destructive interference. In other words, we now calculate
the distribution of light intensity associated with the double-slit interference
pattern.

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 P
r1
S1
y

d
r2

S2

Fig. 13.11. Waves meeting at point P

Again, suppose that the two slits represent coherent sources of sinusoidal
waves such that the two waves from the slits have the same angular
frequency ω and a constant phase difference Φ. The total magnitude of
the electric field at point P on the screen is the vector superposition of the
two waves. Assuming that the two waves have the same amplitude E0, we
can write the magnitude of the electric field at point P due to each wave
separately as;
E1 = E0 sinωt and E2 = E0 sin(ωt + Φ)
Although the waves are in phase at the slits, their phase difference Φ at
point P depends on the path difference y = r2 – r1 = d sin q.
So from;
2πy
y = d sin q and Φ =
λ
2πd sin θ
Φ= ………. Equation 13-10
λ
The resultant electric field at point P is given by;
EP = E0(sinωt + sin(ωt + Φ))

………. Equation 13-11

This result indicates that the electric field at point P has the same frequency
ω as the light at the slits, but that the amplitude of the field is multiplied by
the factor .

Finally, to obtain an expression for the light intensity at point P, the

intensity of a wave is proportional to the square of the resultant electric
field magnitude at that point;

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 ………. Equation 13.12

Most light-detecting instruments measure time-averaged light intensity,

1
and the time-averaged value of over one cycle is . Therefore,
2
we can write the average light intensity at point P as;

………. Equation 13.13

Imax

–2l –l l 2l
d sin q

Fig. 13.12. Intensity distribution of fringe pattern

Note that the interference pattern consists of equally spaced fringes of
equal intensity. Remember, however, that this result is valid only if the
slit-to-screen distance D is much greater than the slit separation d.

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 EXERCISE 13-1
1. In a double slit interference experiment, the distance between the two
slits is 0.0005m and the screen is 2 m from the slits. Yellow light from
a sodium lamp is used and it has a wavelength of 5.89 × 10-7 m. Show
that the distance between the first and second fringes on the screen is
0.00233 m.
2. With two slits are spaced 0.2 mm apart, and a screen at a distance of
D = 1 m, the third bright fringe is found to be displaced h = 7.5mm from
the central fringe. Show that the wavelength, l, of the light used is
5 × 10–7 m.
3. Two radio towers are broadcasting on the same frequency. The signal
is strong at A, and B is the first signal minimum. If d = 6.8 km,
L = 11.2 km, and y = 1.73 km, what is the wavelength of the radio
waves to the nearest meter?

d
A

Fig. 13.13. Interference of waves from two radio towers

4. Water waves of wavelength of 5.44 m are incident upon a breakwater
with two narrow openings separated by a distance 247 m. To the nearest
thousandth of a degree, what is angle corresponding to the first wave
fringe maximum?

d
l P

Fig. 13.14. A breakwater with two narrow openings

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 UNIT SUMMARY

Nature of electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that transfer electrical and
magnetic energy.
In other words electromagnetic waves have electric and magnetic fields
varying perpendicularly.

Producing electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are produced by charged particles and every charged
particle has an electric field surrounding it. The electric field produces
electric forces that can push or pull other particles.

Electromagnetic Radiation
All forms of electromagnetic radiation consist of perpendicularly oscillating
electric and magnetic fields. Various kinds of electromagnetic radiations
have the same speed (c). They differ only in wavelength and frequency.
Electromagnetic energy travels in waves and spans a broad spectrum
from very long radio waves to very short gamma rays. This is called
electromagnetic spectrum.
From memory you should be able to list the parts in order of energy (relate
how that relates to frequency and wavelength) and know how they are
produced, detected and their dangers and uses - a rough idea of their
approximate wavelength is also useful!

Radiation Interaction with the Earth

Radiation that is not absorbed or scattered in the atmosphere can reach
and interact with the Earth’s surface. There are three forms of interaction
that can take place when energy strikes, or is incident upon the surface.
These are: absorption (A), transmission (T) and reflection (R).

Radiation Interaction with the Atmosphere

The Earth’s atmosphere acts as a filter to remove radiation such as cosmic
rays, gamma rays, X-rays, UV rays and large portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum through the process of absorption and scattering by gases, water
vapour and particulate matter (dust).

Atmospheric Absorption of electromagnetic waves

In addition to the scattering of EM radiation, the atmosphere also absorbs
electromagnetic radiation. The three main constituents which absorb

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radiation are Ozone, Carbon Dioxide and Water Vapour.
Conditions for interference to occur
• The sources of the waves must be coherent, which means they emit
identical waves with a constant phase difference.
• The waves should be monochromatic - they should be of a single
wavelength.
Principle of superposition
The principle states that when two or more than two waves superimpose
over each other at a common particle of the medium then the resultant
displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector sum of the displacements
(y1and y2) produced by individual waves. i.e. y = y1 + y 2

Double-slit experiment
Monochromatic light (single wavelength) falls on two narrow slits S1
and S2 which are very close together acts as two coherent sources, when
waves coming from two coherent sources superimposes on each other, an
interference pattern is obtained on the screen
A bright fringe is obtained when the path difference is a whole number of
wavelength.
r2 – r1 = nl where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...
A dark fringe is obtained when the path difference is an odd value of half
wavelength.
m
r2 − r1 = λ
2
mλD
x=
2d
Where m = 1, 3, 5, 7, ...

Intensity distribution of fringe pattern

Assuming that the two waves have the same amplitude E0, we can write
the magnitude of the electric field at a point let say P due to each wave
separately as;
E1 = E0 sin ωt and E2 = E0 sin(ωt + Φ)
Since I α E p2 , we can write the average light intensity at point P as;

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322 Physics Senior Five
 Topic Area: ASTROPHYSICS
Sub-Topic Area: Earth and Space
UNIT
14 STELLAR DISTANCE AND
RADIATION

Key unit competence: By the end of the unit I should be able to

analyze stellar radiation and stellar distances.

Unit Objectives:
By the end of this unit learners will be able to;

◊ explain the factors that affect the brightness of the star.

◊ explain types of stars, their masses and use Hertzsprung-Russel
diagram.

14.0 INTRODUCTION
The sun’s mass is 99.8 % of all the masses in the solar system. Because the
sun is so large, its gravity is strong enough to hold all the planets and other
distant objects in orbit. Unlike Earth, the sun does not have a solid surface.
Like Earth, the sun has an interior and an atmosphere.

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 ACTIVITY 14-1: Description of Planets

Aim: the purpose of this activity is to master the planets and

their descriptions.
Procedures: using the sentences provided for down and cross words, fill
the puzzle.

ACROSS
4. What planet resembles Neptune?
6. The Earth revolves around the ----
7. Pluto is known as a ---- planet
8. Neptune has ---- moons
9. The red planet is called ----
12. How many moons does Mercury have?
13. Uranus may have a lot of large ----
17. The Greek name for the Earth is ----
18. The hottest planet in the Solar System is ----

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19. How many moons does Mars have?
20. Uranus spins on its ----
DOWN
1. What is the Earth’s moon called?
2. The ---- is the biggest of all the terrestrial planets
3. ---- has no solid surface
5. Mercury has a ---- surface
6. The storm on Neptune is called the Great Dark ----
9. Jupiter has ---- moons
10. Luna is covered with ----
11. Mars has the biggest ---- in the Solar System
14. ---- has many moons
15. What is another word for the hot molten substance you see after a
volcano erupts?
16. Saturn has beautiful ----
17. What three letter word means Earth?

14.1. SUN’S ATMOSPHERE AND INTERIOR

14.1.1. The sun’s interior
The sun’s interior consists of the core, radiation zone and convection zone.
Each layer has different properties.
Core
The core is the innermost part of the sun and takes10% of the Sun’s mass.
The sun produces an enormous amount of energy in its core or central
region. The sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion. In the process of
thermonuclear fusion, hydrogen in the sun join to form helium.
Because of the enormous amount of gravity compression from all layers
above it, the core is very hot and dense. Nuclear fusion requires extremely
high temperatures and densities. The Sun’s core has a temperature of
about 16 million Kelvin and has a density around 160 times the density of
water. This is over 20 times denser than the dense metal iron. However, the
Sun’s interior is still gaseous all the way to the very center because of the
extreme temperatures. There is no molten rock in sun unlike that found in
the interior of the Earth.

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Radiative Zone
The radiative zone is where the energy is transported from the superhot
interior to the colder outer layers by photons. Technically, this also includes
the core. The radiative zone includes the inner approximately 85% of the
Sun’s radius.
The light and heat produced by the sun’s core first passes through the
middle layer of the sun’s interior, the radiation zone. The radiation zone is
a region of very tightly packed gases where energy is transferred mainly in
the form of electromagnetic radiation.

Convection Zone
The convection zone is the outermost layer of the sun’s interior. Hot gases
rise from the bottom of the convection zone and gradually cool as they
approach the top. Cooler gases sink, forming loops of gas that move heat
towards the sun’s surface.
Energy in the outer 15% of the Sun’s radius is transported by the bulk
motion of gas in a process called convection. At cooler temperatures, more
ions are able to block the outward flow of photon radiation more effectively,
so nature kicks in convection to help the transport of energy from the very
hot interior to the cold space.

14.1.2. The sun’s atmosphere

The visible solar atmosphere consists of three regions: the photosphere,
the chromosphere and the solar corona. Most of the visible (white) light
comes from the photosphere, this is the part of the Sun we actually see. The
chromosphere and corona also emit white light, and can be seen when the
light from the photosphere is blocked out, as occurs in a solar eclipse.
The inner layer of the sun’s atmosphere is called the photosphere. Photo
means “light,” so the photosphere is the sphere that gives off visible light.
At the beginning and end of a solar eclipse, you can see a reddish glow
around the photosphere. This glow comes from the middle layer of the
sun’s atmosphere, the chromosphere. Chromo means “colour,” so the
chromosphere is the “colour sphere.”
During a total solar eclipse, a fainter layer called the corona is visible. The
corona sends out a stream of electrically charged particles called solar wind.
Features on or above the sun’s surface include sunspots, prominences and
solar flares. Sunspots are areas of gas on the sun that are cooler than the
gas around them. Sunspots usually occur in groups.

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Reddish loops of gas called prominences link different parts of sunspot
regions. Sometimes the loops in sunspot regions suddenly connect, releasing
large amounts of energy. The energy heats gas on the sun to millions of
degrees Celsius, causing the gas to explode into space. These explosions are
known as solar flares. Solar flares can greatly increase the solar wind.

Fig. 14-1: The sun’s atmosphere and interior

The sun’s atmosphere also consits of the planets in different positions from
the sun. The inner solar system consists of the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth
and Mars.

Fig. 14-2: The inner solar system

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The planets of the outer solar system are Jupter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
and Pluto. Since planets are very small compared to the distances between
them the solar system is mostly seen as an empty space.

Fig. 14-3: The outer solar system

Theses planets are always in motion around the sun, it sometime happens
that the earth, the moon and the sun are in a straight line, this is called an
eclipse. The type o the eclipse that occurs when the moon passes direclty
between the sun and the moon is called a solar eclipse.

Fig. 14-4: The solar eclipse

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14.2. BRIGHTNESS AND MAGNITUDE SCALE OF STARS
The brightness of stars is specified with the help of a numerical magnitude
system. It is assigned a number starting with the brightest star at 1
magnitude. Dimmer stars have zero or positive magnitude of brightness.
The larger the number means dimmer the star is. For example, a star of 1
magnitude is brighter than a star of 0 magnitude. The decimal point is not
used when star magnitudes are used on a star map.

Fig. 14-5: Brightness and magnitude scale of stars

14.3. STAR TEMPERATURE, COLOUR AND SPECTRA

Stars are dense hot balls of gases. So their spectra are similar to that of a
perfect thermal radiator, which produces a smooth continuous spectrum.
Therefore, the colour of stars depends on their temperature---blue stars
are hotter than white stars which in turn hotter than red stars. Stars with
intermediate temperature appear white to orange in colour.
The surface layers of a star constitute photosphere and it emits continuous
spectrum like a black body. The photosphere of the star is surrounded
by relatively cooler layer called reversing layer. When the full spectrum
radiation from the photosphere of the star passes through the reversing
layer, the radiations of certain wavelength are selectively absorbed. The
dark lines in the spectrum correspond to the wavelengths which have

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been absorbed by reversing layer of the star and are characteristic of the
composition of the reversing layer. Hence, by noting the position of the dark
lines in the spectrum of a star, the constituents of the reversing layer of the
star can be identified.
The stellar spectra have been divided into seven classes designated by
letters O, B, A, F, G, K and M.
• Class O spectra: It represents the hottest stars having temperature
in the range from 30,000K to 40,000K. These stars are dark blue in
colour and their spectra reveal ionized helium, hydrogen and calcium
in their reverting layers.
• Class B spectra: The surface temperature ranges from 15,000K to
28,000K and they are bluish in colour. As their spectra contain mainly
dark lines corresponding to neutral helium, they are called helium
stars. They also contain ionized oxygen and nitrogen.
• Class A spectra: The surface temperature of such stars ranges from
9,500K to 11,000K. They are white in colour. The spectra of these
stars show hydrogen lines predominantly. Their spectra contain lines
corresponding to ionized magnesium, silicon, iron, calcium etc.
• Class F spectra: The surface temperature of stars in this class
ranges from 6,500K to 7,500K. These stars appear green in colour.
The spectra of these stars show a decrease in hydrogen lines and a
sharp increase in the lines of ionized metals.
• Class G spectra: The surface temperature of this class is of order of
5,800K and they are yellowish in colour. The hydrogen lines further
decrease and numerous metallic lines show up in spectrum. Their
spectra also display lines corresponding to ionized calcium, iron and a
band corresponding to carbon.
• Class K spectra: The surface temperature of the star belonging to
this class is of order 4500K. These stars appear orange in colour.
The spectra of stars in this class have bands due to the presence of
hydrocarbons.
• Class M spectra: The surface temperature of stars in this class is
about 3,500K. Such stars appear red in colour. Their spectra show
absorption bands that indicate the presence of titanium oxide strongly.

14.4. TYPES OF STARS

By taking a close look into the components of sky, one will notice that there
are a variety of stars up there. The following are all the different types of
stars in the known universe.

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Main Sequence Stars—A main sequence star is any star that has fusing
hydrogen in its core and has a stable balance of outward pressure from core
nuclear fusion and gravitational forces pushing inward. Our Sun is a main
sequence star. A main sequence star will experience only small fluctuations
in luminosity and temperature. Very massive stars will exhaust their fuel
in only a few hundred million years. Smaller stars, like the Sun, will burn
for several billion years during their main sequence stage. Very massive
stars will become blue giants during their main sequence.
Most stars, including the sun, are “main sequence stars,” As the hydrogen
fuel in thermonuclear fusion reaction, converting hydrogen into helium.
For these stars, the hotter they are, the brighter they appear. These stars
are in the most stable part of their existence; this stage generally lasts for
about 5 billion years.
When the stars have depleted their hydrogen supply they begin to die.
The core contracts as the outer layers expand. These stars will eventually
explode (become a planetary nebula or supernova, depending on their
mass). Later they become white dwarfs, neutron stars or black holes (again
depending on their mass).
Smaller stars (like our Sun) eventually become faint white dwarfs (hot,
white, dim stars) that are below the main sequence. These hot, shrinking
stars have depleted their nuclear fuels and will eventually become cold,
dark, black dwarfs.

Red Giants
A red giant is a large star that is reddish or orange in colour. It represents
the late phase of development in a star’s life, when its supply hydrogen has
been exhausted and helium is being fused. This causes the star to collapse,
raising the temperature in the
core. The outer surface of the
star expands and cools, giving
it a reddish colour. Red giants
are very large, reaching sizes of
over 100 times the star’s
original size. Very large stars
will form what are called red
supergiants.

Fig. 14-6: Red Giant Star

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White Dwarfs
A white dwarf is an average-sized star that has passed through the red
giant stage of its life. After the star has used up its remaining fuel. At this
point the star may expel some of its matter into space, creating a planetary
nebula. What remains is the dead core of the star. Nuclear fusion no longer
takes place. The core glows because of its residual heat. Eventually the core
will radiate all of its heat into space and cool down to become what is known
as a black dwarf. White dwarf stars are very dense.

Fig. 14-7: White Dwarf Star

Brown Dwarfs
These are also known as
failed stars. Just like normal
stars, they are formed in the
same way but they do not
accumulate enough mass
to generate nuclear fusion
in the core hence the name
failed stars. They are smaller
than the normal stars.

Fig. 14-8: Brown Dwarf star

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Variable Stars
These are stars that tend to change their brightness. Unlike other stars that
maintain a constant brightness, these stars tend to vary their brightness
from time to time.

Fig. 14-9: Variable Stars

Binary Stars
This is a system of two stars that go around each other or a common centre
of mass cloud. True binaries revolve around one another. A well known
example of which stars is Polaris.

Fig.14-10; Binary Stars

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Black Holes
A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even
light can not get out. The gravity is so strong because matter has been
squeezed into a tiny space. This can happen when a star is dying. While
not technically stars, these are formed as a result of the massive gravity
created by large stars collapsing in on themselves.

Fig. 14-11: Black Holes

14.5. HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSEL DIAGRAM

The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is actually a graph that illustrates
the relationship that exists between the average surface temperature of
stars and their absolute magnitude, which is how bright they would appear
to be if they were all the same distance away.
The brightness of stars is affected by temperature and size. The brightest
stars would be those that are large and hot. The least bright stars would be
small and cool. The colour of a star is determined by its surface temperature,
which is illustrated on the HR diagram.

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 Fig. 14-12: Hertzsprung-Russel diagram

14.6. STELLAR DISTANCE AND MASSES: PARALLAX,

BINARY STARS AND MASS-LUMINOSITY
RELATIONSHIP
Stellar Parallax
A nearby star’s apparent movement against the background of more distant
stars as the Earth revolves around the Sun is referred to as stellar parallax.
The parallax can be used to measure the distance to the few stars which
are close enough to the Sun to show a measurable parallax. The distance
to the star is inversely proportional to the parallax. The distance to the
1
star in parsec is given by: d ∝ here p is the parallax angle observed, and
p
d is the actual distance measured in parsecs. A parsec is defined as the
distance at which an object has a parallax of 1 arcsecond. This distance is
approximately 3.26 light years.

Stellar mass is a phrase that is used by astronomers to describe the mass

of a star. After many star masses have been measured a graph can be made
of the masses versus the brightness of the stars. This produces a mass-
luminosity relation for Main Sequence stars - but not other luminosity
classes.

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The relation can be approximated by the formula:
M n
= e o
L
……… Equation 14-1
Ls ms

Fig. 14-14: Stellar mass-luminosity relationship

Inverse Square Law – Calculating Luminosity

A quick glance at the night sky will tell you that different stars have
different brightness. But how much of that effect is due to the fact that
some stars are further away, and how much is due to certain stars being
intrinsically brighter?
If we know the distances from parallax, we can remove the effect of distance
and calculate the intrinsic brightness, or luminosity – the total energy the
star emits per second. Imagine building a gigantic shell centered around
the star, giving that shell a radius d equal to the distance between the star
and Earth. A detector placed on the inside of the shell receives a certain
amount of energy per second – this is the brightness b we measure, in ergs
per second per square centimeter. But while a single detector only receives
a tiny fraction of the star’s energy, if we were to cover the entire shell in
detectors, the shell would receive all the energy from the star. Since the
surface area of the shell is 4pd2, and each unit of area receives b units of
energy per second, the total luminosity (the energy per second captured by
the whole sphere) is equal to
L = b × 4pd2
L
b = ……… Equation 14-2
4 πd 2
Luminosity is normally given in watts (joules per second) or ergs per
second, or in solar luminosities, while the parallax formula gives d in units

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of parsecs. You have to convert the distance to meters or centimeters before
plugging in – unless you use ratios.

Stellar Masses
The most dependable method of “weighing” a star is to use Newton’s version
of Kepler’s Third Law. Stellar masses can only be measured in binary
star systems in which the orbital properties of the two stars have been
determined.
Visual binary – a pair of stars that we can see distinctly as the stars orbit
each other.
Eclipsing binary – a pair of stars that orbit in the plane of our line of
sight. When neither star is eclipsed (or blocked), we see the combined light
of both stars. When one star eclipses the other, the apparent brightness
of the system drops. Example: Algol (the “demon” star in the constellation
Perseus)
If binary system is neither visual nor eclipsing, we may be able to detect its
binary nature by observing Doppler shifts in its spectral lines.

Distant
stars
stellar parallax
p

January view July view

Fig. 14-15: H-R diagram

1 AU

January July

Fig. 14-13: Stellar parallax

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 END OF UNIT QUESTIONS

1. What is a star?
2. Why does the main sequence
form a line in the H-R diagram?
3. What are white dwarfs (and
neutron stars) made of?
4. Which star has the lowest
surface temperature?
Fig. 14-15: H-R diagram

5. Which star produces less energy per second (luminosity)? The extra
luminosity is produced by more fusion reactions)

Fig. 14-16: Red giants

6. Which line shows the red giant planetary nebula stage on the
Hertzsprung Russell Diagram? Remember that green line is actually
between the red giant branch and the supergiant branch and occurs
when stars start blowing off their outer layers in planetary nebulae.

Fig. 14-17: The red giant planetary nebula stage on the Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
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7. How do black holes and neutron stars form?
8. What property of black holes can we measure with the velocity and
distance of the gas orbiting the black hole? (Note : We can also use the
orbital properties of companion star, if the black hole has one)

UNIT SUMMARY

Sun’s atmosphere and interior

• The sun’s interior consists of the core, radiation zone and convection
zone. Each layer has different properties.
• The core is the innermost part.
• The radiative zone is where the energy is transported from the
superhot interior to the colder outer layers by photons.
• The convection zone is the outermost layer of the sun’s interior.
The sun’s atmosphere
• The visible solar atmosphere consists of three regions: the photosphere,
the chromosphere, and the solar corona.
Brightness and magnitude scale of stars
• The brightness of stars is specified with the magnitude system. And is
assigned a number starting with the brightest star starting at about‑1
magnitude.
Star temperature, colour and spectra
• Stars are dense hot balls of gas so their spectra is similar to that
of a perfect thermal radiator, which produces a smooth continuous
spectrum. Therefore, the colour of stars depends on their temperature-
--hotter stars are bluer and cooler stars are redder.
Types of stars
• Red Giants
• White Dwarfs
• Brown Dwarfs
• Variable Stars
• Binary Stars
• Black Holes
Hertzsprung-Russel diagram
• The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is actually a graph that

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 illustrates the relationship that exists between the average surface
temperature of stars and their absolute magnitude, which is how
bright they would appear to be if they were all the same distance
apart.

SOLUTIONS FOR SAMPLE TEST PAPER 1

Section A
Encircle the correct option(s):
1. What are petroleum products used for? (Circle all that apply.)
(a) Lubricating motor vehicles
(b) Cooking oil
(c) Making plastics
(d) Fuel for the car
(e) I don’t know
2. Where does petroleum come from?
(a) Dead dinosaurs
(b) Ancient plankton and sea life
(c) It’s always been a part of the Earth
(d) People make it
(e) I don’t know
3. Underground, the oil (petroleum) looks like...
(a) A large cave filled with oil
(b) A river of black oil flowing through a tunnel
(c) A solid black layer of carbon
(d) Liquid metal moving slowly
(e) Drops of oil mixed with sand or filling small cracks
(f) I don’t know
4. Where is oil not found?
(a) Under the ocean
(b) Under the desert
(c) Under very cold landscapes
(d) Under forests
(e) None of the above
(f) I don’t know

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5.How long does oil take to form?
(a) It has always been part of the Earth
(b) Millions of years
(c) Thousands of years
(d) Hundreds of years
(e) Less than 100 years
(f) People can make it from other products
(g) I don’t know
6. What role does oil play in global problems?
(a) Contaminating the environment from oil spills
(b) Wars between different countries
(c) Air pollution
(d) Global warming
(e) No significant role
(f) I don’t know

Section B
7. No. Increasing the frequency of a wave decreases the wavelength.
The two are related by the formula v = λ*f (velocity = wavelength X
frequency).
8. (a) You should aim below where the fish seems to be since light
refracts as it passes from water to air and cause the fish to appear
closer than it really is.
(b) You should aim exactly where the fish is seen since there is no
medium change for the light from the fish to go through and
change its path.
hc 6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108
9. (a) (i) E = = = 3.96 × 10 −19 J = 2.48eV
λ 500 × 10 − 9

hc 6.63 × 10 −34 × 3 × 108

(ii) E = = = 1.98 × 10 −25 J = 1.24 × 10 −6 eV
λ 1
(b) l/d = x/ L
l = xd/ L
l = 2.4 × 10–3 m × 3.0 × 10–4/1.2 m
(c) By simple ratio:
x = (2.4 mm/3.6 mm) × 0.3 mm = 0.2 mm

Physics Senior Five 341

10.(a) lL/d = x = fringe spacing
or x = 7 × 10–7 m × 1.3 m/3.0 × 10–4 m = 3.0 × 10–3 m.
(b) By simple ratio:
x = (3.0 m/2.0 mm) × 0.3 m = 0.45 mm.
11. (a) Red light:
x = lL/d = 7 × 10–7 m × 2.0 m/3 × 10–4 m = 4.7 mm.
Blue light:
x = lL/d = 4 × 10–7 m × 2.0 m/3 × 10–4 m = 2.7 mm.
12. l = d sin q
λ x
=
d L
λL 450 × 10 −9 m × 10 m
x = = = 4.5 × 10 −3 m
d −3
1.0 × 10 m
13. l=d sin q
λ x
=
d L
dx 4 × 10 −4 m × 1.7 × 10 −3 m
l = = = 4.9 × 10 −7 m = 486 nm
L 1 .4 m
Section C
14. (a) The Solar wind comes from the corona (the top-most layer of the
Sun’s atmosphere).
(b) Sunspots are regions in the Sun’s photosphere which are cooler
than the regions around them. They appear dark because they do
not emit as much light as the regions around them do.
(c) A piece of coal the size of the Sun would only burn for 10,000 years
or so. This is much smaller than the age of the solar system.
15. (a) The photosphere is the lowest layer of the Sun’s atmosphere. It is
the most luminous of the three. It has the lowest temperature. It
is the bright yellow disk that we see in pictures of the Sun.
(b) The chromosphere is the layer above the photosphere. It is 1/10,000
the density of the photosphere. It gives off very little light (pinkish
red light) which is usually only visible during a total eclipse. The
temperature is about 50,000°F at the top of the chromosphere.
(c) The Corona is the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere. The
density of the corona is even less than that of the chromosphere.
The corona is the hottest layer of the Sun’s atmosphere. The
temperature is about 4 million degrees at the top of the corona,
but the density is so thin that you wouldn’t feel the heat if you put
your hand in it.

342 Physics Senior Five

 16. Transition of electron is from n = 3 to n = 1.
The energy of any level is given by
R
E=– H 2
; R = 2.180 × 10−18 J
n
The energy of a photon is
Ei – Ef = E = hv
c = 3.00 × 108 m/s
h = 6.63 × 10–34 J s
Solution:
First find the energy of the photon:
−R −R − R H − (− 9 R H )
E = En=3 − En=1 = e 2H o – e 2H o =
3 1 9
− R H + 9R H 8R H 8 × 2.180 × 1018 J
= = = = 1.938 × 10−18 J
9 9 9
c
Since E = h
λ
Now solve this for l and put in the known values:
hc 6.63 × 10 −34 J $ s × 3.00 × 108 m/s
l= = = 1.03 × 10−7 m (103 nm)
∆E 1.938 × 10 −18
J
−34
c 6.63 × 10 J $ s × 3.00 × 108 m/s 1 nm
17. E = h = × = 3.38 × 10–19 J
λ 589 nm 10 −9 m
18. (a) We know that the spring constant k = 50 N/m from when we looked
at this graph earlier. So,
k 50 N/m rad
= w= = 10
m 0.5 kg s
ω 10 rad/s
(b) f = = = 1.6 Hz
2π 2π
(c) The amplitude corresponds to the last displacement point on the
graph, A = 1.2 m.
(d) x = A cos(wt) = (1.2 m) cos[(10 rad/s) (2s)] = 0.5 m

Physics Senior Five 343

19.(a) As it hangs in equilibrium, the upward spring force must be equal
and opposite to the downward weight of the block.
Fs

mg

Fs = mg
kx = mg
mg ^3 kgh^10 m/s h
2
x= = = 0.3 m
k 100 N/m
(b) The potential energy in the spring is related to the displacement
from equilibrium position by the equation
1 1
U = kx2 = (100 N/m) (0.3 m)2 = 4.5 J
2 2
(c) Since energy is conserved during the oscillation of the mass, the
kinetic energy of the mass as it passes through the equilibrium
position is equal to the potential energy at the amplitude. Thus,
1
K=U= mv2
2
2U 2 ^4.5 J h
= v= = 1.7 m/s
m 3 kg
(d) Since the amplitude of the oscillation is 0.3 m, it will rise to 0.3 m
above the equilibrium position.
m 3 kg
(e) T = 2p = 2π = 1 .1 s
k 100 N/m

344 Physics Senior Five

20.(a) First we must find the height above the lowest point in the swing
at the instant the pendulum is released.

10°

h

Recall from chapter 1 of this study guide
that h = L – cos q
Then
U = mg(L – L cos q)
U = (0.4 kg) (10 m/s2) (0.6 m – 0.6 m cos 10°) = 0.4 J
(b) Conservation of energy:
1
Umax = Kmax = mv2­
2
2U 2 ^0.4 J h
v = = = 1.4 m/s
m 0.4 kg
L
(c) T = 2p
g
4π2 L 4π ^0.6mh
2
g= = = 23.7m/s2
T 2
^1.0sh2

Physics Senior Five 345