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UNRULY-LION X KING T-JAY

HISTORY NOTES

DREAM CHASERS SCHOOL

French Revolution
Introduction To The French Revolution

It refers to the fundamental change that can either be political, social or

economic in a society. Revolutions are either gradual which are often peaceful, or
sudden / rapid where changes are realized with violence. In a revolutionary
situation, two things are always visible:

The old features of society are changed either positively or negatively i.e. upside
down

New things/changes appear in a society either for better or worse.

Thus, French revolution refers to the social, political and economic changes that
France experienced from 1789 up to the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte in
1799. It begun as a peaceful political reform movement on the 5th may 1789 but
later took a violent dimension and involved the social and the economic
structures as well. The Revolution was staged by the peasants and the middle
class against the privileged nobles and the clergy. This is why the Marxist looked
at it as a class struggle between the unprivileged peasants and the bourgeoisie
(middle class) against the privileged nobles and the clergy.
The French revolution can be categorized into three main phases. The first stage
was from may 1789 to 1791 (up to the death of Mirabeau) which was generally
peaceful. The second stage was from 1792 to 1794 which was characterized by
violence i.e. the reign of terror and the third stage was from 1795 to 1799 led by
the Directory of Government. These phases were marked by a number of events
which aimed at solving political, social and economic problems that had sparked
off the revolution in 1789.

CAUSES OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The revolution was a product of many forces or factors, which had different but
important magnitudes / weights in causing the revolution. It was caused by both
long term factors which can be traced down to the 17th century and the
immediate factors that went up to the late 18th century. By 1789, the social,
political and economic conditions in France had outlived its usefulness and the
revolution was inevitable as peacock puts it; condition in society must be very
bad before men in large numbers under take its over throw by violence. Although
the revolution was caused by a number of factors, it is worth observing that the
contribution of these factors varied in degree and magnitude. In other words no
single factor however great it appears to be can adequately explain the
occurrence of the revolution.

The causes of this most important event in the history of Europe can generally be
grouped under social, political and economic problems that France faced by
1789. However this grouping is only for the purpose of simplifying them so that
students as well as teachers find it easy to understand them. This is because it is
very hard to differentiate between something that is political but not economic or
social i.e. some factors can be considered political, asocial as well as economic.

1 UNFAIR POLITICAL SYSTEM (THE NATURE OF THE ANCIENT REGIME)

Despotism

By 1789 France was ruled by the Bourbon Monarchy whose administration was
characterized by corruption, sectarianism, nepotism, human right abuses, lack of
democracy and above all despotism. Power was absolutely in the hands of the
king who was looked at as a demi-god. He was the law and the law was himself
and that is why Louis xvi boasted that; ''The thing is legal because I wish it so."
Even the king's ministers had unlimited powers that could not be checked. For
instance through the Lettress-de- cachet (arrest warrant) the king and his
minister could arrest and imprison anybody at any time. This inflicted a lot of
sufferings to the French men most of whom were innocent who responded
through the 1789 revolution.

NB. The ancient regime was the hereditary Bourbon monarchy that existed in
France prior to 1789. From 1610-1643 it was under Louis xiii, 1643-1715 under
Louis xiv, 1715-1744 under the leadership of Louis XV and 1774-1792 led by
Louis xvi. It should be noted that despotism that was practiced by Louis xvi was
inherited from Louis xiii.

Lack of a functional parliament.

There was no functional parliament upon which people's problems could be

articulated. The estate general had not sat for a period of 175 years since 1614.
The provincial and district assemblies were replaced by royal assemblies known
as intendants under the King, Therefore the Frenchmen had nowhere to forward
and settle the social evils, political discontents, and the economic hardship since
there was no functional parliament. The only ugly way had to be a revolution.

It's of paramount importance to stress that it was the calling of estates general
meeting on the 5th may 1789 and the hectic disagreement over the seating
arrangement that sparked off the revolution. Louis xvi insisted on the
undemocratic and archaic ancient system of voting by houses against the third
estate interest of voting by individual show of hands. This forced the third estate
representatives to turn themselves into the national assembly and this was the
beginning of the revolution.

Unfair Judicial system

The French legal system made no small contribution to the 1789 revolution.
There were no uniform codes ' of law and one could be tried as much as 50 times
for a single offence he or she committed. By 1789 there existed up to different
feudal codes of law in different parts of France, which created judicial confusion
and chaos within the judiciary. Besides, there were two different modes of appeal
i.e. the Roman law in the South and the common law in the North, Worst of all
there was no trial by jury and in most cases the nobles were the accusers as well
as judges against the peasants and the middle class. Surely the peasants and the
middle class could not expect a fair trial against the nobles and the clergy which
conditioned them to revolt,

Lack of constitution

Apart from the chaotic judicial system, there was no constitution that could have
guaranteed people s rights and provide equality of opportunity. This also meant
that there Were lib checks and balances to the kings' excessive powers and
unfair policies. The Frenchmen therefore resorted to a revolution in a bid to have
a constitution to safeguard their rights and properties against the Kings'
excessive powers.

The Grievances of the army

The only "messiah" for the unpopular and despotic French monarchy was the
army. Unfortunately, the army had a lot
ofgrievancesandwasdissatisfiedwiththegovernment.Forinstance,they hated the
unfair promotions where high ranks were reserved for the nobles. They were also
irritated by the severe punishments for minor offences; poor feeding and low pay
amongst others. This explains why they fraternized with the revolutionaries when
they were ordered to suppress them. Henceforth, the success of the French
revolution counted so much on the support of the

army.

Administrative structure

Political unfairness in France was also characterized by unfair administrative

structure, which favored the nobles and clergy at the expense of the peasants
and the middle class. The nobles and clergy were dominant in key positions in
the army and public offices yet they were incompetent and corrupt which created
a lot of inefficiency. The middle class because of their high levels of qualification
and wealth felt it was an insult to exclude them from top administrative
positions. This made them to mobilize the peasants and spearhead the
revolution.

However, the role of political unfairness in the French revolution should be

handled with care. This is because it was part and parcel of the Bourbon
monarchy and the French men had tolerated it for over 400years without
violently protesting against it. This therefore suggests that political unfairness on
its own could not have caused the revolution.

Nevertheless one should take extra care because whereas such political
unfairness was fashionable in the 16th and 17th centuries, it was out of fashion
in the 18th century since no society is static. In this respect Louis xvi should
have reformed the French political system to suit the dynamic and revolutionary
18^ century Frenchmen. All the same whatever the arguments against political
unfairness, it still remains a significant long-term factor that contributed to the
1789 French revolution.

2. THE ROLE OF PHILOSOPHERS, ENCYCLOPAEDISTS AND OTHER WRITERS

Philosophers are great thinkers who are highly educated about world affairs.
They are intellectual giants who had put their ideas into writing. In their writings,
they condemned the social, political and economic situations in France and
created more awareness of the grievances/problems of France. This sharpened
the minds of the Frenchmen and created in them a revolutionary spirit. The four
most outstanding philosophers who made significant contributions to the French
revolution were; Voltaire, Montesquieu, J.J Rousseau and John Lock.

A) FRANCOIS-MARKAROVET-VOLTAIRE, 1694-1778

Voltaire was a historian and a poet who attacked and exposed the traditions,
beliefs and abuses of the ancient regime i.e. its shortcomings. For 25 years he
flooded France with plays, poems, philosophical tales, histories, essays, drama,
pamphlets and won for himself the reputation of "the intellectual ruler of his
age". He was most particularly against the Catholic Church, its corrupt clergy and
nobles, heavy taxation, the tithe and the system of Lettres-de-cachet. He
denounced religious intolerance and advocated for freedom of worship. He
projected the British-political system with religious freedom as the best for
France. In the "Letters on the English "he wrote; An Englishman goes to heaven
by the way he pleases. There are no arbitrary taxes, a noble or priest is not
exempted from paying tax. In other words Voltaire was preaching for religious
freedom, fair taxation and abolition, of social class privileges. All these incited
the peasants and the middle class to revolt by 1789.

Although Voltaire attacked the church and critically undermined the throne on
which it rested (government), he was neither a democrat nor a republican. He
only wanted reforms within the monarchy and not its destruction. This is why he
remarked that, I would rather be ruled by one Lion than by a hundred rats. This
was because a violent change would destroy his wealth.

. Apart from being a strong believer in the Bourbon monarchy, Voltaire was a
very faithful religious believer. He was not an atheist; his views were that; If God
did not exist, it would be necessary to create him. He was against the Catholic
Church because of its interference on state affairs.

B) BARONDE-MONTESQUIEV, 1689-1755

Montesquieu was a great traveler, and while in Britain, he had studied the
British political system, which he advocated for in France. In his book ―The spirit
of the laws, 1748'' he criticized the Devine rights of Kings and compared
despotism to cutting down a tree in order to get its fruits. He praised the British
political system of equality as the best for France. To limit absolutism of the
ancient regime, he advocated for a constitutional monarchy with an independent
judiciary, executive and legislature. Each of these was to check the powers of the
other and this would bring justice and liberty to the people.

Montesquieu's political philosophy became more pronounced in France after the

successful American war of independence of 1776-1783. From 1783, America
adopted an elected government with a legislative assembly, an executive, a
constitution and an independent judiciary. The success of Montesquieu's ideas in
America provoked the Frenchmen to revolt against the Bourbon monarchy. That
is why they demanded for the reduction of the King's despotic powers and equal
political representation in the estates-general meeting (according to
Montesquieu's ideas) on the eve of the revolution in the cashiers (list of
grievances). In short, Montesquieu contributed revolutionary ideas that made the
Frenchmen more revolutionary than
ever before.

C ) JEAN JACQUESROUSSEA U, 1712-1778

J.J Rousseau was the most democratic philosopher wp.ose ideas were most
prominent to the French revolution of1789-1799. His book, "The social contract
became the bible of die hard revolutionaries and, Robespierre was its high priest.
In this book, he explained that a government is a contract between the ruler and
the ruled and that the ruled has the right to rev. At if the rulers fail to protect,
promote and defend their social, political and economic rights as was the case
with the Bourbon monarchy.

Rousseau's theory of the "general will of the people" called for a democratically
elected government of the people, by the people and for the people. By the
people, he meant the majority French peasants and the middle class who were
oppressed. He therefore instilled in them, the spirit of questioning and doubting
the worthiness of the nobles, clergy and above all the bourbon monarchy. In
short, Rousseau contributed to the revolution by inciting the majority French
peasants and middle class against the minority clergy and nobles

Rousseau's most memorable and revered statement was that man is born free
but everywhere in chains. He continues that; The surroundings of the society
destroys the natural simplicity of man, tainted his virtues and were responsible
for his sufferings and sins. In this way, he shows how
the Bourbon monarchy was responsible for problems in France through political
unfairness, economic hardships and social discrimination. All in all, Rousseau
contributed revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, and democracy which made
the French revolution inevitable.

NB. Rousseau's views were that in the initial stages man was not barbaric but
was a liberal wild animal. He called people to end artificial social structure that
had enslaved and restricted man's freedom. He says man should adopt the
primitive simplicity when he was ruled by natural laws, when he was ignorant
and innocent, as nature had made him.
Paradoxically, Rousseau was not even in favor of constitutional monarchy of the
British type. He wrote that the British were mistaken to consider themselves to
be free. He says they were free only during elections, after elections they were
forgotten by their elected representatives. However, Rousseau like his
counterparts believed that it was better to reform the monarchy than to abolish
it. Nevertheless, his views were very instrumental during the course of the
revolution.

D) JOHNLOCK (1632-1704)

John Lock was one of the classical philosophers whose ideas contributed to the
outbreak of the French

revolution of 1789. He observes that people freely enter into a social contract to
create a government in order to protect their freedom, properties and lives. He
argues that if a government fails to promote and protect the natural rights and
security of it’s' citizens, then it's in a state of rebellion against its own people and
violated the terms of the social contract. The people in such a situation have the
right to rebel against it and establish a new one. He also castigated absolute
monarchy as an illegitimate form of government. He argues that the powers of a
government come from the people rather than God, which helped to undermine
divine rights of King Louis Xvi. Consequently, Lock advocated for a democratic
government where the parliament, executive and judiciary have powers that are
not absolute but are given

in trust by the people. People are free to withdraw such powers in case a
government fails to effectively perform responsibilities entrusted to it. All these
were viable options for the French peasants and middle class to revolt because of
nonfunctional parliament, judicial and administrative in justice that favored the
nobles and the clergy.

The Encyclopaedists in their encyclopedia (book of knowledge about politics,

religion, history and economics) exposed the social, political and economic evils
of the ancient regime that needed reforms. Their editor was Denis Diderot who
compiled the writings of other writers in one big volume (encyclopedia).The
encyclopedia was widely circulated and read in France and the whole Europe. It
gave more enlightenment and inspiration to the French peasants and the middle
class that dragged them to revolt.
The economists like Adam Smith, Diderot, D'Alambert, etc denounced the unfair
taxation system, corruption, embezzlement of public funds and royal
extravagancy. They also called for universal education and an end to state
injustice. Their spokesmen were Quesney and Turgot. The economic reforms that
were advocated by the physiocrats were later adapted by Necker, Turgot and
Brienne. However, these were ignored and rejected by Louis xvi with his poor
advisors, which accelerated France into the revolution of 1789.

Generally, philosophers, encyclopaedists and other writers awakened the

oppressed Frenchmen to demand for a change of government. They were also
the authors of the French revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity and
democracy. These ideas created a class of elites like Mira beau, Robespierre and
Napoleon I who became revolutionary leaders.

Nevertheless the significance of philosophers should be treated with reservations

due to the following considerations:

They had criticized the French political system since the reign of King Louis xv
without causing any revolution. If their ideas counted so much ,then the
revolution would have started during the reign of Louis XV.

By 1789, the re-known philosophers were all dead. If their writings were very
significant, then the revolution would have started during their lifetime and they
would have been the leaders of the revolution.

Even if what survived their death (writings) implied a revolution, the majorities
of the Frenchmen were illiterate and could not understand their works. Even the
few hterates could not properly grasp the abstract and logical writings of the
philosophers which were in big vocabularies, poems and parables amongst
others.

(iv) None of the philosophers wanted a violent revolution of the French type
since it would destroy their wealth. They simply wanted a peaceful reform of the
monarchy. This could mean that the contributions of the political philosophers
were accidental since they never wanted a violent revolution.
(v) The writings of the philosophers were widely circulated and read throughout
Europe. The fact that it caused a revolution only in France shows that France had
specific problems that called for a revolution. Indeed the evils within France were
so conspicuous (open) that even if the philosophers had not exposed them, a
revolution would still have taken place in France.

In summary, it was mostly the role of other factors other than the influence of
the philosophers that contributed to the great French revolution. It was the
social, political and economic evils that the philosophers criticized, otherwise
without these problems they would have had nothing to criticize and write about.
Nevertheless, the critical influence of the philosophers magnified such problems
to a revolutionary level. In short, the role of philosophers complemented other
factors in causing the French revolution of 1789.

3. SOCIAL CLASS DIVISION

The Marxist interpretation of the French revolution is that it was a product of class struggle between
the unprivileged and privileged classes. The 1789 French population was partitioned into three
discriminative and rival estates. The first estate was composed of the clergy and royalists, the second
was for the nobles and die third estate was composed of peasants and the bourgeoisie (middleclass).

Generally, the 1st and the 2nd estates were called the privileged class. Although the privileged class
numbered about 300,000 out of25 million, they enjoyed a lot of unjustifiable privileges. This includes
owning 1/5 of the whole property in France, domination of key government posts, exemption from
taxation, forced labour and conscription into the army. These widespread privileges were seriously
opposed by the peasants and middle class, which provoked them to revolt.

The influence of the Catholic Church and the clergy in the social, political, economic and religious
affairs of France made the outbreak of the revolution inevitable. The church arid the Pope had a lot
of influence on politics and administration of France. The clergy who dominated key government
positions were hot only incompetent but messed up the country through corruption, bribery and
embezzlement of public funds. They enjoyed a yearly income of500 million Francs and exploited
peasants through feudalism and serfdom. They also denied the Frenchmen freedom of worship and
made the church tithe to be compulsory to everybody in France yet they were exempted from all
forms of taxes. Thus, the church pursued worldly interest more than spiritual interest, which
provided philosophers with issues to criticize and incite the Frenchmen to revolt.
However, even within the privileged class, there existed contradictions and sharp divisions. The 1st
estate (clergy) was subdivided into upper clergy who enjoyed the highest pay and key positions in
government yet they did little pastoral work and the lower clergy who were overworked with little
payments. The salary of an upper clergy was 10times more than that of a lower clergy. The nobles
were also subdivided into the upper nobility, the lower nobility arid the nobility of the robe (those
who brought their noble status). The upper nobility were more privileged than the lower nobility.
They (the upper nobility) were very arrogant and despised the other two nobles and this why the
French developed a maxim that; that the nobles fight the clergy pray and the people pay. This
discrimination within the privileged class boosted the revolution because some of such nobles and
the clergy joined the peasants and the middle class during the revolution.

The third estate was for the peasants and the middle class. The peasants were about 23 million out
of a total population of 25 million. However, they were denied all sorts of freedom and subjected to
unjust practices like taxation, denial of land, forced labour etc. By 1789, they were in a very
desperate condition that made them to flock the streets of Paris where they ended up becoming
revolutionary mobs, this greatly led to the success of the revolution.

The Bourgeoisie (middle class) was composed of businessmen and professionals like teachers,
lawyers, doctors, scientists, philosophers, industrialists and merchants. Inspite of their economic
strength (wealth) and education, the middle class was unprivileged and deprived of political rights.
For instance, they were excluded from top positions in the church, army, education and the judiciary.
A number of them had lent huge chunks of money to the government and were not sure of
recovering their money due to financial crisis. By 1789, they had read and interpreted the writings of
political philosophers to the peasants and urban dwellers, making them more aware and conscious of
the need for change. It is important to stress that revolutionary leaders like Mirabeau, Dalton,
Herbert and Robespierre were middle class men. Moreover, political philosophers who made
remarkable contributions to the revolution were also middle class men.

Nevertheless like political unfairness, social class division was not anew thing in the history of France.
It existed during the reigns of Louis xvi and Louis xv without causing any revolution. One can
therefore argue that maintaining social class system without other grievances could have caused
discontent but not a revolution. But this kind of argument should not be over emphasized because
unfairness in France was the outcome of social class divisions. Even financial crisis was due to the fact
that the privileged class who were most wealthy was exempted from taxation. From this point of
view, one can conclude that social stratification is one of the paramount long term causes of the
French revolution.
Emphasis must be made that class system led to the failure of the Estates General meeting of5th may
1789 through which the revolution emerged. It must be noted that the French revolution was
sparked off by disagreement over the seating arrangement, when the representatives of the
privileged classes insisted on the ancient system of voting based on class system. This was resisted by
the representatives of the unprivileged class who wanted voting by universal suffrage i.e. individual
show of hands. This is why class struggle is considered one of the immediate causes of the 1789
French revolution.

4 ECONOMIC FACTORS

Land

The feudal system of land ownership was important in bringing about the French revolution of1789.
Land Was unfairly distributed amongst the nobles and the clergy at the expense of the majority
peasants. For instance they owned up to 3/5 of the land yet they formed only 1/8 of the total
population. The church had 1/5 of the fertile state land on top of a yearly income of 500 million
Francs. The 23 million peasants (majority) inspite of being producing agents and taxpayers were
landless and survived as tenants or serfs on their landlords' estates. The conditions of the peasants
could better be felt than described. They suffered constant harassment and exploitation from their
landlords and that is why they demanded for land reforms during the revolution.

Taxation

By 1789, the taxation system of France had made the ancient regime "very sick" and no wonder that
it was referred to as” the cancer of the ancient regime” The poor peasants and them idle class, who
were least able to pay, were forced to pay while the wealthy nobles and the clergy were exempted
from all forms of taxes. The tax system was particularly so burdensome to the peasants that it
claimed over 80% of their annual income. This left them under a very miserable socio-economic
condition, which can be better felt than described. Worst of all, the taxation system was privatized
and the tax farmers (tax collectors) were so brutal that they often killed or inflicted physical injuries
like mutilation of tax defaulters. Besides, the profits of the Bourgeoisie were seriously reduced by
heavy taxation. All these dragged-the peasants and the middle class in the revolution in a bid to bring
an end to unfair taxation system

FINANCIAL CRISIS
By 1789, France was bankrupt with a heavy debt burden mostly from the middle class. Financial crisis
was brought about by corruption, embezzlement of government funds, financial mismanagement,
extravagancy of court nobles and Marie Antoinette which constituted 1/12 of government revenue
leave alone the wastage of state resources on useless and expensive wars like the 7years war with
Britain in India (1656- 1663), the American war of independence (1776-1783). The roles of financial
crisis/bankruptcy in the French revolution were as below:

(a) The government resorted to internal borrowing from the middle class in a desperate attempt to
service .the heavy debt burden and meet the cost of administration. However, Louis xvi resoled to
drastic measures of reducing interest on small loans and refusing to pay back huge loans. By 1789, it
was abundantly clear that the Bourbon monarchy under Louis xvi's leadership could not repay the
debts of the middle class. Thus, the middle class decided to "do away" with the monarchy and
establish a new government that would clear their debts, hence the revolution.

b) It undermined people's confidence in the government and exposed the dangers of financial
mismanagement and extravagancy. This made the monarchy unpopular and vulnerable to the

revolution of 1789.

c). It made the government very inefficient in providing basic necessities and state enterprises like
education, health, agriculture, industry, and transport. Besides, the government failed to pay civil
servants, the army and resorted to unpopular policies such as retrenchment, excessive taxation, and
free trade treaty with Britain etc. All these led to inflation, unemployment, general poverty and
starvation, which forced the masses into the revolution.

d) Financial crisis made the government incompetent in combating the effects of natural disasters
especially winter. There was no money to stock food and provide relief to the people. This worsened
famine leading to the creation of mobs like those of Paris that cheered the revolution.

e) Financial crisis forced Louis xvi to call the estate general from where the French revolution
exploded. He wanted to consult the representatives on the solutions to financial bankruptcy.
Otherwise, if France was not in an awkward financial situation, it would probably not have been
called after all, I had never been called for 175 years (since 1614).
(f) Financial crisis lead to the dismissal of reform oriented financial ministers i.e. Turgot (1774 -1776),
, Necker (1776-1781), Colonne (1781-1787) and Bishop Brienne (I787-l78.8), They had suggested
reforms like the scrapping of privileges in France and taxing the wealth of the nobles and the clergy.
However, these reforms made them very unpopular to the Queen and the court nobles.
Consequently, the strong-minded queen and the court nobles engineered their dismissal and
replacement, one after the other. The dismissal of reformist financial ministers undermined
confidence in the monarchy and was a total disaster for Louis xvi and the Frenchmen. Voltaire puts
this very clearly on the strength of the following words: - " I see nothing before me now but death, I
am struck to the heart of this blow and I shall never be consoled for having seen the beginning and
the end of the golden age that Turgot was preparing for us” It should be emphasized that unfair
dismissal of financial reformers worsened financial crisis and made the outbreak of the French
revolution inevitable.

It made the monarchy the focus of criticism by economists, physiocrats and encyclopaedists like
Diderot, Adam Smith, Turgot, Mira beau etc. They criticized the French financial system, its
mismanagement and consequences such, as inflation, unemployment, poverty and starvation. This
enlightenment due to bankruptcy contributed to the outbreak of the French revolution of1789.

General Economic hardship

By 1789, Trance was messed up in a serious economic, hardship that turned the masses against the
ancient regime. There was acute food shortage due to lack of modern methods of farming and under
utilization of land by the nobles and clergy. Inflation had made the cost of living impossible for the
common man. Louis xvi's free trade policy of Leissez fairre made the British high quality goods to
flood the French market thus forcing the Frenchmen out of business. This led to the collapse of
industries and unemployment. All these caused widespread discontent and undermined the
reputation of King Louis xvi and the monarchy.

The effects of natural disasters

The impact of natural disasters became one of the immediate causes of the French revolution. On
the eve of the revolution, there was bad weather characterized by severe winter that blocked all big
rivers including the chief port of Marseilles. This was worsened by heavy rainfall and
storm that destroyed crops. All these led to poor harvest, famine and starvation to which the
government had no practical solution. These forced the desperate, hungry and unemployed
destitutes to flock to towns where they ended up becoming revolutionary gangsters.
N.B If the economic hardship had not forced the idle, disorderly, desperate, helpless mobs to town,
there would have been no revolutionary mobs to cheer and support the revolution. It was for this
reason that the repercussions of natural disaster are considered one of the immediate causes of the
revolution.

It should further be argued that economic consideration was the primary reason that brought
disagreement when the estates general meeting was convened. The crisis that arose over the seating
arrangement was precisely because the privileged classes wanted to safeguard their economic might.
This was rejected by the unprivileged class who wanted to improve their economic standard. The
peasants were discontented with the ancient regime because they were denied land and subjected
to burdensome taxes. On the other hand, the bourgeoisie were disgruntled because they were
denied top political jobs that carried higher pay hence greater prospects of wealth.

5.EXTERNAL INFLUENCE

Influence of England The influence of England has been advanced as one of the factors responsible
for the revolutionary atmosphere in the 1789 France. Britain had a constitutional monarchy with a
functional parliament, independent judiciary, modernized agriculture and industries. The French
people always demanded their rulers to follow the British example and reform the social, political
and economic systems of France according to those of the English. The French writers and thinkers
especially philosophers were influenced by the apparently better social, political and economic
standards of England.

Nevertheless, although such comparison made the Frenchmen to be more aware of the extent to
which they were cheated, it should not be over emphasized. This is because man cannot go crazy,
wild, violent, risk his life and property just because he is being reminded that his colleague a broad is
leading a better lifestyle than himself. Thus, the conditions in France might have been bad and that
was why the French preferred those of the English. In short, the social, political, and economic
conditions in France (bad conditions) contributed more than the influence of England in the making
of the French revolution.

b) American war of independence (1776-1783)

From 1776 - 1783, the 13 British colonies of America rebelled against the British for their
independence. The French government gave military' and financial assistance to the Americans. The
French army under General Lafayette fought bravely, defeated tile British and the Americans secured
their independence where they created the United States of-America in 1785. However, the victory
of the French in America was short lived as if contributed to the outbreak of the French revolution. It
had political and economic impacts, which led to the revolution

Politically, the French soldiers who liberated the Americans came back with revolutionary and
democratic ideas. They had helped the Americans to destroy the British oppressive and autocratic
regime. They were embarrassed to find that the very things they had liberated the Americans from
were the order of the day in France. It's therefore not a surprise that politicized soldiers such as
Lafayette fraternized with the revolutionaries leading to the success of the French revolution.

The republican constitution, which America adopted was a direct version of Monetesque's ideas in
his book "the spirit of the Laws" i.e. liberty, equality and fraternity. These left the Frenchmen with
great enthusiasm for reforms against the Bourbon monarchy. Unfortunately, Louis had no program
for reforms in his mind, which made the Frenchmen to revolt.

Economically, the war contributed to Bankruptcy of the French treasury. France spent too much
money to a tune of 2,000 million Livres yet she had no financial benefit from the war. This forced the
government to borrow money from the Bourgeoisie who became very uneasy with the government
since there was no hope
ofrecoveringtheirmoney.Thiscannotheunderratedbecausetheestatesgeneralmeetingthatlater turned
in to a revolution was prompted by financial crisis to which American war of independence was a
contributory factor.

6 CHARACTER AND WEAKNESSES OF THE KING LOUIS XVI

Louis xvi was the last Bourbon monarch who ruled France under the ancient system of despotism.
He ascended to the throne in 1774 and ruled up to 1793 when he was guillotined/executed by the
radical French revolutionaries. Louis xvi was the weakest monarch in Europe. This explains why
France experienced a revolution alone yet the conditions between France and other European states
were generally the same. Similarly, he was the weakest monarch in France and that is why the French
revolted during his reign than those of his predecessors. He was a fat, dull and inconsistent stupid
man married to a beautiful "chicken- brained" and irresponsible woman called Marie Antoinette. He
lacked mannerism and often drunk and ate excessively. Louis xvi's character and personal
weaknesses made the French revolution inevitable in a number of ways;

i) Louis xvi confined himself in the royal palace which made him very unpopular. He did not tour the
various parts ofthecountryandconsequentlylosthispersonaltouchwiththepeople.Hisattentionwas
centered at the capital where the nobles assembled from all over the country to feast as parasites on
state resources. Worst of .all he was always asleep or hunting during crucial state meetings which
isolated him from even his very ministers. These left burning issues unattended to and only opened
way to the French revolution.

ii) Louis xvi was never a real despot. He inherited a despotic administration without himself being a
despot He was a despot in name and not in character since he had lost control over the army. The
army was divided in to two i.e. those loyal to him and those who were against him. Louis could
therefore not use to the army yet dictators survive on the support of the army. This explains why the
army fraternized with the revolutionaries during the revolution.

iii) Besides, he lacked firmness and often shed tears during heated debates when his ministers failed
to agree with him. Although Louis xvi desired reforms, he was overshadowed by Marie Antoinette
and the court nobles who were out rightly anti reforms. This is what one time, he could appoint
reformist financial controllers like Turgot and Necker and dismiss them without genuine reasons. This
lack of firmness and inconsistency made the forces of change to gather momentum which swept
Louis xvi and the Bourbon monarchy to the dustbin of history.

iv) Louis xvi's submissive character also contributed to the outbreak of the French revolution of 1789.
Although he had good ideas, he was nevertheless overshadowed in decision making by the Pope,
clergy, royal court officials and his wife, Marie Antoinette. They influenced Louis xvi to implement
unpopular policies like the dismissal of Turgot and Necker that prompted the Frenchmen to revolt.
This was because the king lacked a strong will to make independent and correct decisions.

v) Louis xvi is blamed for signing a free trade treaty with Britain in 1786 i.e. the Cobden treaty of
1786. The treaty led to the flooding of French markets with superior and yet cheap British goods. This
forced the French industrialists and businessmen out of the market leading to unemployment,
poverty and famine that made the monarchy/government very unpopular.

vi) Louis xvi is also blamed for enacting the 1781 army law, which restricted promotion in the army to
the nobles. The law prohibited those from the unprivileged class from-being promoted to
commissioned ranks even if one had exceptional abilities. The law created discontent and
resentment in those who were marginalised, which explains why a section of the army joined the
revolution to overthrow King Louis xvi from power.

vii) Louis xvi had a loose administration with a relaxed press. News papers pamphlets, books and
revolutionary literatures written and printed rapidly, circulated cheaply, passed and discussed openly
amongst the Frenchmen. On top of this, Louis xvi's administration encouraged free migration ' and
immigration which made the influence of England to be greatest in France. All these were exploited
by political philosophers and other Writers to circulate their ideas throughout France which ' caused
the revolution.

, NB. One can point out that had Louis xvi been a firm and wise king, he could have followed reforms
earlier advocated by philosophers before he ascended the throne and redressed the social, political
and economic problems. What he did was to simply dismiss their ideas which became fatal leading to
his own downfall and that of the monarchy.

viii) Louis xvi is held responsible for economic mismanagement and hence economic crisis that
dragged France to the revolution. His loose administration paved way for corruption, embezzlement,
extravagancy and mismanagement of funds, inflation, unemployment, poverty and starvation. He
was not bothered about these problems and even failed to provide relief to the starving French
peasants. All these forced the Frenchmen to revolt in 1789.

ix) Louis xvi is blamed for the dismissal of reformist financial controllers such as Turgot, Necker and
Calonne. They suggested reforms like the scrapping of privileges of the nobles and clergy e.g. tax
exemptions as a way of raising money to address the, problem of financial crisis. This provoked a
furious opposition from the queen, nobles and clergy who influenced King Louis xvi to dismiss them.
Their dismissal one after the other, made the financial situation in France to graduate from bad to
worst, leading to the calling of the estates general meeting and the outbreak of the revolution.

x) It was Louis xvi who carried France to the disastrous American war of independence. Although
there might have been a case for revenge against Britain, one could as well argue that it was not the
right time to wage a revengist war considering the political climate and economic crisis in France.
Louis xvi was too myopic,(shortsighted) to realize that the very things the Americans were fighting
against were the. Very things happening in France. He was too shortsighted to realize the side effects
of the war and too weak to de-politicize the veterans of American war of independence.

xi) Louis xvi made a fatal mistake by calling the estates general meeting of 5th May 1789 which had
been discarded since 1614. He was ignorant of the degree of antagonism between hostile and
irreconcilable forces that had spent.175 years (since 1614) in the grave. Perhaps his greatest mistake
was his failure to settle the disagreement over sitting arrangement which sparked off the revolution.
His refusal to allow the 3rd estate sit and vote in the same house with other estates made the 3rd
estate representatives to declare themselves the national assembly and this was the beginning of the
revolution.
(xix) Even, at this stage, Louis xvi could have used force if he was a real despot. Unfortunately, the
only “Jesus" to save him and the monarchy, had disloyal, elements that could be relied on. These
made him to try to quell the revolution using foreign troops, which made the revolutionaries more
revolutionary than ever before. One can therefore argue that it was not despotism. But lack of it or
weakness in administration that eventually caused the French revolution. Otherwise, despotism
existed in. France before Louis xvi without causing any revolution i.e. other previous leaders utilized
their despotic power to cling on the throne while Louis xvi failed to do so.

Generally, France in 1789 was revolutionary which needed a more dynamic and equally revolutionary
king who could direct changes from above rather than wait for changes to direct him from below.
Unfortunately, Louis xvi was more interested in divine rule and most interested in despotism and
hunting than national issues. More interestingly, the French revolutionaries in the initial stage of the
revolution simply demanded for reforms within the monarchy and not a revolution as it turned out
to be. However, Louis' rigidity towards reforms is what led to his death and the downfall of the
Bourbon monarchy.

7. THE FRENCH QUEEN MARY ANTOINETTE

The role of Marie Antoinette was very crucial in bringing about the French revolution of 1789. She
was an Austrian Princess who was hated by the Frenchmen as a foreigner. Marie Antoinette had a
narrow or limited political experience and Education. Her mother, the empress of Austria confessed
that her daughter (Marie Antoinette) ....had never learnt how to write a good letter, had no taste for
reading and possessed none of the accomplishments which the court of France expected (H L
Peacock, A history of modern Europe 1789 1981, 7th edition, PI7).

Her poor education made her to lose respect amongst the Frenchmen who were surprised to find
that the beautiful queen was indeed illiterate. Her narrow education also denied her enough skills
that she could have used to give proper guidance and advice to King Louis xvi. All these made her
very unpopular to the enlightened French masses and undermined the Kings popularity hence
leading to the outbreak of the French revolution of 1789.

Besides, she was too proud, arrogant-and reckless with her "tongue". She openly abused the hungry
mob when she told them to "Go and eat cakes if bread is too expensive". This was an insult of the
highest magnitude because cakes are far more expensive than bread. This made the Frenchmen to
be more radical and no wander that she was guillotined during the course of the revolution.
The Frenchmen disliked the marriage of Marie Antoinette because of alliance between Austria and
France in the seven years war of 1756 - 63 in which France was humiliatingly defeated by Britain and
Prussia. France consequently lost her colonies in Canada and India to Britain yet a lot of human and
non human resources were also lost in the war. This was because it was believed that France was
defeated due to the weakness of Austria. She was therefore hated as a living symbol of humiliation
that France suffered in the war.

Marie Antoinette made Louis Xvi a lousy administrator by confining him to die palace, royal gardens
and the "bedroorn". She actually practiced "bed room politics" from where she gave poor and often
very unpopular advice to Louis xvi. To this, Mira beau said; The king has only one man about himself,
his wife!

She advised the king to reject all forms of reforms. She is even the one who told Louis Xvi to dismiss
the reformist financial controllers i.e. Turgot and Necker. In short she made Louis xvi a very confused
king, which explains why he pursued inconsistent policy. This is why Denis Richards remarks; France's
destiny rested on a king who was too weak-minded to be stable and a queen who was too strong-
minded to be sensible.

Marie Antoinette ranks high as one of the most extravagant women in the history of the world. While
the Frenchmen were dying of hunger, she was busy wasting tax payers money on Luxurious parties
and entertainment, gifts for court favourites, 500 servants and buying 4 pairs of new shoes per week.
These and many others contributed to financial crisis and misery in France which graduated to the
French revolution of 1789.

INTRODUCTION

An attempt to explain why a revolution broke out in France alone in 1789 inspite
of the generally parallel (similar) conditions between France and the rest of
Europe. The question of ail questions is that if the conditions in France were
generally parallel (similar) to many states in Europe, why then did France
experience a revolution alone in 1789. Again, if the condition in France was
better in some instances considering the peasants and middle class, why then did
she host a revolution alone in 1789? In other words, why were the peasants and
middle class at the fore front of the revolution in spite of the irrelatively better
conditions when compared to their counterparts elsewhere?
By 1789, the social, political and economic conditions between France and the
rest of Europe were generally the same. With the exception of Britain (to some
extent), Europe was ruled by despotic rulers, the society was divided into classes
and the masses lived in poor economic conditions. Although these conditions
were favourable to revolutions throughout Europe, a revolution broke out in
France alone in 1789 because of the extra-ordinary conditions in France. Even
when the conditions in France were better than the rest of Europe, such better
conditions acted as a catalyst leading to the revolution.

As already noted, France, like Austria, Prussia, Russia and Spain were under
despotic rulers. Whereas despotism in France was still absolute, the rest of
Europe had enlightened despots who had improved the conditions of their
people. For example, in Spain Charles III had eliminated corruption and reformed
the taxation system while in Prussia Fredrick the great had codified the Prussian
law. These reforms sharply contrast with France that was infested with
corruption, unfair taxation system and absence of the law. This difference
explains why a revolution first broke out in France and not in any other state of
Europe.

Whereas the church influence and privileges in France was still maintained by
1789, this was reduced and abolished in other parts of Europe. For instance,
Joseph II of Austria had granted religious freedom, dismissed the church's
influence in state affairs and confiscated its land. Even in Spain the church was
under state control. The Frenchmen therefore wanted a revolution to destroy the
church's influence in the social, political and economic affairs of France and have
religious freedom that was already put right elsewhere in Europe.

Enlightened despots in other parts of Europe had also reformed the tax
department while France still maintained the ancient system of taxation. In
Austria, the privileges of the aristocracy were abolished and everybody who
owned land was taxed. In France the tax burden was heaviest on the peasants
while the nobles and the clergy who had a lot of land were exempted. This
rigidity in the social class system is what made France to raise little revenue
leading to the financial crisis that became one of immediate causes othe 1789
revolution.

NB. The taxation department in France was privatized. This made the contractors
to overtax and mistreat the Frenchmen in order to make profits. This is why
taxation was referred to as the cancer of the ancient regime.
The repercussions of natural disaster was worst in France due to economic
rigidities created by tax farmers collectors). The numerous taxes and road toll
made it difficult to ration goods from where it was plenty to areas of scarcity.
This made economic hardship to hit France hardest by 1789 leading to a
revolution. Besides France was still relying on agriculture, which is more
vulnerable to devastations by natural disasters. Other states like England,
Belgium and Prussia were investing heavily in industries, which reduced the
impact of natural disasters.

Although the conditions of the French peasants was better than any other
country in Europe, it instead morale boosted their determination to struggle for
more better conditions. This is in line with Denis Richards's argument that; It
tends to be people with something to loose and not merely something to gain
who think most eagerly of improving the existing state of society. Actually the
French peasants were relatively better and were able to pay taxes to the nobles,
clergy and the state. They were therefore very disappointed by the diversion of
their taxes to the luxuries of the unproductive minorities-the clergy and nobles.
This is why they participated in mobs and mob actions that made the French
revolution inevitable.

Even in Russia where the conditions of the peasants were worst a revolution was
avoided by 1789. Infact, there was little difference between a slave and a
peasant but she survived a revolution because of the ability of the iron lady Tzar
Catherine II who used force timely and promptly. For example she brutally
suppressed the peasant revolt of1773 and 1775. This contrasts with Louis XVI
who failed to use force as the third estate declared themselves the national
assembly and took the Tennis court oath which made the revolution of 1789 to
progress.

NB. Louis xvi's inability to use force appropriately was partly due to the fact that
he had lost the control over the army. By 1789 the French army were divided
into two i.e. those who were still loyal to him and those who had lost trust to him
(and therefore disloyal). This is why when things turned hot, he tried to flee to
Austria and get foreign troops to suppress the revolution that only made the
revolution to progress. It's important to stress those other despotic leaders like
Joseph II of Austria, Tzar Catherine of Russia, and Fredrick the great of Prussia
had firm control over the army and there was no disloyal element within the
army. It's partly why Catherine was able to crush the peasant's revolt before it
could spread throughout Russia.
Like the peasants (with the exception of Britain), France had also developed a
highly enlightened middle class who nursed bitterness at being excluded from top
political jobs. Indeed it is France where the middle class was most numerous,
most prosperous and most desirous of change. Such were learned men and
professionals like Robespierre, Desmoulin, Camille and Stanislus who
championed the revolution during its course. One can therefore argue that
whereas the oppressed masses of Europe desired change, they did not have the
leaders to mobilize them hence an insight as to why a revolution occurred in
France than elsewhere in Europe.

Apart from Britain, France by 1789 had a centralized administration. Paris was
the locus (centre) of .administration with a population of over half a million
people. These became the Paris revolutionary mob that cheered and supported
the revolution when it began. Centralization also explains why the effects of
natural disasters forced the masses to flock to Paris yet in other parts of Europe
centralization was either still rudimentary or entirely lacking. In these areas
unrest in the villages does not necessarily disturb the centre (capital) and
disorder in the centre had little impact m the countryside unlike France.

The influence of England has also been advanced' to explain the unique
occurrence of the French revolution. The British political system was reformed
long time by the revolution of 1668. The Frenchmen therefore had to struggle to
attain what the British had successfully achieved more than a century ago. On
the other hand, whereas other despotic powers like Russia, Austria and Prussia
were also vulnerable to the English influence like France, they were (and are)
geographically far from England than France. This made France to have more of
the English influence and hence the revolution of1789.

The American war of independence of 1776-1783 also explains why France

experienced a revolution single handedly. It contributed to bankruptcy which
forced Louis xvi to summon the estate general meeting. Besides there was no
foresight and proper planning for the war. Spain and Britain had a sound
economy and financed the war using state funds but France borrowed from the
Bourgeoisie (because of financial bankruptcy) who spear headed the revolution
to recover their money, which Louis had failed to repay.

NB. Although Britain lost in the America war of independence and France
succeeded in assisting the Americans to regain their independence, Britain could
not experience a revolution since she had a genuine reason of defending her
Imperial interest in America. France had no proper justification in the war.
Moreover Louis xvi's myopia made him fail to realize that the oppression and
injustice he was fighting in America needed to be stopped in France. This is why
veteran soldiers of American war of independence led by Lafayette supported the
French revolution when it started in 1789.

The weaknesses and character of Louis xvii shield high in explaining why France
hosted a revolution alone in 1789. He was physically weak, undecided and a non-
reformist leader. This is what made the estates General meeting of May 1789 to
explode into a revolution. Even after the explosion, he failed to use force at the
right time since he had even lost control over the army. If Louis xvi had the
ability and determination of Tzar Catherine II who ruthlessly suppressed the
peasants revolts of 1795 (at Pugachev), the French revolution would have been
averted.

Louis xvi's administration was very loose. He was either a sleep or hunting
during crucial state meetings. He was therefore not well versed with the
problems of his people. This made him an isolated king to be ejected by the
revolution of 1789. This was not the case in Prussia where Fredrick the great
made tours and regular inspection throughout the country. He was in touch with
the common man that many times he physically ploughed the field as an
exemplary leader. This increased' his popularity that averted a revolution of the
French type.

Russia, Austria and France had the influence of women in the state affairs before
the French revolution. However out of all of them, the influence of Marie
Antoinette in France was negative while those of Catherine II of Russia and Marie
Theresa of Austria were positive. For instance while Marie Theresa (Antoinette's
mother) of Austria was a reformer who was very popular, Marie Antoinette was
so unsympathetic to the Frenchmen, a non-reformer and thus very unpopular.
This also added to the unpopularity of Louis xvi which caused the 1789
revolution.

NB. Marie Theresa who ruled Austria from 1740-1780 was the mother of Marie
Antoinette, the queen of ice. Joseph II who succeeded her was her son and a
brother of Marie Antoinette. Joseph tried to advice sister not to over involve
herself in French politics and at one time wrote a lengthy letter in which he
warned her to ………Have nothing to do with public affairs and think only in
deserving the king’s affection and confidence.
The works /writings of philosophers were widely read throughout Europe. Suffice
to note is that philosophers never wanted a revolution of the French type since it
would jeopardize their wealth. Voltaire stood for a reformed despotism that was
practiced in Prussia, Russia and Austria but not in France. For instance Tzar
Catherine of Russia had improved the economy using ideas of the philosophers.
She even invited Diderot and discussed her economic reform programs with him.
These moves were contrary in France because Louis dismissed the financial
reforms proposed by Turgot and Necker which were based on Diderot's writings.
Thus, much as it appears parallel that philosophers wrote for the whole Europe,
France experienced a revolution alone in 1789 due to neglect of philosophical
ideas, contrary to other states.

Lastly, philosophers enjoyed a wider and public reception in France than

elsewhere because she had the widest middle class who wanted change.
Secondly, in spite of censorship there were many ways and media through which
their ideas circulated in France. These were liberal pamphlets, journals, shops,
Lodges, saloons and recreational places. In these places the ideas of
philosophers were analyzed and interpreted by the middle class to the peasants.

ROLE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

It should be noted that the privileged class (clergy and nobles) indirectly
contributed to the revolution since their privileges were at the expense of the
peasants and middle class. The role of the unprivileged Clarks i.e. peasants and
middle class were direct since they actively participated in the revolution due to
the numerous grievances they had against the privileged class and the ancient
regime.

ROLE OF THE CLERGY

1. The clergy fostered religious intolerance where Catholicism was the state
religion yet there were Protestants and Moslems in France. Protestants and
Moslems were not allowed to worship publicly and were often subjected to
intimidation, Imprisonment, torture and exile. These robbed the church and the
government of support from the anti-Catholic elements in Prance and forced
them to revolt in 1789.
2. The Catholic Church had unjustifiable influences on State affairs and state
policies. Most of the clergy including the pope were very poor advisors who made
Louis xvi to mess up with state affairs.

3. The Catholic Church was the most privileged institution in France. The clergy
enjoyed a yearly income of500 million francs and dominated Land at the expense
of the peasants. They exploited peasants on such land through Feudalism and
serfdom. This made the peasants who were the producing agents to revolt for
redistribution of Land.

4. Inspite of the vast resources it had, the Catholic Church was exempted from
all forms of taxes, clergy made "a free' gift" to the government than contribute
appropriate revenue to the nation treasury from its wealth. This contributed to
financial crisis since they should have been the best contributors to the
government revenue.

5. While the Catholic Church was exempted from all forms of taxes, the church
tithe was compulsory for everybody in France. The church therefore fostered
economic motives more than religious objectives in the exploitation of the
common man. This dragged the non-Catholics to the revolution of1789.

6. The French education system prior to 1789 was controlled by the clergy other
than the state. Education policies were manipulated to indoctrinate the
Frenchmen with ideas favourable to the state in an attempt to frustrate anti-
government critics. This made the French men to revolt in order to reinstate
education under state control.

7. Besides education, the Catholic Church controlled the press. It censored all
newspapers, journals, pamphlets and other publications that were against the
king and the monarchy. Liberal books and ideas were prohibited with a false
hope that it would keep the Frenchmen ignorant. However, this boomeranged
and made the Frenchmen more conscious of the need for change, hence the
revolution.
8. The clergy were a corrupt, embezzlers and extravagant group of people. They
lived a parasitic life at the expense of the poor peasants. This led to economic
hardship and the revolution of1789.

9. The dominant position of the Catholic Church and the clergy provided the
philosophers with something to criticize and incite the Frenchmen to revolt.
Voltaire for instance condemned the catholic religious intolerance and its
privileges at the expense of the oppressed peasants.

10. The representatives of the clergy together with the nobles provoked the third
estate into the revolution by insisting on the ancient system of voting and
deliberations during the estates general meeting of5 many 1789.This brought a
very chaotic disagreement which forced the third class to form the national
assembly, take the tennis court oath and progress with the revolution. NB. By
1789, the Catholic Church was badly in needs of reforms. Its role provoked
hostility, hatred and criticism from liberals and philosophers because it was
corrupt, oppressive, exploitative and conservative to forces and demands of
reforms.

However, some section of the clergy betrayed the king and supported the revolution at the
eleventh hour. These were the lower clergy who were less privileged like their counter parts
the upper clergy. For instance the salary of a Bishop was about 100 times that of a parish
priest and much more than that of a catechist. Sortie clergy fell out with the monarchy
because of its too much concern with economic motives other than religious objectives

ROLE OF THE NOBILITY

1. Like the clergy, the nobility were a privileged minority who were favored by
virtue 'of their birth. They were a parasitic group of people who survived on the
sweats of the peasants and middle class and this is why they were nicknamed
the "the spoilt child of France". They monopolized Land and exploited the
peasants on such Land as serfs. This forced the peasants to take a revolutionary
stand in 1789.

2. The nobility were also exempted from taxation and conscription in the army.
On top of these, they had the right to levy unnecessary taxes like feudal dues
and toll taxes that made the peasants miserable and frustrated the middlemen's
profit. This prompted the peasants to ally with the middle class to cause the
revolution in 1789.

3. The nobility monopolized key and important government posts at the expense
of even the suitably qualified middle class. For instance, they were ambassadors,
top civil servants, army and naval commanders not on merit but by virtue of
their birth right. This greatly annoyed the middle class who felt it was an insult to
them since they were better educated than the nobles hence they had to
mobilize the peasants for the revolution.

4. Like the clergy, the nobility were very corrupt, extravagant and mismanaged
state resources, which brought financial crisis and economic hardship. For
example, the court-nobles lived luxuriously at the royal palace and the Bastilles
and that is why the revolutionaries could not spare these places during the
revolution.

5. The incompetent nobles who monopolized key positions in the government

gave poor and often fatal advice to the king. For instance they advised the king
to insist on the ancient system of sitting during the 5^ May 1789 estates general
meeting that triggered off the revolution. They also advised Louis to dismiss
Necker and Turgot which dismissal caused wide spread political discontent to the
king and the monarchy.

6. The greater nobility were too influential as court nobles from where they
administered severe punishments to the unfortunate peasants and middle class.
They were very biased in their judgment, which called for a revolution to end
such French society.

7. The nobility were arrogant and had developed a superiority complex over the
common man in France. They collected their feudal dues and products (food
crops) from the peasants with a lot of brutality. They even demanded strict
obedience to their decisions and failure to comply means heavy punishment.

8. Lastly, the nobility also had internal wrangles which arose from discrimination
within their rank and file. The greater nobility were more privileged than the
lesser nobility and the nobility of the robe. They were entitled to the best
promotions, pensions, appointments and other states favors. This caused internal
jealousy and hatred, which made the lesser nobility and the nobility of the robe
to jump on the revolutionary vehicle in order to reform the monarchy.

GRIEVANCES AND ROLE OF THE

BOURGEOISIE

Although the Bourgeoisie were considerably wealthy and enjoyed some

exemptions like conscription, feudal rural taxes and owned most of France's non-
agricultural Wealth, they had serious causes of discontent. They were prominent
on the French revolution because they provided ideas and words of
encouragement to the oppressed peasants.

1. The elite Bourgeoisie had, the ambitions of achieving political and social
prestige, which was monopolized by the unqualified nobles and clergy. This was
because they were excluded from politics. Inspite of their wealth and education
they even had no prospect of promotion in the army because all commissioned
ranks were reserved for the children of the nobility. These made them to be
critical of the Bourbon monarchy and spear head the revolution.

2. Besides political grievances, the Bourgeoisies had economic grievances as

well. They Were opposed to unfair taxation system which reduced their profit
margins and benefited the ―unproductive nobles and clergy‖. The middle class
were frustrated by Louis xvi's free commercial treaty with England in 1786 that
made them to be out competed by the British merchants. The greatest grievance
was that by 1789 they had lent huge chunks of money to the government.
However, with the financial crisis in France, the Bourgeoisies had no prospect of
recovering their money. They therefore advocated for a change of government in
order to establish one that would improve the economy and pay their debts.

3. The philosophers whose critical analysis contributed to the revolution belonged

to the intellectual Bourgeoisies. Even after the death of philosophers, it was the
middle class who interpreted the writings of the philosophers to the oppressed
peasants and urban dwellers. This made the peasants and urban dwellers
politically conscious and it's what partly made them to participate in the
revolution.
4. Similarly, most of the revolutionary leaders came from the middle class.
Compared to other European states, France had the greatest number of
prosperous middle class who were eager for change. They financed and provided
leadership to the revolution of 1789. The middle classmen were the master
brains behind the tennis court oath and the formation by the national assembly.

5. The middle class recruited and financed the revolutionary army (National
Guard). The role of the National Guard was very significant in defending the
revolution from internal and external enemies.

6. It was the middle class that provided the tri-colour flag of the revolution which
manifested that France was in a revolutionary state. The tri-colour flag replaced
the white flag of the Bourbon monarchy. It was therefore a symbol of change in
France.

7. The middle class was the architect of reforms and changes in France during
the revolution. They were at the forefront of the civil constitution of the clergy
declaration of rights of man and citizens, nationalization of land, storming of
Bastilles, march of' women and the reign of terror

8. it’s a general belief that the French revolution was a Bourgeoisie revolution.
This is so because the Directory government which Napoleon succeeded was
dominated by file middle class and Napoleon himself had become a middle class
man by 1799.

GRIEVANCES AND ROLE OF THE PEASANTS

1. By 1789, the French peasants were in serious demand for Land, abolition of
uniform tax system, forced Labour, conscription in to the army, feudalism,
serfdom and wanted Law and order to prevail. While the peasants in other
despotic states like Prussia, Austria and Russia had given up the struggle for
change and accepted their status as sufferers, the conditions of the French
peasants were relatively better and this motivated them to struggle for better
conditions. This is because change can always be caused by people who have
something to sacrifice in order to achieve such desired changes.
2. The peasants formed the Paris revolutionary mob that greatly cheered and
supported the revolution. This forced Louis xvi to summon the estates general
meeting partly to find a way of handling the chaos caused by the mobs.
Otherwise, had it not been because of the disorder and Lawlessness caused by
peasants, possibly the estates general meeting would not have been called and
there would be no mobs to cheer and support the revolution.

3. Beside the peasants were active in revolutionary events such as the reign of
terror, storming of Bastilles, March of women, confiscation of property and
setting up barricades against government troops.

4. The peasants participated in the election of representatives to the chamber of

deputies. Their representatives stood against the old order of sitting
arrangement and joined the middle class in the declaration of the national
assembly.

5. The peasants dominated the National Guard that protected the French
revolution from internal and external threats. They were not afraid of losing their
life for they had nothing to lose and everything to gain.

6. Lastly, it was the peasants who aborted Luis attempt to flee to Austria (to
seek foreign support against the French revolutionaries). They arrested him and
his family members at varrenes (150 kms from Paris) and brought him back as
an enemy of the revolution. This frustrated the hopes of foreign assistance that
Louis had wished to use against the revolutionaries.

THE ROLE/CONTRIBUTION OF
PERSONALITIES

1. Predecessors of King Louis XVI i.e. Louis XV, Louis XIV, Louis XIII etc

The previous French kings (Louis XV, Louis XIV, Louis XIII etc) from whom king
Louis XVI inherited the throne laid foundation that contributed to the outbreak of
the French Revolution of 1789. They are blamed for introducing and perpetuating
extravagancy, unfair; political, social and economic system that favored the
privileged class (clergy & nobles) against the unprivileged class (peasants and
middle class) in the history of France. Louis XV for instance caused financial crisis
in France when he wasted huge chunks of state money inthe7years war with
Britain in India (1656-1663). The humiliating defeat of the French troops in the
war is what partly made Louis XVI to venture in the American war of
independence that worsened financial crisis and caused the 1789 revolution.
Thus, the weakness and unfair system of King Louis Xvi's predecessors had
already antagonized the Bourbon monarchy from the French peasants and middle
class, thereby becoming a long term factor that caused the 1789 revolution in
France.

2. GENERAL LAFAYETTE.

Lafayette was a general in the French army and a veteran of the American war of
independence. He was influenced by the democratic, constitutional and liberal
ideas of the Americans which he assisted them to attain against the British. This
experience inspired him with a revolutionary attitude against the oppressive,
exploitative, dictatorial and undemocratic French government. It's this attitude
that made him to turn round and support the revolution when he was ordered to
suppress the revolutionaries. He is blamed for being one of the ring leaders of
the revolution against the Bourbon monarchy.

3. COUNT MIRABEAU

Mirabeau was a noble who unlike other nobles had passion/zeal for equality,
liberty, fraternity and democracy. It's this sentiment that made him to be elected
to represent the third estate in the French parliament of 5th May 1789. The same
sentiment explains why he easily became the leader and president of the
national assembly. Under his leadership, the third estate representatives rejected
the ancient system Of separate meetings of the 3estates in favour of a single
assembly. When King Louis XVI ruled against the idea of a single assembly and
ordered the third estate delegates to leave the parliament, Mirabeau confronted
the master of ceremonies that; Go tell your master that we are here by the will
of the people And that we shall not leave except at the point of the bayonet!

It was this tough stand under Mirabeau's guidance that forced King Louis Xvi to
allow the three estates to sit debate and vote in a single assembly. This was a
fundamental change because it was the first of its' kind in the political history of
France during the ancient regime.
4 TURGOT

He was a senior economist who was appointed a financial controller by King Louis
XVI in 1774.He had greatly improved the economy of the province of Limousin
and the king expected him to do the same for the French economy. Turgot
summarized his reform agenda in the following words. No increase in taxation,
no bankruptcy, no more borrowing. Consequently, he proposed an end to tax
exemption of nobles and clergy. He also stopped wastage of public money on
unnecessary expenses and saved millions of money. However, these reforms
made him very unpopular to the Queen, upper clergy and nobles who
pressurised King Louis XVI to dismiss him in 1776. His dismissal was a big
disappointment to the French masses to which Voltaire lamented in these words;

I see nothing before me now but death; I am struck to the heart by this blow
and shall never be consoled for having seen the beginning and the end of the
golden age that Turgot was preparing for us. % Turgot's dismissal became one of
the long term grievances that made the French masses to loose hope in the
ancient regime's prospect of addressing the ever worsening financial crisis and
led to the outbreak of the 1789 revolution.

5. NECKER.

He was an accountant from Switzerland who was appointed by King Louis XVI to
replace Turgot in 1776. He used his experience to persuade the king to reduce
court expenses at Versailles and privileges of the nobles and clergy such as tax
exemptions. However, he worsened French financial bankruptcy by borrowing
heavy loans to meet Frances' expenses in the American war of independence. In
1781, Necker published a financial report of income and expenditure in which he
dubiously tried to show that the financial situation was better than it actually
was. His aim was to maintain some public confidence in the government.

However, the published statement exposed serious issues that antagonized the
Frenchmen with the ancient regime. For instance, it shows the governments'
continuous yearly payment to the hair dresser of Princess D'Artois who had died
long before the age of 3years. It also exposed huge figures that were paid as
pensions to court favourites. Like Turgot, these made Necker to bed is missed by
King Louis XVI on the advice of Marie Antoinette, court nobles and clergy. His
dismissal was disastrous as he was replaced by Calonne who misused the little
money in the treasury, hence worsening the financial awkwardness of the French
treasury. The failure of Calonne and later Bishop De Brienne forced Louis XVI to
recall Necker in 1788 who reaffirmed De -Brienne,s earlier advice to the king to
call the estates general meeting of 5th may1789 that triggered off the
revolution.

6 CALONNE

Calonne was a court favourite who replaced Necker in 1781 as a financial

controller. He proposed to tax exemptions of the nobles and clergies. He also
suggested imposition of new land owners in order to raise money to address
financial crisis. He contradicted himself by excessively borrowing money to the
extent of 300 million dollars within 3years. This worsened the problem due to the
debt he had and undermined the popularity of the Bourbon monarchy. Although
he was dismissed' the situation nevertheless worsened financial bankruptcy and
indirectly prepared ground for the revolution by 1789.

7. ARCH-BISHOPDE-BRIENNE.

He was a cleric appointed to replace Calonne as a financial minister. He

persuaded the notables (nobles, clergy, state officials etc) to accept the financial
reforms proposed by previous financial ministers like Turgot and Necker. De-
Brienne advised King Louis XVI to use his powers to tax the nobles, which
resulted into a noble rebellion of 1788. He advised the King to call the estates
general meeting which provoked hostile opposition from the privileged class and
caused Louis XVI to recall back Necker. His idea was however emphasized by
Necker and Louis could no longer object to call the estates general meeting from
where the great revolution of1789 emerged.

OTHER CONTRIBUTORS

The contributions of King Louis XVI (see point 6 on causes of the revolution)

9. The role of Marie Antoinette (see point 7 on causes of the revolution)

10. The role of Voltaire (point2 (a)

11. The role of Montesquieu (point2(b)

12. The role of J.J Rousseau (point 2 (c)

13. The role of John Lock (point 2 ( d)

14. The role of Encyclopaedists like Diderot ( page 6)

15. The role of Economists like Adams Smith and D'Alambert

EVENTS /COURSE OF THE REVOLUTION

Introduction

The French revolution can generally be categorized in to three major

phases/stages The first stage 1789 - 1791 begins with the estates general
meeting of5th may 1789 and ends with the death of Mirabeau in 1791. It
involved a number of events and resolutions passed by the National Assembly
over;

The clergy

The nobility

Judicial and Administrative structures,

The second stage 1792 - 1794 was characterized by violence, where the peaceful
revolution turned into terror, deviating to dictatorship and anarchy. It began
after the death of Mira beau in April 1791 and ended with the death of
Robespierre in July 1794. The leadership of the revolution at this stage was
under the lower class people and political parties that had sprung up.

Las stage was when the spread of the revolution by 1799 was under the
directory government ruled by five directors. It was marked by the spread of
revolutionary ideas from France to the rest of Europe. It also witnessed the rise
of Napoleon Bonaparte where he staged a coup against the directory government
and assumed power in France. Although the French revolution was considered to
have ended in 1799, this should not obstruct us from the fact that Napoleon
continued with the revolutionary principles up to his downfall in 1815.

It should be noted that by 17.89, France was a rotten society and a revolution of
any nature inevitable. Denis Richards summarizes that

― All the materials for a great combustion was now present, an outworn,
inefficient, unfair and bankrupt system of government, a strong body of
reforming opinion created by philosophers, the successful example of the
Americans, a weak king and unpopular queen, wide spread economic distress,
and desperate mob of an exceptional size in Paris. It needed only a spark to set
it ablaze, to turn the smoldering of 1787-1789 into fire‖.

In other words, the Frenchmen were only waiting for an opportune moment to
revolt which came through the estates general meeting of 5th may1789.

SIGNIFICANT EVENTS OF THE FRENCH

REVOLUTION

THE ESTATESGENERAL MEETING OF 5th MAY 1789.

The estates general meeting of5^^ May 1789 comprised of 621 representatives
of the third estate, 308 clergy and 285 nobles. Louis xvi and his poor advisors
thought that each estate representative would present a list of grievances
(cashiers) and offer some advice which would help in solving financial crisis and
other problems that France was facing. The cashiers expressed loyalty and
fidelity (faith) to the king; most of them reflected the radical philosophy of the
age and demanded for reforms in the government and society. Many of the
cashiers demanded for the abolition of social inequalities in the society. The
mood of the third estate was expressed in a pamphlet written by Abbey Sieyes
which was circulated in large numbers on the eve of the French revolution

What is the third estate? , Asked Sieyes, Everything'

What has it been in politics up to now?

Nothing

What does it desire?

To become something.

Louis xvi expected separate deliberations from each estate than a joint
assembly, of the clergy, nobles and third estates representatives. He thus
insisted on the ancient system of sitting and voting where each estate would sit
and vote as one house. By this procedure, the privileged estates (clergy and
Nobles) would always out vote the third estate by a ratio of1:2 (one vote for the
third estate, and two votes for the first and second). This was because the 1st
and 2nd estates were the privileged class and had similar interest of defending
their privileges.

The third, .estate objected to this arrangement and wanted a single assembly of
the three ,classes where deliberations and voting would be on the principle of
one man one vote (show of hands). They were aware that a joint assembly
would offer them opportunities for reforms since they had twice as many
representatives as the clergy and the nobles combined.

However, the privileged class rejected the demands of the third estate and
influenced Louis, xvi to rule against it under the guidance of Mira beau, the third
estate refused to accept the ruling. There, were a number of deliberations and on
17th June 1789 the third estate declared itself the national assembly. They were
strengthened when dissatisfied nobles and clergy joined the assembly.

1. The significance of this event in the course of the French revolution is that it
was the beginning of the revival of the parliament and parliamentary democracy
in France. For about 175 years, the estates general had never sat and the 5'^
May 1789 assembly resurrected it. From 1789 onwards, the estates general met
continuously and enacted a number of reforms in France.
2. This event triggered off the revolution. The self-conversion of the 3rd estate
into the national assembly marked the beginning of the French revolution. They
had taken up the responsibility of acting on behalf of the whole nation. This
weakened the position of the Bourbon monarchy and Louis xvi over state affairs.

3. The meeting gave the third estate the chance to begin fighting for their rights.
Had it not been because of the hectic disagreement over the sitting arrangement,
the third estate would have found it difficult if not impossible to start the
revolution in 1789. This is so because they used the disagreement over the
sitting order as an excuse to revolt against King Louis xvi and the monarchy.

4. it's also of significance that the national assembly is known as the constituent
assembly because it's main responsibility was to make a constitution. It was the
beginning of constitutional system of governance in France. The constitution later
became the guarantor of people's freedom and rights.

5. It portrayed the unity that existed amongst the third estate and disunity
within the privileged class. The unity of the third estate was evidenced in the
tennis court oath and disunity of the privileged class was witnessed when the
lesser nobles and lower clergy joined the 3rd estate against the monarchy.

6. The event exposed the king's inconsistencies and weaknesses. His failure to
settle the sitting arrangement and his order to the privileged class to join the
assembly is a testimony of his wavering character.

However, the higher clergy and the greater nobility refused to join the national
assembly. This undermined the nationalistic outlook which the assembly was to
portray.

THE TENNIS COURT OATH JUNE 1789

2. The Tennis Court Oath June 1789

In order to overcome the pressure from the 3rd estate, the king decided to hold a special royal
session in which he planned to give his last order. Unfortunately, the delegates of the third estate
were not informed of the royal session. When they arrived at the assembly hall on 20^ June 1789,
they found the doors blocked by soldiers. They were informed of the royal session and that the hall
was closed for making the necessary preparations (including cleaning of the hall). At the same time
rumours was spreading that the king was planning to use force against the representatives of the
third estate.

For a moment, the third class delegates were stranded. However after sometime, they proceeded to
a neighboring building which served as a tennis court and held a memorable session there under the
presidency of Bailly, They took the famous tennis court oath in which they swore;

Never to separate and to reassemble whenever circumstances shall require until the constitution of
the kingdom shall be established,

3. THE ROYALSESSION, JUNE 1789

On 23rd June 1789, a special royal session was held. In his speech, the king announced a number of
reforms which satisfied the demands of the third estate but made some fatal mistakes. He declared
the recent actions of the 3rd estate in converting itself in to the national assembly illegal and
unconstitutional. He also ordered that the three estates should meet separately. The king, the
nobility and the clergy left the hall in the spirit of victory.

However, the third estates representatives remained in the hall. The master of ceremonies reminded
them of the King's orders and told them to quit the assembly hall. Soldiers were also seen at the
gate. They were to force the 3rd estate delegates out of the assembly hall. This provoked Mira beau,
who went straight to the M.C and blasted him that,

Go; tell your master that we are here by the will of the people and that we shall not leave except at
the point of the bayonet •

Humiliated by the tough stand of the third estate, Louis Xvi ordered the 1st and 2nd estates to join
the national Assembly. He allowed all the three estates to sit, deliberate and vote as one body. This
was a triumph for the 3rd estates that had been in the backyard of French politics for centuries. The
third estate had therefore succeeded in reforming and restricting the ancient regime in France.
4. THE STORMING OF BASTILLES 14™ JULY 1789

The Bastilles, was the state prison where those arrested under the infamous lettres-de-cachet were
imprisoned. After the declaration of the national assembly by the third estate, the king’s diehard
nobles and clergy continued to oppose it. Rumours were that the king was organizing to destroy the
assembly using foreign troops. Besides, Necker was expelled for the second time on 11th July1789.
This was a great disappointment because he was the only 'messiah' of reforms in France The news
spread throughout France and on 13th July Camille Desmoulins a journalist argued people to take
immediate action he proclaimed;

To arms, to arms, no moment must be lost Monsieur Necker has been dismissed. Tonight the
German and Swiss battalions will come out to kill us, we have but one chance left, to fly to arms.

Consequently, the Paris mob led by' Desmoulin invaded the armoury at Invalids and stormed Bastilles
on 14th July l789. This was to release the innocent prisoners and demolish it as a symbol of
despotism. There was heavy fighting between the mob and the guards but with time their
commander. Governor de-Launay surrendered but was murdered.

SIGNIFICANT

The fall of Bastilles was applauded in France and elsewhere as the greatest and most significant
event of the century. It signified the fall of despotism’ the end of lettress de-cachet and other forms-
of oppressions in France. This was because the Bastilles was a symbol of despotism where the victims
of lettres-de-cachet were thrown.

ii) Its fall led to the release of prisoners most of whom were innocent. However, the freed prisoners
took up to revenge against those who had imprisoned them (nobles). They killed such nobles and
looted their farms and homes.

iii) The fall of Bastilles ushered in violence not only in Paris and other surrounding provinces but also
in other districts. The revolutionaries acquired more arms, which they used against the hated nobles
and clergy.
iv) The violent destruction of the Bastilles and the violent events that followed forced the Émigrés in
to exile (under the leadership of comte-de-Artois). This is yet significant because the émigrés later re-
mobilized against the revolutionaries who contributed to the reign of terror and war with other
powers in Europe.

v) It also led to the dissolution of the Royal guard which was replaced by the National Guard. The
National Guard was to protect the revolution and all what it stood for i.e. its achievements. It was
under the command of Lafayette, the hero of American war of independence and Trour, the vice
president of the national assembly. Foreign troops were withdrawn immediately and to avoid chaos
Necker was reinstated.

vi) The National flag of France was changed from the white colour to the current tri-colour of red,
white and blue. This symbolized a change from the Bourbon monarchy to the revolution.

vii)The storming of Bastilles was quickly followed by an almost complete decentralization of

government. Anew government was formed to govern Paris only while the king was in charge of
Versailles. The appointed Royal intendants in the local government were replaced by elected council
leaders signifying the rise of democracy in France.

Viii)The success of the revolutionaries bonded the 3rd estate together and gave them courage to
fight for more reforms. It became a day for liberty not only in France but the whole world. Indeed
this event is so important that 14th July has remained a day of national celebrations in France,

However^ the event of the fall of Bastilles was very unfortunate. Several captives of the garrisons
were murdered. Even the governor, De-Launay who ordered his troops to surrender was beheaded
and his head r/as paraded around Paris on a pike. This was despotism and violence of the highest
order.

5. The Session On 4th August "Thenight Ofdupes" Orstupid Dukes

After the storming of Bastilles, Peasants went on rampage attacking the castles/residences and
property of the clergy and Nobles. Consequently by August the remaining nobles who had not given
up their privileges had seen the sense in sacrificing their privilege to save their lives. On 4th August
when the national assembly was in a night session, it abolished feudalism and all its forms
throughout France. The nobles and clergy denounced their privileges and the ancient system of
taxation was scrapped off. Thus, the long-term grievances, which had made the revolution inevitable,
were removed. This was a total destruction of the foundation of the ancient regime and a relief to
the peasants.

The event is memorable because it guaranteed equality of all the men before the law and other
forms of taxation, thus burying social class discrimination in France.

The way feudalism was destroyed makes it significant. It was very peaceful where the nobles and
clergy just denounced their privileges hence compromising with the third estate in the spirit of
brotherhood.

It guaranteed admission and promotion in to public offices on merit than birth. This gave way to
competent and talented men of ability to rise to power irrespective of birth right.

This event became a social revolution that laid a firm foundation of fraternity between the three
classes compared to their position prior to 1789. This strengthened the spirit of patriotism and
nationalism in

France.

However, the event forced most nobles and clergy to flee to exile from where they regrouped in
Austria and started planning a counter-revolution. This took France to war with foreign powers and
contributed to the reign of terror in the course of the revolution.

In short the destruction of feudalism was a landmark that modernized France in Europe compared to
Austria, Germany, Italy, Russia, and Poland. It was a stepping-stone for the declaration of the rights
of man and citizens.

6. Thedeclearation Of The Rightsof Man And Citizens, 27thaugust 1789

The National assembly was known as the constituent assembly because its role was to make a
constitution for France. But before the constitution could be made, it was necessary to guarantee the
rights of man. On 27 August 1789, the constituent assembly met, its discussion was centered on the
restoration of people's political freedom and how to protect them. By the end of the session, it had
come out with a document called the declaration of the rights of man and citizens, which was to act
as a preamble to the French constitution. It had the following declarations amongst others;

i)People had the rights to rule themselves and that men were by nature equal and therefore entitled
to equal rights and privileges from the state. This includes equality before the Law and taxation.

ii) It granted freedom of press, speech, worship. Association, ownership of property, security and
resistance to oppression.

iii) All government officials are public servants and are responsible to the people. It continues that
sovereignty is vested in the people who have the final voice to determine their leadership.

iv) Imprisonment was not allowed except by laws decided only by the people. No one was to be
arrested • without a proof of his or her guilt.

SIGNIFICANCE & EVALUATION OF THE DECLARATION

i) Its on record that the declaration of the rights of man and citizens was the noblest side of the 1789
; French revolution, without which it might not have been a great even tin European History (Grant
and ' Temperly, 1952, P24). The human rights that were declared became the foundation for people's
rights and freedom not only in France but the entire world. These have been adopted by the present
UNO. The UNO charter has a special article (16) on the rights of man and citizens, which was Xeroxed
from that of France. Although the political liberties were short-lived with the reign of terror France,
they were resurrected and have survived up to now.

ii) The declaration destroyed the remains of segregative social system that had characterized the
French society prior to 1789 i.e. between the nobles and the clergy against the third estate. It
asserted equality of all men by nature irrespective of social status or birth.

iii) The declared rights of man confirmed the abolition of feudalism and feudal dues in the history of
France. However the abolition of feudal dues worsened the financial crisis in France.
iv) David Thomson describes the declaration of the rights of man, as the most important event in the
development of democratic and republican ideas. This is justifiable because every citizen had the
right to influence state policies through elected representatives. This was through national elections
(direct or indirect), parliamentary debates in framing national laws as against royal decrees. These
were drastic measures that challenged and reformed Bourbon despotism.

v) The declared rights especially political liberties inspired the oppressed masses outside France to
struggle for their freedom. This was witnessed in the future revolutions of Germany, Italy, Belgium,
Poland, 1848 and Russia. These revolutions were caused by the violation of human rights, which
were declared in France.

vi) Although the declaration of the rights of man and citizens corrected the wrongs in the French
society, it had several loopholes. It accorded Louis xvi a legal status on the forefront of French
politics. He was allowed to have power to choose, discipline, demote, promote and even dismiss
ministers. He was also given power to Veto the decision of the national assembly. It was this that he
used to refuse to sign the declaration of the rights of man and citizens and the civil constitution of
the clergy.

vii) The document made people aware of their rights but did not tell them about their duties yet the
politically charged atmosphere of France required people to know more about their duties instead of
their rights. This raised a lot of expectations by the people from the government which was
impossible considering the financial situation of the country. Moreover most of the taxes had been
abolished yet the government had no other sources of revenue to meet people's needs. Thus as
“Ketlebey” puts it;

In the declaration of human rights the assembly lifted the curtains, which veiled an impossible liberty
only to drop it again.

viii) The declaration of the rights of man ignored the rights of women hot until 1954 when it was
adopted. Madam Olympe-de-Gouges pleaded for the rights of women and citizen in vain. When she
submitted it to the national assembly in 1791, she was condemned as "outrageous and scandalous
and consequently she was guillotined. This was against the principle of equality and gender balance.

ix) Lastly, the freedom granted by the declaration of rights of man and citizens made the Frenchmen
crazy under emotional excitement of freedom. They resorted to violence as a means of achieving
whatever they wanted. This is justified by the fact that;
“It was useless to take people on top of a mountain and show them wonderful plains that could not
be given to them”

The document made the Frenchmen knowledgeable about their rights and it became a yardstick for
measuring the worth of any government in France. This is why the Frenchmen easily resorted to
Violence against the government when it failed to grant them such declared rights. ''' '

7. The March Of Women, 5th October 1789

The Paris commune organized women to March (in a demonstration) from Paris to Versailles. The
causes of the demonstration were; the king's refusal to accept reforms especially the civil
Constitution of the clergy, his attempt to suppress the revolution using foreign troops, desire to bring
the king to Paris, famine and unemployment. ' '

Women were chosen because the impact of their demonstration would be most felt and their cries
for food would be most heard. So on 5th Oct, a crowd of 6,500 women including men dressed in
women's attire marched the21 miles distance from Paris to Versailles to present their petition to the
king. Lafayette was ordered to follow them with thousands of soldiers of the National Guard. He was
to maintain law and order and bring the king to Paris where he would be out of reach of the
aristocracy. The King yielded to their demands and was escorted to Paris with his entire family. On
reaching Paris they were lodged/ kept in the Tuilleries palace in a condition of prisoners.

SIGNIFICANCE

i) The role of women in the demonstration shows the concern of everybody in the revolution. Since
the beginning of the revolution women had not been very active and their participation in the
marching shows the national outlook of the French revolution. This upheld the revolutionary
principle of equality since women had actively joined men in the revolution.

ii) It acted as a preamble for the transfer of the national assembly from Versailles (a monarchical
stronghold) to Paris (a revolutionary center). From then onwards, French politics and the revolution
was championed from Paris by the Paris commune.

iii) The king was forced to accept some reforms which went a long way in meeting the demands of
the revolutionaries. He promised special food for Paris and to reduce the price of bread. He agreed to
sign the declarations of the rights of man and citizens and he also accepted the National Guard to be
entrusted with the defense of Versailles.

iv) However, the mistreatment of Louis to the extent of being kept in the Tuilleries provoked internal
uprisings from the royalists and foreign condemnation by foreign powers. This contributed to the
reign of terror and war between France and her neighbours.

8. The Civil Constitution Of The Clergy, July 1790

Before the revolution, the pope and the Catholic Church had a lot of influence on
the political, economic, social and religious affairs of France. The Catholic Church
and the clergy were the most privileged in France. It's on this account that the
revolutionaries targeted the vast resources and influence of the church. So in
July 1790, the national assembly passed a law, which incorporated the church in
to state and the clergy in to civil service. This became known as the civil
constitution of the clergy. It had the following implications/effects on France and
Europe.

i) It abolished the church tithe since it was a sign of feudalism and a source of
exploitation. This was a relief to the peasants who were able to save part of their
meager/ little incomes.

ii) The Catholic Church monopoly over land was terminated. The church land was
nationalized, and, sold to the French citizens at a fair price. Such a resolution
availed land to the majority peasants and increased their productivity and socio-
economic welfare.

iii) For the first time, the clergy (church officials) were to be elected by the
general public and their salaries were to be paid by the government. The salaries
of the lower clergy were increased while those of the upper clergy were reduced.
These measures turned the clergy in to paid civil servants of France.

iv) The pope's influence and interference on the politics of France and the
Catholics in France were nullified. He was not to have any power on altering
elections and payments of the clergy and any policy in France.
v) It abolished old dioceses and established new ones, which corresponded with
the newly established districts. This decentralized the church administration and
increased its efficiency. Besides, the title of Arch Bishop was abolished and each
of the 83 Districts of France were to have a Bishop.

vi) Through the sale of the church Land and abolition of its privileges, the
national assembly temporarily raised some money for the administration of the
country. A paper form of money called Assignats was printed according to the
value of Land. However, by 1796 the value of Assignat was undermined by
inflation due to over printing.

vii) The civil constitution of the clergy delivered a deathblow to religious

intolerance that was dominant in France by 1789. It asserted freedom of worship
by legalizing other religion besides Catholicism.

viii) In Dec 1790, a decree was passed by which all the clergy/church officials
were to take an oath of allegiance to the civil constitution. This divided the clergy
in to two i.e. those who took the oath who were called Turing priests and those
who refused who were known as Non-Juring priests. This produced civil strife
where the Non- Turing priests staged revolts against the revolutionary
government and the Turing priests (at Lavandee District of western France). This
contributed to the reign of terror in France.

ix) The civil constitution of the clergy brought hostility and war between France
and the rest of the Catholic states in Europe. The pope condemned it and sought
support from all catholic states against the revolutionary government in France.
Besides, it forced the clergy in to exile from where they organized counter
revolutionary forces with assistance from catholic states like Austria, Prussia and
Russia.

X) The civil constitution of the clergy made King Louis XVI to attempt the
abortive flight to exile i.e. Austria. He had hesitantly signed it out of the fear that
his veto might bring him more troubles with the revolutionaries. However, when
the Pope .denounced it, Louis xvi regretted signing it. He confessed; I ask God to
accept my profound repentance for having affixed my name though against my
will to acts which are in conflict with the discipline and belief of the Catholic
Church. It was this that made him attempt to escape from Paris and join the
émigrés in Austria. This had disastrous consequences because he was arrested
and brought back as an enemy of France and the revolution

9. The King's flighttovarennes, 22nd June 1791

It ought to the recalled that Louis xvi was forced to accept reforms from the national assembly
against his free will. He felt the condition under which he was kept the Tuilleries were unbearable.
He said; I would rather be a king of Metz than remain king of France in such a position but this will
end soon.

Eventually, he decided to join the émigrés in Austria for a counter-revolution. So, Louis XVI and the
royal family stealthily (secretly) left the Tuilleries at night and headed for Austria. However, he was
detected and arrested by peasants at Varrenes, a few miles from the boarder of Austria and France.
They were brought back to Paris amidst great humiliation.

The significance of this abortive flight is as follows.

1. It depicted King Louis and his family as traitors and conspirators against the revolution. This event
made the revolutionaries to lose the little trust that they had for the king.

2. It revealed further the king's inconsistent nature and his wavering character. This is because he
succumbed to ill advice of the queen and the aristocrats to flee abroad and fight against the reforms
he had endorsed.

3. The event was a serious humiliation to the king amongst his subject. He was arrested by peasants
and escorted back to Paris as an enemy of France and the revolution. The king and his family were
kept as prisoners in the Tuilleries which was a disgraceful event.

4. It strengthened the spirit of republicanism in France. Men like Robespierre and Danton demanded
for the replacement of the monarchy with a republican form of government. However the National
assembly was still dominated by constitutional monarchists and no action was taken against the
monarchy. The king took an oath of allegiance to the constitution and the matter rested there.
Nevertheless, the spirit of republicanism spread fast and that's why the monarchy was replaced by a
republic the next year (1792). One historian correctly observed that; At Varrenes, the monarchy had
died; all that Paris had to do a year later was to hurry it
5. While the Jacobins were agitating for a republican government, a number of people wanted a
constitutional monarchy. This marked the diversion of opinion and the development of political
parties in France. Henceforth, France entered into an era of multi party politics although it was short
lived.

The humiliation of the royal family provoked internal protests from the aristocrats add external war
that contributed to the reign of terror.

7. Those who had acquired the church Land and some revolutionaries, began to fear that they would
be killed if the king got military assistance from outside, this also contributed to the reign of terror in

France.

8. Lastly, the event increased the hostility between revolutionary France and her neighbours.
European monarchs condemned the French revolutionary mistreatment and humiliation of Louis xvi.
Prussia and Russia issued the Pilnitz declaration of August 1791 in which they threatened war against
France in case the king was hurt. This was responsible for war between France and her neighbours
with all its disastrous consequences.

REIGN OF TERROR INTRODUCTION

The reign of terror was the second significant stage in the course of the French revolution. It began
after the death of Mirabeau and ended with the death of Robespierre. The reign of terror was
characterized by violence, total breakdown of law and order, economic crisis, under development,
loss of property and heavy massacres. It was championed by lower class people with burning desires
for power like Herbert, Danton, Marat and Robespierre.

There were three forms of terror i.e. political, terror, which was against anti revolutionary elements
especially the clergy and the nobles, economic terror which was designed to eliminate currency
manipulators and hoarders of essential commodities and religious terror which was directed against
the catholic church, its practices and privileges.
It should be noted that the French revolution was initially a peaceful reform movement that merely
demanded for changes within the monarchy. However by 1793, the peaceful reform movement had
changed to a violent one that demanded for too much blood and heads of the Frenchmen. This can
be attributed to internal and external factors.

CAUSES OF THE REIGN OF TERROR

1. Tension between the Liberals and conservatives.

The French revolution destroyed the old order of despotism and super imposed a
new one of Liberalism. This brought direct conflict and confrontation between the
Liberals who wanted changes to survive and the conservatives (nobles and
clergy) who resisted such changes. For example, the nobles and the clergy
resisted the scrapping of their privileges. Henceforth, the revolutionaries resorted
to violence to ensure that the changes brought by the revolution survive which
led to the reign of terror.

2. The civil constitution of the clergy the civil constitution of the clergy made the
Catholic Church an enemy of the revolution. The non- Juring priests refused to it
and led revolts against the revolutionary government. For instance, in the
Lavandee district of western France, they waged a serious revolt which was
brutally suppressed. Thus, the revolutionaries had to resort to violence as a
political survival mechanism hence the reign of terror.

3. The declaration of rights of man and citizens.

The declaration of the rights of man and citizens also contributed to the reign of
terror. It dealt only with the rights of citizens and neglected their duties towards
the state. This left the people with a lot expectation from the state on one hand
and ignorant of their duties towards the state on the other hand. This indirectly
paved way for violence and the reign of terror. Besides, the declaration made the
Frenchmen crazy under emotional excitement of freedom. The Frenchmen had
lived in the darkness of freedom for centuries and when they were granted, they
became so confused and surprised that they over amplified freedom to killing
one another, mistreating and executing the king etc. These escalated the scale of
violence to the reign of terror.
4. The threat of émigrés.

The threat of the émigrés made the reign of terror inevitable. By Jan. 1792, they
had mobilized themselves on the French boarder to a tune of about 20,000
troops. They wanted to suppress the revolution, restore their privileges and king
Louis xvi to his throne. They had internal collaborators who were providing them
with valuable military secrets and strategies. This made the revolutionaries to
resort to violence as a means of eliminating internal collaborators and external
enemies (Émigrés).

5. Foreign invasion

Foreign invasion made the outbreak of the reign of terror inevitable. The
ambitions of the revolutionaries to export the French revolutionary ideas brought
confrontation between France and other European nations. The first coalition of
Britain, Austria, Russia and Holland was formed in 1793. They invaded France,
defeated the French troops and occupied important towns like Verdum. This
made the revolutionary government to issue the law of suspect which was so
extravagantly applied that even those guilty of lack of interest in the revolution
were guillotined. Besides, the hysteria of defeat made the revolutionaries to
resort to terror against opponents both actual and assumed. For example, over
1000 royalist sympathizers were butchered under the pretext of methods
essential for the safety of the nation.
ThispolicywasextendedtootherprovinceswhichspreadviolencethroughoutFrance.

6. The death of Mira beau (April 1791) the death of Mira beau led to power
struggle and the reign of terror. It's urged that if he had lived beyond 1791, he
could have counseled Louis xvi and cooled the violent tempers of the
revolutionaries. He had the wisdom and courage in advising the King to accept all
that had so far been achieved by the revolution for there was no going back to
the past, (Peacock H.L 1982, P.35). He foretold the fate of the monarchy when
he lamented that; I carry with me the last rags of the monarchy. Had Mira beau
lived up to 1793, the monarchy and Louis could have been saved from
destruction. Thus, his death robbed France of a political conciliator who could
have maintained some degree of harmony between the monarchy and the
revolutionaries. In short, his death left behind self-opportunists like Robespierre
who had overwhelming desire for power that drove France to the reign of terror.
7. Role of the mob Economic hardship in the villages forced people to move to
towns and cities. This led to the formation of mobs and mob justice became the
order of the day in settling cases. The impression created, was that the mob was
always right and it became difficult to control the mob even when they were
obviously wrong. The Paris mob was used by radical revolutionaries to eliminate
their opponents hence the reign of terror. On top of this, the democratic system
of open debates and judgment in the national assembly, conventions, conference
and seminars was utilized by diehard revolutionary leaders to spread terror
throughout France.

N.B France during this period was so chaotic that suspect were tried and brought
to the streets to be lynched by the mob. There was even free entrance of debate
in the parliament for anyone who wishes to do so!

8. The death of Louis xvi and his wife The execution of King Louis xvi and his
wife contributed to the reign of terror in two ways. Internally, it led to violent
protests by the royalists. Externally, it caused fear and panic amongst European
powers and forced them to declare war against France. This pressure from within
and without made France to be at crossroads and only terror could clear the way
for her. To Danton, France and the Revolution; Were caught between two fires,
the enemy at the frontier and the enemy at home, in order to survive it was
necessary to frighten the enemy. The fact that the whole king could be
manhandled and killed by the revolutionaries shows that life was "worthless" in
France. It means ordinary persons could easily be massacred without any
regrets. This attitude escalated violence and the reign of terror in

France.

9a. the weakness of Louis xvi

The reign of terror owes its origin to the failure of Louis xvi to accept the reforms
proposed by the revolutionaries. All that the revolutionaries wanted in the initial
stage of the revolution were reforms and no one wanted violence. But Louis and
his supporters proved to be road blocks to the reform demands of the masses.
He stubbornly refused to sign the declaration of the rights of man and citizens,
the civil constitution of the clergy and amnesty for the return of émigrés. These,
together with the dismissal of popular Necker provoked violence from the
revolutionaries leading to the storming of Bastilles and frequent attacks on the
castles (mansions) of the nobles and clergy. This is why the revolution entered
into an era of mob action and mob justice.

b. Louis xvi's attempt to suppress the revolution using the royal guard and
foreign troops made the revolutionaries to start using violence as a counter
measure (right answer) to violence and injustice. This made the leadership of the
revolution to fall to the hands of bloodthirsty^ men like Danton and Robespierre
who used the policy of blood and iron to achieve their hidden political ambitions.

c. Louis xvi's attempted flight and his arrest at Varrenes made the outbreak of
the reign of terror inevitable. Pressure of events forced Louis to make an
abortive flight to Austria from where he expected to join the émigrés, mobilize
foreign support and suppress the revolution. He was arrested at Varrenes and
brought back to Paris as a traitor and collaborator with the enemies of the
revolution. This event made Louis xvi and his supporters to lose the little Support
he hitherto, and had strengthened the popularity of diehard revolutionaries like
Robespierre who started the reign of terror. On the other hand, the humiliation
of Louis xvi during and after his arrest provoked internal resistance from the
aristocrats and external war. All these made a revolutionary government to
embark on the reign of terror.

THE 1791 CONSTITUTION

The 1791 constitution greatly contributed to violence and consequently the reign
of terror. It had numerous loopholes in the sense that it never satisfied all
interest groups m constitution still granted King Louis xvi some degree of power,
which made him stubborn. The worst was the power to veto the decision of the
national assembly that he used against the reforms proposed by the assembly
like the declaration of the rights of man and citizens. This brought a
constitutional crisis which forced the revolutionaries to resort to the reign of
terror. Secondly the constitution disqualified the majority of Frenchmen from
voting. It went against the declared rights of man and citizens by making
property qualification the basis for one to vote or to be voted. It classified people
into active and passive citizens. Active citizens were men of over 25 years who
paid direct taxes equivalent to 3days work and enrolled in the National Guard.
Passive citizens were those especially peasants who could not afford the
stipulated conditions. This was opposed by radical revolutionaries. Desmoulins
criticized the criterion for categorizing active citizens and declared that ;
 Active citizens are those who have taken the Bastilles, they are those who till
the fields, while the idlers of the church and court are parasitic plants that should
be thrown to the flames like the barren tree in the Bible

In short, this led to violent protests from the disciples of Rousseau's democratic ideas like
Robespierre, Marat, Desmoulins and Danton

CAUSES OF THE REIGN OF TERROR CNT

1.Economic crisis

The unabated economic hardship climaxed in to the reign of terror. Inflation,

unemployment and shortage of basic necessities were common issues. This was
because there was wide spread smuggling, profiteering and hoarding by
businessmen. Business men were therefore accused of economic sabotage which
led to massive destruction and looting of their property and commodities.
Henceforth this led to economic terror which was designed to eliminate
unscrupulous businessmen who thrive (prosper) on people's misery.

2. The role of political parties

Power struggle between the different political factions in France made the
peaceful revolution to take a violent dimension. These included the Jacobins, the
Cordiliers, the Girondins and the Feuviliants. These parties engaged in serious
intrigues in an attempt to eliminate their rivals. They resorted to politics of
elimination (killing) to achieve their hidden political ambitions. This led to
political instability and violence hence the reign of terror.

3. The role and character of Revolutionary Extremists

The role of diehard revolutionary leaders was very influential in the reign of
terror. Marat provoked the masses against the aristocracy and the monarchy
though his revolutionary paper L Ami u people. The paper was very critical of the
government and the aristocrats. He was also behind the Paris mob and was the
main instigator of the September massacre (1792). Robespierre guillotined his
enemies and friends for the sake of incorruptibility and virtue (goodness).
Robespierre, Danton and Marat carried terror to a point where one had to kill in
order not to be killed. By 1794, Robespierre had eliminated almost all his political
rivals and colleagues and remained as the champion of terror. Within the 7weeks
of his reign, more people went to the guillotine than the period before. One can
therefore say that, the reign of terror was perpetuated by ambitious politicians
who used violence as a political strategy to eliminate their rivals and rise to
power.

14. The flight of Lafayette and Dumouriez

The flight of Lafayette and Dumouriez to exile also contributed to the outbreak
of the reign of terror. Lafayette, the commander of the National Guard and
sympathizer of the monarchy after receiving news of the fall of the King,
attempted to incite the army against the revolutionaries. However, he -found
himself in danger when he discovered that the army was not ready to support
the monarchy .against the revolution. This made him to flee to exile from where,
he was imprisoned by Austrians. Dumouriez, another army officer also found
himself in a similar situation and fled to exile after the army refused to support
his coup attempt against the revolutionary government. The treasonable
actions,; by such senior army officers alarmed the revolutionaries and .led them
to start executing unpopular and un successful army officers. It also made the
revolutionaries to lose trust in the army, which paved way for mob justice and
eventually, the reign of terror.

15. The worship of reason.

The emergency of religion of reason under the leadership of Herbert accounts

for-the outbreak of the reign of terror. On Nov 1793, Herbert and his followers
started the worship of reason to undermine the catholic religion and its practices.
The Catholic Church condemned the worship of reason and some priests went to
the extent of holding rallies in which they protested against the new constitution
of France. This generated more tension between the revolutionary government
and the Catholic Church. It led to religious terror where Herbert and his followers
started arresting, imprisoning, slaughtering and exiling rebellious Catholics and
priests.

16. The downfall of Girondists

 The downfall of Girondists also contributed to the outbreak of the 1:793 - 1794
reign of terror in France. The Girondists who had dominated the national
assembly were humane, conciliatory and had a good relation with the King. They
opposed the trial and execution of the King by January 1793. However, they
were overthrown in May 1793 by Jacobins, which led to civil war in France. Civil
war was inevitable because people were afraid of persecutions by the Jacobins
whose hostilities were well known. The Girondists also took up arms against the
Jacobins with Austrian support which intensified civil war and the reign of terror.
One can assert that if the Jacobins had not overthrown the Girrondists, the
Girrondists would have continued with the reconciliatory/moderate policies and
the reign of terror could have been avoided.

17. The role of the committees of public safety, general security and revolutionary tribunal.
Lastly, the establishment of the committees of public safety, general security-and
revolutionary tribunals by the convention government marked the beginning. Of the reign of
terror. The role of these committees was directly or indirectly related to terror. The
committee of public safety issued the law of suspect, sent agents and spies to government
departments who arrested those with anti- revolutionary ideas. The committee of general
security was in charge of internal affairs such as prisons, police and intelligence network.
There revolutionary tribunal was a special court to try anti- revolutionary suspects which
condemned and sent even innocent people to the guillotine. All these committees were
manipulated by Robespierre and Danton to begin and sustain the reign of terror

DEATH OF ROBESPIERRE & TERROR

The 7 weeks reign of Robespierre made him very unpopular and the Frenchmen
decided to guillotine the guillotiner on 28th July 1794. His terror was so much
that everybody in France decided to risk his or her head by joining the
opposition. He was first imprisoned by the convention government but was
forcefully released by his close followers. However, he was re-arrested and
guillotined as a criminal.

With the death of Robespierre, the leadership of France passed in the hands of
moderates who ended the reign of terror. They enacted measures that promptly
ended the reign of terror. For instance, the revolutionary tribunal was re-
organized on August 10th 1794 to be in harmony with the ordinary French law.
The committee of public safety although continued to exist was no longer
independent. The committee of general security as well as the Jacobins club was
abolished. Most political prisoners were also released. Finally the convention
government enacted a new constitution and voted for a new government, which
came to be known as the directory government (1795 - 1799).

EFFECTS OF REIGN OF TERROR

NEGATIVE EFFECTS

1. The reign of terror led to massive loss of life. About 17,000 people were
guillotined and these included high level persons like King Louis xvi, Queen Marie
Antoinette, Danton, Marat, Robespierre to mention but the most important ones.
Several other people were butchered by the mob. Most of these victims were
nobles and clergy although some suspected traitors were also executed.

2. Besides, there was destruction of property and infrastructure. These included

Hotel-De-Ville and the Bastilles, which were destroyed by the mob. Several
castles and mansions including property were attacked and destroyed by the
revolutionaries.

3. There was a general economic decline that arose from the unstable political
atmosphere. Inflation, unemployment, famine and starvation reached their
highest level during the reign of terror. This was because of total breakdown of
law and order, industries and economy.

4. The reign of terror brought war between France and her neighbours. Countries
like Britain and Russia formed a coalition in 1793 and invaded France. This was
because they were scared by the massive loss of life and property, including the
barbaric execution of King Louis xvi and his wife. Their fear was that the
Frenchmen were teaching their subjects a lesson to behead them, the way they
did to King Louis xvi.

5. There was displacement and exile due to the reign of terror. The fear of the
guillotine and mob injustice led to the self-exile of several nobles and clergy.
They fled to neighbouring states like Austria, Prussia and Russia from where they
become known as the émigrés. They regrouped and joined the allied powers in
the first coalition against revolutionary France.
6. The downfall of political patties and political pluralism in France was also due
to the reign of terror. Before the reign of terror, there were political parities such
as the Jacobins, Girondins, Cordilliers and Feuvillants. But the terror machinery
killed the leaders of all these political parties and clubs. Such were men like
Danton, Marat, Herbert and Robespierre. The execution of these leaders and
their burial led to the "death and burial "of their political patties as well.

7. Outside France, the reign of terror made conservative kings more conservative
and autocratic. For instance, despotic kings of Austria, Prussia and Russia
became more oppressive and repressive to safeguard themselves from the
terrorist acts of the Frenchmen. Even Pit, the Prime Minister of Britain expelled
all suspicious characters and passed the Act of treason in which it was
treasonable to say or do anything against the state.

POSITIVE EFFECTS
8. The rise of Napoleon to power was also due to the reign of terror. Before the
reign of terror. Napoleon was an inexperienced and insignificant artillery officer.
But during the reign of terror, he gained experience and significance especially
when he suppressed the royalist uprising at port Taulon in 1793 besides, the
reign of terror led to the disappearance of senior army officers and politicians,
which opened the military and political space for the rise of Napoleon to power.

9. The directory government was a product of the reign of terror. The socio-
economic and political destructions caused by the reign of terror paved way for
the rise of the directory government. It was instituted in1795 as a final full stop
to the reign of terror and to end dictatorship in France.

10. The reign of terror restored order in France and helped to fight the first
coalition. It was used by diehard revolutionaries to suppress internal resistance
which restored peace. It also helped the revolutionaries to deal with traitors and
cowards which made them succeed in 'defeating the first coalition. It must be
stressed that the reign of terror made it easy to conscript and mobilize the
French men to fight the first coalition.

11. Lastly, the reign of terror strengthened the spirit of republicanism and led to
the setting up of a republican government in France in 1792. The violence
speeded up the collapse of the Bourbon monarchy and the execution of King
Louis was the last event. It was the political instability created by the reign of
terror that gave the diehard republicans the chance to make France a Republic.

GENERAL OBSERVATIONS

From 1792-1802, France faced and battled out two major coalitions (alliances). The first coalition
(1793- 97) of Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia, Spain, Holland and Sardinia was formed by British
Premier, Pit the younger. Pit mobilized the alliance in the aftermath of France's declaration of war
against England in 1793. The war was that of conquest, plunder as well as self-defense.

The second coalition (1798-1802) of Britain, Russia, Austria, Turkey, Naples, and Portugal was
provoked by Napoleon's campaign in Egypt. European powers were upset by the aggressive foreign
policy of the directory and when they learnt that Napoleon was engaged in Egypt they decided to act.
It was to destroy the revolutionary government at Paris and to confine France to her natural
boarders.

The root of this war is a very controversial issue amongst historians. While some scholars emphasize
the ambitions and recklessness of the revolutionaries, others have traced it to the fear and Jealousy
of the great powers. But the real root of the war was lack of mutual understanding between
revolutionary France and conservative Europe. Generally, the war was due to internal and external
factors.

CAUSES
1. The French revolution of 1789 isolated France from her contemporary monarchical powers. They
were scared by France's attempt to export revolutions and revolutionary ideas to their states. The
French revolutionaries used provocative doctrines which were carelessly enforced through loose
catchwords like republicanism to replace monarchism, war against tyrants and peace to people.
These provoked the alliance of European monarchs against revolutionary France. Their desire was to
suppress the revolution and restore the Bourbon monarchy, which made the war inevitable.

2. The expansionist programs of the revolutionaries produced hostility and consequently war. They
wanted the boundaries of France to extend to the Alps, Rhine and Pyrenees. To show that they were
neither Joking nor making fun, the revolutionaries conquered Nice, Savoy, Belgium and Holland. This
brought the rest of European states within the immediate danger of being conquered and annexed.
Henceforth, they were forced to gang (ally) and fight France before they could be taken by surprise.
3. The composition of the new legislative assembly (Oct 1791-Sept 1792) was also responsible for the
- war. The old constituent Assembly (C.A) barred its members from being elected to the new
assembly. This made the destiny of France to pass in the hands of a group of inexperienced, eloquent
and enthusiastic young men who desired war as a source of prestige and wealth. This is why they
recklessly issued the "Edict of Fraternity" in which they vowed to assist all those who rose against
their king. This made war inevitable because the European monarchs began to associate the
revolution with the threat to their survival.

4. The need by the revolutionaries to destroy the influence and threats of the Émigrés, across French
boarders made the war inevitable. By 1791, the émigrés had mobilized about 20,000 troops with
frequent attacks on the revolutionary government. This forced the revolutionaries to declare war on
the powers supporting the émigrés. For example, they declared war on Austria after she failed to
comply with the January ultimatum, which demanded that she ceases to support the émigrés. After
this Prussia and Piedmont joined Austria and the war dragged on.

5. The massive killing of important personalities like King Louis xvi, Marie Antoinette, Danton and the
September 1792 massacres terrified Europe and forced them into action against France. Pit, the
British Premier protested the execution of Louis xvi as a barbarous and unwarranted act. France
reacted by declaring war on England on Feb. 1793. Within a small time, other powers joined Britain
against France.

6. Commercial reasons were also responsible for the war. The revolutionary government made a
drastic measure and counseled all commercial treaties that France had made with other European
countries. This was a serious threat to the pockets of traders in such countries which made them to
argue their governments to fight France. Britain was forced into action when France declared war on
Holland that was Britain's strong trading partner. Britain feared that France would colonize Holland
and frustrate her trade interests not only in Holland but also in S. Africa and India that were Dutch
colonies. It has to be emphasized that Britain and Holland fought France not because of the
revolution and its threats but due to economic considerations.

7. The civil constitution of the clergy forced the catholic states to fight France. It undermined the
powers and privileges of the Catholic Church and the clergy in France. The Catholics in Europe asked
their countries to fight France in order to liberate their fellow brothers and sisters in faith. The Pope
also condemned it and asked for alliance of catholic states against France. This partly explains why
Austria, Russia, Spain and Italian states joined the war against France.
8. Lastly, war was made inevitable on the side of France because nearly everybody wanted war. The
monarchists and Louis xvi were praying and hoping for a war in which the revolutionary forces would
be defeated. This would give them the chance to suppress the revolution and restore the monarchy.
The Jacobins favoured war because they thought that the king would side with the enemies of the
revolution which would give them the chance to set a republican government. The Girondins who
dominated the national assembly regarded war as a means of spreading revolutions and
revolutionary ideas over Europe. With all these war fever in France, there was no way France could
avoid fighting her neighbours.

Note; the rise of Napoleonin1799 transformed the revolutionary war into Napoleonic war. This is
because it was him (because of his overwhelming ambitions) who revived the war policy against the
2nd coalition that had defeated the Directory Government.

EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WARS

NEGATIVE EFFECT

1. There was heavy loss of lives and destruction of properties. A number of allied and French troops
plus civilians lost their lives. Besides, there was massive looting, confiscation of property that
hitherto belonged to the nobles and clergy.

2. The war led to the spread of revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and nationalism to other
European states. These ideas were responsible for the outbreak of thel830 revolutions in Europe,
1848 revolutions plus the German and Italian unification struggles. Note that these ideas were
strengthened by French troops and rule in the conquered states.

3. The outbreak of the reign of terror in France was also due to the war. The initial defeat that France
experienced made the revolutionaries to resort to violence in order to eliminate internal
collaborators and spies. This led to heavy shedding of blood that included innocent citizens.

4. The revolutionary wars led to economic decline in France as well as in Europe. It created a lot of
instabilities in France and undermined diplomatic cooperation in Europe. It also halted industrial
revolution and paralyzed international trade. This slowed economic progress in Europe and thus led
to economic decline.
5. It contributed to the expansion of France and the fall of empires. The Italians and Germans were
conquered, and this led to the collapse of the Austrian empire that hitherto included the Germans
and the Italians. France therefore became a dominant power, which destroyed the balance of power
in Europe. This created tension and led to poor diplomatic relations in Europe.

6. The French success in the war made her to be plunged in a protracted war with the rest of Europe
for over 20 years. This made France more stubborn and Europe more determined to crush her. This
why the 3rd, 4th and 5th coalitions were formed against France. Although France was finally
defeated in 1815, her ideas and influence were already deeply rooted over Europe.

POSITIVE

7. Internally, the war strengthened the ideas of patriotism and republicanism and hastened the
collapse of the Bourbon monarchy. Louis xvi was accused of collaborating with foreign powers, which
led to his execution in 1793. The execution of the king marked the end of the monarchy. This created
apolitical vacuum that led to the establishment of are public in France in 1792.

8. The war became a stepping-stone for the rise of Napoleon to power .It led to the death and exile
of senior Army officers and politicians, which left a military and political vacuum that Napoleon
occupied. Besides, it gave Napoleon the, opportunity to display his skills and gain popularity, for
instance in the Italian campaign of1796, which popularized him in Italy and France.

9. The war brought the idea of unity and co-operation in settling world disputes. The coalitions that
were formed against France (1793, 1798) were gradually transformed and concretized in the
congress system. The war therefore brought the idea of alliance and co-operation in handling crucial
issues of common concern.

THE DIRECTORY GOVERNMENT

INTRODUCTION

The Directory government was a conservative middle class oriented government that ruled
France from 1795-1799. Administration was in the hands of a committee of five members
who were called Directors. Each Director was to rule for one year. The Directors were assisted
by a council of five hundred composed of persons above the age of 30 years and the council
of Elders, which comprised of persons of over40 years. These councils were responsible for
making and amending the constitution.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE DIRECTORY
1. The Directory government ended the reign of terror and restored Law and
order in France. Before the directory government, France was in anarchy where
one had to be a killer in order not to be killed. However, the directory
government abolished the committees of public safety, revolutionary tribunals
and general security which were instruments of the reign of terror. The
government also released political suspects and prisoners most of whom were
unfairly imprisoned during the reign of terror. These, restored peace, stability,
the rule of Law and order.

2. Politically, The Directory government should be applauded for reconciling

various factions that was very antagonistic during the reign of terror. It released
political prisoners and allowed émigrés who had fled political persecution to
unconditionally return to France. They were integrated to serve in a new unitary
government on the principle of reconciliation. The Girondins and moderate
Jacobins were scattered in different government departments to neutralize their
perceived threats against the government. This explains why there was relative
political stability, peace and order contrary to the pre 1789 era in France.

3. The influence and threats of the royalists against the government was checked
and minimized by the Directory government. It was decreed that 2/3 of the posts
in the government were to be held by former members of the convention
government. This made the government to be dominated by revolutionary
persons, which undermined the royalist dominance and negative influence that
could have destabilized the government. Although the principle of equality was
ignored, such a decree nevertheless helped to restore peace and stability in
France, hence an achievement.

4. The Directory government initiated a number of reforms that were

accomplished by Napoleon Bonaparte. For instance, the codification of the French
laws, centralization of administration, public works e.g. roads and railways,
educational, industrial and agricultural reforms. Some of these reforms were
perfected by Napoleon Bonaparte, which qualified him to be great.

5. The Directory govemment is credited for restoring democratic system of

government in a country that had experienced the worst dictatorship during the
reign of terror. It was a liberal govemment that was headed by a committee of
five directors who were men of high reputation. The directors were regularly
replaced annually to avoid dictatorship and struggle for power. The govemment
also upheld the principle of parliamentary democracy. The new constitution of
1795 created the council of five hundred and elders who were responsible for
making and amending the constitution. France remained a republican
govemment and elections were held in 1797 and 1798 although by only those
who could afford the tax qualification to vote. This preserved some fundamental
rights such as the right to vote and participation in govemment.

6. Besides, the Directory govemment restored constitutional rule in France.

Before 1795, France was under the most brutal and single party dictatorship of
Robespierre. But the Directory govemment amended the 1791 constitution in
1795. This safeguarded people's freedom and rights throughout the 4 years of
the Directory govemment. It should be noted that the constitution
disenfranchised the majority Frenchmen due to tax qualification in order to check
violence especially by the low income earners i.e. the Paris mob. They were
prohibited from attending parliamentary sessions. Although this was
undemocratic, it nevertheless left. French destiny in the hands of propertied
Frenchmen who had a high degree of political acumen and strong desire for
peace as a means of protecting their property.

7. The govemment improved the military capacity of France, ft re-organized,

retrained and re-

equipped the French army to a very high level of military efficiency. The National
Guard was transformed into a strong force led by men of rare talents like
Director Carnot and Napoleon Bonaparte. The army was used to maintain Law
and order bring wealth and military glory from a board.

However, it should be noted that the Directory government lost control over the
army and that is why Napoleon used the army to take over power in1799.

8. The Directory government defeated the first coalition of Britain, Prussia, and
Holland, Austria etc. that was formed against France in 1793, The aim of the
coalition was to suppress the revolution and restore Louis xvi to his power. But
the directory government launched an aggressive campaign and defeated the
coalition powers in 1795 with the exception of Britain. This kept the revolution
intact and restored people's confidence in the government.
9. Internal uprisings and plots against the government were suppressed by the
army. For instance, the royalist uprising of1795 was brutally suppressed by the
young "one meal a day artillery officer"; Napoleon. The Babeuf plot to
assassinate the directors, topple the government and establish a socialist
government in France was foiled in 1797. Babeuf and his followers were
arrested, charged and guillotined/murdered. This destroyed internal opposition
and made potential enemies to keep aloof.

10. In its foreign policy, the directory government was very successful in the
Italian campaign of1796 against Austria. Austria had been a headache to the
revolutionary government since 1792. In 1796, Napoleon commanded French
troops, defeated Austria and forced her to sign the Compofomio treaty of.1797.
By this treaty, Austria surrendered Belgium, Rhine lands and Northern Italian
states to France. These states paid annual tributes to France. For instance, the
Duke of Modena paid 10,000 Francs annually to France. Napoleon also looted
Italian works of art and used them to beautify the French museums. All these
earned France wealth, military glory and led to the expansion of French territory.
On top of those, the government liberated Italians and Germans from the
oppressive Austrian rule.

WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES

The Directory government had fundamental weaknesses that made some
historians to grossly underestimate its achievements. Madelin expresses this
that; The Directory government was the more incompetent and most corrupt
government ever setup in France. Hay expresses the same sentiments that; the
history of the four years of the directory was troubled; uncertain and ended in its
violent overthrow. It should be noted that the Directory government contributed
to its own downfall in 1799. Its weaknesses were exploited by Napoleon I to rally
support and stage the coup of 1799leadingto the end of the road for the
Directory government.

1. The Directory government was messed up by corruption, embezzlement of

public funds and inefficient administration. It over printed the assignats
(currency) and it lost its value to the lowest level. All these led to industrial
breakdown, unemployment, inflation, famine and starvation. This caused public
outcry for a liberator which was utilized by Napoleon to rise to power.
2. The government went against democratic rights by making tax qualification
the criteria for one to vote or be voted in an election. For example, those who
were voted in the upper chamber of parliament had to pay 40,000 Francs. It
disenfranchised the majority of poor Frenchmen most especially the peasants.
This was a violation of the French revolutionary principles of liberty, equality,
fraternity and nationalism. In short, it was a return to the pre 1789 conservative
ancient system which the Frenchmen had destroyed through the 1789 revolution.

3. The government lacked confidence in itself. It over relied on Napoleon in

suppressing internal revolts and fighting foreign wars. For example, the royalist
uprising of 1795, Italian and Egyptian campaigns of 1796 and 1798 respectively.
These increased Napoleon's popularity and ambitions which made him to stage
the coup of1799.

4. The Directory government failed to bring reconciliation between the Catholic

Church and the government of France. It encouraged the worship of reason and
altered the calendar to contain names of revolutionary events and leaders other
than saints and the birth of Christ. The worship of reason (philanthrophy) that
was led by Herbert was anti-Christian and dogmatic. It was therefore very
unpopular to the majority of the Frenchmen most of whom were staunch
Catholics. This provoked more rebellions in the catholic dominated western
provinces of Brittany and Lavandee districts. The government failed to pacify
these areas and they remained a source of political/ instability to the
government.

5. The Directory government was disorganized and weakened from its structure
and hierarchy. 'Disharmony existed between the council of 500 and the council of
elders. There was power struggle within the directors. The government also
failed to reconcile with the parliament that was dominated by the Jacobins
supporters. This explains why the parliament refused to approve newly elected
members of parliament in 1797 and rejected several government programs This
situation gave rise to political intrigues which destroyed the government. For
Instance, Abbey Sieyyes and Duccas disagreed with other directors and used
Napoleon to stage the coup of1799.

6. The Directory government is blamed for manipulating and rigging elections in

France. The government used the army to terrorize people to vote for its
candidates and rig the elections of •" 1797, 1798 and 1799. It nullified the
election results of 1797 simply because the royalists and moderates had won
most of the seats in parliament against state candidates. This explains why
Carnot, the chairman of elections was deposed. In a nut shell, this was
militarization of elections and an attack on the democratic rights of the
Frenchmen.

7. Directory government worsened economic crisis in France when it scrapped

the law of rnaximum price. The law was initiated by Robespierre to protect
consumers against exploitation by hoarders of essential commodities in times, of
crisis. The law was abolished and France became a free market economy
managed by the forces of demand and supply. This was used by traders and
Industrialists to hike prices of commodities. Consequently, it led to Inflation,
poverty, famine and starvation that made life of ordinary French men very
miserable

8. The amnesty to the émigrés and release of political prisoners did not amount
to total reconciliation. Diehard revolutionaries protested their return as a threat
to the progress of the revolution. This was because they were hardcore
conservative persons who were suspected to return with a hidden agenda to
advocate for the restoration of the pre 1789 privileges and properties such as
Land. Indeed when they returned, many of them joined the opposition and
undermined government programs through their representatives in parliament.

9. The foreign policy of the Directory government over the Egyptian campaign
was a failure.

Napoleon had commanded 38,000 soldiers to conquer Egypt and force the
British out. Although

Napoleon successfully conquered the Island of Malta from the British and
defeated the Mameluks (Egyptian rulers) at the battle of Pyramids, he was
finally defeated by Nelson. He withdrew to France in two tiny boats with a few
escorts leaving his soldiers in Egypt. Thus, the Egyptian campaign was a fiasco.

10. Lastly, the Directory govemment was too weak and incapable of
consolidating the territorial glory and gains which Napoleon I had achieved
through the Italian campaign of 1796-97. The second coalition of 1798 was
formed against France, defeated her and Austria regained all the Compofomio-
treaty territories that she had lost to France in the 1796 Italian campaign.
Indeed by 1799, France was driven out of Switzerland, Germany and Italian
states. Napoleon questioned the military effectiveness of the govemment in the
following words;

I go and I leave you in peace, I come back, I find war, I left you victorious but
found you defeated! What have you done for the French society?

Much as Napoleon reorganized the French troops and defeated the second
coalition in 1802, the war left France isolated from the rest of Europe who fought
her in a series of coalitions until 1815 when Napoleon was finally defeated.
France was only reconciled to the rest of Europe in 1818 when she was admitted
to the congress system.

REASONS FOR THE COLLAPSE OF THE

ANCIENT REGIME
i) The outbreak of the French revolution of 1789 was a landmark in the collapse
of the ancient regime. The Ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy failed to address
the political, economic and social problems of the French men that dragged them
to revolt by 1789. After the outbreak of the revolution, the revolutionaries
established the national assembly that was monopolized by diehard revolutionary
personalities who enacted policies that undermined the existence of the
monarchy. They hijacked the Kings powers and left him as a "figure head" in
French political affairs. Besides, revolutionary principles of liberty, equality and
fraternity antagonized the political, social and economic structures of the ancient
regime/monarchy and made its collapse inevitable.

ii) Revolutionary events in the aftermath of the revolution speeded up the

collapse of the Ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. The declaration of the rights
of man and citizens (Aug 1789) unveiled fundamental human rights and
freedoms like freedom of press, association, worship, ownership of property,
participation in govemment and equality of all by nature. It was a one sided
declaration that dealt with the rights of citizens and ignored people's duties to
the monarchy. Thereafter, the French revolutionaries struggled for their rights at
the expense of their duties that could have supported the monarchy. The
document destroyed unfair political system, class system, feudalism and serfdom
that had sustained the ancient regime/monarchy. It also gave rise to
revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity that were incompatible to
the existence of the monarchy, ^he declaration therefore consolidated the ideas
of republicanism and influenced the revolutionaries to substitute the monarchy
with a republican government by 1793.

iii) The civil constitution of the clergy, July 1790 was yet another revolutionary
event that contributed to the collapse of the ancient regime/ Bourbon monarchy.
It destroyed the Catholic church influence on state affairs, religious intolerance
and privileges of the Catholic Church and Clergies in France. The upper clergy
and the Pope influenced King Louis xvi to veto it, which increased the
determination of hardcore revolutionaries to do away with the monarchy/ ancient
regime. Apart from uprooting the Catholic Church influence, the document
brought to an end church alliance with the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy.
This led to the collapse of the monarchy because the Catholic Church was its
strongest base and greatest supporter.

iv) The calling of the estates general meeting of 5th may 1789 also propelled the
collapse of the ancient regime/ Bourbon monarchy. The delegates were
summoned by King Louis xvi to find solutions to pending problems most
especially financial crisis in France. The failure of King Louis xvi to handle the
crisis over seating arrangement forced the third estate delegates to declare
themselves the national assembly. This sparked off the 1789 revolution, which
came with events that hastened the collapse of the monarchy. It was thus the
beginning of the-revolutionary government that formally ended the reign of the
regime/monarchy and instituted a republican government by 1793.

v) The rise of the national assembly also influenced the collapse of the ancient
regime/Bourbon monarchy. When the King failed to settle the disagreement over
the seating arrangement, the third estate delegates defied him and converted
themselves into the national assembly on 17th June 1789. This undermined the
powers of the ancient regime/ monarchy as the third estate- used the national
assembly to make laws that trimmed the powers of the monarchy and the King
in French affairs. The assembly kept the third estate delegates united against the
monarchy as they made laws on behalf of all the Frenchmen.

vi) The March of women to Versailles was also responsible for the collapse of the
ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy by 1793. On 5th Get 1789, about 6500
women including men dressed in women's clothes marched from Paris to
Versailles to petition King Louis xvi to accept reforms and settle socio-economic
problems of famine, unemployment. Inflation etc. The King yielded to their
demands and was brought back to Paris with, his entire family. However when
they reached Paris, they were put under house arrest in the Tuillaries palace as
prisoners. This made it easier to transfer the national assembly from Versailles
'that was a stronghold of the ancient regime/ Bourbon monarchy to Paris, which
was a revolutionary centre controlled by the mob. It became a big setback to the
powers of the regime/monarchy as it lost control of the destiny of France.

vii) The destruction/fall of Bastilles was very crucial in the collapse of the ancient
regime/ Bourbon monarchy. On 14th July 1789, the Paris mob under the
leadership of Desmoulins destroyed the Bastilles that was a symbol of despotism
where victims of lettress-de-cachet were imprisoned. Prisoners most of whom
diehard revolutionaries were released. The released prisoners revenged by
joining the Paris mob to cause more chaos that contributed to the death of Louis
xvi and the downfall of the Bourbon monarchy. The fall of Bastilles also implied
the end of dictatorship, lettress-de-cachet and centralization of power that had
been part and parcel of the monarchy. It forced the nobles and clergy into exile
thereby narrowing the support of the monarchy while increasing the
determination of the third estate to uproot it from power. Besides, the
destruction of the Bastilles was preceded by change of the national flag from the
white flag of the Bourbons to the tri-colour flag of the revolutionaries and
dissolution of the royal guard that was replaced by the National Guard. This
denied the ancient regime/monarchy of its symbol and protection hence
accelerating its collapse.

viii) The promulgation of the first French constitution also contributed to the
collapse of the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. On 5th Sept 1791, the
constituent assembly enacted the first constitution in the history of France. It
confirmed people's rights in the declaration of the rights of man and citizens
ignoring people's duties that was very important in strengthening the monarchy.
Above all, the constitution drastically reduced the traditional powers of the
monarchy and the King. It established a new administrative system where the
King's powers were decentralized to be exercised by junior officers. This left King
Louis xvi and the Bourbon monarchy with very limited power that made the
collapse of the ancient regime inevitable by 1793.

ix) The weaknesses of King Louis xvi contributed to the collapse of the ancient
regime in a number of ways. In the first place, Louis' failure to settle the
political, social and economic problems in France led to the outbreak of the
French revolution that undermined the survival of the ancient regime.

b) It was Louis who blundered by calling the estates general meeting and failed
to settle the issue of the sitting arrangement that graduated into the revolution.
Louis' personal weakness could not enable him to hijack the revolution on its
eve. This is why the revolutionaries took control of events and destroyed the
monarchy by 1793.

c) Louis xvi's insensitivity to reforms made the revolutionaries to take a radical

and violent step of destroying the ancient regime and executing him by 1793.
The French revolutionaries of 1789 were merely demanding for reforms but Louis
xvi used his veto powers to block the proposed reforms. For instance, he refused
to sign important documents like the declaration of the rights of man and
citizens, the civil constitution of the clergy and the general amnesty to the
émigrés. These made Louis xvi and the ancient regime an obstacle to the French
revolution and that is why they were destroyed by 1793.

d) Louis xvi's treasonable acts against the French revolutionaries led to the
downfall of the monarchy / ancient regime and his own death by 1793. His
attempt to suppress the revolution using foreign troops, calling the royal session
and closing the third class delegates out of the assembly hall forced the
revolutionaries to destroy the monarchy and replace it with a republican
government. This is because the revolutionaries saw Louis and the ancient
regime as a threat to the survival of the revolution and hence decided to
eliminate them for the sake of the revolution.

e) Louis Xvi's aborted flight to Varennes was a blunder that led to the collapse of
the ancient regime.

This was a secret move where Louis intended to flee to Austria in order to seek
foreign assistance, link up with the émigrés and suppress the revolution.
However, he was arrested and imprisoned as an enemy of the revolution.
Investigators found secret documents in his office drawer and house that linked
him to the émigrés and other hostile foreign states like Austria. Consequently, he
was charged with treason and guillotined as a closing chapter to the ancient
regime.

x) The negative role/character of Queen Marie Antoinette was instrumental in the

disintegration of the ancient regime. Marie Antoinette was arrogant,
cantankerous and unsympathetic to the problems of the Frenchmen. She gave
poor and unfortunate advice to Louis xvi which made him to pursue negative
policies against the Frenchmen. For instance, she advised the king to dismiss
Turgot and Necker and reject all reforms proposed by the national assembly. This
forced the revolutionaries to attack the Bastilles and destroy the ancient regime.

xi) The untimely death of Mirabeau was also responsible for the collapse of the
ancient regime. Mira beau was the chairman of the national assembly and a
counselor to Louis xvi. Unfortunately, he died in 1791 and this gave rise to blood
thirsty and power hungry men like Danton, Marat and Robespierre whose role led
to the collapse of the ancient regime. Mira beau foretold the destruction of the
monarchy when he said on his death bed that; I carry with me the last rags of
the monarchy. It's therefore logical to say that the death of Mira beau robbed
France of a political conciliator who could have saved the ancient regime and
Louis xvi from destruction and death respectively.

xii) The role of political parties / clubs such as the Girondins, Jacobins, Cordilliers
etc weakened the monarchy and led to its demise / downfall by 1793. These
parties intensified violence and instability that undermined people's confidence in
the monarchy. The Jacobins terrorized and assassinated all those who were still
sympathetic to the ancient regime and monarchy. They also exposed and
exaggerated the weaknesses of the ancient regime that undermined its existence
by 1793.

xiii) The rise and role of revolutionary extremists was of paramount importance
in the collapse of the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy. Marat used his
revolutionary newspaper, L’ Ami du people to decampaign the Bourbon monarchy
and incite the masses to overthrow it. He was a supporter of the Paris mob and
the master planner of the September massacre where over 1,000 imprisoned
monarchical supporters were murdered in cold blood. Robespierre, Danton and
Marat perpetuated violence and killing of supporters of the monarchy including
King Louis xvi and Queen Marie Antoinette. They were blood thirsty radical
republicans who brought the ancient regime/Bourbon monarchy to an end and
established a republican government in France by 1793.

xiv) Persistent financial crisis affected the performance of the ancient

regime/Bourbon monarchy and contributed to its downfall. Financial bankruptcy
forced Louis xvi to call the estates general meeting of 5th May 1789 that
triggered off 'the-revolution, which led to the collapse of the ancient
regime/Bourbon monarchy. The outbreak of the revolution did not give the King
and his Ministers time to consult the members of parliament on the solutions to
financial crisis. Consequently, the crisis persisted and worsened the problems of
inflation, unemployment, poverty, famine and starvation. It eroded the little
confidence that some Frenchmen still had in the monarchy and consolidated the
spirit of republicanism. This was used by radical republicans like Robespierre to
destroy the monarchy and institute a republican government in France by 1793.

Reasons Forthe Collapse Of The Ancient Regime CNT

xv) The establishment of Convention government and a republic sealed the fate
of the ancient

regime/Bourbon monarchy in France. On Sept 1792, the national assembly

suspended King Louis xvi but feared to pass a final judgment on him and the
monarchy. A resolution was passed that a new government that would be called
the convention government should be formed (through elections) to determine
the fate of the monarchy and the King. In the aftermath of its formation, the
Convention government deposed King Louis xvi and declared France a republic
on 22nd Sept 1792. This became the end of the road for the ancient
regime/Bourbon monarchy in France.

xvi) The abolition of Feudalism influenced the collapse of the ancient

regime/Bourbon monarchy. On 4thAug 1789, the national assembly nullified
feudalism and scrapped the oppressive ancient system of taxation in France. It
also guaranteed equality in accessing public offices and services. These
influenced some clergy and nobles to denounce their privileges and join the third
estate in a spirit of brotherhood. This undermined the basis of survival for the
monarchy and caused its collapse by 1793.

xvii) The role of mobs and mob injustice cannot be underrated in the collapse of
the ancient regime. During the reign of terror, there was total breakdown of law
and order which made the mob to take control of events in France. This was
manipulated by ambitious and opportunistic politicians like Robespierre to
destroy the ancient regime and achieve their hidden political ambitions.

xviii) The hostility of European monarchs towards the French revolution forced
the revolutionaries to destroy the ancient regime and replace it with a republican
government. The Pilnitz declaration and the Brunswick manifesto where Prussia
and Austria threatened (and even invaded) France forced the revolutionaries to
"do away" with the ancient regime before it could be saved.
xix) The effects of American war of independence and the failure of the army to
support the ancient regime also led to its collapse. A part from contributing to
financial crisis, the war politicized the

French soldiers negatively against the monarchy. This made it very easy for
power hungry men like Robespierre, Danton and Marat to use the politicized
soldiers in bringing about the downfall of the ancient regime.

xx) The better political, social and economic conditions in England partly
influenced the Frenchmen to cause the collapse of the ancient regime. England
had a constitutional monarchy with a functional parliament, independent
judiciary, a modernized agriculture and industries. Besides, the socio economic
conditions of the English were better than those of the Frenchmen. This
influenced radical Frenchmen to replace the monarchy with a republic that was to
resemble the form of government in England.

xxi) The role of political philosophers, encyclopaedists and physiocrats

undermined the survival of the ancient regime beyond 1793. Their writings
politicized the Frenchmen against the rule of Louis xvi and the Bourbon
monarchy. They compared the conditions of the Frenchmen with those of the
English and exposed the "rottenness" of the French monarchy. This biased the
Frenchmen with negative attitudes against the monarchy and contributed to its
collapse by 1793.

xxii) The growing threats of the émigrés also contributed to the collapse of the
ancient regime. By 1792, they had mobilized themselves to a tune of 20,000
men with a declared intention to suppress the revolution, restore their privileges
and King Louis to his throne, They were supported by foreign powers and had
internal collaborators who provided them with military secrets and strategies.
King Louis xvi and the monarchy were key suspects amongst internal
collaborators. This biased the revolutionaries to eliminate them as a strategy to
deal with the threats of the émigrés

xxiii) Conclude generally without taking a standpoint.

EFFECTS OF THE REVOLUTION

POSITIVE CHANGES AND ACHIEVEMENTS

The French revolution that started in 1789 brought fundamental social, political and economic
changes in the history of France. The changes caused by the revolution were both positive and"
negative. One should note that the classical/lasting changes brought by the revolution in France and
Europe explain why historians have regarded the revolution as the most important event in the
history of Europe during the 18th Century.

1 Destruction of social class system

The French revolution destroyed the discriminative social class system in France and declared
equality for all by nature. Segregation in terms of birth, religion, sex and class against peasants and
middleclass were brought to an end. The revolutionaries came up with the idea of equality and
career open to talents where promotions and appointments to any position in the society were
based on talents and abilities. This led to the rise of the middleclass who had better education to
positions of responsibility as opposed to incompetent nobles and clergy who dominated such
positions before the revolution. However, peasants remained spectators inspite of their massive
participation in the revolution.

2 Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

The French Revolution contributed to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte 1 to power, without which he
would have died a common man. It destroyed the segregative social class system and offered
opportunity for talented peasant men who used to be discriminated like Napoleon Bonaparte to rise
to power. Revolutionary changes and events like theT793 and 1795 uprisings gave Napoleon
opportunity to exploit his talents and maneuver his way to power by 1799.

3 Declaration of the rights of man and citizens

The French revolution led to the declaration of the rights of man and citizens. The Constituent
Assembly/parliament in 1789 deliberated and came up with a document of on the rights of man and
citizens. It granted political liberties like; freedom of speech, press, worship, association and
ownership of property. Although these were abused especially during the reign of terror, they
nevertheless became the foundation of people's rights and freedom.

4 Revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity

The revolution gave birth to revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity. These ideas were
consolidated in France and spread to other states such as Italians and Germans. Such ideas promoted
equality, freedom, democracy and good governance. They were also used by the by the
revolutionaries to dominate other nations. Above all, such revolutionary ideas glorified France and
made her a prestigious nation in Europe.

5 Destruction of the Bourbon monarchy

The Bourbon monarchy that had ruled France for over 400 years was brought to an end by the
French revolution. The revolutionaries declared the monarchy abolished in 1792 and replaced it with
a republican form of government. Henceforth, France adopted a republican government that was the
first of its kind in the history of -Europe. Although the. Bourbon monarchy was restored by the great
powers after the downfall of Napoleon in 1815; it could not survive beyond 1830 because the
monarchy was already weakened due to changes caused by the revolution.

6 Political pluralism

France became a multiparty state as a result of the 1789 revolution. The freedom of association led
to the rise of different political parties such as the Feuvillants, Girondins, Cordilliers and Jacobins that
competed for power. These Parties kept the government under checks and balances by criticizing the
unfair policies and programs. However, these parties became institutions that promoted the reign of
terror as they embarked on violence to eliminate rival political groups. This made them to destroy
themselves to the extent that none of them existed beyond 1795.

7 Parliamentary democracy

The French Revolution consolidated parliamentary democracy in France. The national assembly
(Parliament) that was called by King Louis VI in May 1789 was maintained by successive revolutionary
governments. France had a functional parliament where different parties were represented. For
instance in 1792, the parliament had 120 Girondins, 50 Jacobins and 60 Independent members. Thus,
the Frenchmen were able to participate in governing themselves through their elected
representatives.

8 Constitutionalism

The French revolution introduced the rule of law in the history of France. Before 1789, France had no
constitution to safeguard people's rights and freedom. However, in 1791 the parliament enacted a
constitution that was amended in 1793 and 1795. The constitution clearly separated the powers of
the executive, judiciary and legislature (Parliament). It reduced the King's excessive powers and
guided the government in planning, policy making and implementation.

9 Land

The French revolution brought a lasting change on land ownership in France. Before the revolution,
land was dominated by the clergy and nobles who exploited peasants through feudalism and
serfdom. However, the revolutionary government came with reforms that revolutionized / changed
the land tenure system in France. The revolution brought the idea of private ownership of land
where everybody had the right to own land. This provided peasants with a chance to own land for
the first time and brought an end to feudalism and serfdom in the history of France. The civil
constitution of the clergy nationalized church Land, which was sold to peasants at a give away price.
Land that formerly belonged to absentee land lords were nationalized inl790 and given to former
tenants who were peasants.

10 The Catholic Church and the clergy

The revolution undermined the power and influence of the Catholic Church in France. Before the
revolution, the Catholic Church was the most powerful and privileged institution in France. However,
the revolutionary government through the civil constitution of the clergy destroyed it's power,
privileges and influence. Church influence on state and education were stopped. Freedom of worship
was granted and the catholic religion was no longer a state religion. Church privileges were
terminated to the extent that Bishops and Priests were made civil servants on government payroll.
The Pope's influence in French politics also ceased to exist. However, this later caused conflict
between the church and state on one hand, the French government and the rest of the catholic
states on the other hand.

NB. The poor relationship between the church and the state in France was corrected by Napoleon I
when he signed the concordat (an agreement) with the pope in 1801. Nevertheless, Napoleon I later
worsened the poor relationship in 1808 when he imprisoned the pope for failure to implement the
continental system.

11 Socio-Economic changes

The revolutionary government enforced some reforms in the social and economic structures of
France. In trade, a uniform metric system of weights and measures was introduced to avoid
exploitation. A minimum price for bread was also fixed and a new currency (assignats) was
introduced to control inflation. In the field of industrialization and labour, polytechnic institutions to
train skilled man power were established and the right to work and receive fair payment was
guaranteed. The education system was liberalized and the church's influence on education was
terminated. Agriculture was boosted by introduction of better farming and scientific methods.
Taxation was reformed to include the privileged classes.

NB. Most of the above Socio -economic changes created were undermined during the reign of terror
and the directory government. Achievement in the fields of agriculture and transport were not so
much Inflation persisted during the reign of terror and the directory government worsened it by over
printing the Assignats. Exploitation of peasants continued through over taxation, discrimination in
employment and fraudulent weights and measures. However, reforms in the social and economic
fields survived and became permanent benefits of the revolution after the reign of terror.

12 Formation of the National Guard

There was the formation of the National Guard that replaced the royal guard of the Bourbon
monarchy. The National Guard was a local militia force/revolutionary army that was made up of
volunteers whose role was to protect the achievements of the revolution. By the end of 1793, there
were about 700,000 well trained and disciplined soldiers in the National Guard. They defeated the
first coalition and exported revolutionary ideas to countries like Belgium, Italian and German states.

13 Creation of the revolutionary Tri-colour flag

The French revolutionaries created the tri-colour flag to replace the white flag of
the Bourbons. The three colours in the flag represented the three revolutionary
ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity. It was a symbol of changes that France
went through from the ancient regime to the new revolutionary government

NEGATIVE CHANGES AND FAILURES

1 Loss of lives and destruction of property

There was massive loss of lives and destruction of property most especially
during the reign of terror. There were heavy massacres of the nobles, clergies
and their sympathizers by diehard revolutionaries key personalities like Louis
XVI, Marie Antoinette, Danton, Marat and Robes Pierre; all lost their lives during
the French revolution of 1789. Important places like Hotel De Ville, Bastiilles and
Mansions of the nobles and clergy were demolished. Properties belonging to
exiled nobles and clergy especially land were confiscated and sold cheaply to
peasants.

2 The reign of terror and revival of despotism

The French revolution that initially started as a peaceful reform movement in

1789 resulted into the reign of terror from 1793-94. There was total breakdown
of law and order, heavy massacres and extreme dictatorship especially under the
leadership of Robespierre. These were made worst by internal resistance to
revolutionary changes by the privileged class and foreign war.

3 Displacement and exile

The French revolution led to displacement and exile of dissatisfied nobles and
clergy to countries such as Austria, Prussia and Russia. Persecution and
confiscation of property forced the wealthy clergy and nobles to exile. This led to
capital flight which had negative effects on the economic development of France.
4 General economic decline

The revolution led to a general decline on the level of economic activities.

Progress in agriculture, trade, industries, transport and communication were
hindered and seriously undermined especially during the reign of terror. These
led to unemployment, inflation, poverty, famine and starvation. The women's
march to Paris in demand for food arid the role of the mob during the revolution
is a testimony of the desperate economic condition created by the revolution.

5 Conflict between the Catholic Church and the state

The revolution led to a serious conflict between the Catholic Church and the
state. Before the revolution, the Catholic Church and the state were in a perfectly
good relationship. However, the negative changes created by the revolutionary
government against the Catholic Church created a serious rebellion by the clergy
and fanatic Catholics. The scrapping of church privileges, appointment of the
clergy by the government and nationalization of church land brought an end to
the formally cordial/ good relations between the state and the church.

6 Loophole/weakness of the rights of man and citizens

The rights of man and citizens that was declared by the revolutionary
government had some loopholes. It emphasized only the rights of man and
ignored the duties of man towards the slate. It left the Frenchmen Ignorant of
their duties to the extent that some of them started evading taxation. Above all,
it made the Frenchmen irresponsible and crazy under emotional excitement of
freedom that led to the outbreak of the reign of terror.

7 Loophole of the constitution

The constitution also had some loopholes. In the first place, it disqualified
majority Frenchmen from voting by making property qualification the basis of
voting. Secondly, it still left Louis XVI with power to veto/reject the resolutions of
the parliament, which he stubbornly used to block reforms proposed by the
parliament. This made the Frenchmen to lose confidence in the constitution and
resort to lawlessness that led to the reign of terror.
8 Diplomatic relations

The French revolution led to poor diplomatic relations between France and other
European states. The changes caused by the revolution and the threats of the
revolutionaries against their neighbours forced states like Austria, Russia,
Prussia, Britain and Italian states to ally against France in 1792. This caused war
between revolutionary France, and, other powers in Europe. France therefore lost
her citizens and resources in an attempt to preserve and export revolutionary
ideas to her neighbours.

Effects Of The French Revolution On Europe:

The French revolution started peacefully as an internal revolt but as it progressed, it drifted from a
peaceful reform movement to a violent movement and ended up affecting Europe and America. The
revolution came up with new principles that were either exported by the French armies or adopted
by the oppressed peoples due to similar conditions. These principles affected the entire socio-
economic and political structures of Europe as can be seen below.

POSITIVE EFFECTS

1. Rise of revolutionary political parties

The rise of political clubs in France influenced radical reformers to organize similar political parties in
a bid to pressurize the existing governments for reforms. By 1792, constitutional information clubs
had been organized in almost every district of England and Scotland. Society of the friends of the
people and the corresponding society were also in place. Members of these societies were from the
lower middle class. These societies had strong solidarity with the French political clubs and the
French national assembly.

Their operations were secret for fear of government repressive machinery.

MB. The role played by French clubs during the reign of terror made Britain to regard political clubs
as a threat and suppressed them in order to have strict control over its people.
2. Chain reaction

The French revolution of 1789 acted as a springboard for revolutions in Europe. Subsequent
revolutions like the 1830 and 1848 revolutions in Europe were inspired by the great French
revolution of 1789. In the words of a Greek fighter for independence T. Colocrolos;

The French revolution and Napoleon opened the eyes of the entire world. Before it the people were
really ignorant and thought that the kings were the Gods on earth. Whatever they did, people had to
praise them. The change brought about by the French events had made it difficult now to rule
people.

Before the French revolution, the oppressed masses of Europe and America could not take the law in
their hands. However, they learnt from the French revolution that power resides in the oppressed
people and that violence or terrorism can bring the biggest political change. This is partly why the
1820's, 1830 and 1848 revolutions became inevitable.

3. Unification of Italy and Germany.

The French revolution laid foundation for the unifications of Italy and Germany; France conquered
and re-organized the Italian and German States in 1796 and 1807 respectively. French soldiers who
liberated

Italians and Germans preached the revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity and nationalism.
It inspired Italians and Germans with a high spirit of unity and independence against foreign
domination. Italians for instance started fighting for unity and independence in 1809 against France
and continued against Austria from 1815. This foundation combined with other factors to lead to the
unification of Italy in 1870 and Germany in 1871.

4. Abolition of feudalism and serfdom

Feudalism and serfdom in Europe were also abolished as a result of the French revolution. The
revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity influenced the abolition of feudalism and
serfdom first in France and later in other European States like Prussia, Hungary, Italy, Germany and
Spain. Land was nationalized and given to peasants, which ended monopolization of Land by the
Church and the nobles. By 1917, feudalism and serfdom were nowhere in Europe except in Russia.
Even then, it was also abolished after the outbreak of the Bolshevik revolutions of 1917.

5. Abolition of social class system

The French revolution also influenced the abolition of the discriminative social class system that
existed in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and career open to talents influenced
the oppressed peasants and middle class in other States to pressurize their governments to end
social class discrimination.

This influenced hitherto (until then) conservative states like Russia, Spain and Prussia to abandon
social class division and grant equality between the nobles, clergy, middle class and peasants. For
instance, there were equality of taxation, access to education and fair trial before the law, which
were not the case before the outbreak of the revolution.

6. Rise of new States men

There was the rise of new States men in the politics of Europe. The destruction of the segregative
social class system and the revolutionary ideas of equality offered opportunity for talented men like
Napoleon I in France, Mazzinni and Cavour in Italian States and Bismarck in German States to rise to
positions of importance in their respective States. These were liberal men who fought for freedom
and independence of their nationals/ people. However, others like Metternich took advantage of
unity of Europe against the threats of the French revolution to dominate European politics after the
downfall of Napoleon i.e. from 1815-1848

7. Rise of new forces of change i.e. Liberalism, Nationalism and Socialism.

The French revolution led to the rise of new forces of change i.e. Liberalism, Nationalism and
Socialism in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity undermined the old
order of Europe that was characterized by conservatism and despotism. It opened way for a new
political order dominated by the forces of liberalism, nationalism and socialism. The new forces were
consolidated in Europe by Napoleon Bonaparte I. However, confrontation between the new forces
and the old forces led to revolutionary movements in Europe in 1820's, 1830 and 1848. This was
because of attempts by conservative Statesmen like Mettemich to suppress the new forces of
change.
NB

i) The development of socialism brought antagonism and tension that led to the cold war in the 20th
century. It was because socialism later dominated Eastern Europe arid "started challenging Western
Europe that was dominated by capitalism. This divided Europe into two hostile and antagonistic
camps that made the outbreak of cold war inevitable.

(ii) Nationalism has continuously influenced world politics up to today For example; it has led to the
collapse of USSR and Yugoslavia. It has also been-responsible for the decolonization of Africa and
some parts of Europe like India that were formally under foreign rule.

8. Constitutionalism

Revolutionary ideas led to the rise of constitutionalism as a check and balance to despotism in
Europe. Political movements sprung, up demanding for liberal constitutions examplifiably the
Carbonari in Italy. Indeed, the U.N charter on Human rights (1948) has borrowed a lot from the
declaration of the rights of man and citizens in France.

9. Diplomatic alliances / understanding

The revolution initiated the idea of diplomatic co-operation in handling European

and world affairs. Alliances against revolutionary France that started from 1793
were gradually transformed into the concert of Europe after the defeat of
Napoleon 1 at the battle of Waterloo. This inspired the rise and existence of
subsequent international organizations like the congress system, the League of
Nations and the U.N

NAPOLEON BONAPARTE BACKGROUND

Napoleon was born at Ajaccio in the Island of Corsica (Genoa in Italy) in August 1769: The Island of
Corsica was annexed to France a year before he was born (1768). Napoleon was therefore an Italian
by descent and a Frenchman by birth. He was from an obscure and poor family background.
Napoleon was one of the eight children who survived death out of the 13 children born of his
mother.

From childhood, Napoleon was militaristic. He liked listening to stories of soldiers and wars. He was
fond of wearing military uniforms and carrying mock fights and games with his fellow children. His
ambition was to become a professional soldier and that's why he would joke that; I will become a
soldier and will win every battle.

Thus in 1779, his father who was close to French governors fluked for him a place at the military
academy of Brienne from where he changed to the military academy of Paris in 1804. He studied
military science and graduated as an artillery officer at the age of 16 with the rank of second
Lieutenant.

However, Napoleon's family background made life difficult for him at school. He was isolated and
lacked good relationship with children from rich family background. Worst of all, he was not a bright
student since he was amongst poor performers in class. Nevertheless, although Napoleon led a
miserable life at school because of his poor family background, he did well in mathematics and
Military Science. This is why he graduated as an artillery officer at a tender age of 16 years. So, the
1789 French revolution came when Napoleon had modeled himself into a professional soldier.

Napoleon had earlier thought of leading the Corsican nationalistic rebellion (against French
annexation) but before he could start, the 1789 revolution broke out and he welcomed it since it had
come with favourable opportunities that were necessary for achieving his ambitions. In 1791, he
went for leave in Corsica and to him; this was a heaven-sent opportunity to spread revolutionary
ideas to his people and liberate them. This was however resisted from patriotic French men like
Pauli, which made Napoleon and his family members to be expelled from Corsica. He returned to
Paris only to find that he had been dismissed for overstaying his leave. But owing to the acute
shortage of artillery officers, he was reinstated back to the army.

Napoleon made a great contribution to the events of the French revolution. In 1793, he destroyed a
royalist uprising, which was supported by the British naval force at port Toulon. This he accomplished
through what is historically known as the whiff of grapeshot. In 1795, he saved the newly elected
Directory government from a mob of demonstrators who were supported by the royalist. This earned
him the rank of a general.

In 1796, he embarked on the Italian campaign against Austria. He was given an idle, famine stricken,
naked and demoralized army that was a potential source of insecurity, to command for the invasion
of Italy. Napoleon established confidence in these soldiers and himself (Napoleon) through his
moving speech when he said;

Soldiers you are hungry, naked and destitutes. The government owes you much but can give you
nothing. I will lead you to fertile plains; rich provinces and great cities will be in your hands. There
you will have honour, power and glory.

'This raised the soldier's morale and made the campaign a success. Austria was defeated and forced
to sign the Campofomio treaty where she surrendered the whole empire to Napoleon (i.e. Belgium,
Lombardy and some Rhine territories). He returned to France with a lot of loot, fame and glory and
to this effect a street in Paris was named Napoleon. While in Italy, he won the Support of the masses
when he told them; people of Italy, the French army comes to break your chains. Greet it with
confidence; your property, religion and customs will be respected.

By 1797, the Directory government was threatened by Napoleon's popularity yet they had Britain as
the last external enemy. So in late 1797 he was sent with 38,000 soldiers to lead the Egyptian
campaign against British interest in the far and near east. They expected Napoleon to perish in the
campaign. However, he bravely conducted the campaign, defeated the Mamelukes at the battle of
Pyramids and captured Alexandria. However, in July 1798, Nelson defeated him at Alexandria. At the
same time, he learnt from an English newspaper that a coalition had been formed against France.
Consequently, he escaped to Paris in 2 small boats leaving his soldiers in Egypt. In spite of his defeat
and failures, the Frenchmen only talked of Bonaparte as "the conqueror of Italy and hero of Egypt".
He found Paris and the whole France messed up by the Directory government.

In an attempt to avoid embarrassment caused by the fiasco in Egypt coupled with ambitions.
Napoleon executed a successful coup against the Directory government on 9th November 1799. This
he did with the conspiracy and assistance of Abbey Sieyes, Roger Duccus and Barras. He established a
consulate government of 3 counselors of whom he was the first. In 1800, the consulate was
confirmed by a referendum that granted him a 10 years term of office. In 1802, he manipulated
another referendum, which confirmed him a counsel for life, and in 1804 he self styled himself life
emperor of France.

Generally, Napoleon was one of the greatest soldiers and statesmen who have ever existed in world
history. He dominated his age and his name has survived his death. He was a man of rare character
and talents, enormous energy, self-confidence, fear-less and resourcefulness. He was a-fatalist in the
sense that he believed from childhood that some hidden power was guiding him to victory and glory.
He had the capacity to inspire confidence in all those who followed and heard him. He was an extra-
ordinary soldier who planned and won his battles in the head before winning them in the front line.
FACTORS TO THE RISE OF
NAPOLEONIN1799
1. THE FRENCHREVOLUTION OF1789

There is a common agreement that Napoleon was a product of the French revolution, without which
he would have died a common man. This remains a historical fact because Napoleon's rise to power
was greatly due to the changes and progressive events of the French revolution. He exploited the
opportunities provided by the revolution to rise from a poor Corsican to an Emperor of France. This is
why he is called the child of the French revolution. The role of the revolution in Napoleon's rise to
power is as follows:

i) The revolution abolished the discriminative social class system and offered equality of
opportunities for talented men like Napoleon. Before the revolution, people from poor peasantry
origin like Napoleon could not be promoted beyond non-commissioned rank or hold a public office.
However, the revolution came with the principle of career open to talents where Napoleon was
promoted from rank to rank which gradually increased his popularity, leading to his rise to power in
1799. Therefore it should be stressed that without the French revolution that destroyed the
discriminative social class system. Napoleon would have remained a common man because of his
poor background.

ii) The revolution led to the exile and death of senior army officers politicians especially during the
reign of terror. It created scarcity of senior army officers and that is why Napoleon was recalled in
the army in 1792 yet he had earlier on been dismissed. It was also because of this that Napoleon
gained quick promotions leading to his rise to power. Besides, the death of senior politicians like
Danton, Mira beau and Robespierre left a political vacuum that Napoleon occupied. Had these men
survived up to 1799, there would have been no political vacuum and Napoleon's rise to power would
have been a different story.

iii) It was the French revolution that gave napoleon the chance to display and advertise his abilities

The revolution created internal uprisings through which Napoleon earned rapid promotions and

elevated his social status. For example, in 1793, he suppressed the royalist uprisings at port Taulon
that earned him the rank of Brigadier General. Again in 1795 he suppressed another royalist
uprising in which he was elevated to the rank of a General and commander of the army of the

interior. Had it not been because of the French revolution, these uprisings would not have occurred
and Napoleon would not have got the opportunity to utilize his abilities. He would therefore not have
got those ranks, which were stepping-stones to his rise to power.

iv) The need to export the French revolution generated foreign wars which gave Napoleon more

opportunities to exploit his abilities. The most famous was the 1796 Italian campaign that increased
his popularity amongst the soldiers, Frenchmen and Italians. This was brought about by his success in
the war against Austria in Italy. The war increased his self-confidence and ambitions because for the
first time he was able to sleep in the palace of kings, make treaties and declare his will to the holy
father, the Pope. This is what earned him the loyalty and confidence of the soldiers that he used in
the 1799 Coup, which brought him to power. Besides, the Italian campaign earned France looted
works of art (which went to the French museums), more territories and revenue in terms of war
indemnity. These achievements made Napoleon's name to be a household name to the extent that a
street in France was named Napoleon (i.e. Napoleon Street). These were enough popularity that
made Napoleon the King of France in 1799.

NB. Although the Egyptian campaign of 1798 was a failure, Napoleon was welcomed as a hero simply
because of his earlier military records. The Directory government had totally failed the

Frenchmen and everybody was crying for a liberator. He addressed the anxious and cheerful crowd in
the following words; it looks as if everybody had been waiting for me, a little while would have been
too soon, tomorrow would have been too late. I have come at the right moment

These cleared way for the 1799 coup that led to his rise to power.

v) Napoleon used revolutionary ideas within and outside France which helped him to build his
popularity as a liberator. He studied and learnt revolutionary literature from the writings of Rousseau
and being a close associate of Robespierre. In the struggle to liberate the Oppressed people of
Europe, France inclusive, he carried the revolutionary flag and sung the beautiful songs of the
revolution. He preached, the revolutionary gospel of liberty, fraternity, democracy and equality. This
is what made the Italians and Germans to falsely welcome and support him as a
"Political messiah". These revolutionary ideas also made the Frenchmen convinced that Napoleon
was the best person who could uphold the principles of the revolution and these gained him internal
support that facilitated his rise to power.

vi) The revolutionary army was very useful in the rise of Napoleon 1. The army was re-organized and
re-equipped to handle internal and external wars. It was this army that he used to suppress internal
uprising and gain promotions. It was even the same army that he used in Italy and earned popularity
amongst the Italians, soldiers and Frenchmen. Most important, the army supported the 1799 coup
through which he rose to power.

One should also note that much as the French

revolution played a primary role in Napoleon's
rise to power, other factors supplemented it
without which the revolution alone could not have
groomed him to power. The fact that the
revolution provided equal opportunities for
everybody to rise to power meant that one
should have special or unique talents or factors
on top of the revolution to rise to power. This
therefore gives us the chance to analyze the role
of otli6r factors

FACTORS CNT
2. MARRIAGE TO JOSEPHINE

Napoleon's marriage to Josephine also contributed to his rise to power. In 1796, Napoleon I
married Josephine who was the daughter of one of the daughters of the directors of the Directory
government called Baras. The marriage gave Napoleon greater privileges and powerful connections
with leaders of the Directory government. It should be stressed that it was the influence of
Napoleon's father in law i.e. Baras that gave him the privilege to command French troops in the
Italian campaign yet there were many senior and experienced politicians than Napoleon. This was
because Barras diverted the command of the French troops from any of the senior commanders to
Napoleon just because he favoured him as his son in law. Besides, the marriage made Napoleon a
fully matured and responsible man that gained him more respect and popularity in France.

NB: Although Napoleon's marriage to Josephine gained him aristocratic connection and thus
contributed to his rise to power, it should be emphasized that the marriage was possible only
because the revolution had elevated his status from a mere corporal to a general by 1796.

Otherwise, Josephine being a daughter of a principle director could not have lowered herself so
down to the extent of marrying a corporal from a peasantry family background. Even Napoleon
himself would not have got the courage and wealth to marry her if the revolution had not raised his
status in the French Society.

3. CLOSE ASSOCIATION WITHREVOLUTIONARYLEADERS

Napoleon's rise to power was also due to his closer personal relationship With leaders of the French
revolution. His involvement in the French revolution brought him closer to revolutionary leads and
politicians like Robespierre and Directors; Barras. Abbey Sieyes and Duccas. This gave him the chance
to exploit their weaknesses and gain experience in French politics that became a cornerstone for his
rise to power. His close connection made him attend most revolutionary public rallies from where he
got the skills of organizing and addressing public rallies. This helped him to dominate French politics
and rise to power after the death of some of such senior revolutionary leaders and politicians most
especially Robespierre.

4. THE WEAKNESS OF THE DIRECTORY GOVERNMENT

The directory government was the last government within the revolutionary period (1795-1799).

It's weaknesses and hence unpopularity paved way for Napoleon's rise to power in a number of
ways. In the first place, it had failed to improve on the socio- economic conditions of the Frenchmen
There were massive corruption, bribery and embezzlement that led to inflation, unemployment,
famine and starvation. These desperate conditions made the Frenchmen to be in a high mood of
change. It explains why Napoleon's coup received a blessing rather than opposition from the
Frenchmen.

Secondly, the government had failed to maintain law and order this alone led to winning glory for
France abroad. Internally, there was insecurity caused by the royalists, Jacobins and high way
robbers. Externally, the French forces were being beaten on almost every front. Napoleon's
campofomio treaty gains of 1797 had been lost and France had been driven out of Switzerland, Italy
and German states by the second coalition. All these created a popular outcry for a strong and
capable military officer who would liberate the people from such internal and external threats. This is
what made Napoleon to be supported in his rise to power since he was the most successful military
Generals of the time.

The Directors of the directory government over relied on Napoleon in suppressing internal uprisings
and fighting foreign wars. It gave him Opportunities to utilize his abilities and become popular
amongst the French masses and soldiers. Worst of all, it was the directors who promoted Napoleon
from rank to rank such that by 1799, he had risen to the rank of a Brigadier. All these made Napoleon
to become more ambitious and stage the coup of 1799 since he had noted the weaknesses of the
Directory Government.

Worst of all, the directors were disorganized and divided by ideological differences. For instance
Abbey Sieyes and Duccus opposed the war against the second coalition and wanted peace. Abbey
Sieyes also had the ambition to change the constitution and bring an end to the Directory
Government. However, he could not do so without the support of the army. This made him to use

Napoleon to organize the 18th Nov, Brumier Coup from which Napoleon conspired and emerged as
the 1st consul in France in 1799.

NB. The weaknesses of the directory government greatly elevated Napoleon and made his rise to
power inevitable by 1799. Otherwise, had it to be strong enough to meet the socio-economic,
political and military expectations of the Frenchmen, Napoleon's rise to power would have been
impossible in 1799 even if he was very abled (strong) and ambitious.

5. NAPOLEON'SABILITIESAND CHARACTERS
a) Military abilities (as a soldier)

Napoleon's abilities were very useful instruments in his rise to power. One school of thought says
that; Napoleon was without question a man of extra ordinary force of brain and character, who
under all circumstances and in all countries would have won himself a high position (Grant and
Temperley P 62). Wellington, the British commander equated Napoleon's presence in the battlefield
to be worth 40,000 troops. This claim cannot be disputed because Napoleon was a courageous
professional soldier with a powerful sense of Judgment and insights. He planned and won his battles
in the mind before winning them in the field.

Napoleon's abilities made him to succeed in suppressing internal revolts and fighting external wars
out of which he gained popularity, promotions and power. These were the 1793 uprising, the 1795
revolt and the Italian campaign of 1796. If Napoleon was not a man of exceptional abilities, he would
have lost his life while suppressing such uprisings or fighting the second coalition of 1798 and this
would be the end of the road for him. Even his tactful escape from Egypt in 1798 was due to his
extra-ordinary Judgment and skills. This is because he had realized the strength of the British forces
under Wellington and therefore decided to quit Egypt before he would be crushed to death.

Napoleon's skills and organizational abilities explain why Abbey Sieyes picked him to execute the
1799 coup out of which he rose to power. Had somebody else (other than Napoleon) proved more
able. Abbey Sieyes would have used that person and not Napoleon. That Napoleon was used and not
any one else was precisely because he was the most capable army officer.

b) Napoleon's political abilities.

Besides being a distinguished soldier. Napoleon was a great politician. He preached the revolutionary
gospel of equality, liberty and fraternity to the Frenchmen and the conquered states, which made
him very popular at the expense of the Directory Government. He also promised a number of
reforms in the socio-economic and political structures of France and the conquered states. In all
these, he spoke with calmness, dignity and tolerance that convinced everybody who heard him that
he was a "political messiah." For example, he is reported to have politicized the demoralized soldiers
that he used in the Italian campaign in his address when he said; My army, follow me, here you are
badly fed and almost naked, I am going to feed you, cloth and lead you to the most fertile plains of
the world, where you will find glory, honour and wealth. This was a political statement that made the
soldiers to have more loyalty and trust in Napoleon than the Directory Government. It was these
politicized soldiers that he used to destroy the Directory Government in 1799 and gain power. This
was not opposed because he had politicized the masses through his reform programs.
c) Napoleon's power of foresight

Napoleon had the abilities to assess situations and know how he could manipulate them to his
advantage. After the French revolution, he abandoned his ambition to liberate Corsica Island and
became a loyal French citizen. He did this because he had rightfully foreseen that the revolution had
come with opportunities that he would use to rise to power. He also refused to command the

Paris forces when he was commissioned by Robespierre during the reign of terror. He refused the
offer because he was aware that Paris was not secured and anybody could be guillotined anytime.

He ventured in the Italian campaign after realizing that it could gain him glory and popularity, which
is what exactly he earned. Lastly, he executed the 1799 coup at a time when the directory
government was weakest and he himself most popular. All these were successful because he was a
foresighted man with a powerful sense of judgment and imagination.

6. EDUCATION

Napoleon's rise to power can also be attributed to his education. He was educated at the military

Academies of Brienne and Paris at a time when 60% of the population of Europe was illiterate. He
read and studied history, mathematics, the writings of philosophers, the campaigns of Fredrick the
great and the constitutions of England, Switzerland, Turkey etc. These widened his reasoning
capacity and leadership skills. He also graduated as a second lieutenant, which meant that he was
actually rising to power. Napoleon came out with a theory of speed, diplomacy and force as a
solution to human problems. It is this theory that made him successful in suppressing internal revolts
and fighting foreign wars that gained him popularity, promotions and power by 1799. Besides, he
used the skills he learned from the military academy to plan and organize the successful Coup of
1799 through which he became the master of France.

7. OVERWHELMINGAMBITIONS

Napoleon was by nature and orientation an ambitious man. He revealed this to a friend when he
said; my ambition is so natural like the blood that flows in my veins and a cat's claws, which are
designed to climb upwards not downwards. Napoleon's ambitions were witnessed right from infant
stage. He was fond of listening to stories about wars from soldiers. He used to wear military uniforms
and carried mock battles with his fellow kids. He would tell them that he would become a soldier and
win all battles. It's this ambition that made him to risk the Italian and Egyptian campaigns yet he was
a young and junior military officer. It's the same ambition that drove him to the 1799coup, which
became a stepping-stone for his rise to power. It was even because of ambition that he violated the
constitution and declared an empire with himself as the "life emperor of Europe".

NB. i) Ambition made Napoleon so keen and skillful in whatever he did such as in the royalist
uprisings of 1793 and 1795, the Italian and Egyptian campaigns and the 1799 coup that brought him
to power.

ii) Although overwhelming ambition contributed to his rise to power, it eventually contributed to his
downfall by 1815. It made him to conquer and control a number of European states like Italy,
Germany and Belgium. This attracted the hostility and hence intervention of other powers who
finally ousted him from power in 1815.

8. ANNEXATION OF CORSICA ISLAND FROM GENOA (ITALY) TO FRANCE (1768)

The annexation of Corsica Island to France ml768 was a blessing disguise for Napoleon I. In 1768,
Corsica the Mediterranean Island from Genoa republic was annexed to France. It made Napoleon to
be born a Frenchman rather than an Italian and thus eligible to hold any public office in France. The
annexation partly enabled him to benefit from the military academies of Brienne and Paris from
which he graduated as a second lieutenant. It also entitled him to join the French army from which
he was promoted up to the rank of General and made the commander of the army of the interior. He
also freely participated in the 1789 revolution and associated with revolutionary leaders since the
annexation made him to be born a Frenchman. One can therefore say that without the annexation of
Corsica Island, Napoleon would have

Been born an Italian who perhaps would have not risen to power in France.

9. ROLE OFHIS FATHER, CHARLES BONAPARTE

The role of Napoleon's father, Charles Bonaparte was also influential in his rise to power. His father
inspired him to work hard and like his career as a professional soldier. He forged that he was a noble
and fluked for Napoleon admission in the military academies of Brienne and Paris. This made
Napoleon to fluke education that gave him the necessary political, military and administrative skills,
which he used to maneuver his way (rise) to power. He would perhaps have died an illiterate and
ignorant common Corsican peasant had it not been for the fluked education.

THE ROLE OF HIS BROTHER LUCIENBONAPARTE

Napoleon's brother Lucien Bonaparte who was the president of the council of 500 played a very
instrumental role in his rise to power. It should be noted that Napoleon's coup flopped when he
approached the council, which rejected the coup and shouted at him saying; "Down with the tyrant"
They arrested and flogged (beat him severely) him to a near death point. It was Lucien Bonaparte
who saved him by openly threatening to kill him while at the same time he ordered the army to
disperse hostile members of the council. Afterwards, he officially introduced Napoleon to the few
members who favoured him and remained behind, saying;

Here is the man you have been waiting for. He will respect you. He will respect the revolutionary
gains. He is my brother. If he fails, I will stab him in the chest.

This made them to accept the coup and vote for a revision of the constitution that made Napoleon
the first consul with full powers over France. One can therefore conclude that if it was not because of
the timely intervention of Lucien Bonaparte, the coup of 1799 would have boomeranged/ misfired
and caused Napoleon's death as a fugitive.

11. HIS FAMILYBACKGROUND

Napoleon's humble family back ground was a blessing in disguise that propelled him to power by
1799. Napoleon originated from a discriminated poverty stricken peasant family background. At
school, he was segregated and abused as a commoner and foreigner (because of his Italian accent)
by the wealthy sons of the nobles. This experience made him to develop a burning hatred against
segregation in France and a desire to work hard to liberate not only him but the whole country from
such injustice. Consequently, he became a professional battle- hardened soldier who enjoyed
walking and fighting over long distances without much food, water, rest etc. It's this that made
Napoleon I a hero and the most successful military officer in France by 1799,

12. SCIENTIFICAND MILITARYINNOVATIONS.

The role of scientific and military advancements was crucial in the rise to power of Napoleon 1.
Scientific and technological innovations brought in better maps, roads, weapons and more mobile
artillery. It made it easy to organize swifter campaigns, rapid concentration of troops and surprise
attacks. Such innovations were utilized by Napoleon in his military campaigns and the 1799 coup
through which he rose to power. These made Napoleon's "whiff of grape shot" and surprise attacks
to easily succeed, which earned him promotion, popularity and power.

13.LUCK

Special opportunities and favours greatly contributed to the rise of Napoleon to prominence by 1799.
There were a number of events and opportunities which Napoleon did not plan but favoured his rise
to power. He was lucky that Corsica Island was annexed to France a year before he was born, which
gave him the chance to exploit the opportunities provided by the French revolution. His other luck
was that his father forged a noble status and fluked to educate him in the military academies of
Brienne and Paris. The outbreak of the French revolution and revolutionary changes was an element
of luck for it even occurred at

a time when he was a soldier specialized in artillery. In 1792, Napoleon was dismissed for overstaying
his leave but he was lucky that there was shortage of artillery officers and that is why he was
reinstated to active service. Napoleon's survival of the reign of terror can be attributed more to luck
than, his abilities.

He was arrested in 1794 with Robespierre plus other 92 of Robespierre's followers. However, he was
lucky that he spent only 1 week in prison and was released while the rest of his colleagues were
guillotined. Napoleon was also lucky that he was a son in law to Barras and this explains why he was
favoured to command the Italian campaign.

Even in Napoleon's military campaigns, there were elements of luck besides his abilities. For
example, the Egyptian campaign was a complete disaster for him yet the Frenchmen welcomed him
as a hero. Had it not been because of luck, he would have died in the battle, hanged or even
imprisoned in Egypt. As to why he succeeded in leaving his troops and reaching France safely was
more due to luck than anything else. Napoleon was also lucky that the failures and weaknesses of the
Directory Government had created the mood for change in France, which made his coup not to be
opposed. The divisions and mistrusts amongst the directors that made Abbey Sieyes and Duccus to
support him in the 1799 coup were precisely due to luck. He was also blessed that his brother Lucian
Bonaparte was the president of the council of 500 and used his position to save him from death after
the initial failure of the coup. This was when he was arrested and was being beaten for having
organized the coup. His brother indirectly enabled the Coup to succeed by aiding him
clandestinely/secretly. Lastly, Napoleon was lucky that the French king granted him and his father a
general amnesty that made him and his father to return to France as free citizens.

14. THEBRUMAIRECOUPD'TAT, 18th NOV1799

The Brumaire coup d'tat of 18^ Novl799 was the most immediate event that
marked the rise of Napoleon to power. Napoleon conspired with other Directors
i.e. Barras and Abbey Sieyes to organize the coup and overthrow the directory
government. The coup succeeded and the Directory government was overthrow.
This created a political vacuum/space through which Napoleon rose to power. He
accomplished his great ambition by manipulating the constitutional making
committee to enact laws that gave him a lot of power over France

ASSESSMENTS OF NAPOLEON REFORMS

ACHIEVEMENTSINFRANCE (INTERNAL POLICY)

France before Napoleon's rise to power was in acute socio-economic and political crisis. Most of the
achievements of the French Revolution had disappeared during the reign of terror and the Directory
Government. Napoleon therefore inherited a demoralized nation characterized by inflation,
unemployment, financial and religious crisis, power struggle, anarchy and a very desperate socio-
economic condition. His first political agenda was therefore to create order out of chaos. These made
him to come with a comprehensive socio-economic and political program through which he put
things right. This is why it's said that Napoleon corrected the wrongs in the French society.

On top of re-organizing France, Napoleon preserved the achievements/gains of the French revolution
and completed the reforms that the revolution had started: He upheld revolutionary ideas and
principles and even exported them to Europe through his aggressive war policy. It's this that partly
explains why

Napoleon p is known as a true child of the French revolution

Generally, Napoleon's achievements in France and Europe were so great that he is popularly known
as “Napoleon the Great''. Although Napoleon was so successful and dominant in French as well a
European affairs, he nevertheless had his weaknesses and failures as we shall analyze in his policies
1. The concordat (1801)

This was an agreement that Napoleon signed with the Pope in 1801. Before Napoleon came to power
revolutionary reforms like the civil constitution of the clergy and nationalization of land had turned
the Catholic Church into an enemy of the French revolution. Napoleon was however determined to
bring reconciliation and gain political support. He was convinced that religion was "a Cement of social
order" and that's why he remarked that; a state without religion is like a Vessel without a compass.
With these ideas in mind, Napoleon signed the concordat with the pope in 1801, which not only
guaranteed freedom of worship but also recognized the catholic religion as a state religion. The
church influence on state affairs was brought to an end and the Pope's authority was restricted to
spiritual and church related affairs.

The clergy became civil servants who were appointed and paid by the government. The role of the
Pope was just to ordain the appointed clergy. By bringing the church under state control leave alone
trimming its powers, Napoleon fulfilled the aims of the French revolutionaries who had revolted
against the Catholic Church dominance in French affairs. Thus, the concordat strengthened
Napoleon's popularity and made him to realize his dream of creating a great French empire. This is
proof of Napoleon's greatness and true statesmanship.

2. Ownership of land and property

Free ownership of land and other property was enjoyed by the Frenchmen during the reign of
Napoleon. During the course of the French revolution, land and other property that were confiscated
from the nobles and clergy were sold to the peasants at a fair price. However, the clergy and nobles
started to reclaim their land and property but Napoleon nullified their claims. This made peasants to
retain land and other property that they had acquired during the course of the revolution. It avoided
the re-emergence of feudalism and, serfdom through which the Clergy and nobles had exploited the
peasants. It also increased the productivity of peasants and reduced the problem of famine, and
starvation in France.

3. Administration

Napoleon re-organized the administrative structure of France. This brought an end to administrative
confusion and weaknesses that used to encourage corruption, embezzlement and inefficiency. He
centralized the administration and created Departments headed by prefects, Arrodisement ruled by
sub prefects and communes governed by mayors. All these officers were appointed by him and
therefore loyal and answerable to him. Local councils continued to be elected by the people and
their role was to advise prefects and sub-prefects. All these maintained law, order and created
efficiency in service delivery. It would be emphasized that the centralized government of modem
France was adopted from that of Napoleon. It was also used by France in her colonies like Algeria and
Tunisia.

4. Education

Before Napoleon, France had poor education system of very low standards. But Napoleon through
his reforms laid foundation for the modem French education. He encouraged secondary education by
setting up secondary schools that were run by the communes. His government also introduced semi-
military, secondary schools called Lycees, which were run by the government. In the Lycees, military
science, political science and mathematics were emphasized to strengthen the spirit of nationalism
and improve the performance of the army. He also founded the university of France in 1805 (the first
university) with 17 branches throughout France. University education was brought under state
control and this ended the disagreement between the church and state over education. The schools
were non-segregative and nondenominational and produced very bright and innovative students
who served the nation with distinctions.

5. Commerce and industry

Napoleon transformed and improved the industrial and commercial sectors of France. Before
Napoleon came to power, these two sectors were referred to as the Laughing stocks of Europe. They
were completely run down by unnecessary trade restrictions, numerous taxes, corruption, lack of
government support and accountability. However Napoleon reversed this situation. For instance, he
created the central Bank of France in 1800 to give loans to traders and manufacturers. Taxation was
made very realistic and hence friendly. Napoleon created the chamber of commerce, commercial
exchanges and advisory boards for manufacturers. By 1815 there were 2000 mills employing 40,000
people and linen production was boosted and was employing about 58,000 people. He also
embarked on a policy of protectionism, which sheltered home industries from foreign competition.
Thus, Industrial development, opened more employment opportunities and improved on the socio-
economic welfare of the Frenchmen.

6. Agriculture

Napoleon's regime greatly improved the agricultural sector. He restored peace and stability, which
created a conducive atmosphere for Agriculture. Government expenditure on agriculture was
increased to boost production. He embarked on Land reclamation and drainage of swamps to
increase cultivatable Land. Farmer's Co-operative societies and the use of better farming methods
and techniques were promoted.

Awards were given for successful innovations in the field of agriculture. Consequently, these
measures increased the production of food crops such as grains, wheat, potatoes, beat, etc. This
solved the problem of famine and starvation that Napoleon had inherited from the Directory
government.

7. Finance

Napoleon's reforms improved the French financial situation. By 1799, France had experienced
financial crisis and chronic inflation, which was worst during the Directory government. However,
Napoleon stabilized the currency on gold standard system. He established the Bank of France in 1800
with the Task of giving Loans and regulating the circulation of money in the Economy. Tax collectors
were to deposit tax proceeds to the Bank and it was controlled by very strict and competent men.
Defeated and conquered states were forced to pay indemnity to support the French economy and
finance Napoleon's military campaigns. Corrupt officials were severely punished. These reduced
financial discouragement, corruption and feuds that had caused financial crisis by 1799.

NB One should however note that, the financial stability that Napoleon restored disappeared when
he started the continental system. It made the French and European businessmen who could not do
without the British (cheap and superior) goods to close their business and industries. This was
because the substitutes to British goods were very expensive and yet of very poor quality. This led to
inflation, unemployment and the eventual financial crisis.

8. Tax reforms

Taxation that had been referred to as "the cancer of the ancient regime" was reformed and made
fair; a centralized administration led by Gaud in was set up to handle assessment and collection of
taxes'. Unlike the previous regimes where taxation was regressive, taxation during Napoleon's
regime was' progressive. People were fairly assessed according to their ability and there was no fax
exemption for the nobles arid clergy. In 1803, Napoleon enacted the tariff law to limit imports in
order to safeguard the French infant industries from competition with British goods. He reduced the
burden of taxation on the French men over taxing the conquered states such as Italians, Germans,
and Belgians etc. Corruption and embezzlement of tax proceeds/revenue were heavily punished. By
1810, tax reforms had made France to have a balanced, budget, something that was a dream in the
previous regimes.

9. Provision of a new constitution

From 1800-1810, Napoleon ruled as a constitutional ruler. He distinguished himself by issuing a new
constitution in the aftermath of his rise to power. The constitution created an executive of three
consuls (Napoleon, Abbey Sieyes and Duccas), A parliament of 300 legislatures and a senate with
powers to veto decisions of the 3 consuls. The constitution clearly separated the powers of the
executive, legislature and judiciary. It was made public and people were asked to vote in a
referendum in favour or against it. It was eventually endorsed by the people and became a working
document for the republic of France. The constitution also provided for human rights and freedom
such as freedom of worship, press, association, etc. This not only gained him support from the
liberals but also gave him a lot of powers that enabled him to have firm control over France.

10. Legal reforms/Code Napoleon. (1804 -1810)

The most memorable achievement of Napoleon was the codification of French laws that is popularity
known as code Napoleon. Before Napoleon, France, had no clear Law and Frenchmen were ruled by
trial and error method and sometimes decrees. Napoleon realized the need for a unified legal
system. He appointed a committee of Lawyers who under his guidance, came out with a clear and
systematic uniform Law that promoted equality of all by nature. The Laws were simplified and
reduced to only five codes i.e. the criminal code, the civil code, the commercial code, the military
code and the penal code these codes are clear evidences of Napoleon's attempt to right the wrongs
in the French society and according to a historian Leo Gershoy; it was at once the summary and
correction of the French revolution. These codes made Napoleon very popular and were adopted by
countries of Europe, America and Africa. The codes have hitherto remained the, most convenient
and enlightened set of Laws in. the world, It marked France as a modern state in Europe and to this
effect Napoleon said; I shall go dawn to posterity with my code in my hand.

11. Public works

Through public works scheme, Napoleon permanently beautified and enriched France. Roads,
Railways, canals and bridges were constructed, marshes were drained, and sea ports enlarged and
fortified, several museums and places were founded and filled with priceless treasures looted from
Italy during the 1796 Italian campaign. Streets were enlarged and street pavements were built as
well. All these improved the agricultural, industrial, commercial and tourism sectors. These were
sources of employment and provided Paris with its modem beauty. This was amazing to Europe and
no wonder that all roads and eyes were leading towards Paris. In short, Paris became the political
nerve center of Europe during reign of Napoleon.

12. Career open to talents (equality)

Career open to talents was a patriotic policy that promoted the revolutionary principle of equality. It
delivered the last blow to the remains of the segregative social class system that existed in France
prior to 1799. Napoleon opposed this injustice and royal blood connection in determining
appointment and promotion to public offices. He instead used ability and performances as criterion
for ones rise to any position of responsibility. This explains why Murat rose to the rank of a General
in spite of being a son of a mere innkeeper. The policy therefore created a new set of nobility called
nobility of ability that replaced the ancient nobility of birth. It made Napoleon to exploit talents that
had been discriminated and wasted due to segregation. This explains why his government was strong
and more efficient than those of the revolutionary period.

13. The Legion of honour (love of honour) 1802

This was a form of awards given to men who rendered distinguished services to the state such as in
the civil service, commerce, army etc. This was to recognize and encourage people to be more
patriotic and nationalistic in serving their nation. It instilled in the Frenchmen the spirit of
competition, dedication and self-sacrifice for their Motherland. For the success of this policy,
Napoleon said "men are led by toys".

The legion of Honour portrays Napoleon as a true child of the French revolution since he fulfilled the
revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity.

14. The army

Napoleon scores highest in the military sector. He modernized and perfected the French army and
France had the best infantry in the whole Europe. The army was used to maintain Law and order and
deal with political opponents and saboteurs. It was used to expand the French territory and
consolidate French rule in the conquered states. The army was also used to collect war indemnity,
tributes and suppress resistance in the conquered states. All these improved French Economy that
became second to Britain.
NB Exportation of the French revolution

Napoleon made the French revolution an international affair. His greatness was witnessed in the
Italian campaign of 1796, the second coalition that he defeated in 1802 and the creation of the
French Empire over Europe by 1815. In these areas, he exported the French revolutionary ideas of
Equality, liberty and fraternity. This is what sowed seeds for nationalism in Europe such as in Italy
and Germany by 1870.

Generally, Napoleon's reforms and re-organization of France laid foundation for modem France. He
lifted France from a very low level and carried it to a very high level and this is why he is referred to
as Napoleon the Great. More importantly, his achievements were within a very short time in a
country that had experienced 10 years of violence and mismanagement.

Although Napoleon died in 1821, nevertheless his achievements have survived his physical death.
This is supported by the following evidences; the local government has remained as he had initiated,
the education system is still his and his codes of laws are still laws of France although with some
amendments, the concordat harmonized the relationship between the church and the state until the
20th century, the principle of equality which he saved from anarchy is still cherished and practiced in
France. The fact that Napoleon's reform has survived up to now is a clear testimony that he is a true
statesman and Great.

Napoleon 1 is therefore credited for reviving French lost glory at home and over Europe
through his expansionist military campaigns

DEVIATIONS, WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES

OF NAPOLEON
1. Violation of the Concordat

Napoleon is accused for acting in an uncivilized manner towards the Pope. In 1804, He declared
himself emperor and invited the Pope to officiate and crown him. However, when the Pope was on
the verge of crowning him. Napoleon snatched the crown from him and crowned himself. He did this
just to show that nobody including the Pope was above him. This was not only a national scandal but
a humiliation to the Pope and Catholic religion. Napoleon also abrogated the Concordat by arresting
and imprisoning the Pope. By 1808, there was a serious conflict between Napoleon and the Pope
because of Napoleon's anti-catholic behaviors and policies such as the continental system.
Consequently, in 1808, Napoleon occupied the Papal States and officially added Rome to the French
empire in 1809. The Pope reacted by excommunicating Napoleon from the church to which
Napoleon reacted by arresting and imprisoning him. This disappointed the Catholics and liberals in
France and all over Europe.

NB. In 1814, pressure from within and outside France forced Napoleon to hand over the Pope to the
Austrians who released him. He was eventually restored to his former position.

Besides, the concordat was received with mixed feelings. Die-hard Catholics could never forget the
church Status and privileges during the Bourbon monarchy and therefore rejected it. On the other
hand, fanatic revolutionaries denounced the concordat as a betrayal of the revolutionary reforms
and a drive to the pre-1789 church privileges, which they had shed blood to abolish. They considered
payment of the clergy by the state as unnecessary wastage of state resources. It was not surprising
that one of the revolutionaries commented; “the only person missing at this ceremony are the
million men dead who died to get rid of this nonsense".

NB. Napoleon was not a deeply devoted religious person who cared about life after death. His feeling
was that spiritual forces controlled the lives of the peasants and soldiers and that is why he decided
to influence and control those forces. To him, religion was not to be dismissed like an outdated
theory in Chemistry. He considered religion as a political instrument to consolidate his power. This is
why Napoleon was a multi-religious person as he confessed that; I am a Moslem in Egypt, a Jew in
Syria and a Catholic in France".

2. Dictatorship

Napoleon adopted dictatorship, in his administration of France. He centralized all powers to himself
and left no room for democracy at higher levels of administration. In 1804, he violated the
constitution and declared himself a life emperor. There was no election and parliament which
deprived the Frenchmen of a representative government. Worst of all, he revived the system of
Lettress de-Cachet especially from 1810. Napoleon manipulated some codes/laws to strengthen his
dictatorship. For instance, he used the Penal and criminal codes to arbitrarily arrest and imprison his
political opponents. All these turned France into a fascist state from 1810, contrary to the
expectations of the revolutionaries.

3. Revolutionary Subjects
Napoleon was an "intellectual coward." He is blamed for abolishing the teaching of revolutionary
liberal subjects like history, philosophy, political science and literature. This is because, these subjects
sharpen the reasoning capacity of people, which would incite them to criticize and expose his
weaknesses. He admitted his weakness when he said; "I fear an Insurrection caused by Shortage of
Bread. I would fear them more than a battle of 200,000 men." Napoleon was generally too fearful of
parliamentary debates and liberal critics from higher institutions which made him to ban the
teaching of revolutionary subjects.

The ban on revolutionary subjects violated article IV of declaration of rights of man, which provided
that "Liberty consists in being allowed to do whatever does not injure other people". This
undermined France's capacity to produce future revolutionary leaders and betrays Napoleon as a
true son of the French revolution.

4. Education of the Girl Child

Napoleon's education system segregated girls in favour of boys. He commented that; I do not think
we need to trouble ourselves with any plan of instruction for young females...Public education is not
suitable for them, because they are never called upon to act in public. Manners are all in all to them
and marriage is alt they look to. To him, women should be taught religion and morals to indoctrinate
them with the spirit of tolerance, forgiveness, love and submission to their husbands. This is why he
stated that; "What we ask of education is that girls should not think, but that they should believe….
Napoleon believed that women should not play any public role nor hold any public office apart from
the "Kitchen". This is against the principle of equality of all men by nature and denied France of
talents that could have been exploited from women.

5. The Continental System

The continental system that was designed as a strategy of defeating Britain failed and had negative
consequences for France and Europe. The system blocked the British superior and cheap
manufactured products to European Countries, France inclusive. Worst of all, the substitute to British
goods were of poor quality and very expensive, which lowered the demand in the market. This made
the French and European businessmen to .close their businesses and industries. The end result was
famine, inflation, unemployment industrial breakdown and financial crisis.

6. Repressive Laws against women

Napoleon used repressive laws that neglected the principle of equality and violated the rights of
women.

The code Napoleon was a conservative instrument that legally made women inferior to men.
Napoleon remarked that; The angle told Eve to obey her husband...it should be written in our code..!
The Penal

Code provided for severe punishment for women who disobeyed their husbands. Women were to be
under total control of their husbands and could not acquire or sell property without the consent of
their husbands.

This denied women their right to equality, liberty, fraternity and property.

NB Divorce was permitted by mutual consent such as adultery, violence, grave criminal offences. This
was contrary to the doctrine/ teaching of the Catholic Church that prohibited divorce for whatever
reason:

7. Repressive Laws against Children

Apart from women, the Code-Napoleon also ignored and abused children s rights. Girls of less than
21 years were not allowed to make any decision such as on marriage without the approval of their
father and the same applied to boys below 25 years old. Children of less than 18 years were to
surrender their income to their fathers. The code also gave fathers power to imprison their children
for any unlawful behaviour. All these consolidated the dictatorship of fathers over their children and
thus undermined their rights.

Favouritism and Nepotism

Napoleon practiced Favouritism and Nepotism in his domestic as well as foreign policy. The electoral
process that was instituted to check favouritism was reduced to Colleges i.e. Electoral College, which
gave Napoleon a chance to impose his family members and relatives to key positions of responsibility
in France and the conquered States. For instance, his brothers; Louis Bonaparte, Lucien Bonaparte
and Jerome Bonaparte were made kings of Holland, Italy and West-Phalia respectively. This was not
different from the hereditary system of appointment of the Bourbons and betrays Napoleon as a true
son of the French Revolution.
9. Press Censorship

Napoleon suppressed and restricted freedom of the press through his Police chief, Fouche.
Napoleon's view was that Liberty was not for the common people. Consequently, he limited the
number of Printers in Paris and their proprietors were made to swear oath of obedience to the
government. The number of legal newspapers in Paris was also reduced from 70 in 1800 to only 04
(four) by 1810. Those who defied the government order and published anti-government ideas were
either hanged or imprisoned. This explains why the defeat of Trafalgar in 1805 was not published in
any newspaper till after Napoleon was overthrown. Thus, Napoleon denied the Frenchmen the right
to information (Press Freedom) and undermined the revolutionary principle of liberty.

10. Aggressive foreign policy

Napoleon is blamed for his numerous unending wars that were due to his burning ambition to
conquer Europe. The wars that he provoked such as the Spanish (1808) and Moscow campaigns
(1812) costed France thousands of soldiers and a lot of financial resources. These ambitions also
made European powers to join hands in a series of coalition that climaxed into his final defeat and
down fall in 1815. Thus, Napoleon's aggressive war policy led to economic decline in France, heavy
losses of lives, destruction of property and isolation of France in Europe.

Conscription into the army

Lastly Napoleon conscripted (forceful recruitment) the Frenchmen into the army just to raise
a big army to fulfill his ambition of conquering the whole Europe. By 1812, he had enacted a
law that entitled all abled bodied men to join the army. As European powers hardened on
fighting him and depleted his soldiers, Napoleon resorted to conscripting young boys who
were hurriedly trained and sent to the battle field. Most of such conscripted boys and men
were cowards who fought reluctantly and often withdrew from the battle field or fraternized
with Napoleon's enemies. For instance, about 80,000French conscripts defected to the allied
powers on the eve of the Moscow campaign. This was because they were forced to join the
army against their consent/will. It should be noted that Napoleon's army was also
heterogeneous with conscripts from Belgium, Portugal, Denmark, Italian States, and German
States etc. It became impossible to have proper command and instill discipline in the army
because they were from different historical, cultural and linguistic backgrounds

NAPOLEON FOREIGN POLICY

Napoleon's success as the 1st consul in 1804 made him proud and increased his
ambitions. He started dreaming of living like great statesmen and conquerors like
Julius Caesar, Charlemagne and Alexander the great. His aims and objectives
were to conquer and dominate the whole of Europe, spread revolutionary ideas,
re-establish the French prestige and colonial influence and gain international
prestige. He believed that it was only him that it was only him who had the
immediate solution to the problem of instability in Europe. He often remarked
that Peace cannot be established in Europe till the whole of Europe comes under
one crown.

To show that he was not merely making noise, Napoleon adopted an aggressive
and expansionist foreign policy over the whole of Europe for the next 10 years
(1804 - 1814). As a true child of the French revolution, Napoleon's ambitions in
his foreign policy was to export the revolutionary principles of Equality, Liberty,
Nationalism and fraternity to the whole of Europe and indeed the world. He was
very successful in the early years but in the years 1808 - 1815 events turned
against him as he experienced a series of military defeats that led to his down
fall.

ELEMENTS OF NAPOLEON'S FOREIGN POLICY

i) THESECOND COALITION (1798 -1802)

Napoleon rose to power at a time when the second coalition (Britain, Turkey,
Austria, Russia, Portugal and Naples) had defeated the French troops. He swiftly
re-organized the French troops and defeated Austria at the battle of Marengo in
March 1800. General Moreau also defeated the second coalition forces at the
battle of Hohenlinden (in the German states). It forced Austria to sign the
Luneville treaty (1801) in which she surrendered Italy, Holland, Switzerland and
all territories left of R. Rhine to France. He also recovered the Campofomio treaty
territories of Lombardy, Cisalphine Republic and the Rhine Republic that had
been lost to the coalition forces during the war. However, although Napoleon
defeated the rest of coalition powers, he failed to defeat Britain. Nevertheless, he
formed a temporary alliance of armed neutrality with Denmark, Sweden and
Spain to challenge and isolate Britain. This was necessary because

Britain was a monster to vessels in international waters like the Med. Sea and
Black Sea.
ii) THE TREATYOF AMIENS, MARCH 1802

By 1802, both France and Britain were fed up with war and decided to sign a
cease-fire agreement i.e. the treaty of Amiens. The treaty had the following
provisions.

a) Britain recognized the French boundaries as in 1802.

b) Britain was to evacuate France's confiscated states of Malta, Egypt, West India
and St. Lucia.

c) France was to evacuate Southern Italy and to restore Egypt to Turkey.

d) Trinidad and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) were to be retained by Britain.

However, the peace treaty of Amiens was merely a marriage of convenience and
consequently was short lived. This was because Britain refused to evacuate Malta
and France did not surrender Egypt to Turkey. It led to the renewal of war in
1802. Nevertheless, the war gave Napoleon a chance to re-organize his troops,
consolidate his power at home and map out new strategies to defeat Britain.

iii) WAR AGAINST THE THIRD COALITION

In 1805, the third coalition (England, Austria, Russia and Sweden) was formed
against France with the aim of forcing France out of Italy, Belgium and the
Rhineland states. Britain blocked the French troops and cut them off from the
French colonies. Napoleon planned to invade England by crossing the English
Channel. He is reported to have remarked that; If I can be the master of the sea
for six hours, England would cease to exist. Consequently, Napoleon attacked the
British fleet with the assistance of some Spanish fleet. However, he was finally
defeated by the British naval commander Nelson at the battle of Trafalgon on
21st Oct 1805.The Invasion was a fiasco (total failure) and a disaster to
Napoleon who lost all his naval troops. (In the Atlantic Ocean).
Nevertheless, Napoleon turned his anger on the rest of the coalition members.
He defeated Austria and Prussia at the battles of Vim and Jena respectively. He
forced Austria to sign the treaty of Pressburg in January 1806 in which she
surrendered all her territories in Italy and Germany to France. Napoleon then
amalgamated all the German states in to the confederation of the Rhine to which
he personally instituted a leader.

Napoleon's attention after defeating Austria and Prussia was on Russia. He

defeated her at the battle of Fried land and forced Tsar Alexander 1 to sign the
peace treaty of Tilsit on 7th July 1807. In the treaty, Tsar Alexander recognized
Napoleon as emperor of the West and Napoleon recognized the Tsar as the
possible emperor of the East and the ports of the Turkish Empire. Russia also
promised to ally with France against Britain. This treaty was significant because
through it, the Tsar recognized Napoleon’s and French dominance of Europe.
Historians have noted that had Napoleon I died in 1807, his military adventures
would have been the most spectacular and miraculous event in the history of
Europe if not the whole world.

It should be noted that by 1807, the whole of Europe was under Napoleon except
Turkey and Britain. He had created new republics like the Cisalphine republic,
Helevitic republic, and confederation of the Rhine, Kingdom of Italy, Naples and
the Grand Dutchy of Warsaw. He had therefore created a Bonaparte family
oligarchy with himself as the "Emperor of Europe"

iv) THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM

The continental system was an economic method that Napoleon resorted to in an

attempt to defeat Britain. Britain was the pillar of every coalition against France.
Napoleon had tried to bring Britain to his. Knees (defeat her) but the battle of
Trafalga (1805) was a clear testimony that it was impossible to defeat Britain
militarily. He was advised to strike England at a point where she was most
vulnerable i.e. her trade. This was contained in a memorandum presented to him
by Montgaillard that;

It's through her commerce that England must be attacked…….

To destroy British commerce is to strike England to the heart.

Napoleon and his advisers had realized that British military power rested and
survived on her strong Economy, which was rooted on her dominance of
international trade. They therefore decided to destroy the British trade and
indeed her strong economy which was to weaken her militarily, cause socio
economic problems that would provoke uprising against the British government
and eventually make Britain to submit to French control.

To implement the continental system, Napoleon passed the Berlin (from Prussia)
and Milan (from piedmont) decrees of 1806 and 1807 respectively. Through
these decrees. Napoleon put a ban on British ships and ordered French allies and
subjects to confiscate British goods wherever and whenever they were found. He
planned to use the Danish fleet to patrol and ensure that there was no smuggling
of British products a long European coastline.

In the short run, the continental system was a success and it affected the British
trade although not to the extent that Napoleon had wanted. Austria, Russia and
Prussia who had been defeated by Napoleon had no way but to support the
system of their "master" Napoleon. Napoleon enforced the system in France,
Italy, Rhine confederation and Warsaw that were under his control. He forced
Denmark and Sweden to join the continental system in 1807. Napoleon annexed
Holland to France when Louis Napoleon abdicated from the throne because of the
difficulty of implementing the system.

Britain reacted to the Berlin and Milan decrees (continental system) by passing
the London decrees of 1807 in which all ports of Europe were to be opened to
British ships as soon as possible. Those countries that would not comply were to
expect bombardment any time. Consequently, in November 1807, Britain
bombarded Copenhagen and confiscated the Danish fleet, which Napoleon had
planned to use to implement the continental system.

Being the workshop of Europe (i.e. Britain), the continental system led to
inflation, unemployment, famine and starvation to Europe as well as France.
Consequently, the system became unbearable to even the very powers that had
"welcomed" it. It therefore became very unpopular and was rejected by one state
after another. Those who broke off from the continental system with disastrous
impact on Napoleon's influence in Europe were the Papal States, Portugal, Spain
and Russia. Thus, the continental system was a boomerang that finally caused
the downfall of Napoleon1.

V) NAPOLEON AND THE POPE

The Papal States were the first to denounce the continental system. This was due
to acute socio-economic hardship caused by the system and the Pope's desire to
remain neutral as a spiritual leader. It made the Pope to open his ports to the
British trading ships in 1808. Napoleon ignored the 1801 concordat, invaded the
Papal States, abducted the Pope and imprisoned him in France. This drastically
undermined Napoleon's popularity amongst the Catholics in France and the whole
Catholic states in the world.

vi) THE PENINSULAR WAR

Napoleon's ambitions to enforce the continental system drove him to invade

Portugal and Spain. When Prince John the regent of Portugal refused to abide by
the continental system, Napoleon attacked Portugal through Spain. The
Spaniards rose against their King Charles IV for his weakness that made it
possible for the French troops to match through their territory up to Portugal.
Napoleon used this confused situation to force Charles to resign and impose his
brother Joseph Bonaparte on the Spanish throne (1808).

Napoleon's double standard system made the Spaniards and the Portuguese to
forget their differences and engage him in acute guerilla warfare from 1808 to
1811. They were assisted by the British troops commanded by Wellington, Sir
John Moore and Arthur Wallesley. This war was so disastrous to Napoleon that he
lost about 300,000 soldiers. This is why he called it "the Spanish ulcer that
destroyed me.

vii) THEMOSCOWCAMPAIGN 1812

Diplomatic relations between France and Russia that was forged by the treaty of
Tilsit in 1807 was strained by Napoleon's continental system. The negative
effects of the continental system made Alexander I (of Russia) to abandon the
system and open the Russian ports to the British goods. In 1811, Napoleon
mobilized over 600,000 troops, the largest in history, to teach the Tsar a lasting
lesson that he would never forget. On 24^ June, he crossed R. Niemen with a lot
of enthusiasm as he said; Moscow is the half-way house to India. The Russians
tactically withdrew and used scorch earth policy in which they destroyed
everything that would be useful to the advancing French soldiers. Napoleon
reached Moscow only to find a city that was burning without anyone in and
around it. Vincent Cronnin describes this episode as follows;

For seven weeks. Napoleon had been on the march and all he had conquered
was empty space.

The further he penetrated into Russia, the more he and his men became aware
of empty space

and silence. When they reached what on the map was Moscow, they found it
burnt and its food

buried.... even the Russian sky was empty of birds.

Above all, there was no safe water for the French soldiers. The Russians had
filled all water wells and poisoned the remaining ones. Famine, starvation,
cholera, cold and Russian guerilla attacks led to the death of Napoleons soldiers
in thousands. These circumstances forced Napoleon to retreat from Moscow and
his retreat is one of the most horrible episodes in history. He lost the bulk of his
army as he tried to cross R. Niemen whose bridge collapsed drowning thousands
of his troops. He also lost several soldiers on rivers whose bridges were
deliberately destroyed by the Russian guerilla men.

The above circumstances made Napoleon to reach France (Paris on Dec 1812)
with about 20,000 soldiers out of which only about 1000 were useful for any
military service. All these humiliations made Napoleon vulnerable and morale
boosted other states to fight him. No wonder that the second coalition was
formed and defeated him at the battle of Leipzig and exiled him to the Island of
Elba.

CONSEQUENCES OF THEMOSCOWCAMPAIGN
1. The campaign ranks high in Napoleon's as well as the French history as the
worst military disaster. Napoleon was humiliated and lost over 580,000 soldiers.
This weakened him militarily and according to Talleyrand his foreign minister
"...is the beginning of his end". It was therefore a maximum turning point
against his control over Europe.

2. Napoleon's defeat in the Moscow campaign contributed to the formation of the

second and third coalitions against him. It was a clear testimony that Napoleon
was not invincible or infallible. This led to unity of Europe even weaker states
against him.

3. The Moscow "disaster" led to the rise of European nationalism against

Napoleon's dominance over Europe. It became a source of inspiration for states
that were dominated by Napoleon to start struggling for their independence. This
led to the war of Liberation in which nationalities like the Germans, Italians and
Austrians participated in an attempt to free themselves from the French political
dominance.

4. The Russian victory increased the Russian prestige and ambition in Europe.
She started interfering in the French dominated states like Poland and the
German states in order to destroy Napoleon's influence in those countries. For
example, she made the Calish treaty (Feb 1813) with Prussia in which she
promised to help Prussia against Napoleon.

5. Napoleon's massive loss of over 580,000 troops made him to resort to

compulsory military recruitment from 1813 - 1814. These "new soldiers" were
mostly young and inexperienced boys who were hurriedly trained to meet
Napoleon's targets of dominating Europe. This brought Napoleon into
loggerheads with the French parents who were flabbergasted (shocked) by the
massive death of their young boys in the process of executing Napoleon's
ambitions.

6. Napoleon's humiliation in Moscow denied him internal support from a section

of the Frenchmen. The heavy losses of the French soldiers, armaments, horses,
mining of the French treasury and above all conscription made a number of
Frenchmen to turn against their once beloved Napoleon. This is what made
Talleyrand, (his minister of foreign affairs), Fouche (his police chief) and
Bernadette, the heir to the Swedish throne to join the hostile European powers
against Napoleon. This is why Napoleon's downfall became inevitable by 1815.

7. Napoleon's failure in the Moscow campaign was the final set back to the
continental system. He had mobilized such a huge force to defeat Russia and
force her to implement the system. However, his failure to defeat Russia finished
the continental system itself. It showed how disastrous the continental system
was and made him to abandon it.

THE 4TH COALITIONAND THE BATTLE OFLEIPZIG (1813)

Although Napoleon was defeated in the peninsular war and the Moscow
campaign, nevertheless the allied powers were too scared of Napoleon that they
hesitated to cross R. Rhine and attack France directly. They therefore sent a
message to Napoleon from Frankfurt in Germany (Frankfurt proposal) on9^Nov
1813, in which they stated that they were ready to sign a peace treaty with him.
They said they would accept the Rhine, Pyrenes and Alps as the-Frontiers of
France. All members of the French parliament were in favour of his peace
proposal but Napoleon rejected it for two reasons. First, he thought that the
fourth coalition would disintegrate and end in his success. Secondly, he feared to
lose his long accumulated reputation, which might provoke the Frenchmen to
lose confidence and rise against him.

Napoleon's rejection of the Frankfurt peace proposals made the allied powers to
invade France from three fronts of Belgium, Rhine and Switzerland. Napoleon
mobilized a new ,army of 250,000 troops and defeated the Russian and Prussian
forces at the battles of Lautzen and Bautzen respectively. The allies held a secret
meeting at Chamaunt and vowed to fight for 20 year until Napoleon was
defeated. They also agreed that none of them was to sign a secret treaty with
Napoleon without consulting the other coalition members.

They also re-organized their forces and defeated Napoleon at the battle of
Leipzig (1813) which is commonly known as "the battle of all Nations". The allied
troops drove the French forces from Spain and rapidly advanced towards France.
They entered Paris which forced Napoleon to sneak to his palace of Fontainbley
from where he later signed a peace treaty with the allied powers on 6'^^ April
1814. According to the treaty of Fountainley, the following were decided;
i) Napoleon gave up his and family claim on the French throne.

ii) He was allowed to retain the title of emperor and given a small kingdom of
Elba where he was exiled,

ii) He was entitled to a yearly pension of 2,000,000 Francs.

iii) Napoleon's wife Marie Louis was given the Dutchy of Parma in Northern Italy.

iv) France was to retain her frontiers of 1792 and was not to pay any war
indemnity;

After these, Napoleon bade fare well to his army, kissed the French flag and went
to exile in Elba. Louis XVIII, the brother of the executed Louis XVI was imposed
on the French throne.

THE HUNDRED DAYSEPISODE OFNAPOLEONAND THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO

Napoleon was very disgruntled with the activities of the allied powers who had
forced him to exile. This was because they had not allowed his wife Marie Louis
and (his, son to accompany him. They were confiscating his mails and he was
therefore in a total communication problem. Besides, his pensions were not paid
on time. He also knew that Louis XVIII was very unpopular to the Frenchmen
and the allied powers were divided and were quarreling on the division of his
empire. Considering these factors, Napoleon left Elba on 26th Jan 1815 and
reached the French coast on 11th March 1815.

The news of Napoleon's triumphant escape from Elba to France was greeted with
a lot of jubilations from the Frenchmen. He arrived with his 1800 trusted
followers who were joined by many of his soldiers and other followers who were
in France. Louis XVIII sent a big force led by Marshall Ney to arrest Napoleon at
Grenoble but Napoleon won them over to his side by a simple statement when he
said; "Soldiers, this is your emperor, fire at him"!
This event made the poor Louis XVIII to flee from France and Napoleon once
against became the French emperor. Hazen has described Napoleon's triumphant
escape from Elba to France as "the most memorable event in history".

Napoleon ruled France between March to June which is referred to as the

hundred days. He promised peace, elections, and parliament and became the
great and loved emperor of France for the second time. This disorganized the
allied powers at the Congress of Vienna where they were celebrating the downfall
of Napoleon, amongst other reasons. They consequently forgot their differences
and mobilized a huge force of 800,000 troops to fight and defeat Napoleon once
and for all. Napoleon proposed for a peace discussion but the allied powers
rejected his peace initiative. They knew that he was trying to buy time to re-
organize his troops.

THE BATTLE OF WATERLOO AND THE FINAL DEFEAT OFNAPOLEON,

18THJUNE1815

By 1815, the allied powers were sure that even if Napoleon won one or two
battles, he would finally be defeated. Wellington re-organized his army in
Belgium to attack France. Marshall Blucher advanced from Prussia to reinforce
Wellington's forces. He joined Wellington and attacked Napoleon from the other
side.

Napoleon was encircled and consequently defeated at the battle of Waterloo.

Napoleon tried to commit suicide in an attempt to avoid such a terrible
humiliation in his military career. However, he did not succeed and to this-effect
he remarked;

I ought to have died at Waterloo but the misfortune is that when a man seeks
death most, he

Cannot find it Men were killed around me, behind and everywhere but there was no bullet for

IMPACT OF NAPOLEON ON EUROPE

After the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon retreated and reached France from where he abdicated the
throne in favour of his son. He also made a fruitless attempt to sneak (escape) to America. The British
could not allow him to do so. He was instead forced to surrender himself to the British in the harbor
of Roche fort.

He was eventually exiled to a deserted, hilly and rocky island of St. Hellena in the Atlantic Ocean.

Napoleon spent his six years exile life writing his memories. However, on 5th May 1821 he died of
stomach cancer. His last will was that he should be buried on the banks of the Siena in the midst of
the French people whom he said he loved dearly. Nevertheless, this was ignored and he was buried
at St. Hellena. However, in 1846 the Louis Philippe brought his remains to Paris and he was accorded
a heroic burial with an erected memorial. This was a fulfillment of Napoleon's last will.

THE IMPACT OF NAPOLEON 1 ON EUROPE

Napoleon Bonaparte I made a classical contribution to the history of Europe. As a child of the French
Revolution, Napoleon consolidated and perfected the changes that the revolution had caused in
Europe. In his reign, he pursued an aggressive foreign policy (Napoleonic war) that destroyed and
shaped the political, social and economic structures of Europe. The impact of Napoleonic activities
and wars on Europe were positive and negative as analyzed below.

Positive impact/changes

1) Napoleon laid foundation for the unifications of Italy and Germany. He conquered the Italians and
Germans and inspired them with revolutionary doctrines of liberty, equality, fraternity and
nationalism. He reduced the number of Italian states from over 300 to 39 states. He also created the
Cisalphine republic and the Rhine confederation in Italian and German states respectively. These
measures brought the Italians and Germans closer to each other and strengthened their quest for
unification. This was later used by Cavour and Bismarck to complete the Italian and German
unifications respectively.

2) Napoleon contributed to the abolition of feudalism and serfdom in Europe. He abolished

feudalism and serfdom in states that were under French influence like Germany, Italy, Spain, Belgium
and Hungary.
Land was nationalized and monopolization of land by the clergy and nobles were ended. The rights of
peasants to own land was protected by law. This ended exploitation of peasants, increased their
productivity and reduced the problems of famine and starvation in Europe.

3) Napoleonic influence consolidated the new forces of liberalism, nationalism, egalitarianism and
socialism.

These were indirectly strengthened in conservative states like Austria, Hungary, Italian and German
states.

These new political order became a formidable challenge to the old order of Europe and was
responsible for the outbreak of the 1820's, 1830 and 1848 revolutions in Europe. This challenge
undermined the influence of conservative personalities like Mettemich and caused their downfall.

4) Napoleon also contributed to the spread of constitutionalism and republicanism in Europe. He

granted liberal constitutions to states like the kingdom of Westphalia that was ruled by his brother
Jerome Bonaparte. In other German and Italian states, he strengthened constitutional system of
government that had been initiated during the French revolutionary period. He also established
republics such as Cisalpine, Helevetic and Rhine republics. All these consolidated the influence of
constitutionalism and republicanism in Europe.

5) Napoleon established a mighty French empire in Europe by 1815. He accomplished this through
conquest, annexation and diplomacy. The empire included Poland, Belgium, Denmark, Italian and
German states. It stretched from Adriatic Sea to Baltic Sea.

6) Through the concordat, Napoleon reconciled the Catholic Church and the state of France. Before
Napoleon rose to power there was a hostile relationship between the Catholic Church/pope and the
French government as a result of negative policies against the church by the revolutionary
government. This was brought to an end in 1801when he signed the concordat with the Pope in
which the church was brought under state control with the consent of the Pope. The concordat also
brought reconciliation with the Pope and other catholic states that were hostile to France.

7) Napoleon's military reforms in Europe were amazing. He had a heterogeneous army that was
constituted by recruits and conscripts from conquered states like Italy, Belgium, Germany and France
herself. The army was given the best military training that it became the-best infantry troops in
Europe during his reign.
Napoleon used the army to conquer other states, collect war indemnity and tributes, suppress
resistance in the conquered states and maintain law and order. His military innovation explains why
France defeated the second coalition of Britain, Austria and Prussia by 1802.

8) Napoleon initiated legal reforms that became the most convenient and enlightened sets of laws in
Europe and beyond. He worked with a committee of lawyers to codify the French laws into criminal,
civil, commercial, military and penal codes. This was a clear and systematic set of law that promoted
equality of all by nature. It was used in France and the conquered states to preserve law, order,
peace and ensure justices. It guaranteed fundamental freedoms and rights. These codes were also
adopted by other states of Europe to guarantee peoples' freedom, rights, peace and justice.

9) Through career open to talents, Napoleon promoted equality in Europe. In France and the
conquered states like Belgium, Italy and Germany, Napoleon used ability and talents as a basis of
appointment and promotion to public service. It created a new nobility of ability unlike the previous
nobility that was based on birth. This made the empire to be manned/governed by men and women
of talents, which ensured more efficiency in service delivery. The policy was equally adopted in other
parts of Europe.

10) The legion of honour promoted patriotism and nationalism in Europe. It was a policy of rewarding
those who rendered distinguished services to the state such as the civil service, army and trade. It
encouraged people to offer selfless service to their nation most especially in the army. The policy was
so successful that Napoleon remarked “men are led by toys”.

11) Napoleon temporarily promoted European diplomacy through short lived treaties that he signed
with other powers. In 1801 he formed a temporary alliance with Sweden, Denmark and Spain against
Britain because of her monopolization of the med and black sea. In March 1802, he signed the
Amiens treaty with Britain that brought temporary reconciliation between her and France. In July
1807, Napoleon signed the Tilsit treaty with Russia where Tsar Alexander I recognized him as
emperor of the west and he recognized the Tsar as a "possible" emperor of the east and ports of the
Turkish Empire. All these preserved the spirit of diplomacy that other powers like Britain, France,
Austria and Russia later used to defeat Napoleon due to his aggressive foreign policy.

12) Napoleon laid foundation for modem education in Europe. In France and the conquered states,
Napoleon promoted primary, secondary, university and military education under the management of
government or communes. Admission and promotion was based on merit. Church influence over
education system was brought to an end and the curriculum was redesigned to promote patriotism
and nationalism. His education system was maintained even after his defeat and adopted by other
states in Europe.

13) Napoleon’s socio-economic and political reforms were very significant to Europe. In France and
the conquered states, Napoleon enhanced/promoted agriculture, industrialization, trade, transport
and communication. Co-operative societies, better farming techniques and soft loans helped to
boost agriculture and industrialization. The chamber of commerce, commercial exchanges and trade
exhibitions were organized to promote trade between France and other states in Europe. Roads,
railways, canals, bridges and sea ports were improved to facilitate transport and communication
within the French empire.

All these became the basis for modernization, trade and industrialization in Europe. It also reduced
the problems of famine, poverty and starvation that had rocked Europe before Napoleon rose to
power.

14) Napoleonic threats and aggressions led to the creation of coalitions against France. The success
of Napoleon against the second coalition and the way he consolidated his influence in Italian and
German states, dragged Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia etc to form the coalitions that defeated him
and led to his downfall.

15) Napoleonic wars led to the calling of the Vienna congress and signing of the Vienna settlement of
Sept

1814 - June 1815. The need to collectively find a lasting solution to Napoleonic aggression and war
led to the signing of several treaties such as that of Chaumont, and 2°*^ Paris treaties and Vienna
treaty. All these consolidated and formalized the spirit of unity in European politics.

16) Persistent Napoleonic activities and aggressions led to the creation of the congress system.
Although Napoleon I was defeated and exiled at the Island of Elba in 1813, he was able to mobilize
and bounce back to the French throne for 100 days. This taught European powers i.e. Britain, Russia,
Austria and Prussia that there was need for a system of meeting to preserve European peace in, view
of Napoleonic aggression.

It's this feeling that was adopted in article 6 of the 2nd Paris peace treaty (of 20th November 1815)
through which the congress system was initiated. The congress system was largely initiated out of
the threat of reemergence of Napoleonic aggression. It should be stressed that this idea was adopted
at the end of World War I and World War 11 in the formation of the League of Nations and U.N.O.
respectively.

Negative impact/changes

1) Napoleonic wars led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property. The series of war fought
by Napoleon against other powers of Europe were very expensive in terms of life and physical
infrastructure. For instance, over 300,000 French and European nationals were estimated to have
lost their lives in the peninsular war while over 600,000 were expected to have perished in the
Moscow campaign. Physical infrastructures like roads, bridges, railways and ships were dismantled.
This disorganized Europe and left the problem of reconstruction to be pursued after the, downfall of
Napoleon.

2) Napoleon’s arrest and imprisonment of the Pope (Pope Pius vii) in 1808 uprooted his earlier
achievement in the concordat. Napoleon did this because of the Pope's refusal to enforce the
continental system and resistance to his anti-catholic policies. The imprisonment of the Pope revived
hostility between France and other catholic states of Europe e.g. Russia, Austria and Spain. It also
subjected Napoleon to condemnation from diehard Catholics all over Europe. This is because the
imprisonment was seen as sacrilege, humiliation and a sin against the person of the "holy" Pope.

3) Napoleon changed the balance of power and distorted the map of Europe; He did this through
military conquests and annexations. By1814, he had expanded French boundaries to include Belgian,
Spanish, Italian and German territories amongst others. Consequently, he created the Rhine republic
in German states, the Cisaphine republic in Italian states and the kingdom of Westphalia in Prussia.
All these changed the balance of power in Europe in favour of France and led to territorial conflicts
that the Vienna peace makers had to contend with.

4) Napoleon is blamed for his exploitative, oppressive and tyrannical rule in the conquered states
such as in Italian and German states. He restricted political liberties such as freedom of the press,
oppressed women and children using the civil code, embarked on conscription in the army and over
taxation amongst others. These denied such states political freedom, their rights and undermined
their socio economic standard of living. It explains why there was rise of nationalism and resistance
to Napoleon's domination in Spain, Russia, Portugal, Austria, Prussia and Britain.

5) Napoleon is also accused of overthrowing legitimate rulers and imposing a Bonaparte family
oligarchy in Europe. In 1808, he conquered the Papal States, imprisoned the Pope and annexed the
Papal States to France in 1809. He conquered and overthrew legitimate rulers in Naples, Holland,
Tuscany, Piedmont, German states and imposed his close relatives and friends to rule in their place.

Consequently, his brothers were imposed kings to replace legitimate rulers. For instance, Joseph

Bonaparte in Naples and Sicily, Jerome Bonaparte in Holland and Louis Bonaparte in the kingdom of
Westphalia. All these portray Napoleon's sense of Nepotism, favouritism and attempt to "resurrect"
monarchism and Devine rights to rule that the French revolution of 1789 had challenged in Europe.

6) The continental system of Napoleon disorganized European economies. The system blocked the
superior and cheap manufactured British goods from free circulation in Europe yet the French
substitutes were of poor quality and very expensive. This forced the French and European
businessmen and investors who could not do without the British goods to close their businesses,
factories and industries. The system also undermined international trade leading to the collapse of
interstate economic co-operation. It eventually led to acute / serious economic crisis characterized
by unemployment, inflation, poverty, famine and starvation in Europe.

7) Lastly, Napoleon's negative influence on Europe and aggression kept European powers
United who fought him in a series of coalitions. He was eventually defeated and exiled to the
island of Elba in 1813. However, Napoleon reorganized and came back to rule for 100 days
until he was disastrously defeated at the battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was finally exiled to
the island of St. Hellena from where he died in 1821; His body was returned by Louis Philippe
in 1846 and reburied in France

EFFECTS CNT
9) Through career open to talents, Napoleon promoted equality in Europe. In
France and the conquered states like Belgium, Italy and Germany, Napoleon
used ability and talents as a basis of appointment and promotion to public
service. It created a new nobility of ability unlike the previous nobility that was
based on birth. This made the empire to be manned/governed by men and
women of talents, which ensured more efficiency in service delivery. The policy
was equally adopted in other parts of Europe.

10) The legion of honour promoted patriotism and nationalism in Europe. It was
a policy of rewarding those who rendered distinguished services to the state such
as the civil service, army and trade. It encouraged people to offer selfless service
to their nation most especially in the army. The policy was so successful that
Napoleon remarked ―men are led by toys‖.

11) Napoleon temporarily promoted European diplomacy through short lived

treaties that he signed with other powers. In 1801 he formed a temporary
alliance with Sweden, Denmark and Spain against Britain because of her
monopolization of the med and black sea. In March 1802, he signed the Amiens
treaty with Britain that brought temporary reconciliation between her and
France. In July 1807, Napoleon signed the Tilsit treaty with Russia where Tsar
Alexander I recognized him as emperor of the west and he recognized the Tsar
as a "possible" emperor of the east and ports of the Turkish Empire. All these
preserved the spirit of diplomacy that other powers like Britain, France, Austria
and Russia later used to defeat Napoleon due to his aggressive foreign policy.

12) Napoleon laid foundation for modem education in Europe. In France and the
conquered states, Napoleon promoted primary, secondary, university and
military education under the management of government or communes.
Admission and promotion was based on merit. Church influence over education
system was brought to an end and the curriculum was redesigned to promote
patriotism and nationalism. His education system was maintained even after his
defeat and adopted by other states in Europe.

13) Napoleon’s socio-economic and political reforms were very significant to

Europe. In France and the conquered states, Napoleon enhanced/promoted
agriculture, industrialization, trade, transport and communication. Co-operative
societies, better farming techniques and soft loans helped to boost agriculture
and industrialization. The chamber of commerce, commercial exchanges and
trade exhibitions were organized to promote trade between France and other
states in Europe. Roads, railways, canals, bridges and sea ports were improved
to facilitate transport and communication within the French empire.

All these became the basis for modernization, trade and industrialization in
Europe. It also reduced the problems of famine, poverty and starvation that had
rocked Europe before Napoleon rose to power.

14) Napoleonic threats and aggressions led to the creation of coalitions against
France. The success of Napoleon against the second coalition and the way he
consolidated his influence in Italian and German states, dragged Britain, Austria,
Prussia, Russia etc to form the coalitions that defeated him and led to his
downfall.

15) Napoleonic wars led to the calling of the Vienna congress and signing of the
Vienna settlement of Sept

1814 - June 1815. The need to collectively find a lasting solution to Napoleonic
aggression and war led to the signing of several treaties such as that of
Chaumont, and 2°*^ Paris treaties and Vienna treaty. All these consolidated and
formalized the spirit of unity in European politics.

16) Persistent Napoleonic activities and aggressions led to the creation of the
congress system. Although Napoleon I was defeated and exiled at the Island of
Elba in 1813, he was able to mobilize and bounce back to the French throne for
100 days. This taught European powers i.e. Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia
that there was need for a system of meeting to preserve European peace in, view
of Napoleonic aggression.

It's this feeling that was adopted in article 6 of the 2nd Paris peace treaty (of
20th November 1815) through which the congress system was initiated. The
congress system was largely initiated out of the threat of reemergence of
Napoleonic aggression. It should be stressed that this idea was adopted at the
end of World War I and World War 11 in the formation of the League of Nations
and U.N.O. respectively.

Negative impact/changes

1) Napoleonic wars led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property. The
series of war fought by Napoleon against other powers of Europe were very
expensive in terms of life and physical infrastructure. For instance, over 300,000
French and European nationals were estimated to have lost their lives in the
peninsular war while over 600,000 were expected to have perished in the
Moscow campaign. Physical infrastructures like roads, bridges, railways and ships
were dismantled. This disorganized Europe and left the problem of reconstruction
to be pursued after the, downfall of Napoleon.
2) Napoleon’s arrest and imprisonment of the Pope (Pope Pius vii) in 1808
uprooted his earlier achievement in the concordat. Napoleon did this because of
the Pope's refusal to enforce the continental system and resistance to his anti-
catholic policies. The imprisonment of the Pope revived hostility between France
and other catholic states of Europe e.g. Russia, Austria and Spain. It also
subjected Napoleon to condemnation from diehard Catholics all over Europe. This
is because the imprisonment was seen as sacrilege, humiliation and a sin against
the person of the "holy" Pope.

3) Napoleon changed the balance of power and distorted the map of Europe; He
did this through military conquests and annexations. By1814, he had expanded
French boundaries to include Belgian, Spanish, Italian and German territories
amongst others. Consequently, he created the Rhine republic in German states,
the Cisaphine republic in Italian states and the kingdom of Westphalia in Prussia.
All these changed the balance of power in Europe in favour of France and led to
territorial conflicts that the Vienna peace makers had to contend with.

4) Napoleon is blamed for his exploitative, oppressive and tyrannical rule in the
conquered states such as in Italian and German states. He restricted political
liberties such as freedom of the press, oppressed women and children using the
civil code, embarked on conscription in the army and over taxation amongst
others. These denied such states political freedom, their rights and undermined
their socio economic standard of living. It explains why there was rise of
nationalism and resistance to Napoleon's domination in Spain, Russia, Portugal,
Austria, Prussia and Britain.

5) Napoleon is also accused of overthrowing legitimate rulers and imposing a

Bonaparte family oligarchy in Europe. In 1808, he conquered the Papal States,
imprisoned the Pope and annexed the Papal States to France in 1809. He
conquered and overthrew legitimate rulers in Naples, Holland, Tuscany,
Piedmont, German states and imposed his close relatives and friends to rule in
their place.

Consequently, his brothers were imposed kings to replace legitimate rulers. For
instance, Joseph

Bonaparte in Naples and Sicily, Jerome Bonaparte in Holland and Louis

Bonaparte in the kingdom of Westphalia. All these portray Napoleon's sense of
Nepotism, favouritism and attempt to "resurrect" monarchism and Devine rights
to rule that the French revolution of 1789 had challenged in Europe.

6) The continental system of Napoleon disorganized European economies. The

system blocked the superior and cheap manufactured British goods from free
circulation in Europe yet the French substitutes were of poor quality and very
expensive. This forced the French and European businessmen and investors who
could not do without the British goods to close their businesses, factories and
industries. The system also undermined international trade leading to the
collapse of interstate economic co-operation. It eventually led to acute / serious
economic crisis characterized by unemployment, inflation, poverty, famine and
starvation in Europe.

7) Lastly, Napoleon's negative influence on Europe and aggression kept European

powers United who fought him in a series of coalitions. He was eventually
defeated and exiled to the island of Elba in 1813. However, Napoleon reorganized
and came back to rule for 100 days until he was disastrously defeated at the
battle of Waterloo in 1815. He was finally exiled to the island of St. Hellena from
where he died in 1821; His body was returned by Louis Philippe in 1846 and
reburied in France.

NAPOLEON'S DOWNFALL
2. AUSTRIA (EMPEROR FRANCIS II AND PRINCE METTERNICH)

a) Provided a base for mobilization and training of émigrés to fight and throw out
Napoleon from the throne. She provided a training base for émigrés ever since
the time of the French revolution against the revolutionary government. This
encouraged more defections and flight of dissatisfied persons who were opposed
to Napoleon's dictatorship and oppression to converge in Austria. Consequently,
they fought against Napoleon in coalitions alongside foreign powers leading to his
downfall.

b) Austria rallied behind (supported) the Pope's opposition and objection to the
continental system. It added on Napoleon's frustration and made him to imprison
the "holy man of God" (Pope). Thereafter, she argued other Catholic states to
join hands to throw Napoleon out for humiliating the Pope. This explains why
Catholic states like the Papal States, Russians, Spaniards and Italians greatly
participated in the battles of Leipzig and Waterloo through which Napoleon lost
power.

c) Austria fought Napoleon at the earlier battles of Marengo (1800) Ulm (1805),
Austerlitz (1805) and Wagram (1809). Although Napoleon defeated Austria in
these wars, such wars nevertheless left him isolated, weakened, exhausted and
vulnerable to defeat at the subsequent battles of Leipzig and Waterloo.

d) Mettemich / Austria was a very influential member of coalitions that were

formed against Napoleon 1.

Prince Mettemich worked with Castlereagh, the British Prime Minister to mobilize
other states to form the 4th and 5th coalitions that finally defeated and exiled
Napoleon to the Island of St. Hellena.

e) Finally, Austria hosted the Vienna settlement from Sept. 1814 - June 1815
from which plans for the final defeat and exile of Napoleon I were hatched.
Mettemich argued the allied powers to forget their differences and unite to
ensure that Napoleon was defeated. The result was that about 800,000 soldiers
were mobilized, which became impossible for Napoleon to challenge, hence his
defeat and exile to the island of St. Hellena.

3. Russia (Tsar Alexander I)

a) Russia was responsible for the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte I in as far as

she, fully cooperated with other powers in the 3"^, 4^, and 5^ coalitions against
Napoleon. She was also a party to the Vienna Settlement that hatched strategies
for the defeat of Napoleon and imposed an army of occupation and war
indemnity on France. She also sent her troops as part of the army of occupation,
which guarded against Napoleon's attempt to come back to France from the
Island of St. Hellena.

b) Russia is blamed for inflicting the heaviest military losses to Napoleon in the
Moscow campaign of 1812. Napoleon lost over 30,000 horses at the battle of
Borodino and over 580,000 soldiers in the campaign. This was due to Russia's
scorch earth policy, guerrilla tactics and winter that caused food shortage and
massive death to Napoleon's array. All these, dispossessed Napoleon of
equipments and experienced soldiers that he could have used against allied
powers at Leipzig and Waterloo. It also led to a general discontent and defection
of experienced army generals like Bernadette who leaked Napoleon's secrets,
strategies and plans to coalition powers leading to his defeat and downfall.

c) Russia also frustrated the success of the continental system. Russia supported
Napoleon's continental system in the initial stage but denounced and rejected it
due to its negative consequences on her economy. Eventually, she opened her
ports to British goods which forced Napoleon to attack Moscow from where he
lost over 580,000 troops.

d) She also contributed to the defeat of Napoleon in the peninsular war of 1808—
1811. During the war, French troops relied on food supplies from Russia.
However, the Russians deliberately starved the French troops by refusing to
supply them with the necessary food and other commodities. This led to acute
famine, malnutrition, vulnerability to diseases like Cholera and massive death of
Napoleon's cosmopolitan troops that made his downfall inevitable.

e) Russia is blamed for violation of the 1807 Tilsit treaty. The treaty had brought
a diplomatic alliance between France and Russia. However, Russia denounced the
treaty and joined Napoleon's arch rivals like Britain. It became a diplomatic blow
to Napoleon; left him isolated and strengthened his enemies leading to his
downfall.

4. Prussia (Fredrick William III)

Prussia entangled herself in coalitions against Napoleon I and fought France at

the battles of Jena in 1806 and Lautzen in 1813. Although Napoleon defeated her
at the battles of Jena and Lautzen, nevertheless the war left him weakened,
exhausted, depleted French resources and isolated her diplomatically. This left
him vulnerable to defeat at the battle of Leipzig thus contributing to his downfall.

5. Portugal (Prince John)

Portugal was a member of the second coalition that fought and weakened
Napoleon 1. She also opposed and contributed to the failure of the continental
system. She maintained a strong trade link with Britain.

Prince John, the regent of Portugal led the Portuguese to oppose the continental
systemthereby denying Napoleon support that was necessary in his dominance of
Europe.

Portugal also delivered a military blow to Napoleon in the peninsular war. She
appealed for Britain's support in the aftermath of Napoleon's invasion thus,
allying with Britain against Napoleon I. She engaged Napoleon's army in acute
guerrilla war in the peninsular war and defeated him with British support at the
battle of Vimiero. This left Napoleon weakened, exhausted, increasingly isolated
and unpopular hence his downfall by 1815.

6. Spain (Charles IV; 1788 - 1808, Joseph Bonaparte; 1808 - 1814)

i) The rise of spirited Spanish nationalism against Napoleon undermined his

influence in Europe and contributed to his downfall. In 1808, the Spaniards
revolted against Charles IV for allowing Napoleon to invade Portugal through
Spain. Napoleon forced Charles IV to resign and imposed his own brother, Joseph
Bonaparte on the Spanish throne. This provoked a hostile opposition and
resistance to Napoleon.

It also dragged Spain to join the 4th and 5th coalitions that defeated Napoleon
and brought his reign to an end.

ii) Spain is also accused for non compliance and failure of the continental system.
She refused to implement the continental system and continued to trade with
Britain. She allowed British goods to be moved freely through Madrid up to
Central Europe. This strengthened British capacity to mobilize other states to
fight and defeat Napoleon I.

iii) Spain was a champion of the peninsular war that turned out to be an ulcer,
which destroyed
Napoleon and led to his down fall. She waged a serious guerrilla war and
defeated Napoleon with the support of Britain and Portugal. Napoleon lost about
300,000 soldiers that included some of his battled hardened and experienced
commanders. The war also provided Britain with a land base that she hitherto
lacked to fight Napoleon. She used this opportunity to move her troops through
Madrid to fight Napoleon. The success of Spain in the war weakened and
exhausted Napoleon, moral-boosted other powers like Austria, Prussia and Spain
herself to join the 4th and 5th coalitions to overthrow him.

7. Role of Papal States (Pope Pius Vii)

The Papal States rose against Napoleon for his imprisonment of Pope Pius Vii.
The Pope declined to enforce the continental system preferring to be neutral as a
spiritual leader. Napoleon, reacted by invading the Papal States in 1808 and
imprisoned the Pope thereafter. This made the Papal States and Catholics in
other parts of Europe to rise against Napoleonic influence in Europe. The Pope
called for alliance of Catholic states e.g. Austria, Prussia, Spain and Italian states
against France leading to coalitions that crushed Napoleon.

8. Responsibility of other small states i.e. Sweden, Holland, Belgium, Italian and
German States

They are blamed for developing a strong nationalistic spirit against Napoleon's
policies like conscription and over taxation. Conscripted children from such
countries fought lousily and reluctantly to ensure Napoleon was defeated instead
of winning victory for him. This explains why they would easily withdraw from
the battle field the way they did at Leipzig and Waterloo. Sweden gave asylum to
Bernadette who defected and served on the side of the coalition forces against
Napoleon. The Dutch opposed the continental system, pressurized Louis
Bonaparte to abandon it and Holland joined the 4th and 5th coalition to fight
Napoleon. Napoleon took a drastic measure of annexing Holland to France, which
made him more unpopular and volatile to fall from power.

9. France
France was responsible for Napoleon's downfall for failure to support Napoleon in
the later stage of his rule. By 1815, various opposition groups had sprung
against Napoleon's disastrous foreign policy, imprisonment of the Pope and
unpopular domestic policy such as dictatorship and conscription. They included
the liberals, nationalists, glory seekers and Catholics. This explains why there
were massive desertions of senior politicians and officers like Fouche, Tallyrand,
Bernadette etc. to the allied powers.

It should be noted that the French parliament had passed a resolution for Napoleon's
abdication on the eve of the battle of Waterloo. This left Napoleon with no other option than
to surrender to his arch enemies at Waterloo when he was overwhelmed by the military
might of allied powers

NAPOLEON-CONSOLIDATION OF POWER
From 1802 to 1815, Napoleon was so dominant in European affairs that his name
was a common talk in every household. Although he experienced serious
opposition from 1808 that climaxed in to his downfall, he had dominated the
whole Europe with the exception of Britain and Turkey by 1807. He was able to
achieve this by using a combination of force and diplomacy.

i). In the first place, Napoleon used force to dominate Europe up to his downfall
in 1815. He had a large well motivated and efficient army that he used to
conquer states like Italy, Germany, Holland, Belgium etc and make them part of
his empire. He also maintained an army of occupation to guarantee the loyalty of
conquered states and ensure that they paid tributes to France. The army was
useful in maintaining law, order and suppressing resistance hence consolidation
of power in the conquered states,

ii. Napoleon also used his close relatives and friends to administer the conquered
States. For example, Louis Bonaparte was made the King of Holland, Jerome
Bonaparte was made the King of Westphalia, Joseph Bonaparte was in charge of
Spain and Sister Caroline was the Queen of Naples. Thus, by using his brothers,
sisters and very close friends. Napoleon was able to use loyal and trusted
administrators who maintained effective control in their areas of influence, which
avoided any sabotage against him.

iii. He created a continental Empire that was sub-divided into republics for
administrative purposes. For instance, the Rhine, Helevitic and Cisalphine
Republics, were administrative units that were entrusted to the people who were
loyal to him. He ensured effective control in these states from Paris where he
dispatched orders. Therefore, by creating an effectively centralized
administrative structure and hierarchy. Napoleon was able to dominate Europe.

iv. Napoleon also used marriage ties as a political tool to gain a natural alliance.
In 1810, he divorced Josephine because she was barren and married Marie
Louise from Austria. This improved on the diplomatic relationship between France
and Austria, which explains whyAustria remained a French ally until 1813.
Although the alliance system ended in 1813, it nevertheless enabled Napoleon to
consolidate his control over Europe from 1810-1813.

V. Economically, Napoleon dominated European economies using the continental

system although only for a short period. In 1806, he declared the continental
system in which British manufactured products became the forbidden goods in
Europe. Eventually, he frustrated the sales and consumption of British goods in
States where he was influential like Austria, Prussia, Italy, Holland etc. Although
the continental system later backfired against Napoleon, nevertheless, he used it
to temporarily dominate trade and European economy against Britain.

vi. Napoleon temporally used alliance system to isolate Britain. In 1802, He

formed temporally armed neutrality with the conquered States of Sweden,
Switzerland, Denmark, Prussia etc to isolate Britain that he had failed to defeat
militarily. Although this alliance was short-lived, it nevertheless isolated Britain,
gained him diplomatic ties and gave him time to consolidate his power at home.

vii. Treaty signing was yet another instrument Napoleon used, to establish his
dominance over Europe. He concluded his military victories by forcing the
defeated powers to sign treaties of submission to him. For example, Austria was
forced to sign the Luneville treaty (1801) in which she relinquished control over
Italians and Germans to France. Russia was defeated at Fried land and signed
the Tilsit treaty (1807) in which Tsar Alexander re-cognized Napoleon as
Emperor of the West. On the other hand in 1802, Napoleon signed the Amiens
treaty with Britain in order to re-organize his troops since he had failed to defeat
Britain.

viii. Napoleon s Socio-economic and political achievements in France were so

great that made the Frenchmen to give him solid support in his conquest and
domination of Europe. He modernized France, improved on education, codified
the law, centralized administration, improved on French economy, brought
reconciliation between the French Catholics and the revolutionaries and above all
restored law and order. There was therefore no serious opposition to Napoleon in
France that gave him freedom to concentrate on dominating Europe.

ix. Similarly, Napoleon embarked on Socio-Economic developments in the,

conquered States, which made him to be welcomed as a liberator. For instance,
he constructed and improved on Roads, Railways, Ports and Harbours in the
Italian and German States. He also eliminated inequality and destroyed the
privileges of the nobles and clergy. This is what made the Italians and Germans
to; support Napoleon's conquest without resistance until when he started
exploiting them. This (acceptance of Napoleon) was inevitable because Austria's
rule was so oppressive, exploitative and discriminative.

X. On the other hand, Napoleon resorted to over taxation and collection of

tributes as strategies of dominating the conquered States. By subjecting the
conquered states to over taxation and payment of tributes, Napoleon made them
so poor and submissive that they could not finance a well coordinated resistance
against him. Secondly, he raised money for administration and financing his wars
and further conquests.

xi. On the same footing, Napoleon adapted forceful conscription of the conquered
States as a means of raising an army to maintain his control over Europe. His
grand army was an amalgam (composed of) of Italians, Germans, Poles,
Portuguese, and Danes etc. Through conscription, Napoleon raised the biggest
army of the time that he effectively used in conquering other states, suppressing
resistance in the conquered States and fighting hostile foreign powers. The army
was constantly kept busy in military campaigns to reduce the problem of military
redundancy and boredom that could have led to a mutiny against him. All these
helped Napoleon to be in effective control over Europe.

xii. Napoleon dubiously used revolutionary doctrines of equality, Liberty and

Fraternity in Europe to win support as a Liberator. He falsely preached such
revolutionary doctrines to cool down resistance in the conquered States and
consolidate his power. Much as he later violated such revolutionary principals
through oppression and exploitation, they had nonetheless enabled him to
establish a firm and dominant position in Europe.
xiii) Napoleon established firm control over the press and education since they
were potential departments that could be used by his opponents to undermine
his rule. In the conquered States such as Italian,

German and Spain, he censored the press and journalists who published articles
intended to incite people against him were arrested, tortured, killed or exiled.
The teaching of liberal and revolutionary subjects like history, literature-and
political science were banned. He used the police and spies to ensure that his
policies on the press and education were effective. These helped him to identify,
isolate and paralyze the activities of his opponents.

xiv) Lastly, Napoleon used the concordat with the Pope to consolidate his influence in
Europe. He believed that a friendly relation with the Pope was a friendly relation with the
Catholics in France and the whole Europe. This consideration made him to sign the
concordat with Pope Pius vii in 1801. It brought reconciliation between the Pope and the
government of France. Consequently, it earned Napoleon support from the Pope, Catholic
States and the Catholic community all over Europe, France inclusive. Although Napoleon
violated the concordat in 1808 when he imprisoned the Pope and lost his support, It
nevertheless helped him to consolidate his power in Europe from 1801-1808

CONGRESS OF VIENNA BACKGROUND

The congress of Vienna refers to a diplomatic assembly/meeting that was held at
Vienna, the capital of Austria from September 1814 to June 1815. All European
nations were invited but major decisions were made by Britain, Austria, Russia
and Prussia. The congress was interrupted when Napoleon sneaked back to
France from the Island to Elba (from March 1815). However, it was reconvened
and the peace agreement was signed on 9th March 1815 before the battle of
Waterloo. After this, the powers organized the 5th coalition that defeated
Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo in Belgium on 18th June 1815.

At the congress, Austria was represented by Francis I and Mettemich, Britain by

her foreign secretary, Lord Castlereagh, Russia by Tsar Alexander I, Prussia by
Fredrick William III; the Pope was represented by Cardinal Salby and France by
Bishop Tallyrand. All delegates at the conference were grouped into two camps.
The group that included Britain and France was led by Austria and the other
group that included Prussia was led by Russia. It should be noted that France's
position in the congress was maneuvered by the tactful approach and high level
of skillful diplomacy exhibited by Tallyrand.
The Congress of Vienna was based on the principles of legitimacy, balance of power,
defensive arrangement, rewarding the victors and punishing the Vanguard/defeated powers

WEAKNESSES, NEGATIVE IMPACT AND

FAILURES OF THE VIENNA
SETTLEMENT

2. Unrealistic methods in countering further French aggression

The Vienna settlement used unrealistic methods to prevent further aggression

from France. States that were culturally, historically and religiously different
were forcefully amalgamated to form buffer states. This was the case with
Holland and Belgium which formed the kingdom of

Netherlands. The Belgians were forced against their will to be under Dutch
control. This provoked file Belgians to revolt in 1830 which destabilized Europe
from 1830 up to 1839 when the Belgian neutrality and independence was
declared.

However, to another extent the unrealistic methods used in countering French

aggression was justifiable. This is because the smaller states were individually
too weak and vulnerable to stand against Napoleonic/French aggression. It was
therefore very easy for Napoleon to 'step' on them and cause more chaos in
Europe. To this extent, one can exonerate the peacemakers because through
such measures, they prevented French aggression and restored peace, which
were impossible before 1815.

The big powers are further accused of being too much concerned about further
French aggression that they forgot the fact that one of them could also become
aggressive. They were therefore absent minded that they did not safeguard
aggression from within themselves. Instead, they over strengthened Prussia that
enabled Prussia and later Germany to embark on aggression against France in
1870 and the whole world that caused the two world wars.
2. Neglect of Liberalism and Nationalism

The Vienna settlement ignored the forces of Liberalism and Nationalism that were
sweeping across

Europe. The settlement disregarded the plight of oppressed nations like the
Finns, Italians, Serbs and Poles who wanted to regain their independence. It
even went ahead to impose foreign control over the smaller states. For example,
the Italians and Germans were subjected to Austria's control which led to the
1830 and 1848 revolutions. Poland was shared between Austria, Russia and
Prussia which forced the Poles to revolt in 1.830 and 1863. One can argue that
the Vienna settlement boomeranged in its attempt to prevent the spread of
revolutions simply because it underrated and ignored the forces of Liberalism and
Nationalism.

3. The principle of Legitimacy and the restoration of oppressive, dictatorial and

tyrannical rulers.

The principle of Legitimacy was ignored where it did not appeal to the interest of
the allied powers. For example, legitimate rulers in Poland, Finland, Denmark and
Belgium were not restored. Worst of all, the principle of legitimacy made the
"Vienna Tyrants" to restore and protect oppressive, dictatorial and tyrannical
rulers such as the Bourbon monarchy in France, Ferdinand I of Naples and
Ferdinand VII of Spain. Consequently, there were revolutions against the
restored rulers e.g. Ferdinand VII of Spain 1820's and the Bourbons in 1830. It
can therefore

be said that the principle of legitimacy apart from being partially achieved,
became a catastrophe to Europe in the long run.

4. The 1814 constitutional charter

The 1814constitutional-charterthat the settlement provided to France was not

totally fair to her. It narrowed the Franchise (voting power) by making property
qualification the criteria for voting. It made only about 100,000 Frenchmen out of
a total population of 29 million eligible to vote. The charter also gave the king
powers to nominate members of the chamber of deputies. All these made the
French parliament to be dominated by the propertied (wealthy) nobles, clergy
and middle class to the disadvantage of the peasants. Apart from France, the
Vienna peace makers did not provide the charter to other restored rulers. For
instance, the Pope in the Papal State, Victor Emmanuel I in piedmont, Ferdinand
I in Naples and Ferdinand VH in Spain were all restored to their former thrones
without the constitutional charter. One can therefore blame the Vienna
settlement for imposing unrealistic constitutional charter on France and ignoring
the need for a constitutional rule in other areas where kings were restored.

5. The confederation parliament

The confederation parliament in the German states was inadequate in meeting

the expectations of the Germans. The parliament was instead used by Mettemich
and Austria to exploit, oppress, dominate and divide the Germans. These were
easily accomplished because Mettemich was vested with powers to appoint the
president of the parliament whom he used to influence parliamentary
proceedings to Austrian advantage. This, apart from undermining the right of the
Germans to a fair parliamentary representation, kept the Germans divided,
frustrated the unification process and helped to consolidate Mettemich and
Austrian dominance and oppression of the Germans.

6. In-balance of power

The balance of power that was achieved was defective since it was for the four
big powers at the expense of the smaller powers. The independence of smaller
nations were undermined and they were dished out to the big four in order to
balance their power. Even amongst the "big four", the balance of power favoured
Austria and Britain compared to Russia and Prussia. In other words,

Britain and Austria over balanced their powers at the expense of Russia and
Prussia. This means that die balance of power was a myth and not a reality.

7. The status of France

France was undermined and belittled as one of the great powers in Europe by the
Vienna peacemakers. Though France sent Tallyrand as her representative at the
congress of Vienna, he was initially ignored and treated with contempt. Much as
Tallyrand maneuvered his way though tactical diplomacy, the Vienna
congressmen imposed severe consequences on France. For instance, the
quadruple powers subjected her to a heavy war indemnity of 700 million francs,
an army of occupation, reduced her boarders to those of 1790 and restored the
Bourbon monarchy back to power. All these, belittled and isolated France within
the ranks of great powers up to 1818 when she was readmitted at the congress
of Aix la chapalle.

8. Instability in the smaller states

Although the Vienna settlement restored general peace in Europe, there was no
peace to small nations. The congress was dominated by the big powers and the
smaller states did not take part in the decision making process. Worst of all, they
were forcefully dominated by the big powers. This became a major source of
unrest in Europe from 1820 to 1871 when the Italians and Germans unified.

9. Self Interest

Self-interest of the major powers was a fundamental weakness of the Vienna

congress. Britain wanted to grab more colonies and continue with her policy of
isolation, Russia was interested in dominating the Ottoman Empire and
expanding in the Balkans. Austria's interest was to dominate the Italians and
Germans. It explains why there were a lot of conflicts over distribution of
territories most especially between Russia and Prussia. This undermined common
interest that the Vienna settlement was to defend.

I0.Inadequate level of Economic co-operation

Economic co-operation that was revived was not a whole sale achievement.
Britain continued with her policy of isolationism and jealously guarded her areas
of economic influence. The free navigation on international waters never survived
for so long. This is because Britain dominated these waters at the expense of
other powers and Russia was later prohibited from using such waters for
navigation. Surplus production due to industrial revolution also made countries to
embark on protectionism rather than free trade policy.

11. Russian imperialism

The Vienna settlement attracted Russia into European affairs, which intensified
her ambitions to dominate the Ottoman Empire. Russia was granted the Grand
Dutchy of Warsaw, Bessarabia, parts of Saxony, which became a security threat
to other powers most especially Britain and

Austria .This brought more tension and conflict within the Ottoman Empire that
led to wars such as the Greek war of revolt and the Crimean war. These were
precisely because the settlement had drawn Russian interest from the East to
central and Western Europe.

12. Failure to involve the Ottoman Empire

On the other hand, the Vienna Settlement ignored Turkey and Ottoman Empire,
which led to violent events that constituted the Eastern Question. By 1815, the
Ottoman Empire was a vast heterogeneous empire with many smaller
nationalities that were undergoing oppression, exploitation and persecution by
the Sultan of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire controlled key religious, strategic and
economic areas that were very significant to other powers in Europe.

However, the congress of Vienna neither involved nor considered the fate of
Ottoman Empire leading to violent events such as the Greek war of
independence, Syrian question, Crimean war and the Balkan wars of 18754878.
One can argue that if the Congressmen had addressed the problems in the
Ottoman Empire, such violent events would have been averted.

13. Promulgation of Metternich’s era of Conservatism, 1815-1848

The Vienna settlement elevated Mettemich and his unpopular system that
ushered man era of conservatism from 1814-1848. Prior to 1815, Mettemich's
influence was confined to the Austrian empire. However, in 1815, Mettemich
exploited the Vienna Settlement and dominated European affairs using his
conservative anti liberal policies. He manipulated the Vienna settlement not only
to dominate other races e.g. Italians, Germans and Hungarians, but the entire
continent of Europe.

His conservative policies in Europe undermined political freedom, nationalism,

rights of association, press, worship etc. These brewed discontent that was
responsible for the outbreak of revolutions such as those of 1820, 1830and 1848
in Europe.

14. Delayed the unification's of Italy and Germany

The Vienna settlement created more divisions and disunity in Europe which
delayed the unifications of Italy and Germany; It legalized Austria's control and
influence over the Italian and German states. This blocked the unification of both
nations and led to more violent movements that undermined peace in Europe.
Ironically, the very powers assisted the Italians and German's in the unification
process. This is the reason why the Vienna congress is sometimes called an
absurd gathering.

15. Collapse of the congress system

Although the Vienna settlement gave rise to the congress system, it is blamed of
laying a very Weak foundation that contributed to the downfall of the congress
system. It implemented very unpopular aims and objectives which the congress
system was to defend. These include the restoration of unpopular legitimate
rulers and forceful amalgamation of states against their interest.

The settlement therefore laid a fake foundation for the congress system and
charged it with an impossible task that made its collapse a foregone conclusion
(inevitable).

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE CONGRESS

SYSTEM
1. To defend, protect and implement the terms of the earlier arrangements like
the quadruple alliance, Vienna settlement and the second Paris peace treaty.

2. The system was established as an instrument to maintain peace in Europe. It

was to maintain international relations and settle disputes peacefully.

3. To create unity and co-existence in Europe. The chief target here was France
that had reformed by 1818.

4. To consolidate the quadruple alliance that was established in 1815 against

France. Although France was admitted in the congress system, she was still
suspected and that is why the quadruple powers decided to isolate her and
renew the alliance.

5. To find ways and means of protecting legitimate rulers who were being
threatened by revolutions. The formation of a joint force based at Brussels for
the purpose of suppressing revolutions.

6. The condition of Napoleon and his welfare was also to be addressed by the
congress system. 7. There was a general feeling of fair treatment of Napoleon at
the Island of St. Hellena.

8. The question of the Jews was yet another cause of concern to the congress
powers. The Jews were scattered throughout Europe and were being persecuted.
The congressmen wanted to establish a permanent settlement for them.

9. The issue of pirates especially on the Mediterranean Sea was yet another
problem to be addressed by the congress system. They were undermining
international trade by hijacking, kidnapping and robbing ships and traders on the
sea.

10. To promote economic co-operation in Europe. There was need to re-organize

European economies that had not fully recovered from the effects of Napoleonic
wars and continental system,
11. The quadruple powers of Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain; having
experienced the dangers of Napoleonic aggression wanted to develop a strategy
to frustrate the rise to power of anyone from Napoleon's ruling family line
(Bonapartism). This is because they feared that such a person possesses
inherited aggressive character of Napoleon I and could attempt to revive
Napoleonic empire that was imposed over Europe by Napoleon I.

The Congress Ofatx-Lachapalle (Nov1818)

This was the first congress within the congress system. It was held in 1818 and
attended by Castlereagh of Britain, Francis I and Metternich of Austria, Tsar
Alexander I of Russia, Fredrick William III of Prussia and Richelieu of France. The
issues that were discussed included; the position of France in the concert of
Europe, pirates in the Mediterranean Sea, maintenance of earlier agreements
and condition of Napoleon at the Island of St. Hellena. NB. The congress of Aix-
Lachapalle was the beginning and climax of the congress system. It was
recognized as the supreme council of Europe. It's for this reason that Metternich
is reported to have remarked that he had never seen a prettier little congress.

THE CONGRESS OF TROPPAV, 1820

The Troppau congress was called by Tsar Alexander I to find solutions to political
unrests and revolutions that were sweeping across Europe. These were serious in
the German and Italian states, Spain, France, Poland and England. Austria,
Prussia and Russia signed he Troppau protocol in which they vowed to suppress
revolutions wherever and whenever it raised its head/occurred. Austria was
―licensed‖ /permitted to restore Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain
to their thrones. However, this was rejected by Britain and France who had
merely sent observers. Britain, being a liberal country argued that there were
genuine reasons against restored leaders and that she was only concerned about
preventing the return of Napoleon or his dynasty to France. Castlereagh was so
furious when he addressed the parliament that he declared the Troppau protocol
"a destitute of common sense" and argued the powers concerned to act within
common sense limit. This is a clear signal that the concert of Europe was
doomed.

THE CONGRESS OF LAIBACH JAN1821

This was the third congress held at Laibach in Austria. It was a continuation of
the congress of Troppau. The congress was to implement the Troppau
resolutions. Austria was granted permission to suppress the revolutions in Naples
and Piedmont. This was done and the ousted kings were restored to power. The
congress was adjourned with arrangements to re-assemble at Verona.

THE CONGRESS OF VERONA. OCT 1822.

This congress was called at Verona in Italy. It was provoked by the Greek and
Spanish revolts. Britain and Austria denounced Russia's secret assistance of the
Greeks and the congress failed to resolve the conflict.

Tsar Alexander's proposal to send 15,000 Russian troops to suppress the revolt
was greeted with suspicion and consequently rejected. However, Austria, Prussia
and even Russia permitted France to suppress the revolution in Spain. France
eventually suppressed the revolution and restored Ferdinand to his throne in
1823.

The French adventure in Spain was a practical defeat to Canning who admitted
that The entry of the French army into Spain was affront to the pride of England.
He made further remarks that; The issue of Verona has split the one and
indivisible alliance and so things are getting back to a wholesome state again,
every nation for itself and God for us all. He went ahead and said; praise God
that there would be no more congresses. This was the biggest blow for the
congress system.

The Spanish and Portuguese colonies also revolted in 1823, demanding for
independence. The Spanish colonies were strategically and economically very
significant for British trade. Britain had acquired a hold there when Spain was
involved in the Napoleonic wars. Britain therefore refused any intervention in the
Spanish colonies. At the same time, president Monroe of U.S.A warned Europe
about America when he said;

Any interference by European powers on the American continent would be

regarded as a manifestation of unfriendly disposition to the United States.
Thus, faced with the prospect of confronting both Britain and U.S.A, the other
powers backed down and no one intervened in S. America.

5. THE CONGRESS OFST. PETERSBURG, 1825

This was the last congress that took place at St. Petersburg, the capital of
Russia. It was called by Tsar Alexander I to settle the eastern question especially
the Greek war of Independence. George Canning of

Britain flatly refused to either attend or send a delegate to the conference but
the other powers sat at St. Petersburg In Jan 1825. However, they ended up In
total confusion and departed In May on very bad terms without any resolution or
achievement. To all purposes and Intents, this was practically the end of the
congress system in the history of Europe.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

1. Admission of France in to the congress system

The congress system succeeded in bringing reconciliation and peaceful co-

existence between France and other powers. By 18I8, France had behaved well
and fulfilled the terms of the second Paris peace treaty.

For example, she had paid the war indemnity and there was no threat of
aggression from her (France). This enabled France to be admitted in the
quadruple alliance which became the Quintuple alliance at the congress of Aix-
Lachapalle. It left her reconciled with no spirit of revenge that became a
landmark towards peace and stability in Europe.

2. Protection of the Jews

The congress system succeeded in resolving the question of protecting the Jews
in Europe. The Jews who had spread throughout Europe were being persecuted
and denied citizenship. However, the congress of Aix-Lachapalle granted them
freedom to stay anywhere where they had been living before 1118. The Jews
were given citizenship in any European country until 1948 when the state of
Israel was founded for them.

3. Swedish debt to Denmark

The congress of Aix-Lachapalle settled the Debt problem between Sweden and
Denmark. Denmark had borrowed money from Sweden and had failed to pay by
1818. The congressmen of Ax-Lachapalle forced Denmark to pay the debt. This
ended hostility between the two states and hence avoided war that would have
undermined peace in Europe.

4. Suppression of revolutions

The congress system succeeded in suppressing and containing the flow of

revolutions and revolutionary ideas in Europe. At the congress of Troppau,
Austria, Russia and Prussia Signed the Troppau protocol in which they vowed to
use peaceful means as Well as force to suppress revolutions.It was in the
Troppau protocol spirit that Austria and France suppressed the revolutions in
Naples and Spain respectively. To this extent, the congress system achieved its
aim of maintaining the Vienna settlement.

5. Protection of restored rulers

Legitimate rulers who had been restored by the Vienna settlement were
maintained in their thrones by the congress system. By 1830, such restored
rulers were threatened by revolutions and in some cases over thrown. The
congress powers intervened by crushing the revolutions and restoring such rulers
to their thrones. This was the case with Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII
of Spain who were restored by Austria and France respectively. They were
restored according to the principle of Troppau protocol 1820.

6. Balance of power and French aggression

The congress system maintained the balance or power that had been initiated by
the Vienna settlement of1815. The territorial boundaries that the Vienna
peacemakers established in 1815 were preserved by the congress powers.
Europe from 1818 remained relatively stable because no one power was allowed
to be too powerful to disturb the continent The congress system also maintained
stability in France and she was made part of the system. This preserved the
balance of power and avoided further aggression especially from France. Even if
France intervened in Spain, she did so with the official consent of Austria, Prussia
and Russia

7. Preservation of the reorganized map of Europe

The congress system is credited for maintaining die redrawn map of Europe that
die Vienna peace makers had designed. The settlement had reduced the size of
France to those of 1790 and partitioned smaller states like Saxony and Poland
amongst the big powers. The congress system ensured that this arrangement
and permanent border restrictions intended to avoid territorial disputes between
nations were adhered to. These helped European powers to respect the territorial
integrity and independence of other powers, which explains why there were no
open territorial clashes /war in Europe during the congress era/period.

8. Maintenance of Napoleon l’s defeat

The congress system maintained the defeat of Napoleon 1. Napoleon 1was

defeated way back in 1815 and exiled to the rocky island of St. Hellena. The
congress powers closely monitored Napoleon including any communication to or
from him in order to frustrate any intention of sneaking back to France as he had
in 1814 from the island of Elba. It thus became impossible for Napoleon to
reorganize himself, bounce back and wage war against European powers as
before. This explains why Napoleon I lived a docile solitary (lonely) life up to his
death in 1821

9. Safeguard against Bonapartism

The congress system safeguarded Europe against the rise of anybody from
Napoleons ruling family (Bonaparte dynasty). The congress powers ensured that
the Bourbon monarchy that was restored to power by the Vienna congress was
maintained as a bull work against the rise of Bonapartism in France. The
admission of France in 1818 in the congress system was a strategy to reconcile
with France as a nation, integrate her in Europe and sideline Bonapartism. This
explains why the Bonaparte dynasty was kept out

Of European politics during the congress era much as Bonapartism was a vibrant
political pressure group in France.

10. Preservation of constitutionalism in Europe

The congress system preserved the idea of constitutionalism in Europe. It

maintained a constitutional system of monarchy that the Vienna settlement had
restored in France. The congress powers prevailed upon the restored Bourbon
rulers (Louis xviii and Charles x) to use the 1814 constitutional charter as a
fundamental document in their leadership. The monarchy was also protected
against Bonapartist threat by keeping Napoleon I at the island of St Hellena up to
his death in 1821. Besides, the powers also honoured the constitutional changes
that occurred in Naples in the aftermath of the 1820 revolution. The ruler of
Monaco was also ordered at Aix-la Chapalle to reform his administration and
adhere to constitutional system of leadership. All these helped to promote
people’s political rights and freedom against expected dictatorial tendencies in
Europe.

11. Interstate co-operation

Interstate political and economic co-operation was maintained by the congress

system. Freedom of navigation on all big waters like Mediterranean Sea and
black sea that was achieved by the Vienna settlement was maintained. This
preserved and promoted diplomatic co-operation, commercial prosperity and
peace in Europe.

12. Peace

The congress system made a great achievement as an instrument of peace. The

constant meetings from 1818 - 1822 kept the powers in touch and settled
problems that would have caused war. This included the Swedish debt to
Denmark, the question of the Jews, suppression of revolutions e.g. the 1820's
revolutions in Spain and Naples and protection of legitimate rulers. By peacefully
settling such disputes, the congress system made Europe to enjoy a period of
relative peace and stability for nearly 40 years. This explains why there were no
major wars involving the great powers until the outbreak of the Crimean war in
1854.

13. Foundation for future international organizations/Consolidation of European

diplomacy

The congress system laid foundation for the subsequent international

organizations that maintained peace after deadly wars. It was the first
international organization that was devised for the maintenance of peace. It
therefore inspired the rise and existence of international organizations like the
League of Nations that maintained peace after the First World War and the L.N.O
that maintained peace up to 1970 and beyond. These organizations took lessons
from the initiatives and examples of the congress system. Thus, the congress
system should be credited for consolidating European diplomacy that had been
initiated by the Vienna settlement of 1814-1815.

WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES OF THE CONGRESS SYSTEM

Isolation of France/secret diplomacy

Although France was admitted into the congress system, she was not fully trusted! The quadruple
powers (Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain) were still suspicious of France and decided to isolate her
within the system. Consequently, they secretly renewed the Quadruple alliance that robbed the
congress powers of harmonious relationship, which weakened the congress system.

2. Lack of a joint Army

The congress system lacked a joint army to enforce its decisions where negotiations could not work.

King Fredrick William III of Prussia had proposed that an international army be formed and stationed
at Brussels to suppress revolutions. This idea was rejected by Castlereagh who argued that it would
be interfering in the internal affairs of other states. This disagreement and lack of an army weakened
the congress system and left it almost as "a debating club". It left the idea of suppressing revolutions
to individual states like France and Austria, which brought more antagonism with other powers most
especially Britain.

3. Sea pirates in the Mediterranean Sea

The congressmen failed to handle sea pirates in the Mediterranean Sea yet it was a big obstacle to
international trade. At the congress of Aix-Lachapalle, Tsar Alexander I of Russia proposed that a joint
military operation on the Mediterranean Sea to stamp out sea pirates be conducted. This was out
rightly rejected by Castlereagh who feared the presence of Russian warships in the Mediterranean
Sea and considered it as a manifestation of Russian imperialism to dominate the sea. Thus, if the
congress powers could fail to agree over such a sensitive matter, one wonders what concert of
Europe was guiding European powers in the congress era.

4. Slave Trade

The congress system failed to handle the issue of slave trade. Castlereagh's proposal at Aix-
Lachapalle to form a congress navy to monitor and search vessels carrying slaves was rejected by
other powers.

They feared that it would give Britain that had the strongest navy, excessive powers of interference
given that she was already interfering in the international affairs of other states. With all these
suspicions and self-interests, one can conclude that the congress system was a failure.

5. Short Life Span

The congress powers failed to achieve their objective of remaining in a permanent alliance for 20
years. It should be noted that the quadruple powers had pledged to remain in a permanent alliance
for a period of 20 years. This turned out to be theoretical than practical because the congress of St.
Petersburg crowned the existence of the congress system. Thus, the inability of the congress system
to survive beyond 1825 is a clear testimony that it failed to reach its target of 20years.

6. Discrimination of small and weaker states

The congress system learnt nothing and forgot nothing from the Vienna congress. It remained an
alliance of the big five (Austria, Russia, Prussia, Britain and France) from its formation in 1818 up to
the end. The smaller nations were not part of it. The problems of the smaller states were ignored and
in most cases worsened by forcing them to remain under foreign powers. The system ignored the
ideas of liberalism and Nationalism that led to instabilities in states like Italy, Germany, Belgium and
Spain; this undermined the role of the congress system as an instrument of peace in Europe.

7. Protection of oppressive, dictatorial and exploitative rulers

By defending the Vienna principle of legitimacy, the congress system made people to suffer
dictatorship, oppression and exploitation under the so-called legitimate rulers. Those rulers who
were restored and protected pursued a policy of revenge on their subjects and became worst than
ever before. For example, Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain who were protected by
the Austrian and French armies respectively became more dictatorial against their subjects. It's
therefore not a surprise that none of them was on the throne by 1848.

8. The Greek revolt

The congress system failed to peacefully handle the Greek war of independence.

Tsar Nicholas I's overwhelming decision to assist the Greeks against Turkey made Britain and France
to change their attitude and assist the Greeks. It was a calculated move to prevent Russia from acting
alone because her unilateral assistance would have made her to dominate the independent state of
Greece. This assistance was opposed by Austria and Prussia who supported Turkey in the war. Hence
forth, the congress powers resorted to violence other than diplomacy in handling the Greek war of
independence, which became a turning point that led to the end of the congress system.

NB. The congresses of Verona and St. Petersburg failed to resolve the question of the Greek war of
independence. The issue brought a serious disagreement and exchange of "bad words" that broke
the congress system into two i.e. supporters of the Greeks and Turkey.

9. The Spanish Revolution

The congress system failed to diplomatically settle the Spanish revolution. At the congress of
Veronna, Tsar Nicholas Ts proposal to send 15,000 Russian troops to suppress the revolution was
vetoed/rejected by other powers. This is because it was considered as a manifestation of Russian
hidden imperialistic ambition to conquer and dominate Europe. As Russia was being restrained,
France sent her troops, crushed the revolution and restored Ferdinand VII to his throne. This ejected
Britain out of the congress system and George Canning proclaimed that; "Things are getting back to a
wholesome state again. Every nation for itself and God for us all. Thank God, there will be no more
congresses"

It should be noted that Britain was afraid that Ferdinand would reclaim the Spanish colonies in

America, which would jeopardize her trade with the colonies. This is why she supported the Monroe
Doctrine that prohibited interference on American soil

10. Lack of clear principles and experience

Being the first international organization that was devised to maintain peace, the congress system
lacked experience from where to learn lessons. This explains why it was not well structured with a
clear program of action. That is why there was no written document on how meetings were to be
called, where, when and the protocol to be followed. There was even no fixed chairperson and that is
why anyone could call a congress anytime e.g. Ferdinand VII of Spain in 1824 over the revolution
which was attended by nobody a part from 'himself.

11. The Monroe doctrine

The congress system failed to challenge the Monroe Doctrine. In 1823 president Monroe of USA
supported by Britain issued the famous Monroe doctrine which seriously warned the congress
powers against any attempt to help Spain recover her colonies in S. America. Austria, Prussia, France
and Russia who had decided to use the congress spirit to help assist Spain to recover her colonies
cowardised and thus foiled to challenge the Monroe Doctrine

12. Pre dominance of Metternich and conservatism

The congress system made Metternich and his outdated conservative ideas dominant in European
politics. Metternich manipulated the Congress system to promote his conservative (Metternich)
system and undermine the forces of liberalism and nationalism. It was opposed by Britain right from
Aix-la-Chapalle in 1818 and partly explains why Britain withdrew her membership from the congress
system in 1823. It also set in a struggle by the liberals and nationalists against conservatives
(supported by Metternich) that led to uprisings in Europe in the 1820's e.g. Spain, Naples, Greece etc.
This undermined the political, social and economic development of Europe during the congress era.

13. delayed the unifications of Italy and Germany

Like the Vienna settlement, the congress system is also blamed for delaying the unifications of Italy
and Germany. It united the European powers defending the Vienna settlement that had given Austria
control over Italians and Germans. It made Austria diplomatically strong and rendered it impossible
for Italian and German nationalists to secure foreign assistance. At the Congress of Troppau, Austria,
Russia and Prussia signed the Troppau Protocol in which they vowed to suppress revolutions in
Europe. It's this that Austria used to suppress the revolution in Naples, hence frustrating the
unification of Italy.

14. Selfish interest

The congress system was weakened by selfish national interests of its members. Each congress
Power wanted to exploit the congress system to fulfill its own interest and had little concern for the
interest of the other powers. For instance, Austria wanted to dominate Italians and Germans, Russia
aimed at dominating the remains of Ottoman Empire, Britain wanted more colonies and France
wanted to revive her influence in Europe. This explains why there was suspicion, mistrust, jealousy
and unnecessary disagreements over sensitive issues like joint army, slave trade, pirates etc.

15. In-balance of power

The congress system is blamed for perpetuating (promoting) in-balance of power in Europe. From
1820, Austria, Prussia and Russia who had signed the Troppau protocol turned the congress system
into an authoritative instrument for suppressing revolutions, which was opposed by France and
Britain.

This tilted/changed the balance of power against France and Britain, which partly explain why Britain
withdrew from the congress system in 1823. Even amongst the signatories of the Troppau protocol,
Austria under Metternich exercised much influence over congress affairs than Prussia and Russia. It
should be noted that Russia's assistance to rebellions such as the Greeks' was partly a protest to
Metternich's domineering role in the congress system. Thus, the congress system failed to maintain
the balance of power.
FACTORS FOR THE FAILURE/COLLAPSE OF
THE CONGRESS SYSTEM
By 1830, the congress system had failed to achieve its noble objectives and was
already languishing in the dustbin of history. The factors for the downfall of the
congress system were too varied and complex. They range from the selfish and
divergent interests of the powers to the absence of an agreed principle of
political faith and the social developments of a new Europe against conservative
forces leave alone the emergence of new and inexperienced leaders.

1. Self interest of the congress powers

The congress system was doomed from the onset due to conflicting aims of its
participants. It was a combination of different states with different aims and
objectives that became a source of mistrust, suspicion, jealousy and conflicts
amongst the powers. This was because each power wanted to satisfy its national
interest and refused to sacrifice it for the sake of common interest. Austria
wanted to use the congress system to dominate the Italians and Germans and
expand her empire, to central Europe.

Prussia wanted to annex Saxony and the Grand Dutchy of war-saw. Russia aimed
at dominating the remains of the Ottoman Empire. Britain needed more colonies
to promote her trade and France wanted fair treatment and a revival of her
influence over Europe. These explains why there were disagreements and lack of
consensus over sensitive issues like a joint army, pirates, slave trade, Spanish
revolt and colonies and the Greek war of independence. Each power was
motivated by selfish interest that dug a political grave for the congress system.

NB. Britain rejected the formation of an army to suppress revolutions because

she was a liberal country and wanted to maintain her policy of isolation let alone
wasting taxpayer's money and men in suppressing such movements. She also
vetoed the proposal to deal with pirates because the pirates feared the union
jack and British ships. Other powers reacted by throwing a way British proposals
to deal with slave traders because it would give Britain that had the strongest
navy excessive powers of interference. Britain again resisted the suppression of
Spanish revolution and the restoration of Ferdinand because it would undermine
her booming trade in the area.
Russia assisted the Greeks because of the need to dominate the remains of the
Ottoman Empire.

Britain saw that Russia's assistance would jeopardize her commercial and
strategic interests in the region and decided to join Russia. France also realized
that Russia's assistance would jeopardize her religious claims over Greek
Christians and decided also to assist the Greeks. Austria and Prussia saw that
Russia's intervention would increase her influence in the Balkans and threaten
their survival and interest. These forced Prussia and Austria to oppose the Greek
war of independence. Thus, self interest scattered the congress powers in
different and opposite direction that became a countdown for its downfall.

2. Admission of France (1818)

The admission of France in the congress system was a blessing in disguise that
contributed to the collapse of the system. The congress system was partly
formed to safeguard against further French aggression and the return of
Napoleon to power. The admission of France in 1818 destroyed the possibility of
French aggression and the death of Napoleon in 1821 erased the fear of his
return to power. These two events undermined the co-operation and unity
amongst the allies most especially Britain who decided to concentrate on her own
internal problems. Castlereagh made this clear on May 5th 1820 in his "State
paper" where he stated that Britain was only committed to preventing the return
of Napoleon I or his dynasty to France. Furthermore, France was never fully
trusted and was isolated within the congress powers. This robbed the powers of
the unity, co-operation and harmony upon which the system was to survive.

3. Principle of intervention

The principle of intervention in the internal affairs of other states alienated

Britain from the congress system and paved way for its demise. Britain opposed
this right from 1818 up to the end of the system, inspite of British opposition,
Austria, Prussia and Russia signed the Troppau protocol of 1820 in which they
pledged to intervene militarily against revolutions. This drifted Britain apart and
Castlereagh branded the protocol "a destitute of common sense". Britain opposed
French intervention in Spain and withdrew from the congress system at the
congress of Verona. This was the last kick to the downfall of the congress
system.

4. The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine was yet another blow to the existence of the congress
system. In Dec 1823, president Monroe of U.S.A proclaimed the doctrine which
threatened war against the planned move by the congress powers to restore
Spanish colonies in South America. He was supported by George Canning of
Britain who was afraid that such a move would undermine British trade with
South American colonies. It defeated the principle of intervention and forced
Austria, Prussia, France and Russia to back down. Henceforth, the Monroe
Doctrine of 1823 created more antagonism between Britain against other
congress powers, thus rolling the congress system to its grave.

5. The Vienna Settlement

The Vienna settlement laid a very weak foundation for the congress system that
made its collapse a foregone conclusion. The congress system was to maintain
the Vienna settlement, which unfortunately had enforced very unrealistic
principles. These were for instance, the principles of legitimacy, balance of power
and defensive arrangements against the principle of nationalism. It should be
stressed that the principle of legitimacy made the Vienna peacemakers to restore
some of the worst rulers Europe ever had. This created a viscous cycle of revolts
like against Ferdinand I of Naples and Ferdinand VII of Spain. These revolts
created more conflicts and antagonism amongst the congress powers. This is
because other powers preferred intervention which was bitterly opposed by
Britain. The end result was the end of the congress system.

6. Discrimination against small states

Discrimination against small states was a fundamental, weakness that led to the
downfall of the congress system. It was dominated by the "big^ five" at the
expense of smaller states yet they would have reduced the differences between
the big powers. Consequently, the system failed to capture European public
opinion and no wonder that it was branded "a league of despots" for the
suppression of revolutions and nationalism in the smaller states. The congress
system therefore became a narrow association of the big powers against smaller
states which met stiff opposition from the smaller states hence its collapse.

7. Lack of Experience

Inexperience also accounts for the disintegration of the congress system. The
system was the first international organization that was designed to maintain
peace. The congress powers therefore lacked experience from any previous
attempts from which it could have learnt lessons and avoided various
weaknesses that made the system to collapse. This partly explains why the
congressmen tried to rewind Europe to the pre 1789 order that became a total
disaster. It should be noted that the League of Nations and the U.N.O learnt
lessons from previous organizations and this partly explains why they existed for
so long. The congress system was experimental or on trial and error and no
wonder that it collapsed within less than 10 years.

8. Lack of clear principles and protocol

The congress system failed partly because it was a disorganized organization

with no clear principles and protocol. There was no memorandum on how
meetings were to be called, where, when and the procedure to be followed in
such meetings. There was even no fixed chairperson and this explains why
anybody could call a congress anytime. Besides, there was no penalty for those
who would wish to withdraw and this explains why Britain easily pulled out of the
system in 1820.

9. Lack of a joint army and a resolution enforcing organ

The congress system was doomed by its failure to organize a governing body and
"a congress peace keeping force" to implement its resolutions. Besides, there
was no court of justice that could have punished those who violated the
objectives of the system. For instance, France, Britain and Russia who diverted
and supported liberal and nationalistic movements like in Greece would have
been brought to book. If the court of justice was there, it could have saved the
concert of Europe from disintegration through strict enforcement to the norms
and principles of the congress system. Similarly, a joint force would have
enforced the resolutions of the congress system where diplomacy could not be
viable. The absence of a joint force undermined the strength of the congress
system and made it more theoretical than practical which accounted for its
collapse.

10. The Greek war of Independence.

The Greek war of independence was the last blow to the existence of the
congress system. The Greeks revolted demanding for their independence against
Turkey. The war became an event amongst others where the divergent interest
of the major powers converged and hastened the collapse of the congress
system. It divided the congress powers into two i.e. Britain, France and Russia
who supported the Greeks and Prussia and Austria who sympathized and hence
supported Turkey. In 1827, Russia, Britain and France signed the London treaty
that recognized the independence of Greece amidst protest from Austria and
Prussia. This gave the congress system that had died in 1825 unceremonial
burial.

11. Death of founder members and the rise/role of new men.

The Death of some of the pioneers of the congress system and the rise of new
men without parental care for the system was a serious setback for the survival
of the system. Castlereagh died a suicidal death in 1822 and was replaced by
George Canning. George Canning unlike Castlereagh was too aggressive and
uncooperative to the ideas of collective action. He refused to neither attend nor
send a representative to the 1823 congress over Spanish colonies and the 1825
congress over the Greek war of independence. This frustrated diplomatic
solutions to the revolts and left it for a violent solution that divided the powers. It
was the same Canning who withdrew Britain from the congress system in 1825
and embarked on a policy of "every nation for itself and God for us all". This
individualistic tendency did not spare the congress system.

In Russia, Tsar Alexander I died inl825 and was replaced by Tsar Nicholas II.
Tsar Nicholas II had a more aggressive and expansionist foreign policy over the
Balkans. He was too confident in Russia's military might that he felt insulted to
be restrained in foreign ventures. Nicholas' imperialistic ambitions made Britain
and France to turn round and support liberal movements such as the Greek
revolt. This was against the norms and principles of the congress system and
betrayed the system to doom.
In France, Charles X succeeded Louis XVHI in 1824, Unlike Louis XVIII, Charles X
was pro-British and very often against Metternich. He consistently co-operated
with George Canning like in the Greek war that left Metternich isolated and
annoyed.

All in all, George Canning, Tsar Nicholas I and Charles X carried the congress
system to its final rest because unlike the founders, they had no parental
fondness and love for it. They had not participated in its formation and its
existence meant little to them. Unlike Metternich, the new leaders were
inexperienced and had a narrow/limited knowledge of European affairs prior to
and after the congress system.

12. The British policy of Isolationism and non Intervention

Britain was primarily responsible for the downfall of the congress system. She
pursued a policy of Isolation (non-interventionist foreign policy). This was to
avoid pocket touching matters (unnecessary expenses), loss of British citizens in
areas of no interest and parliamentary outcry incase of failures.

These made Britain/Castlereagh to veto important congress revolutions like

checking pirates on the Mediterranean Sea and the formation of a joint force
right from Aix-Lachapalle in 1818. This was very unfortunate for the congress
system because it was Britain who championed the defeat of Napoleon I.

Her role was therefore paramount in the reconstruction of post Napoleonic era
and the survival of the congress system thereafter.

Secondly, Britain sympathized and offered moral and logistical support to liberal
and nationalistic movements like in Spain, Naples, Greece, German and Italian
states. This was against the principles and interest of the congress system.
Indeed, the British official policy was made clear by Castlereagh in his lengthy
State paper, thus;
……………Britain owed her present dynasty and constitution to an internal
revolution. She could not therefore deny to other countries the same

right of changing their form of government (Grant and Temperleys pp/142 -

143).

Britain therefore opposed the idea of suppressing revolutions right from Aix-
Lachapalle. This is why she rejected the Troppau protocol which Castlereagh
called "a destitute of common sense". This drifted Britain a part from Russia,
Austria and Prussia hence the collapse of the congress system.

Thirdly, Britain allied with U.S.A. against Austria, Russia and Prussia over the
issue of Spanish colonies.

She overwhelmingly supported the Monroe doctrine against other powers who
wanted to intervene over the issue of Spanish colonies. This left the rest of the
congress powers hopeless and defeated the principle of intervention.

Fourthly, it was Britain through Canning (the British foreign secretary from 1822)
who "killed" the congress system. Britain declined to send a representative to a
congress that was called by the Spanish king over the Spanish colonies. She also
refused to attend the congress of St. Petersburg that was called by Tsar Nicholas
1 to settle the Greek war of independence. This frustrated Russian's intentions to
diplomatically settle the Greek question and gave way for war that divided the
powers.

Fifthly, it was Britain who officially withdrew from the congress system in 1823.
George Canning was angered by the French intervention in Spain and withdrew
British membership of the congress system at the congress of Verona.
Thereafter, Britain under Canning resorted to the policy of every nation for itself
and God for us all''. This was the actual disintegration of the congress system.

Lastly, Britain had profound hatred and dislike for Russia and Austria. She hated
Russia for her imperialism over the Balkans and the Mediterranean Sea, which
was a threat to her commercial interest.
She was against Austria because Austria and Metternich had centralized
European affairs in their favour.

Canning wanted European affairs to be centralized and settled in London than

Vienna or Austria. In other wards Britain wanted to hijack the balance of power
to favour her. Therefore, one can safely conclude that Britain's hatred for Russia
and Austria robbed the congress powers of any harmonious relationship or
mutual co-existence and led to its collapse.

CONTRIBUTIONS/ROLES OF EUROPEAN
POWERS IN THE DOWNFALL OF THE
CONGRESS SYSTEM
1) Britain (Lord Stewart Castlereagh and George Canning)

I) Britain was primarily responsible for the collapse of the congress system. She
pursued a policy of isolation from continental obligations i.e. non interventionist
foreign policy. The policy was to avoid unnecessary expenses, loss of her citizens
in suppressing revolutions and negative public opinion in case of failures. The
policy was unfortunate for the congress system because it was Britain that
played the greatest role in the dawn fall of Napoleon and her role in the post
Napoleonic re-organization of Europe was therefore of paramount importance.
Above all, Britain was the most politically stable state and the greatest economic
and military power in Europe. The British isolation therefore denied the congress
system of her enormous economic resources and military power that could have
improved the capacity of the congress system to meet its challenges. Her
isolation gave Metternich an added advantage to impose his conservative, anti;
liberal and nationalistic policies on Europe against smaller states. This led to the
outbreak of revolutionary movements in 1820's that destabilized Europe and
divided the Congress powers, thus leading to the downfall of the congress
system.

ii). Britain is blamed for her moral and logistical support to liberal and
nationalistic movements in Greece, Spain, Naples, Argentina, Italian and German
states. Being a liberal and democratic state where respect for fundamental
human rights and freedom were adhered to, Britain did not see any sense in
suppressing revolutions that were intended to overthrow oppressive, exploitative
and tyrannical leaders. Lord Castlereagh made it very clear in his state paper
which was published in 1820 that:

... Britain owed her present dynasty and constitution to an internal revolution.
She could not therefore deny to other countries the same right of changing their
form of government (Grant and Temperleys, PP 142 - 143).

This explains why Britain opposed the idea of suppressing revolutions right from
the Congress of

Aix-la-Chapelle as interference in to the internal affairs of other nations. It

antagonized Britain with Austria, Prussia and Russia who favoured the policy of
suppressing revolutions hence the collapse of the Congress system.

iii). Britain supported the Monroe doctrine against the interest of other congress
powers. In Dec 1823, President Monroe of America issued the famous Monroe
doctrine in which he warned other powers against intervention on American
affairs especially on matters related to the Spanish colonies.

George Canning of Britain overwhelmingly supported the doctrine against Russia,

France, Prussia and Austria who had declared their intension to help Spain
recover her colonies that she had lost as a result of the 1823 revolution. Besides,
Britain threatened to fight any power that would cross the Atlantic Ocean to
South America be it in Spain or France irrespective of the motive. This left the
rest of the congress powers frustrated, defeated the principle of intervention, and
tore the congress system further apart.

iv). George Canning of Britain officially withdrew British membership of the

congress system in 1823.

Britain was committed to alliance system mainly to safeguard her commercial

interest against French and Napoleonic aggressions. This threat ended with the
defeat of Napoleon and admission of France in the congress system, leaving
Britain uncommitted to congress affairs thereafter. The French intervention in
Spain in 1823 gave George Canning the opportunity to officially withdraw British
membership to the congress system at the congress of Verona. He considered
the French restoration of Ferdinand VII to his throne in Spain as ―…. an affront to
the pride of England," He further commented that: The issue of Verona has split
the one and indivisible alliance and so things are getting back to a whole some
state again, every nation for itself and God for us all.

He concluded that "Praise God that there would be no more Congresses" and
resorted to the policy of every nation for itself and God for us all. This was the
practical disintegration of the congress system.

v). After withdrawing from the congress system, Britain declined to review her
policy. She refused to participate in the 1824 congress that was called by
Ferdinand VII of Spain to settle the issue of

Spanish colonies, which made the intended congress to abort. She also declined
to attend the 1825 congress of St. Petersburg that was called by Tsar Nicholas I
to settle the question of the Greek struggle for independence. This frustrated
Russian intension to peacefully address the question of Greek independence and
gave opportunity for escalation of violence that left European powers more
divided.

vi). Britain openly rejected the Troppau protocol that was declared by Austria,
Prussia and Russia. In 1820, the three powers at the congress of Troppau passed
the Troppau protocol in which they pledged to suppress revolutions whenever
and wherever they occurred. Lord Stewart Castlereagh argued that such a
measure would frustrate genuine internal struggle to overthrow oppressive,
exploitative and autocratic rulers. He was so furious when he addressed the
British parliament that he sarcastically declared the protocol "a destitute of
common sense" and argued the concerned powers to confine the congress
system within the limits of common sense. This weakened the principle of
intervention and provoked liberal and nationalistic revolutions in smaller states
that became a challenge leading to the downfall of the Congress System.

vii). Britain had long term negative feelings and hatred for Russia and Austria.
She disliked Russia for her imperialism in the Middle East and the Mediterranean
Sea because it threatened her commercial interest. She hated Austria because
Metternich had dominated Europe and centralized European affairs in Vienna.
George Canning wanted European affairs to be centralized and settled in London
than Vienna (Austria). In other words, Canning wanted to hijack the balance of
power from Austria in order to consolidate British supremacy in European affairs.
The British preconceived hatred and negative feelings against Russia and Austria
led to unnecessary disagreements involving her and other powers such as the
issues of joint army, piracy, slave trade, Spanish revolution and Greek
independence. It thus led to mistrust, suspicion and disharmony that doomed the
Congress system.

viii). Britain was a big force behind the Vienna congress which laid a poor
foundation for the congress system. The congress unfairly restored the most
oppressive and dictatorial rulers and undermined the forces of liberalism and
nationalism of the smaller states. She was also a signatory of the quadruple
alliance that set foundation for discrimination of the smaller states. Above all,
Britain manipulated the Congress to gain too much territory to the annoyance of
Russia and Prussia.

These became a very weak foundation on which the congress system was built
and thus contributed to its eventual collapse.

ix). The British selfish desire to safeguard her economic interest ejected her out
of the Congress system. She had a hidden agenda of using the congress system
to protect her trade zone and acquire more territories for her merchants.
However, her interest in the Middle East and

Mediterranean Sea was threatened by Russian imperialism and influence in the

area. This left

Britain that had initially opposed the Greek war of independence to turn round
and support the Greeks alongside Russia when she noted that the success of the
struggle was inevitable. She did this because Russia's assistance in establishing a
new Greek state on the map of Europe would be a serious setback to her
commercial interest in the Middle East and Mediterranean Sea. She also
supported the Monroe doctrine and warned other powers not to cross the Atlantic
Ocean to suppress the revolution in Spain because her trade with Latin American
states had drastically improved since Ferdinand YD was ousted from power.
Thus, British selfish economic interest conflicted with common interest that the
congress system was to promote leading to its down fall by 1825.
x). Britain opposed and vetoed the idea of forming a Joint international army at
the congress of Aix -La Chapalle in 1818. Fredrick William III of Prussia had
proposed the formation of a joint army based in Brussels to suppress revolutions,
Lord Costlereagh rejected it that it would amount to interfering in the internal
affairs of other states. It left the congress system without a force to implement
its resolutions, which encouraged smaller states like Italy, Spain, Naples and
Greece to wage a struggle for their freedom without fear. Absence of a joint
army weakened the congress system and made it more theoretical than practical
hence accounting for its downfall.

xi) Lastly, Britain's desire to safeguard her naval supremacy, also contributed to
the downfall of the congress system. At the congress of Aix - La Chapalle (1818),
Tsar Alexander I of Russia suggested a joint military operation in the
Mediterranean Sea to fight Sea pirates. This was out rightly rejected by
Castlereagh who feared that the presence of Russian warships in the
Mediterranean sea would be a big challenge to her naval supremacy and
monopoly of the sea. It should be noted that pirates were not a big threat to
Britain because they feared and respected British ships contrary to those of other
powers.

This therefore left a legacy of suspicion and intense bitterness in other powers
against Britain that made the collapse of the congress system inevitable.

2. Austria (Francis II and Prince Metternich)

i). Austria hosted the Vienna congress that laid a shaky foundation, which led to
the collapse of the congress system. Prince Metternich who chaired the congress
manipulated the congress to restore unpopular legitimate rulers and maintained
them by suppressing revolutionary movements against them. He also influenced
the congress to undermine nationalistic and liberal feelings of the smaller states
by subjecting them to foreign domination. This consolidated conservation and led
to the outbreak of liberal and nationalistic revolutions that undermined the
Congress system. Besides, Metternich's desire to maintain Austria's supremacy
and Vienna as the diplomatic theatre of Europe angered Britain and partly
influenced George Canning to withdraw Britain's membership from the congress
system.

ii) Austria is blamed for her imperialism and domination of the smaller states.
She used the Vienna congress to dominate European affairs and smaller states
e.g. Italians and Germans. It promoted imbalance of power that other powers did
not admire. Her domination of the smaller states triggered nationalistic protests
such as the 1820's revolts in Naples and piedmont that divided the congress
powers. It should be stressed that Austria's suppression of such revolts and
restoration of ousted kings was authorized by the congress of Laibach (1822)
amidst British opposition, which partly influenced Britain to pull out of the
congress system by 1823.i

iii) Austria was influential in issuing the 1820 Troppau Protocol in which Prussia,
Russia and herself vowed to suppress revolutions and restore ousted kings in
Europe. The spread of liberalism and nationalism was a formidable threat to the
heterogeneous Austrian empire as they would trigger nationalistic movements
that could break the empire into pieces. This background made her influence
Prussia and Russia to issue the Troppau protocol, which Britain rejected out
rightly and France accepted with reservations. This widened the gap between
liberal countries (Britain and France) Vis-a Vis conservative states (Prussia,
Russia and Austria), thus leading to the collapse of the congress system.

iv) Austria's conservative ideology dragged her to oppose the granting of the
Greek independence. She supported Turkish autocratic rule over the Greeks and
opposed the Greek struggle for freedom from the congress of Verona up to the
end of the congress system. It brought her into conflict with Russia, Britain and
France who assisted the Greeks to attain their independence. This explains why
no more congress was held after the heated debate at the congress of St.
Petersburg where Austria and Prussia protested to Russian, British and French
assistance to the Greeks.

v)Austria is also blamed for her opposition to the formation of a joint naval force
to right slave dealers.

Castleragh proposed this idea at the congress of Aix - Lachapalle in 1818 but
Austria rejected it on suspicion that it would give Britain more power to support
revolutionary movements in other states.

This undermined the spirit of cooperation and togetherness that was essential for
the survival of the congress system.
vi).Austrian influence through the Metternich system made the downfall of the
congress system inevitable. Metternich manipulated the congress system to
consolidate Austria's supremacy, promote conservatism and suppress the
revolutionary forces of liberty, equality and fraternity. He used the congress
system to enhance his oppressive anti; liberal and nationalistic policies of press
censorship, spy net work, divide and rule, force etc. This could not be tolerated
after the rise of Charles X in France, George Canning in Britain and Tsar Nicholas
I in Russia. These new generations of leaders were opposed to conservative
Metternich policies and influence over the congress system. No wonder that they
sympathized and supported liberal struggles such as in Greece against
Metternich's expectation. This killed the congress spirit and brought the congress
system to an end.

3.Russia (Tsar Alexander 1, 1801-1825,and Tsar Nicholas1, 1825-1855)

Russia was part of the unrealistic Vienna Congress and the Troppau Protocol that
consolidated

Metternich's conservatism against the forces of liberalism and nationalism. The

Vienna Congress discriminated small states and restored oppressive and
unpopular kings to their thrones. The 1820 Troppau protocol brought Russia,
Austria and Prussia in alliance to defend oppressive rulers that Britain rejected
and France accepted reluctantly. All these led to tension in Europe and
undermined the congress system leading to its downfall.

Russia's imperial ambitions in the Balkans were also responsible for the downfall
of the congress system. Her desire to take control of the Balkans by supporting
nationalistic movements brought her into logger heads with Austria and Britain.
Austria protested such support because it would spark off nationalistic
movements within her heterogeneous empire. Britain objected because it would
undermine her commercial interest in the Middle East. Thus, Russian imperialism
in the Balkans threatened the interest of other powers and brought disharmony
that led to the downfall of the congress system.

iii).Russia was the first power to support the Greek war of independence, which
is an event that accelerated the downfall of the congress system. She incited the
Greeks against Turkey and proceeded to support them militarily. Although Britain
and France initially opposed Russia's secret assistance to the Greeks, Russia's
continued assistance and the high prospects of Greek success made them to
change their mind and join Russia to assist the Greeks. This was a desperate
measure by Britain to safeguard her economic interest and France to safeguard
her religious motives against Russia's threatening influence. On the other hand,
Austria and Prussia opposed such assistance including the granting of
independence to the Greeks. Thus, Russia's support to the Greeks divided the
congress powers into two and caused its collapse.

iv.) Russia's ambitions to challenge Britain's naval supremacy brought

disharmony between her and Britain. She provoked Britain's suspicion by
stationing her warships in the Mediterranean Sea. Tsar Alexander I went ahead
at the congress of Aix - Lachapalle to propose the formation of a joint force to
fight pirates in the Mediterranean Sea. This was rejected by Lord Stewart
Castlereagh as a move to strengthen Russian influence in the Mediterranean Sea
in order to challenge Britain's supremacy.

Indeed, British suspicion to Russia's challenge to her naval superiority was too
deep rooted that she could not accept her (Russia's) noble call to fight pirates
that was a common threat to trade across the Mediterranean Sea.

v) The death of Tsar Alexander I in 1825 led to the rise of Tsar Nicholas I whose
attitude and policies buried the congress system. Tsar Nicholas I was too proud,
arrogant and confident in Russia's military strength that he felt insulted to be
restrained in his foreign policy. He developed a more aggressive and
interventionist foreign policy that was reflected in his determination to assist the
Greeks against Turkey. Besides his inexperience and narrow/little knowledge of
European affairs, Tsar Nicholas I was not one of the historical founders of the
Congress system and thus cared little for its existence. His character and support
of the Greeks was seriously protested by Prussia and Austria at the congress of
St. Petersburg and ended in total confusion. This destroyed the congress spirit
and there were no more congress held thereafter.

4. Prussia (Fredrick William III)

i) Prussia is blamed for being a signatory to the Vienna settlement and the
Troppau protocol. The Vienna resolutions and the Troppau protocol consolidated
conservatism and undermined the spirit of liberalism and nationalism in Europe.
The principle of intervention that Prussia supported in the protocol was
unacceptable to Britain and small powers that were oppressed. It brought liberal
and nationalistic protests that divided the congress powers leading to the
disintegration of the congress system.

ii).Fredrick William III joined other powers in opposing Castlereagh's proposal for
a joint operation to stop slave trade at the congress of Aix - La - Chapalle. This
left Castlereagh frustrated and partly forced her to resort to her usual policy of
isolation that led to the collapse of the congress system.

iii).Prussia opposed the Greek war of independence and the granting of Geek
independence. This brought her into conflict with Russia, Britain and France who
were assisting the Greeks to regain their independence. Prussia allied with
Austria and stood against supporting the Greeks and the granting of Greek
independence at the congress of St. Petersburg that made the congress to end in
total chaos.

5. France (Louis XVIII, 1814-1824 and Charles X, 1824-1830)

i). France was the source of revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity.
These ideas were consolidated by Napoleonic influence on Europe and led to the
rise of the spirit of liberalism and nationalism in Europe. They led to the outbreak
of revolutions such as the 1820's movements in Spain, Naples and Greece. This
brought conflict between the congress powers hence leading to the downfall of
the congress system.

ii).The admission of France in the congress system at the congress of Aix - La-
Chapalle in 1818 contributed to the downfall of the congress system. It brought
reconciliation between France and other powers and ended the danger of French
aggression in Europe. It undermined the unity of purpose and the spirit of
togetherness that had brought European powers together in defense against
revolutionary and Napoleonic aggressions. It also provided Britain with an
opportunity to concentrate on her own internal problems and pursue the policy of
splendid isolation. Besides, France was not fully trusted and thus treated with
suspicion by the quadruple powers most especially Russia. This undermined the
spirit of trust, cooperation, harmony and unity that led to the downfall of the
congress system.
iii). France is blamed for getting entangled in the Greek war of independence
alongside Britain and Russia. As a great Christian state, France felt that Russian's
unilateral assistance to the Greeks would make her dominant in the Balkans and
jeopardize her religious interest. It is this that drove her to join Russia and
Britain to assist the Greeks. This move was however protested by Prussia and
Austria leading to the collapse of the congress system.

iv). It was Bishop Tallyrand, the French representative at the Vienna Congress
who initiated the unrealistic principle of legitimacy. Richelieu, the French
representative in the congress system continued to advocate for the restoration
and maintenance of dictatorial, oppressive and conservative kings in Europe. It
left the congress system as an alliance to promote conservatism, oppression and
exploitation of the smaller states. This earned the congress system enormous
unpopularity that could not make it exist beyond 1825.

Louis XVI's suppression of the Spanish revolution and restoration of Ferdinand to

his throne is what ejected Britain out of the congress system. By 1823, Spanish
revolutionaries had overthrown Ferdinand VII from his throne. At the congress of
Verona in 1822, Britain objected to any attempt to restore Ferdinand VD to his
throne. However, France was permitted by other powers to suppress the
revolution and restore Ferdinand back to his throne, which she accomplished in
1823. George Canning Was so disturbed by the French action that he lamented:

The issue of Spain has split the one and indivisible alliance and so things are
getting back to a whole same state again, every nation for itself and God for us
all.

He consequently withdrew Britain from the congress system that became the
biggest blow, which led to the down fall of the congress system.

6. USA (President Monroe)

President Monroe of USA issued the famous Monroe doctrine that split the
congress powers and led to the downfall of the congress system. On December
1823, he issued the doctrine where he warned that any interference by European
powers on American soil would be regarded ― as manifestation of an unfriendly
disposition to the United States‖. (H.L Peacock, A history of modern Europe, 7th '
Edition p. 89).This defeated the Troppau protocol and the principle of
intervention that Austria, Prussia, Russia and France wanted to use to restore
Ferdinand VII to his throne. It was fully supported by Britain against other
congress powers hence splitting the congress powers and enhancing the downfall
of the congress system.

Spain (Ferdinand VII)

Ferdinand VII is blamed for his exploitative, oppressive and tyrannical rule that
triggered a revolution, which divided the congress powers. Besides, Spain had
imperial influence in Latin America.

However; Spanish revolutionaries overthrew him and his colonies in America

regained their independence. The issue brought a heated disagreement at the
congress of Verona where Britain vehemently opposed the attempt by other
powers to restore Ferdinand to his throne. When France went ahead to restore
Ferdinand to his throne in 1823, George Canning pulled Britain out of the
congress system. He later supported the Monroe doctrine that scared the
congress powers, from suppressing the revolution in Spain and restoring
Ferdinand VII to his throne. This became a big challenge to the principle of
intervention and contributed to the downfall of the congress system.

RESTORATION OF BOURBON MONARCHY

1815-30

After the defeat of Napoleon and his 1st exile to the land of Elba (1814), the
Vienna Congress powers restored the Bourbon monarchy in France under Louis
Stanislus Xavier de France who took the title Louis

XVIII. This was in accordance to the principle of legitimacy by which rightful

rulers were to be restored to their legitimate thrones. Louis XVIII was 60 years
and was the eldest brother of King Louis XVI who was executed in Jan 1793.
Louis XVIII was both intellectually and by character suitable to be a king. He had
a lot of common sense and had learnt a lot from the French revolution and
Napoleonic era .He was aware of the faults of his brother that caused his death
.He had suffered enough in exile and would never wish to go back. He therefore
stood for a policy of compromise and reconciliation between the new and old
order in France.

However on 1st march 1815, Napoleon escaped from Elba and landed in Paris
with 1100 men. He received overwhelming ovation and support from the
peasants. The soldiers sent to engage him fraternized when he dimply moved
forward, opened his coat and asked, "Which of you will fire against his emperor"?
This event forced Louis XVIII to flee to exile once again and Napoleon ruled for
100 more days the allies, who had suffered in the hands of Napoleon,
reorganized themselves and defeated Napoleon at the battle of Waterloo on 18th
June 1815. Louis XVIII returned from exile with a charter to rule as a
constitutional king. The support by the French men to Napoleon showed Louis
XVIII that the Bourbon monarchy was no longer fashionable in France. He
therefore, had no desire to revenge against the supporters of the previous
governments. Although he would have like to enjoy life as it was in the old days,
he had learnt that the good old days were no more and he was able to let
bygones be bygones. He was therefore ready to accommodate the revolutionary
and Napoleonic gains and accepted to rule by the provisions o f the constitutional
charter provided by the Vienna peacemakers of 1815.

However, Louis XVIII was too old, ugly, sickly and died in 1824. He was replaced
by his brother Comte De-Artois who self styled himself Charles X. Charles X*s
unrealistic policies shortened the reign of the restored Bourbon monarchy and in
July 1830, it was overthrown by yet another revolution.

As already noted, the restored Bourbons were not to be absolute monarchs but
constitutional ones. This was provided by the victorious allies in 1814 and
became known as the 1814 constitutional charter. It provided for the following
amongst others:-

I. Freedom of speech, association, worship and ownership of property.

ii. Equality before the law and trial by Jury.

iii. Parliamentary democracy with two chambers i.e. Chambers of peers and
Deputies.

iv. Equality of all forms of opportunities be it in civil, military or public works.

V. Permanent ownership of land and property acquired during the 1789

revolution.

vi. The king alone was the head of the administration, army and had the right to
conclude treaties and prepare the bill to be debated in both houses.

vii. The white flag was considered the national flag.

The significance of the charter was that it recognized the revolutionary and
Napoleonic gains in France e.g. equality in all circles, freedom of worship, code
Napoleon, concordat etc.

The charter was also not oblivious (unaware) of the principle of divine rights of
kings .It was not imposed by the people on the king. It was passed over by the
king to the people as a matter of grace and conferred upon him powers over the
army, parliament and foreign affairs. The charter was intended to be; a treaty of
peace between two parties into which France has been divided, a treaty by which
both parties yield some of their pretensions in order to work together for the
good of their country.

This constitution was provided in good faith to make the Bourbon monarchy
comfortable in a dynamic and revolutionary France. However as time went on,
the restored Bourbons violated the charter and pursued unrealistic policies
against the interests of the Frenchmen and the European big powers. This shows
that they learnt nothing and forgot nothing from the French revolution and
Napoleon.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF LOUIS XVIII 1815-24

1. King Louis XVIII was less despotic. He maintained a parliamentary system of
government and tried to abide by the provisions of the constitutional charter of
1814. This helped to cool down the French revolutionaries and Napoleonic
supporters whose fear was that the restored Bourbon monarchy would revive the
despotic and undemocratic pre 1789 system of rule. His acceptance of the 1814
constitutional charter also won him diplomatic recognition from the Great powers
especially Britain. All these helped to consolidate the rule of the restored
Bourbon monarchy in a dynamic and revolutionary France.

2. Louis XVIII succeeded in paying off the war indemnity that had been imposed
on France after the downfall of Napoleon I. At the 2nd Paris peace treaty of20th
Nov 1815, the victor powers imposed a huge war indemnity of_700'million francs
on France. King Louis XVI cleared off the whole indemnity within only three (3)
years. This made the victorious powers to withdraw the army of occupation from
France in 1818 at the congress of Aix Lachapalle.

3. Louis XVIlI restored the greatness of France in Europe. France had been in a
hostile relationship with Europe right from the revolutionary government through
the reign of Napoleon ), However in 1818, Richelieu, the French representative at
the congress of Aix Lachapalle advocated for the admission of France in the
congress system. This was accepted and France was admitted in the congress
system, which ended her isolation amongst the great powers of Europe. This
meant that France under Louis XVIII was still a great power to reckon with in
European politics.

4. Louis XVIII succeeded in reorganizing and re- equipping the French army
under military genius of Marshall Cyr. The French military apparatus and army
were completely disorganized by the allied forces that defeated Napoleon. Louis
XVIII improved the military position of France by recruiting young Frenchmen
into the army and re- deploying old generals. Furthermore, the ministry of Duke
de- decades (1818-1820), a liberal army law was passed that provided for on
merit and voluntary recruitment.

5. Economically, during Villeles' ministry (1821 - 1827), high import duties were
adopted to protect home industries from competition. Financial re-organization
that was begun by -eon I was also successfully accomplished. This helped to
restore some degree of financial stability of an economy that had been destroyed
by war for over two decades.
 6. Louis XVIII was realistic and was not ready to tamper with the achievements
of the French Revolution and its heir Napoleon. These included trial by jury and
the code Napoleon. He to restrain the ultra royalists in their quest for revenge
(The white terror). This is why he granted amnesty for the victims of ultra-
royalist quest for revenge who had not yet been compromised. All that Louis
XVIII wanted was peaceful co-existence between the past revolutionaries and.
The royalists as he said that, I will not be a king of two people.

7. In his foreign policy, Louis XVIII recorded success when he suppressed the
Spanish revolts in 1823 and restored Ferdinand VII to power. This earned him
and France glory and prestige showing that he had not learnt nothing and
forgotten nothing of how adventurous the French men were.

However, he failed to help Ferdinand VII and Spain to recover the Spanish
American colonies due to opposition from Britain and President Monroe of the
United States of America nevertheless; he had succeeded in re-establishing the
Bourbon dynasty in Spain,

8. Lastly, Louis XVIII succeeded in his reconciliation policy. He avoided to

completely adopt the ultra royalist programs and even warned his brother
Charles X about it on the eve of his death. He sided with moderate ultra-
royalists. Louis also created a strong solidarity with some former revolutionaries
and Napoleon's supporters. For example, he appointed Napoleon's former
ministers like Fochi to his cabinet. This brought harmony after the white terror
showing that he had learnt something from the reign of terror during the course
of the French Revolution.

WEAKNESSES OF KING LOUIS XVIII

Although Louis xvi had realized that the best way to rule France was through a
constitutional charter, he failed to hide his monarchial hang over. He still
considered himself as a king by the grace of love other than by the will of the
people .He regarded the charter simply as a gift that ff was to use according to
his wishes. This showed that Louis had not learnt enough lessons from the
French revolutionary aim for the need peed for a constitution.

1. The 1814 charter that he boasted of was not liberal as expected. The new
parliament was undemocratic. Louis XVIII utilized his powers and chose ministers
and members of the chamber of peers from nobles than the middle class who
would have offered his government constructive criticisms. Since the chamber of
peers was empowered to propose national laws, it remained favourable to the
monarchy in the pre-1789 fashion. He put a full stop to the little Arm of
democracy by banning the parliament after the murder of Duke De- Berry.

Louis XVIII maintained a narrow franchise that disqualified a majority of the

French men from free participation in politics especially the peasants. For one to
be elected in the chamber ...f deputies, he had to be over 40 years of age and
pay a direct tax of 1000 francs, while for one to vote one had to pay 300 Francs.
Such criteria entitled only about 100,000 citizens out of a population of about
29,000,000 the right to vote. This was against universal manhood propagated by
the French revolution.

4. Louis XVIII further banned the popularly cherished revolutionary tri-colour flag
and restored the white flag of the Bourbons. This shows how he tended to revive
the pre-1789 order. He also tailed to either reconcile or harmonize the different
political groups in France and to utilize their differences by applying divide and
rule policy. The relationship between the republicans, Bonapartists, liberals vis-
avis the ultra-royalists remained very hostile even after his death.

5. Although Louis XVIII was prepared to let by gones be by gones, he failed to

carry on the activities of the ultra royalists who conducted a revenge program
against the Bonapartist, 'liberals and anyone suspected to have anti-Bourbon
feelings. About 7.000 Frenchmen either executed, mutilated, imprisoned or
exiled between 1816-17 during the ―white terror‖ these included French military
heroes like Marshall Bruno, Ney (The bravest of the braves) these created more
chaos and political instability in France. It showed that Louis XVIII had learnt and
gotten nothing from the reign of terror of 1792 -94.

6. Press freedom that the Frenchmen had achieved through the revolution of
1789 was banned after the murder of Duke De-Berry in 1820. Only newspapers
that supported the restored monarchy were allowed to operate, the rest were
censored and their offices were locked up including their publishers.

This was against freedom of expression and thought that the Frenchmen
cherished.
7. Louis XVIII further restricted political freedom of the Frenchmen between
1816 – 1820. He did this by dissolving the parliament, banning political parties,
restricting meetings and stopping by jury.

This was a return to Bourbon despotism of the revolutionary period that the
French men had signed off in the 1789 revolution.

8. Louis XVIII also hark the control of education to the Catholic Church. In 1822,
a bishop was made the minister of education. He also kept aloof from the claims
of the nobles and clergy over their former land that had been acquired by die
peasant. This was very unrealistic ^ both the Concordat and the 1814 charter
had guaranteed possessions of such land by the peasants.

9. Internally, Louis XVIII did not go so far to alleviate the economic conditions of
the Frenchmen.

France had been heavily ravaged by the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars. She
therefore needed a comprehensive economic recovery program that Louis failed
to provide.

10. Lastly, Louis dismissed reformist Chief minister Richelieu and replaced him
with Villele who was an ultra-royalist in 1821. Villele took advantage of Louis'
poor health and successfully implemented ultra-royalist programs against
supporters of the revolutionary and Napoleonic regimes. This showed that he had
learnt nothing and forgotten nothing from his brother Louis XVI who dismissed
the popular financial controllers like Turgot and Necker and used the influence of
his unpopular wife Marie Antoinette that had partly led to the outbreak of the
French revolution of 1789.

NB. Louis XVIII tried to control the activities of the ulto-royalist between 1817 -
1820 that was making the throne "hotter" for him. However, the murder of Duke
De-Berry, a son of Charles X by a Bonapartist (other sources stress a republican)
in 1820 was utilized by the ultra-royalists to persuade the king and parliament
that liberalism and Bonapartism were bad and must be stopped. Villele
accomplished this for example in 1822, he passed a severe law limiting the
press, trial by jury and surrounded himself with hard core ultras. The murder of
Duke De-Berry was considered a calculated move to destroy the Bourbon
monarchial rule in France. The Duke was the son of Charles X mid since Louis
XVIII had no son, he was the only heir for the Bourbons after Charles X.

CHARLES X 1824-30
BACKGROUND
Charles X was originally called Comte-De-Artois. He rose to power after the
death of his brother King Louis XVIII in 1824 and took the title Charles x after his
coronation in 1825. He was a leader of the Émigrés who had suffered the pains
of the revolutionary and Napoleonic reforms and actively contributed to the
defeat of Napoleon 1. After the restoration of the Monarchy in 1815, Charles X
became a leader of the ultra-royalists who executed the famous white terror
from 1816 -1817 against supporters of previous regimes i.e. Revolutionary and
Napoleonic governments.

This experience made him to be an avowed/open enemy to the changes of the

French Revolution and the rule of Napoleon I. He pursued and sustained policies
that were very unrealistic as he tried to undo the revolutionary and Napoleonic
reforms, which were favourable to the masses. He took pride in the fact that
both he and Lafayette had not changed at all inspite of the change of times. He
thus learnt nothing from the French revolution and forgot nothing from the
mistakes of his brother Louis XVl. On the contrary, he remembered each and
every thing of the outlived aristocratic principles that he attempted with
disastrous consequences to resurrect. This caused the 1830 July revolution that
swept him and the monarchy from the political landscape of France and indeed
Europe,

CHARLES X'S UNREALISTIC POLICIES

1. Compensation scheme

In 1825, Charles X passed a compensation bill by which the émigrés who had lost their properties
during the French revolution and the rule of Napoleon were to either regain their property or be
compensated. He set aside 1.000 million Francs (£ 40.000.000) for this scheme. Whereas it was
necessary to compensate the émigrés, the way the money was raised was very unrealistic. This was
achieved by lowering the interest rate on public debts from 5% - 3%, taxing the peasants and die
middle class. The peasants and middle class lost the land that they had acquired during the
revolution which had even been confirmed by the Concordat,
NB. This aspect of Charles X's policy showed that he intended to revive the privileges of the
aristocrats and the unfair tax system which the French men had fought and buried in 1789. He thus
learnt nothing and forgot nothing from the French revolution and the ancient regime.

2. His policy towards the Catholic Church

Charles X restored the privileges of the church in disregard to the civil constitution of the clergy and
the concordat. He passed a law regarding defiling religious places and things in which death sentence
was fixed for theft in churches and making holy utensils in church unholy. This law was so extreme
and was never given a practical shape due to intensive opposition against it. Even then, Charles X
pursued pro church policies. For instance, he revived the influence of the church on the state and
education. A clergy was made the minister of education and Bishops were permitted to appoint ail
teachers in primary schools.

This is why Wellington asserts that Charles X established a government by priests, through priests
and for priests.

NB. Charles X's religious inclination was shown right from 1825 in his coronation ceremony, e.g. His
body was pierced seven times with a golden needle kept right from the 5^ century. This was to make
him receive blessings from the holy oil. He is reported to have moved from place to place to heal the
sick with his holy touch. A Bishop crowned Charles at the Rheims Cathedral. He led a religious
procession in Paris. He was dressed in violet robes with a burning candlelight in his hand. The
procession moved through the streets of Paris which increased fear in the people. This was an all out
restoration of the pre-1789 church privileges showing that he was a deaf monarch to the
revolutionary bells.

3. The National Guard

Charles’ unrealistic policies provoked a protest from the National Guard, which prompted him to
disband it in 1827. He was too suspicious of an armed revolt or coup detat by the Bonapartists,
liberals and republicans who had dominated the National Guard. This was unrealistic considering two
things. First, the National Guard was guaranteed by the 1814 Charter. Secondly, it had championed
the revolutionary cause against various European coalitions and stood for military glory in the
conquest of Europe up to 1814. It was even the only protector of the freedom of the Frenchmen.
Charles is reported to have said that; Concessions ruined Louis XVI and so he thought that by
destroying the National Guard he was learning something and forgetting something from the faults
of his brother. However, this boomeranged on him as the National Guard and the regular troops
joined the masses in 1830 revolution that destroyed him and the Bourbon monarchy.

4. Dismissal of Comte De-Martinac and the appointment of Polignac

Charles X dismissed his moderate counselor (Reformist minister) Comte De- Martinac (who had
succeeded Villele in 1827) and replaced him with Prince De- Polignac in 1829. Polignac was a former
prisoner of Napoleon and an ultra of ultras. Like Marie Antoinette, he was very unsympathetic to the
masses, a poor advisor and strongly inclined to aristocratic and conservative principles. He bluntly
stated that his policy was to; re-organize society, give back the clergy their weight in state affairs,
create a powerful aristocracy

and surround it with privileges.

This led to a political consciousness that provoked crisis and confrontation that climaxed into the
1830 revolution.

NB. This showed that Charles X failed to learn lessons from the pre-1789 events that led to the
revolution against his brother Louis XVI i.e. he failed to learn from the mistakes of Louis XVI of
discarding popular people like Turgot and Necker and using unpopular elements like Marie
Antoinette.

5. Despotism

One aspect of Charles administration was despotism. He hated and detested being a constitutional
monarch. Asked why he was not adhering to the 1814 Charter, Charles boasted that I would rather
chop wood than rule in the fashion of the king of England. He had nothing in his dictionary to do with
democracy and constitutionalism. This was very unrealistic Mid showed that he had learnt nothing
and forgotten nothing out of the French revolution considering that despotism had been
overwhelmed by the 1789revolutionary forces of equality, liberty and fraternity.

6. Freedom of the press

Press freedom that was gained out of the 1789 revolution came to a halt when it was suppressed by
Charles X due to its critics against his unrealistic policies. Liberal journalists were either punished with
a heavy fine or imprisoned for 7 years. Newspapers were to be sanctioned by the king .In 1827, a law
was passed which completely destroyed press freedom. This amongst others provoked liberal
protests that climaxed into the July 1830 revolution

7. St. Cloude Ordinance 1830

On 25th July 1830, Charles X issued the St Cloude Ordinance in which he clearly stated that; ....A
government that has not the right to take measures for the safety of the state cannot exist

Consequently, he declared a state of emergency, dissolved the newly elected chamber of deputies,
renewed the ban on the press, reduced the life of the parliament from seven years to five years and
ordered for fresh elections after reducing the number of voters from 100.000 to 25,000 just to cling
on power.

The ordinance was a challenge to the achievements of the French revolution and completely
destroyed the 1814 charter. It provoked people who erected barricades throughout the streets oi
Pans, although the government demolished them. However, the National Guard and the regular
troops joined the masses who became the masters of Paris on 29th July 1830. Thiers, Guizot and
Tallyrand offered the throne to Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans and the offer was accepted by him.
Charles X abdicated in favour of his nine years grandson Henry, Duke of Bordeaux commonly known
as Count of Chambord. However, nobody bothered about him and the throne was given to Louis
Philippe. Charles X and his family left for England and later Austria where he died in 1836.

REALISTIC POLICIES OF CHARLES X

Charles appears to have learnt something from the poor economic policies of his
brother Louis XVI. This made him to embark on socio-economic developments.
In his administration, agriculture, transport and industry progressed; railways
and gas lighting were coordinated throughout Paris and its immediate towns by
1830.

In his foreign policy, Charles X pursued an adventurous foreign policy that

brought glory to the Frenchmen. He colonized Algeria in 1830 for France and
France became the first effective colonial power in Africa. Algeria became a
potential area for future exploitation through grains and olives that were shipped
as raw materials for French industries.

In the Greek war of independence, France under Charles X allied with Britain and
Russia, and assisted the Greeks against the Turks. The French fleet took part in
the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Navarino bay in 1827. Although Charles X
later withdrew the French troops from the Greek struggle, he had co operated
with England to reduce Russian imperialism in the Balkans.

REVOLUTION OF 1830
CAUSES
1. The 1815 Vienna settlement

The Vienna settlement of 1815 was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the
1830 revolutions in

Europe. The settlement ignored and undermined the forces of nationalism and
liberalism in Europe. It restored very unpopular rulers like the Bourbons in
France, Ferdinand VII in Spain, Ferdinand II in Naples and Victor Emmanuel I in
Piedmont' to their thrones. It became a forum for Metternich to impose his anti
liberal and anti nationalistic policies against smaller nations like Italians and
Germans. The settlement also forcefully amalgamated Belgium with Holland to
form the Kingdom of Netherlands. All these were cardinal mistakes that brought
instability in Europe, which climaxed in the 1830 revolutions in France, Belgium,
Italian and German states. It should be noted that the settlement ignored the
independence of Poland and ratified the partition of Poland between Russia,
Austria and Prussia. This left the Poles with no other better option to regain their
independence than a revolution.

2. Unrealistic parliamentary system

Unfair parliamentary system also caused the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in
Europe. In the kingdom of Netherlands, the Belgians whose population was 3.5
million were given equal number of seats in the parliament with the Dutch whose
population was only 2million. The Belgian members of parliament were given
equal number of seats in the parliament with the Dutch whose population was
only 2million. The Belgian mps were government officials/sycophants who
supported Dutch interest against Belgian interest in parliament just to gain
favour from King William I. This left the Belgians who had social, political and
economic problems hopeless, which dragged them to the 1830 revolution.

In Poland, Tsar Nicholas I ignored the polish parliament and never summoned it
until 1825. Even then the parliament remained powerless since the king
continued to rule according to his wishes. In France, Charles X and his chief
Minister Guizot issued the St- Cloude ordinance of 1830 that dissolved the
parliament.

They nullified elections because many opposition had won seats in parliament
and ordered for fresh elections after reducing the number of eligible voters from
100,000 to 25,000, which left 75,000 Frenchmen disenfranchised. By 1830,
there was popular demand for parliamentary reforms and the government s
insensitivity to such demands in Belgium, Poland and France is what caused
revolutions in such states.

3. Unrealistic constitutional system of governance

Unfair constitutional system of governance was yet another issue that

contributed to the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. In the' kingdom of
Netherlands, the constitution favoured the Dutch to the disadvantage of the
Belgians. This was also extended in the courts of law, which conditioned the
Belgians to revolt in 1830. In Italian and German states, Metternich and Austria
ruled autocratically without a constitution. In France, the 1814 constitution made
property qualification the basis of voting, which left about 100.000 Frenchmen
out of about 29 million eligible to vote. The violation of the 1814 constitutional
charter by the restored bourbons discredited them from liberal Frenchmen

The Belgians, Italians, Germans and Frenchmen therefore wanted a

constitutional system of government such as that of Britain, which their leaders
refused to adopt, hence the outbreak of revolutions.

4. Political margilisation
The 1830 revolutions were also caused by unfair distribution of key government
positions. The Belgians were marginalized in favour of Dutch, for instance, only
one cabinet minister out of 7 was a Dutch, 9 out of 39 ambassadors were
Belgians and all the 9 army generals were Dutch. In Poland key government
positions were awarded to Russians and Russians replaced Polish officials in high
positions. The Belgians and Poles could not tolerate this political margilisation
beyond 1830, hence the outbreak of the revolutions.

5. Press censorship

Denial of press freedom also contributed to the outbreak of 1830 revolutionary

movements in Europe. In the kingdom of Netherlands, the Belgian press was
severely censored while that of Holland was left free to operate. In France, the
restored bourbons (Louis XVIII from 1821 and Charles X from 1824) also
censored the press just to avoid their weaknesses from being made public. In
Poland, the situation was the same. In all these states there were heavy
penalties on liberal journalists who defied the ban on press freedom. This
explains why the liberals, journalists, intellectuals and editors spear headed the
revolutions in states such as Belgium, France and Poland.

6. The French revolution of 1789

Inspiration from the French revolution of 1789 also occasioned the outbreak of
the 1830 revolutions in Europe. The 1789 revolution came with revolutionary
ideas of equality, liberty and fraternity that inspired oppressed masses with
similar problems e.g. Italians, Belgians, Germans and Poles to rebel in 1830. This
was because the French revolution of 1789 provided a practical example of how
equality, liberty and attained against an oppressive and exploitive government.
They also learnt that the power belongs to the oppressed people who can use
revolutionary means to cause the biggest political change. In France, the
restored Bourbons learnt nothing and forgot nothing from the French revolution
of 1789, which made the Frenchmen to stage yet another revolution in 1830.

7. Success of the French revolution of 1830

The success of the French revolution of 1830 against the restored Bourbon
monarchy also contributed to the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in other
states. By 1830, the Italians were fed up with foreign domination and
oppression. They could not revolt due to fear of the Troppau protocol through
which Austria, Russia and Prussia had pledged to suppress Lope and maintain the
Vienna Settlement. However, they were inspired to revolt in 1830 when they
realized that the French succeeded without any opposition/ intervention from
neither the signatories of the Vienna settlement nor the Troppau protocol
powers. This is because the success of the French men in the Feb. revolution
portrayed the vulnerability/ vincibility of the Vienna settlement and how it had
lived its usefulness.

8. British support of liberalism and nationalism

The British liberal tendency and support towards liberalism was also responsible
for the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. Britain was a liberal and
democratic country that was displeased with foreign domination and oppression.
She pursued a non-interventionist foreign policy but gave moral and indirect
support to oppressed nations who were struggling for freedom. This encouraged
the Belgians, Italians, Germans, French and Poles to revolt in 1830. This was
because they anticipated support and no opposition from British government.

9. Weakness and collapse of the congress system

The weakness and collapse of the congress system by 1830 also contributed to
the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. The congress system was
established to maintain the Vienna settlement, which had undermined
nationalism and liberalism of the Belgians, Italians, Germans and Poles. These
nations were afraid of the congress powers that were bound to crash any
revolutionary movement against the Vienna Settlement. However, the
weaknesses of the congress system such as lack of joint army, disunity of the
members together with self-interest provided a line of weakness for these
nationalities to mobilize and revolt by 1830. It's eventual collapse by 1830 left
Europe more divided without any spirit of togetherness in defending the Vienna
settlement. The Belgians, Italians, Germans and Poles used this as a golden
opportunity to mobilize and revolt by 1830.

10. Economic hardship

Economic hardship prior to 1.830 made indispensable contribution to the
outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in Europe. There was massive corruption,
embezzlement of public funds and excessive/ over taxation of the Italians,
Germans, Poles, French and Belgians. Italians and Germans were exploited
through over taxation by corrupt Austrian officials and Metternich. The French
were affected by the effects of revolutionary and Napoleonic wars plus the heavy
war indemnity that was imposed on her after the downfall of Napoleon. Belgian
economy was paralyzed by Leopold's free trade policy and over taxation of bread
to the advantage of the Dutch. The overall effects of these were poverty, famine,
inflation and unemployment that provided desperate conditions for the outbreak
of the 1830 revolutions in Europe.

11. Side effects of industrial revolution

The negative effects of industrialization also contributed to the outbreak of the

1830 revolutions in Europe. It created more problems like unemployment and
low payments for long hours of work in poor working conditions. The unemployed
population in Belgium and France blamed their governments for their problems.
The workers also hated their governments for failing to address their poor
conditions of work.

Besides, industrialization led to die rise of a strong middle class with ambitions to
gain political prominence/ positions by criticizing their governments for failing to
address the problems of unemployment and poor conditions of work. This
created the necessary atmosphere for the explosion of the 1830 revolutions in
Europe.

12. Religion.

Religion was responsible for the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions especially in
Belgium and France. In the. Kingdom of Netherlands, Protestant religion was
made a state religion amidst protest from the Belgians who were Catholics and
excitement from the Dutch who were Protestants. Education was made to be
under the church, which meant that catholic schools were indirectly given to
Protestants since Protestants dominated key government positions. Belgian
religious leaders criticized such polices and thus influenced the outbreak of the
revolution. In France, Charles X revived the church influence on state affairs and
the privileges of the clergy. This was a resurrection of the pre-1789 church
influence and privileges which the Frenchmen had shed blood to abolish in the
1789 revolution. Eventually, it dragged the Frenchmen to yet another revolution
in 1830.

13. Despotism

The need to end dictatorship in Europe was also responsible for the outbreak of
the 1830 revolutions. In France, Charles X established a perfect dictatorship in
1830 when he enacted the St. Cloude ordinance e in which he declared a state of
emergency, nullified elections and ordered for a fresh one after reducing the
number of voters from 100,000 to 25,000. Tsar Nicholas I killed many Poles
whom he suspected to have played a role in the death of his father. He also
proposed to use the Polish army to suppress the revolution in France that made
them to mutiny against him. In Belgium, Leopold II dictated policies that
favoured the Dutch against the Belgians e.g. he forced the Belgians to use Dutch
as official language. In Italian and

German states, Metternich system denied the Italians freedom of speech,

association, worship, press etc.

The above dictatorial and anti-liberal policies were unacceptable to the French,
Belgians, Italians and Germans, hence the outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in
Europe.

14. The struggle for national independence and unification

The desire to achieve independence and unification also caused the 1830
revolutions in Europe. The Vienna Settlement of 1815 undermined nationalism
and subjected Belgium to Dutch control, Poland to Russian rule, Italians and
Germans to Austrian influence. Metternich frustrated Italian and German
unifications through his repressive policy of divide and rule, espionage and force.
This made Italians and Germans who had started struggling for unification earlier
to continue after 1815, which climaxed into the outbreak of 1830 revolutions.
Thus, one can comfortably assert that the struggle for national independence and
unification in Belgium, Poland, Italian and German states contributed to the
outbreak of 1830 revolutions in Europe.
15. Role of intellectuals and revolutionary leaders

Lastly, the role-played by intellectuals and revolutionary leaders also caused the outbreak of
the 1830 revolutions in Europe. In spite of press censorship, Journalists, professors, teachers
and lawyer's clandestinely/ secretly condemned unrealistic policies of their governments and
inspired the masses with revolutionary emotions. Their role was very influential in planning
and mobilizing the masses and foreign assistance for the revolution. Polignao led the
revolution in Belgium while, Lafayette, Louis Philippe, Adolph-Theirs, Lamar tine, Tallyrand
and Cavainag worked together to lead the revolution in France. The revolutions in Poland
and German states were led by intellectuals especially university students. They read and
interpreted the writings of philosophers to the oppressed masses and made it easy to
mobilize them for the revolution

EFFECTS/SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
REVOLUTION 1830
The 1830 revolutions had positive and negative effects on the political, social and
economic developments of Europe. Some of its effects were short term while
others were long term and everlasting in the history of Europe.

Negative effects

1. Loss of life and destruction of property

The 1830 revolutions resulted into massive loss of lives and destruction of
property. In Belgium, the Dutch troops attacked and killed thousands of Belgians
while the revolutionaries destroyed important places like opera house. In Italian
states, Spain and Portugal, civil war developed after the revolutions and led to
more death and destruction of property.

2. Downfall of Kings and their governments

The 1830 revolutions led to the downfall of Kings and their governments. The
revolution in Belgium overthrew the Belgian crown as the Belgians regained their
independence from king Leopold II of the Kingdom of Netherlands. In France,
Charles X and the restored Bourbon monarchy were overthrown and never again
re-surfaced in the political leadership of France. In the German states of
Brunswick, the ruling Duke was overthrown. In the Italian states of Modena and
Parma, King Francis IV and Marie Louise were overthrown respectively. The
downfall of these Kings and governments were a direct consequence of
revolutionary activities against them.

3. Downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans monarchy

The 1830 revolutions in Belgium, Italian states and Poland contributed to the
downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans's monarchy in France. The liberals.
Catholics and glory seekers in France pressurized Louis Philippe to assist the
revolutionaries in Belgium, Italy and Poland but Philippe declined. It made them
to criticize his government and leadership as incompetent of reviving the French
lost glory and prestige in Europe. This undermined the popularity of Louis
Philippe and Orleans monarchy right from the start and contributed to outbreak
of 1848 revolution, which terminated Louis Philippe and the monarchy from the
"political landscape" of France.

4. Total Collapse of the Congress system

The 1830 revolutions led to total collapse of the congress system. The congress
system that was instituted maintain the Vienna settlement and peace was finally
brought to an end by the 1830 revolutions. The revolutions created more
divisions amongst the congress powers and consequently undermined the
concert of Europe/ spirit of togetherness. For instance, Britain and France
supported the revolution in Belgium, which was opposed by Austria, Prussia and
Russia. Britain and Russia also supported the revolutions in Italian and German
states against Austria. All these undermined the concert of Europe and made it
impossible to revive the congress system that had already been weakened by
other factors.

5. Outbreak of1848 revolutions in Europe and 1863revolution in Poland

The 1830 revolutions also contributed to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in
Europe. The suppression of Italian, German and Polish revolutions left them more
determined to fight due to unfulfilled aims and objectives i.e. freedom. This
partly explains why Italians and Germans kept resisting Austrian influence, which
climaxed into the 1848 revolutions. The success of the Belgium and French
revolutions of 1830 discredited the Vienna settlement and moral boosted the
Italians, Germans and Poles to fight and overthrow the arrangement of the
Vienna settlement in their states. Besides, the revolutions made Metternich to
toughen his repressive policy against Italians, Germans and Hungarians only to
drag them the 1848 revolutions. The failure of the Poles to achieve their aims
and objectives in 1830 made them continue with the struggle that led to the
outbreak of yet another revolution in 1863.

6. Weakened Metternich's influence in Europe

Metternich’s influence and system in Europe were undermined by the 1830

revolutions. In the Vienna settlement of 1815; Metternich influenced the
delegates to restore the Bourbon monarchy in France and amalgamate Belgium
with Holland. This was successfully reversed in 1830 when the restored Bourbons
were over thrown and Belgium broke off from Holland. Metternich failed to
influence European statesmen to suppress the revolutions and preserve the
Vienna settlement. The rise of Louis Philippe in France and Leopold Saxe-Coburg
in Belgium with anti-Metternich background and policies left Metternich isolated
from 1830. It helped to shift the balance of power from Vienna to London. This
partly explains why there was increased opposition to Metternich's influence in
Europe from 1830 -1848.

7. Oppression and suppression of the masses

The 1830 revolutions had disastrous consequences in areas where the

revolutionaries failed to succeed.

Oppressive policies were adopted to safeguard the re-emergence of further

revolutionary movements.

Metternich oppressed the Italians and Germans more by tightening his

conservative and anti-liberal policies e.g. press censorship, imprisonment and
exile of liberals, spy network and use of force. Tsar Nicholas I abolished freedom
of press and parliament in Poland. He forcefully took polish children for military
training in Russia. He went ahead to close the University of Warsaw and turned
the entire city of Warsaw into a military garrison. It should be noted that severe
suppression and militarism in the aftermath of the revolutions forced hundreds of
Italians, Germans and Poles into exile especially in Western Europe and America.

Positive effects

8. Success of the revolutions in France and Belgium

The revolutions in France and Belgium succeeded and the revolutionaries were
able to take power from conservative and despotic leaders. This strengthened
the forces of liberalism and nationalism not only in France and Belgium but also
all over Europe. However, the revolutions in Poland, Spain, Italian and German
states failed to succeed. The revolutions in Poland were suppressed by Russian
troops while those of German and Italian states were crushed by Austrian and
local royalists.

9. Success of the Greek war of independence

The success of the Greek war of independence was facilitated by the 1830
revolutions. The Greeks started are rebellion against Turkey in 1821 and were
still fighting by 1830. The outbreak of revolutions in France, Belgium, Poland,
Italian and German, states created more instability in Europe that diverted the
attention of European powers. This made the major powers of Europe unable to
oppose the Greek revolt and instead support the declaration of her independence
in 1832 i.e. Britain, France and Russia.

10. Rise of new men and governments

The 1830 revolutions also led to the emergence of new men and governments in
the politics of Europe. In Belgium, an independent constitutional monarchy was
established under the leadership of Leopold Saxe-Coburg, as its first king. In
France, the Orleans monarchy under the leadership of Louis Philippe took over
power after the success of the revolution. IPs also important to acknowledge that
the middle class who had been discriminated in French politics dominated key
positions in government. The failure of the revolution in Italian states led to the
rise of Mazzini who formed the young Italian movement to fight for Italian
independence and unification.

11. Consolidation of constitutional liberal system of government

The revolution led to attainment of constitutional liberal system of government in

Europe. In France, the 1814 charter was revised in 1830 and thus the Orleans
monarchy became a liberal constitutional monarchy. Belgium was also declared a
liberal constitutional monarchy with an independent judiciary, elected parliament
and executive. In Brunswick [a German state], Spain and Portugal, the post
revolutionary governments were forced to grant liberal constitutions. One can
therefore conclude that the 1830 revolutions consolidated the idea of
constitutionalism in Europe.

12. Exposed the weakness of the Vienna settlement

The revolutions undermined the credibility of the Vienna settlement and

destroyed its achievements. The settlement had undermined liberalism and
nationalism in Belgium, Poland, Italian and German states by imposing foreign
rule. In France, the settlement underrated the achievements of the French
revolution and Napoleon by restoring the rule of the Bourbons. However, the
outbreak of the 1830 revolutions in these slates manifested that the Vienna
settlement was unrealistic in maintaining a lasting peace in Europe. The
revolutions also helped to overturn the bad arrangements of the settlement in
Belgium and France. Even where the revolutions did not succeed e.g. Italian and
German states, the forces of liberalism and nationalism were strengthened,
which kept undermining the credibility of the settlement. This was shown when
the restored Bourbon monarchy was over thrown and Belgium separated from
Holland.

CHARACTERISTICS/COMMON FEATURES OF
THE 1830 REVOLUTION IN EUROPE
The 1830revolutions in Europe occurred in France, Belgium, Poland, German
stales, Italian states etc.
They possessed similar characteristics in their causes, course and consequences.

1. The roots / origin of the 1830 revolutions can be traced back to the French
revolution of 1789. The revolution came with the idea of liberty, equality and
fraternity that inspired ItaU.ans, Germans and Poles to rebel in 1830. They also
used strategies and tactics adopted from the French in 1789. Besides, the
success of the 1830 revolutions in France also moral boosted these states to
revolt in 1830.

2. The revolutions were also caused by the unrealistic Vienna settlement of 1815.
The settlement imposed foreign rule on the Belgians, Italians and Germans. It
also restored the unpopular bourbon rule in France. These brought bitter
resentment that flared up into 1830revolutions.

3. The revolutions were either liberal or nationalistic in nature. The

revolutionaries revolted in demand for liberal reforms and independence or
liberal reforms only. In France, they demanded for liberal reforms only because
they were already independent. In Belgium, Poland, Italian and German states
the revolutionaries needed liberal reforms as well as independence.

4. The timing and spread of the 1830 revolutions provides some similarities. The
revolutions broke out in the same year i.e. 1830 and those that failed were
suppressed by the end of 1830. It started from France in Feb. 1830 and spread
to other states.

5. Foreign intervention is yet another feature that characterized the 1830

revolutions in Europe. Britain and France sent their troops to assist the Belgians
in 1831.They were also influential in proclaiming Belgium as an independent and
neutral state by 1832. On the other hand, Russian troops crushed Polish
revolution by the end of 1830. In Italian and German states, Austrian troops
were used to quell the revolutions.

6. The revolutions were based in the urban centers. The rural dwellers played
little role in the revolutions.
Urban towns like Paris in France, Berlin and Brunswick in the German states,
Milan in Piedmont and

Warsaw in Poland became the base for mobilization and fighting by the
revolutionaries. This was because urban centers had the greatest impact of
industrial revolution. Above all, the workers, middle class and intellectuals were
the residents of such towns.

7. The 1830 revolutions were led by intellectuals and middle classmen. They
included lawyers, journalists, teachers and university students. For instance,
Adolph Theirs, Lafayette, Lamar tine etc. led the revolution in France. Mazzinni,
Gilbert and Garibaldi co-coordinated the rebellion in Italian states. University
students in German states and Poland provided leadership to the revolutionaries.

8. Apart from the revolutions in Belgium and France, the other revolutions failed
to achieve their main objectives. The Italians, Germans, poles and Spaniards
were all quelled down by 1831. They failed to dislodge foreign rule and were
persecuted there after the revolutions were quelled down.

9. The 1830 revolutions were also characterized by heavy bloodshed, destruction

of property and exile to thousands of people. The counter revolutionary
measures by the existing governments led to loss of thousands of lives and self-
exile of key suspects e.g. Mazzini and Garibaldi in Italian states.

10. The desperate socio-economic conditions coupled with the side effects of
industrial revolutions were similar factors that caused the outbreak of the 1830
revolutions in Europe. Famine, poverty, inflation, unemployment, poor working
conditions, income inequality, unfair taxation system and corruption were
problems that the pre-revolutionary governments failed to settle. These were
issues that drove the French, poles, Italians, Germans and Belgians to take a
revolutionary stand in 1830.

11. Other than Belgium, the revolutions occurred in less industrialized countries
with poor economies. Countries like France, Poland, Italian and German states
were agrarian/ agricultural with poor economies. This explains why the problems
of poverty, inflation, famine, unemployment etc. were so profound that the
revolutions became inevitable by 1830. On the other hand, Britain survived
because of her strong economy and industrial base.

BELGIAN REVOLUTION 1830 CAUSES

The circumstances that led to the outbreak of the Belgian Revolution of 1830 can
be categorized into political, economic, social -cultural and religious factors:

POLITICAL FACTORS

1. The unrealistic Vienna Settlement/Nationalism

The Vienna Settlement of 1815 was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the
Belgian revolution. The settlement forced Belgium to combine with Holland to
form the kingdom of Netherlands as a bull – work against further French
aggression. The Dutch were made to dominate the government because the
peacemakers were suspicious that Belgium was an ally of Napoleon. This forceful
union was unworkable because of historical, social, cultural, linguistic and
economic differences between the Belgians and their Dutch masters. It was
protested by Belgian liberals and nationalists, which explains why they mobilized
the Belgians to revolt by 1830. To this extent one can argue that the Belgian
revolt was a nationalistic protest aimed at restoring the lost glory and
independence of the Belgians. •

2. Unfair parliamentary system

Unfair parliamentary representation was an issue that was responsible for the
outbreak of the revolution.

The Belgians who were 3.5 million were made to have equal representatives with
the Dutch who were only 2 million. This was undemocratic and unfair to the
Belgians who deserved more seats in the parliament on account of their
population. The Parliament itself met in Hague (Holland) than Brussels (Belgian).
Worst of all the Belgian MPs were government officials who could not oppose
King William's unfair policies against the Dutch. This made the parliament to pass
and sustain anti- Belgian policies, which made the Belgians to resort to a
revolution as the only solution to their grievances.
It should be noted that unfair parliamentary system is the reason why the
Netherlands constitution favoured the Dutch at the expense of the Belgians. The
Belgians enjoyed lesser rights and had more duties towards the state than their
Dutch counterparts (according to the constitution). For instance, the Belgians
were unfairly treated at the courts of law compared to the Dutch.

3.Domination of Administrative positions

The monopolization of public offices by the Dutch was a source of concern that
made the Belgians to revolt. King William, the president of the Kingdom was
himself a Dutch, At one time 6 out of 7 cabinet ministers were Dutch, 30 out of
39 ambassadors were Dutch, 1,800 out of 2,000 army officers were Dutch and
all the 9 Generals were Dutch. This political marginalization and prejudice against
the Belgians made the Belgians to revolt in a bid-to set up an independent state
and manage their own affairs.

4. Press censorship

Press censorship was another cause of the Belgian revolution of 1830. The
Belgian newspapers, articles, journals etc were severely censored while those of
the Dutch were being published without any restriction.

It was feared that the Belgians would use their press to criticize the Dutch
discriminative policies against the Belgians. This irritated Belgian Liberals,
journalists, writers and editors who spearheaded the revolution in 1830.

5. The influence of French Revolutionary Ideas and the support of the French
men

The spread of French revolutionary ideas of equality, liberty, fraternity and

nationalism also contributed to the outbreak of the Belgian revolt. These ideas
made the Belgians whose problems were to some extent similar to those of the
Frenchmen (before 1789) to rebel against their Dutch oppressors. Moreover, the
Frenchmen supported the Belgians to regain their independence, which would-
weaken the barrier created to the N.E. and provide opportunity for annexing
Belgium to France. This is why Tailyrand, other French radicals and Louis Philippe
gave indirect assistance to the Belgians. All these encouraged the Belgians to
start the revolution with hopes of foreign assistance from France.

6. The success of the French Revolution of18S0 and influence of external Events

The success of the French Revolution of 1830 against the Bourbon monarchy
under the leadership of Charles x inspired the Belgians to revolt. Although the
Belgians were opposed to Dutch domination, they could not rise up against the
Dutch. This was due to the fear of Troppau protocol through which Austria,
Russia and Prussia had vowed to suppress revolutions throughout Europe and
maintain the Vienna settlement. However, when the French revolted successfully
in 1830 and there was no intervention from neither the Vienna powers nor the
Troppau powers, the Belgians were moral boosted to demonstrate against Dutch
domination at opera house which climaxed into the revolution. This is because
the French success was a practical example of how the Vienna settlement had
out lived it usefulness and exposed it s vulnerability.

On the other hand, the Belgians were moral boosted by other external events in
the Austrian Empire and

America. In these areas oppressed nationalities like Italians, Germans and

Brazilians were violently struggling to regain their freedom and independence.
This encouraged the oppressed Belgians to wage a similar struggle, which led to
the revolt.

7. The Downfall of the congress system.

The collapse of the congress system by 1830 also inspired the Belgians into the
revolution. It should be noted that the congress system was to maintain the
Vienna settlement, which had forced the amalgamation of Belgium with Holland.
The Belgians were thus threatened by the congress powers who were bound to
intervene to crush any movement against the Vienna settlement. However, the
congress system collapsed by 1830 and there was no spirit of togetherness in
defending the settlement. The Belgians used this as a, golden opportunity to
revolt and regain their freedom and independence.
8. The Role of Polignao

The rise and role of Belgian revolutionary leader Polignao was influential in the
outbreak of the revolution. Polignao condemned the discriminative, exploitative
and oppressive policies of the Dutch against the Belgians, which inspired the
Belgians with revolutionary emotions. Polginao's role in criticizing Dutch
administration, planning for the revolt and mobilizing support from foreign
agitators most especially the French, made the outbreak of the revolt inevitable.

ECONOMIC FACTORS

9. Free trade policy / laissez fare Economy

The Belgians were disappointed by Leopold's economic policy, which favoured the
Dutch economy at the expense of their economy. Belgium was an industrialized
state and Holland was basically an agricultural and sea faring state. The Belgians
therefore wanted a protectionist policy to safeguard their infant industries from
foreign competition. The Dutch under Leopold's leadership preferred and pursued
a free trade policy, which was intended to avail the Dutch cheap manufactured
goods and food staff. It should be stressed that this Leissez fare policy led to the
influx of superior and cheap foreign goods that out competed the Belgian
products. This was resented by Belgian middle class, businessmen and traders
who were experiencing serious losses and closed factories. It caused inflation,
unemployment, famine and starvation, which forced the Belgians to rebel for
their freedom in 1830.

10. Unfair taxation system

Unfair taxation system also prompted the Belgian revolution of 1830. The
Belgians revolted due to heavy and unnecessary taxes that were imposed on
them. They were angered by the imposition of new taxes on flour and meat in
1821 whose benefits they never saw. The most annoying was that bread, which
was their staple food, was over taxed and yet potatoes, which was the Dutch
staple food was never taxed. This made bread very expensive, increased the cost
of living, reduced the standard of living and disposable income of the Belgians in
favour of the Dutch. It was these deplorable conditions due to indiscriminate tax
policy that made the Belgians to rebel against their Dutch oppressors and
exploiters.

11. Payment of National Debt

The Belgians were irritated by an arrangement, which subjected them to pay half
of the total debt of the kingdom, some of which were incurred before the union.
This was unfortunate because Holland had a heavier debt burden than Belgium.
The imposition of a uniform tax to meet this debt burden was resisted by the
Belgians. They considered foreign domination as a root cause to unfair
exploitative policies and revolted in 1830.

SOCIAL - CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS FACTORS

12. Language Difference

King William's introduction of Dutch as a national and official language in 1822

also caused the revolution. This was against the Belgians who wanted French
(which they spoke) to be used as an alternative language. It should be
emphasized that employment in public offices and official communications were
to be in Dutch. This frustrated the Belgians who regarded this as an abuse and
caused the 1830 revolution.

13. Religious Differences

Religious difference between the Belgians and the Dutch was a long-term factor
that contributed to the revolt. The Belgians were Catholics while the Dutch were
Protestants. But because the leadership of the kingdom was dominated by the
Dutch, Protestant religion was made the state religion. Protestants were favoured
in appointments, recruitment and promotion in public offices against Catholics.
This forced the Belgian Catholic religious leaders to criticize the union
government and influence the outbreak of the revolution. The fact that the
revolution was started when conservative Belgian Catholics allied with the
liberals is a clear testimony that religion was one cause of the rebellion.
14. Education control

Conflict between the Dutch and Belgians over control of Education also
precipitated the outbreak of the 1830 Belgian revolution. Before the union,
Education in Belgium was controlled by the church, which the Belgian Catholics
wanted to maintain. However, after the union, the Dutch dictated and education
was put under state control, which means that Catholic schools were indirectly
given to Protestant administrators.

These administrators made Dutch language to be compulsory in schools and

allocated more resources for the development of Protestant schools to the
annoyance of Belgian Catholics. All these injustices were unacceptable to the
Belgian Catholics and the clergy. It made them to think of their own state where
they would manage their schools, which made them to spear head the
revolution.

IMPACT OF THE BELGIAN REVOLUTION

The Belgian revolution had positive and negative impacts on the political, social
and economic structures of Belgium as well as Europe.

Positive impact

1. The Belgians succeeded in regaining their independence. The Belgians fought

and repelled Dutch invasion several times. This made King William to bow to
pressure from Britain and France to recognize Belgian independence by 1839. It
led to the emergence of a new Belgium that was independent on the map of
Europe. On the other hand, this practically ended Dutch exploitative, oppressive
and discriminative rule over the Belgians.

2. Belgium was declared neutral in the London conference of 1839 by the big
powers. This was because France and Russia had hidden ambitions to dominate
Belgium. Besides, the Vienna powers were afraid of war amongst themselves
over Belgium, which was bound to cause a major war in Europe. This is why
Belgium was declared independent and neutral. This stayed in force until it was
violated by Germany in 1914, which forced Britain to declare war on Germany.
3. Belgium was declared a constitutional monarchy with Leopold Saxe-Coburg as
it’s first King. The new constitution had 18 articles, which was non discriminative
and emphasized equality of all by nature. The constitution established an
independent constitutional monarchy with an executive, elected parliament and
an independent judiciary. This made Belgium to be accepted and recognized
within the ranks of the big powers of Europe.

4. It promoted the development and industrialization of Belgium. The declaration

of Belgian independence and neutrality freed her from Dutch exploitation and
oppression, which favoured economic development.

Belgium became free to adapt a protectionist policy and safeguarded her infant
industries from foreign competition. This turned Belgium into the second most
industrialized nation in Europe before the unification of Germany.

5. The Belgian independence was a triumph for the forces of liberalism and
nationalism over reactionary and conservative forces in Europe. The new forces
of liberalism and nationalism were ushered in by the French revolution of 1789.
From then onwards there was a struggle between the new forces and the old
forces of conservatism led by Metternich. The success of the revolution
undermined the role of conservative aristocrats like Metternich and contributed
to their downfall.

6. The revolt promoted European diplomacy at the time when it was on the verge
of total collapse. The revolution created a crisis that necessitated European
powers to come together and settle it. It led to the calling of the London
conference of 1839, which was to find a final settlement to the revolution in
Belgium. This led to the revival of European diplomacy and created a spirit that
partly led to the calling of the 1840 and 1841 London conferences.

7. The success of the revolution increased British involvement and 'influence in

European and Belgian affairs. British influence in Belgian affairs increased
because Leopold Soxe - Coburg was a relative to the queen of Britain, Britain
used the revolt as an opportunity to change the balance of power from Vienna to
London. This was one of the issues that made Britain to call the London
conference and champion Belgian independence and neutrality.
8. The Greek war of independence was facilitated by the outbreak of the Belgium
revolution. The Greek revolt started way back in 1821 and by 1830, the Greeks
were still fighting for their freedom. However, the outbreak of the Belgian revolt
apart from creating more instabilities in Europe, diverted the attention of
European powers. This favoured the success of the Greek war of independence
by 1832.

9. The Belgian revolution contributed to the outbreak of subsequent revolutions

in Europe. It discredited the Vienna settlement and provided a practical example
of how freedom and independence could be attained. This inspired the outbreak
of the 1830 revolutions in Poland and Italy, 1848 Revolutions in Europe and the
Russian Revolution of 1917. These revolutionary movements took the challenge
and example from the Belgian revolution of 1830. Such revolutions directly and
indirectly led to political, social, economic and religious reforms in different parts
of Europe.

Negative impact

10. There was massive loss of life and destruction of property. The Belgian
revolutionaries became rowdy and destroyed important places like opera house.
On the other hand. King William II sent Dutch forces that frequently attacked
and fought Belgian revolutionaries. These led to loss of lives and destruction of
property.

11. The revolution had negative consequences on the growth and development of
Holland. Before the evolution, Holland exploited the Belgians and depended on
her industrial products for her prosperity, however, the revolution terminated her
exploitation and dependence on Belgian industries, which impacted negatively on
her economy. Besides, Dutch invasions and wars on Belgium had short run effect
of contributing to economic decline.

12. The protectionist policy adopted in the aftermath of the revolution had
negative impact on economies of Europe in the short run. It undermined
international trade between Belgium and other European powers.
Nevertheless, in the long run Belgium industrialized and her Economy improved.
European countries benefited by buying superior quality and cheap manufactured
products from Belgium.

13. The revolution led to antagonism amongst European powers. It created a

strong enmity between Belgium, Britain and France on one hand against Holland,
Austria, Prussia and Russia on the other hand.

This was because Britain and France supported the revolution which was opposed
by Austria, Prussia and Russia.

14. The revolt violated the Vienna settlement and led to the total collapse of the
congress system. It denounced and discredited the Vienna settlement showing
that it was unrealistic in an attempt to create a lasting peace in Europe. This was
shown in 1831 when France and Britain who were the signatories of the
settlement supported the revolution, which was opposed by other powers.
Besides, this undermined the concert of Europe and led to the total collapse of
the congress system.

15. The revolt undermined the popularity of Louis Philippe and contributed to his
downfall by 1848. The Frenchmen wanted Louis Philippe to assist the Belgians
who had offered the throne to Louis Philippe's son. However, Philippe declined to
support the Belgians because of the fear of reactions from the great powers. This
disappointed the glory seekers, Liberals, Catholics and Bonapartists who
criticized and undermined his government. Even when Louis Philippe allied with
Britain and Belgium against Holland in 1831, they still criticized him for being a
stooge of Palmer stone and Britain. All these created circumstances that
contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe in 1848.

REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS

The Belgian Revolution was a significant victory of Belgian liberalism and
nationalism against Dutch domination and conservative forces in Europe. The
Belgians succeeded in establishing an independent and neutral state that was
guaranteed by the London conference of 1839. The Belgian success was due to
social, political and economic factors within and outside Belgium.
1. The Downfall of the congress system was a blessing in disguise that
contributed to the success of the Belgian revolution. It should be noted that the
revolution was a violation of the Vienna settlement, which was to be defended by
the congress system. However, the collapse of the congress system by 1830 left
the powers divided and destroyed the spirit of togetherness in preserving the
Vienna settlement. This is partly why there was no intervention against the
revolution, which made it to succeed.

2. The role of France and Louis Philippe was significant in the success of the
revolution. A number of French agitators supported the revolution with the hope
of weakening the barrier created against France and annexing Belgium to France.
This made Palmer stone who never wanted French annexation and influence in
Belgium to caution and frustrate Louis Philippe from suppressing the revolution.
It made Louis Philippe to withdraw his son's choice over Belgian throne in favour
of Leopold Saxe-Coburg. This reduced tension between Britain and France to the
advantage of Belgian revolutionaries.

Besides, Louis Philippe's non interventionist foreign policy frustrated his

opponent's (opposition in France) attempt to annex Belgium, which favoured
quick mobilization of the Belgians against the Dutch. It should be stressed that
the French troops played a crucial role in repulsing the Dutch invasion of 1831,
which determined the success of the revolution.

3. Britain played the most significant role in the success of the Belgian
revolution. The Whig government in Britain was sympathetic to the Belgian cause
and never wanted any intervention, which was bound to jeopardize British
commercial and strategic interests in Belgium. This is why Palmer stone
pressurized Louis Philippe not to suppress the revolution. It indirectly explains
why Britain authorized Louis Philippe in 1831 to intervene and protect the
Belgian revolution against Dutch invasion. It should be noted that Louis Philippe
would not have done so if it was not for Palmer stone's will and authority. It was
the same Palmer stone of Britain who called the London conference in 1839 that
finally guaranteed Belgian independence and neutrality.

4. The success of the revolution was also due to unity and strength of Belgian
nationalism. It was a mass movement that included the middle class, traders,
peasants, clergy, intellectuals, civil servants and soldiers. There were no
collaborators or betrayers and everyone was ready to fight for freedom and
independence. This was partly why the great powers especially Britain and
France instead of suppressing the movement, helped the Belgians to succeed in
setting an independent and neutral state.

5. Genuine grievances also account for the success of the Belgian revolution. The
Belgians were struggling against the Vienna settlement, which had unrealistically
imposed Dutch control over them. This was worsened by Dutch exploitative rule.
Even after 1830, the Dutch displayed ruthlessness when they invaded Belgium in
1831, where they caused unjustifiable destruction and killings of the Belgians.
This brutal act installed a lot of fear and doubts to the great powers as to what
the Dutch were prepared to do should they regain Belgium. This partly made
Britain and France to assist the Belgians in their struggle for freedom.

6. The defeat of Dutch invasion in 1831 determined the success of the Belgian
revolutionaries. King William refused to accept the Belgian independence that
was declared in 1830 and sent Dutch troops to suppress the movements, with
hopes of regaining control. However, his efforts were rendered fruitless when
French troops and the British navy allied with Belgian troops and defeated the
Dutch troops. Had Holland succeeded in this war; she would have regained
control of Belgium and the Belgian independence would have been delayed.

7. the strength of Belgian economy was also responsible for the success of the
revolution. Belgium was an industrialized nation with a strong economy while
Holland was a poor agricultural and sea faring nation.

Belgian's strong economy made her able to train, arm, maintain and motivate a
big army that defeated Dutch forces and defended the revolution. It should be
noted that Belgian's strong economy is what made her to sustain the struggle
until 1839 when she was declared free and neutral.

8. The size of Belgian population was one reason that contributed to the success
of the revolution. The Belgians were 3.5 million while the Dutch were only
2million. This means that the Belgians were able to mobilize more resources and
men than their Dutch masters. This more resources and men explains why the
Belgians succeeded against the Dutch.

9. The success of the Belgian revolution was also due to Belgian's military
superiority over their Dutch masters. The Belgians had a bigger army, well
motivated, better armed and more determined than the Dutch troops. This
explains why the Belgians (although assisted by French troops and British navy
in 1831) were able to repulse Dutch invasion and remain free.

10. The declaration of Belgian as an independent constitutional monarchy rather

than a republic facilitated the success of the revolution. This was a wise decision
that made European powers not to oppose the revolution. Otherwise, had the
revolutionaries declared a republican government, European powers would have
intervened and crushed it. This is because European powers knew republican
governments in Europe as a source of instability.

11. The 1831 constitution excluded King William from the throne. It embraced
the principle of equality and was all inclusive, non partisan and non
discriminative. The constitution provided for a government with an elected
parliament, an executive and an independent judiciary. Generally, the
constitution was better than the French and similar to those of Britain and U.S.A.
This is part of the reason why Belgians and western powers accepted and
recognized the revolutionary government.

12. The outbreak and success of previous revolutions in Europe also account for
the success of the Belgian revolution. For instance, the French success in 1789
and 1830 morale boosted the Belgians, even those who were initially reluctant to
join the revolt. One must emphasis that the 1830 revolution in France, Poland,
Italy and the Greek war of independence diverted the attention of European
powers that would have assisted the Dutch. For instance, Austria and Russia
were tied to suppressing the revolts in Italy and Poland respectively. These were
events that favoured the success of the Belgian revolution.

13. Lastly, the London conference of 1839 was a Land mark for the success of
the Belgian revolution. The London treaty guaranteed the independence and
neutrality of Belgium, which was recognized by the great powers as well as
Holland. Besides, the treaty clearly defined the boundaries of Belgium and her
neighbours like Holland. For instance, she retained Antwerp and the western part
of Luxemburg. All these made the Belgian revolution an international issue and
put her on the map of Europe as an independent and neutral state.

THE OREANS MONARCHY 1838-48

FACTORS FOR THE RISE
1. Revolutionary Background

Louis Philippe had a revolutionary background that became a political asset for
his rise to power in 1830. His father had supported the French revolution of1789
and had even voted for the death of his own cousin, Louis XVI in 1793. In 1789,
Louis Philippe at a tender age of 16 was already a member of the Jacobin club.
He participated in the French revolution and physically fought in the
revolutionary wars up to 1793. For instance, he fought against Austria and the
Royalists at the battle of Jemappes in 1792. This made him the only hope for the
middle class, peasants and workers whose interest was jeopardized by the
restored Bourbon monarchy hence they voted him to power.

2. Weaknesses of the restored Bourbons

The Bourbon monarchy had outlived its usefulness as early as 1789. From 1815
when it was restored, it was too unpopular and survived on the support of
external powers. Louis XVIII and Charles X pursued very unrealistic policies and
tried to resurrect the pre -1789 socio-political and economic order that the
Frenchmen never wished to see. The Frenchmen wanted a democratically elected
King who would be answerable to the people, hence the title "King of the French
by the grace of God and the will of the people". This made the restored Bourbon
monarchy very unpopular, triggered the outbreak of the 1830 revolution and
paved way for the rise to power of Louis Philippe.

3. The success of the 1830 revolution in France

The success of the 1830 revolution in France was a landmark in the rise of Louis
Philippe and Orleans monarchy to power. The 1830 revolutionaries (Louis
Philippe inclusive), staged a massive demonstration that climaxed in the
overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy. The success of the revolution created a
political vacuum that led to Louis Philippe's rise to power in 1830. If the
revolution had failed, Louis Philippe would either be imprisoned, executed or
exiled having supported the revolution. Thus, the success of the revolution gave
him an open chance to rise to power in 1830.
4. His personality

Louis Philippe had a unique and humble character that won him the support of
the common man.

Philippe had a simple life style, for example he lived principally on soup, walked
on streets with no bodyguards, carried his own umbrella, went shopping himself
and saved his beards himself. Such personality made him to be very popular
amongst the workers and peasants who were fed up with the luxurious lifestyles
of the previous kings. Consequently, they overwhelmingly voted him to the
chamber of deputies from which he was finally voted to power.

NB. It was the long period of exile and poverty that taught Philippe to be
economical and lead a simple lifestyle.

5. Personal relations with revolutionary leaders

Besides, Louis Philippe had a strong solidarity with the leaders of the 1830 July
revolutions. He had a good personal relationship with Lafayette, Adolph Thiers,
Lamar tine and Tallyrand who were the brains behind the success of the 1830
revolution. It's on record that Philippe openly embraced and kissed Lafayette on
3th July 1830 when the success of the revolution was very clear. This increased
his popularity most especially amongst the republicans under the leadership of
Lafayette. Adolph cheirs, a reputable journalist and politician was a very serious
mobiliser and campaign agent of Louis Philippe. On 30th July 1830, he flooded
Paris with placards of Louis Philippe, which popularized him and paved way for
his rise to power.

6. His Association with the middle class

By 1830, France had the largest middle class in Europe that comprised of about
29% of the total population. Philippe was not slow at exploiting this to his
advantage. He associated with the middle class, mixed freely amongst them and
identified himself with middle class interests as early as 1815 (when he returned
from exile). This made him to be a favourite and familiar candidate to the middle
class and the peasants who are always influenced by the middle class. This also
explains why he won the election that brought him to power in the chamber of
deputies because it was dominated by the middle class. Had it not been for the
votes of the middle class who were the majority in the chamber of deputies, the
story of Louis Philippe's rise to power would have been different.

7. Effects of industrial revolution and support of workers

The negative effects of industrial revolution gained Louis Philippe the support of
workers. The industrial revolution had by 1830 encroached into France. It came
with socio-economic evils like unemployment, exploitation of workers by
capitalists inform of low payments for long hours of work, poor sanitation and
child labour. The working class in France was living a very horrible life compared
to their colleagues in Britain where conditions were far better. Louis Philippe
promised to improve their housing and working conditions, which made the
workers to solidly rally behind (support) him, hence his rise to power.

8. Unpopularity of Republicanism

Unpopularity of Republicanism in France and Europe contributed to the rise of

Louis Philippe to power. After the success of the 1830 revolution, republicans
tried to establish a republican government in France. They set up a provisional
government under the leadership of Lafayette at Hotel de Ville.

However, republicanism was only popular in Paris and did not have a nationwide
popularity (outside Paris). It faced opposition from moderate royalists, liberals
and monarchical powers like Russia and Austria. Moderate royalists and liberals
argued that, the establishment of a republic in France would provoke the hostility
of monarchial powers of Europe and gave their support to Louis Philippe as a
constitutional monarch. The fear of great powers' reaction also made republican
leaders like Lafayette and Adolph Thiers to give up and support Louis Philippe
who was presented and accepted as a citizen King.

9. Influence of constitutionalism

By 1830, France was fed up with absolutism (despotism) and had great
admiration for constitutionalism. Charles X had declared the 1814 constitutional
charter null and void and ruled autocratically. The Frenchmen therefore wanted a
constitutional monarchy of the British type.

Fortunately, Louis Philippe's exile in England had widened his knowledge of

constitutional monarchy that the Frenchmen badly needed. When he promised to
rule France as a constitutional state just like Britain, no one could doubt him on
account of his experience hence paving way for his election as a constitutional
King in France.

DOMESTIC POLICY
Louis Philippe's government was very unstable from 1830 - 1840. It was
characterized by revolts, strikes and demonstrations. These were master minded
by republicans who felt cheated in 1830 since they had played a leading role in
the revolution of 1830. They had wanted a republican government but had failed
because of the fear of the possibility of war with other monarchial governments
in Europe. From 1830-1840, ten different chief ministers (prime ministers) held
office. Adolph Thiers was the last who resigned in 1840 because of dissatisfaction
over Mehemet All's affairs. From 1840 - 1848, Guizot's cabinet held power. His
policies greatly contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe in 1848. The
following were the achievements, failures and weaknesses of Louis Philippe's
domestic policies.

ACHIEVEMENTS AND POSITIVE IMPACT OF

LOUIS PHILIPPE IN FRANCE
1. Industrialization

Louis Philippe made commendable progress in the industrialization of France. His

pro-middle class and peaceful foreign policy attracted massive investment in the
industrial sector from the middle class.

Consequently, new machines were imported from England and new industries
like wine, steel and cotton ginning were established. Transport and
communication networks were improved to complement industrial progress.
Many railway lines including the one from Paris to St.German were also
constructed to facilitate transportation of raw materials and finished products. By
1940, France was the third most industrialized state in Europe. Industrialization
created more employment opportunities, improved the standard of living and
promoted other sectors like agriculture, trade and transport.

2. Trade

Louis Philippe under took special measures for the progress of trade. A network
of roads, canals, railways and harbours for docking of ships were constructed to
promote export trade. He also encouraged a free market economy and free trade
with the rest of Europe. However, free trade policy was dropped when it was
realized that the French infant industries could not manage to compete with
superior British manufactured products. This forced Louis Philippe to resort to the
policy of protectionism that safeguarded infant industries in France and promoted
economic prosperity.

3. Education

In 1830, a law was passed to regulate education. Primary education was

entrusted to the church.

However, government control over secondary and higher institutions was

maintained. It was compulsory to educate children about spiritual and social
responsibilities. Louis Philippe also encouraged free education and children were
forbidden from any form of employment to avoid child labour. His education
policy produced useful citizens who steered the socio-economic and political
developments of France.

4. Religion

In the field of religion, Louis Philippe's government followed a policy of neutrality.

He allowed freedom of worship, which Charles x had undermined by making
Catholicism a state religion. The Concordat that Napoleon had signed with the
pope was maintained and the government continued to nominate Bishops and
pay salaries of the clergy. In 1831, Judaism was put on an equal footing with
Christianity. The government began to pay the salaries of Jewish rabbis just as it
paid the protestant reverends and catholic priests. This promoted freedom of
worship as opposed to religious intolerance that was being propped up by the
restored Bourbons.

5. Constitutionalism

Louis Philippe tried to rule as a constitutional monarch, which Charles x had

discarded. He rose to power in 1830 through the revised constitution of 1830.
From 1830 up to 1840, Louis Philippe ruled according to the provisions of the
constitution. This includes fundamental human rights and freedoms like freedom
of speech, press, worship and association. He was assisted by a two chambered
parliament i.e. the chambers of peers and deputies. These transformed France
from absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy by 1840.

6. Restoration of the National Guard and the tri colour flag

Louis Philippe is credited for the restoration of the National Guard and the tri
colour flag. The National Guard that had been disbanded by Charles x in 1827
was reinstated and reorganized into a disciplined national army. It was used to
maintain internal stability and protect the territorial integrity of France. The
revolutionary tri colour flag that Charles x had discarded was restored as the
national flag. This was recognition of the French revolutionary changes, which
'harvested' Louis Philippe support from the patriotic Frenchmen.

7. Political freedom

From 1830-1840, Louis Philippe granted political freedom. Many political groups
surroimded him with varied interests. Such were the Bonapartists, republicans,
liberals, legitimists and socialists. He allowed them to operate and granted
political liberties like freedom of association, speech, assembly, press etc. He
also adopted the policy of Golden Mean in which he tried to follow a middle path
policy and satisfy all the parties. This promoted democracy, fundamental human
rights and freedoms like freedom of association and press.

8. Financial management
Louis Philippe is on record as the only King in the history of France who was most
economical with resources. His days in exile and the many years of poverty
taught him a lesson to avoid extravagancy and luxuries. He pursued a non-
interventionist foreign policy partly to avoid wasting human and financial
resources. Similarly, he lived a simple life style like walking in the street with no
bodyguards and living principally on soup to avoid unnecessary expenses. Some
historians have argued that Louis Philippe's life style was an economic asset to
France because it saved French resources and enhanced economic progress.

NB: Louis Philippe's simple lifestyle became a political liability to him as it

reduced his popularity amongst the nobles and clergy who underrated him as not
worthy to be a king.

9. Consolidation of power

Louis Philippe used repression to consolidate his power against internal

opposition. There were uprisings, demonstrations and coup attempts engineered
by internal opposition i.e. the Bonapartists, republicans, liberals, Catholics,
royalists and socialists. However Louis Philippe consistently used the National
Guard and the police to suppress any oppositeion activities against his
government. For instance, from 1830-1835 he quelled down six uprisings in
Paris, Lyon, Lavandee and Marsailles. Louis Napoleon Ill's assassination attempt
against Louis Philippe and the coup attempts of 1836 and 1840 were foiled for
which Louis Napoleon was imprisoned. These helped to create internal stability
that fostered economic development

WEAKNESSES, FAILURES AND NEGATIVE

IMPACT OF LOUIS PHILIPPE IN FRANCE
1) Side effects of Industrialization

Industrialization had negative effects on the welfare of peasant, workers and

craft men. Machines displaced many artisans and craft men rendering them
jobless. The working class suffered low payments or long of work, poor
accommodation and sanitary conditions amongst others. There was child labour
where a kid of 5 years old could work for 16 hours a day. This led to the growth
of socialism under the leadership of Louis Blanc and Ledru Rollin. The socialists
demanded for immediate solution to unemployment and poor working condition.
Louis Philippe kept a deaf ear and a blind eye to the appalling conditions of the
workers and the jobless craft men. It was therefore not a surprise that the
socialists mobilized the unemployed and the disgruntled workers through reform
banquests that climaxed into the 1848 revolution, which terminated Louis
Philippe's reign.

2) The low Franchise (The right to vote)

Louis Philippe failed to democratize and liberalize French politics. Many French
citizens were disenfranchised because of the high tax and age qualification.
When there was a massive demand for reduction of taxes, Guizot his chief
minister insisted that those who wanted to vote or be voted should work hard,
save money and qualify to vote. Consequently, the chamber of deputies was
dominated by the propertied middle class members whose wealth made them
eligible to contest i.e. they could afford the high, tax fee. This was undemocratic
as it disenfranchised majority French peasants and the poor from political
representation.

3) Political repression and dictatorship

By 1840, Louis Philippe had drifted from his good intentions because of the
growing opposition and threats unleashed against him by the different political
factions e.g. Bonapartists, liberals, republicans etc. These factions had intensified
criminal activities like strikes, demonstrations, attempted coups and
assassination attempt on the life of King Louis Philippe. Eventually, Louis Philippe
dropped the policy of Golden Mean and resorted to conservative, radical and
reactionary policies. For instance, in April 1834 he passed the law of association,
which restricted the freedom of association. He also imposed the law of
discussion and banned the press in 1835. Those who defied these laws suffered
arrest, imprisonment, death and exile. Although these measures checked the
subversive activities of the opposition, it nevertheless brewed more political
dissatisfaction that led to the downfall of Louis Philippe in 1848.

4) Internal instability

Louis Philippe's repressive measures led to violent opposition and internal

instability. The laws; of association, discussion, ban on the press, arrest and
imprisonment of the opposition provoked uprisings,demonstrations and coup
attempts from the Bonapartists, republicans, liberals and socialists. For instance,
from 1830-1835 there were six uprisings in Paris, Lyon, Lavandee and Marsailles.
In 1836 and 1840, there were assassination and coup attempts against Louis
Philippe's life and his regime. Although violence was contained from
1840onwards, they had nevertheless led to lawlessness, death and loss of
property.

5) The return of Napoleon's body

Louis Philippe's return of Napoleon's body in 1846 was a boomerang that

contributed to his downfall. To satisfy the revolutionaries and the Bonapartists,
Louis Philippe requested to be given Napoleon's body from St. Hellena, brought it
to France and laid him in the most magnificent of resting places at the Invalids.
Some roads and streets were named after Napoleon. He further decorated
Versailles with pictures of revolutionary events and periods. However, this
rekindled the memories of Napoleon I's achievements and when the Frenchmen
tried to compare it to Louis Philippe's, they realized as Lamar time put it that
"France was bored". It aroused Napoleonic nostalgia and strengthened
Bonapartism under the leadership of Louis Napoleon Bonaparte III, a nephew of
Napoleon Bonaparte III. Thus, the event boomeranged by reducing Louis
Philippe's popularity and conditioning his downfall by 1848.

6) Middle class/Bourgeoisie oriented policy

Louis Philippe pursued middle class oriented policies and programs at the
expense of the Frenchmen.

They monopolized key government positions and the National Guard. They also
dominated the chamber of deputies since they could afford the property
qualification and were the only ones that enjoyed freedom of discussion. The
middle class were also aided with soft loans to boost their investments and trade.
All these were done against the conditions of workers and peasants that
deteriorated with industrial revolution.

Actually, Louis Philippe set up a government of the middle class, by the middle
class and for the middle class. His pre-occupation was the interest of the middle
class and capitalists who were the basis of his power and hence survival. His
popularity was eventually confined to the middle class and no wander that he fell
in 1848 following desertion by the middle class after the Spanish marriage in
1846.

7) Unrealistic Economic policy

Louis Philippe's labour policy was unfair to the working class. The government
did not restrain the middle class's exploitation and oppression in form of low
payments, long working hours, poor sanitation and accommodation. These led to
poverty, famine, low standard of living and unemployment. Poor sanitation and
accommodation led to the outbreak of calamitous diseases like cholera, typhoid,
dysentery and death of some workers. Trade unions that the workers had formed
to voice their grievances were banned. Louis Philippe's labour policy accelerated
exploitation and oppression of workers by middle class industrialists.

The overall consequence was high income gap between the rich and the poor in
France.

8) Corruption and embezzlement of funds

Corruption, bribery and embezzlement of funds characterized Louis Philippe's 18

years reign. The middle class who dominated key government positions and the
chamber of deputies made corruption and bribery part of their lifestyle. Guizot,
chief minister (1840-1848) rigged elections and maintained a strong hold over
the chamber of deputies through bribery and corruption in awarding tenders.
According to Karl Marx; Louis Philippe's government was like a joint stock
company which was using up national wealthy and whose profit was distributed
between ministers, members of the national assembly and limited voters.

The overall impact was lack of integrity in leadership, high income inequality and
inadequate socio economic developments i.e. education, health and transport.

9) Personality and character

Louis Philippe's humble personality and character was a personal weakness that
reduced his popularity.

The long years of poverty and hard life in exile made Louis Philippe to be too
economical with resources.

Consequently, he lived a very simple life style e.g. he walked freely on streets
unguarded holding a green umbrella, lit his own study fire and lived principally
on soup. This made some sections of the Frenchmen particularly the royalists
and Bonapartists who were used to seeing their kings living luxuriously to disown
him as unworthy to be a king.

10) Inglorious foreign policy

Louis Philippe's inglorious foreign policy was a disappointment to the glory

seekers, Bonapartists, liberals, Catholics and revolutionaries. He pursued a non
interventionist foreign policy in order to avoid wastage of resources and conflicts
with other powers like Britain. For example, he refused to be moved by pressure
from the liberals, Bonapartists and glory seekers to intervene in the 1830
revolutions in Belgium, Italian states and Poland not excluding the Syrian war of
1831 -184 1. This made him to be regarded as a person who was incompetent of
reactivating and consolidating France's high status in Europe that had been
established by Napoleon 1.

FOREIGN POLICY
After his rise to power, Louis Philippe was immediately faced with a series of
complicated problems across the borders of France. There were political unrest
and disturbances in some parts of Europe right from 1830. The different political
factions i.e. Bonapartists, republicans, liberals, legitimists and Catholics expected
and pressurized Philippe to intervene in such affairs and bring glory for France.
They wanted Louis Philippe to revive French military glory that was achieved by
Napoleon I but disappeared during the reign of the restored Bourbons.

Unfortunately, Louis Philippe was not bellicose (warlike), he was a man of peace
who did not wish to find himself in a hostile relationship with any of his
neigbours. He therefore, pursued a peaceful, cautious, unadventurous and often
inglorious foreign policy. This was dictated by some considerations; First he
wanted to avoid war with the great powers of Europe who had fought and
defeated Napoleon I. This is because they were still suspicious of France as a
distabiliser of peace. Secondly, Philippe accurately realized that France had a
different political ideology with despotic Russia, Prussia and Austria except
constitutional and liberal Britain. He therefore, forged a cordial Franco-Anglo
alliance where he took extra-care not to antagonize the interest of Britain. This
also helped him not to antagonize the interest of the middle class who could not
do without Britain (as the workshop of Europe). Lastly, he was aware that
although public opinion favoured war, France was not yet militarily strong
enough to engage in war.

It should be emphasized that Louis Philippe's inglorious foreign policy was a

great disappointment to the Frenchmen. This intensified internal opposition
against his rule and by 1848 he was very unpopular even to his legislators. For
example, in an assembly session of1847 one member rose up and shouted what
have they done for the past 17years? Lamantine shouted back. Nothings
Nothing, Nothing, France is bored. This combined with his failure in domestic
policy to cause the 1848 revolutions that sent him to exile.

ASPECTS OF LOUIS PHILIPPE'S FOREIGN

POLICY
1. The Belgium Revolution (1830)

The Belgium revolution of1830 was an event that put Louis Philippe in a
precarious position. The various political groups wanted Philippe to assist the
Belgians for various reasons. The Bonapartists wanted Philippe to revive French
military glory in Belgium that had once been under Napoleon Bonaparte I. The
republicans wished to establish a republican's government in Belgium. The
liberals were bent on destroying the 1815 Vienna settlement that had forced the
Belgians under Dutch administration. The Catholics hated the Dutch Protestants
and preferred Catholic control of education, press and state amongst others.

However, Louis Philippe knew very well that any assistance to the Belgians would
be a violation of the Vienna settlement to which France was a signatory. His
intervention would provoke the other four powers to declare war on him in
accordance with the quadruple alliance that had pledged to maintain by force for
20 years the territorial arrangements of Vienna. He therefore decided not to
assist the Belgians. This made him to be in good terms with other powers. In Dec
1830, the big powers met in London over the Belgian question. After realizing the
strength of Belgian nationalism and the extent of Dutch mal-administration, they
accepted the Belgium independence but under some conditions and one was that
Belgium should choose a king acceptable to the great powers. The Belgians
promptly offered the throne to Duke of

Nemours who was Louis Philippe's second son.

Britain openly opposed the choice and Louis Philippe turned down the offer in
favour of Leopold Soxe Coburg (a British choice) who was accepted by the
Belgians out of their desire for freedom. This was a diplomatic victory for Britain
and a loss for France. He was criticized for bending too low and promoting British
supremacy over France. This offered a rallying ground for opposition against him.
However, Louis Philippe regained some prestige when other powers gave him
freedom to repel Dutch invasion, which he successfully accomplished in 1831.
Nevertheless, he was still accused of cowardice only to act when told to do so.

2. The1830revolution in Italy

Napoleon I s conquest and re-organization of Italy had instilled the spirit of

nationalism amongst the Italians. The Vienna settlement of1815 ignored this and
instead gave Austria direct and indirect influence over the Italian states. The
Italians therefore rose in a revolt in 1830 against Metternich's unfortunate
policies. Austria began using force to suppress the revolutions and restore the
ousted kings. Italians and the liberals in France wanted Louis Philippe to give
military assistance. However, Louis Philippe as usual followed a cautious policy.
He was not slow to declare that he had no desire to clash with Austria over the
situation in Italy.... my government is opposed to all foreign intervention in the
peninsular. This was a great disappointment to the liberals and Bonapartists who
viewed the revolution as a heaven sent opportunity to rekindle (revive) French
influence in Italy. They accused him of being too weak to revive French military
glory in Europe.

3. The 1830 Revolution in Poland

The 1830 revolution in Poland was yet another event that put Louis Philippe in an
awkward situation. Like the Italians, Polish nationalism had been strengthened
by Napoleon's conquest and reorganization of the Grand Dutchy of Warsaw from
1807. This was tampered with at the Vienna settlement of 1815 by the Great
powers. Poland was shared as a wedding cake between Austria, Prussia and
Russia (greatest share).

Their desire for independence took them to the revolution in 1830. The liberals in
France argued Louis Philippe to support the Poles in their struggle. Aware of a
possibility of fighting Austria, Prussia and Russia, Louis Philippe refused to assist
the Poles. So as early as 1830, the revolt died down. Although he avoided war
with the great powers, his popularity at home was undermined.

4. The Syrian question (1840)

Louis Philippe's peaceful foreign policy received a diplomatic blow over the Syrian
question. In the Greek war of independence, Mehemet Ali of Egypt had helped
the Sultan of Turkey after being promised territorial rewards amongst which was
Syria. However, the Sultan did not keep his promise and Mehemet Ali occupied
Syria forcefully. The war was sparked off between Egypt and Turkey over Syria.
The French glory seekers led by Adolph Thiers argued Louis Philippe to extend
military support to Egypt.

They wanted to revive the Napoleonic tradition in Egypt and gain a valuable ally
in the East for commercial prosperity. Louis Philippe welcomed the ideas and sent
French troops to fight alongside Egypt against Turkey. It threatened other
powers particularly Britain and Russia who pledged to fight Mehemet Ali and his
ally (France). This forced Louis Philippe to resort to his usual policy of "do
nothing" and withdrew the French soldiers. The 1840 London conference in which
France was not invited gave Egypt part of Syria. This intensified opposition
against Louis Philippe to the extent that his chief minister Adolph Thiers resigned
his post. Even Louis Philippe became so furious that he threatened Palmer stone
with war. However, when Palmer stone took the challenge and started to prepare
for war, Philippe got so scared and backed down. This act injured the national
pride of France.

5. French imperialistic designs over Tahiti Island

In 1840, Louis Philippe conquered Tahiti one of the islands in the south pacific.
This satisfied the glory seekers and militants in France. However, Tahiti was so
close to S. America where Britain had built a commercial empire, so she
threatened France to withdraw. As usual, Louis Philippe withdrew the French
troops from the island in 1843 in favour of Britain. This frustrated a large section
of the Frenchmen especially glory seekers who accused him of cowardice,

6. Control of Algeria

Algeria was colonized by France in 1830 under Charles X. When Louis Philippe
came to power, the liberals urged him to withdraw but Louis Philippe ignored
them and consolidated French rule in Algeria.

Charles X had occupied only the coastal areas with only 20.000 settlers. But
Louis gradually penetrated into the interior. However, Abdel Kader declared a
jihad against the French. Philippe sent General Bugeaud with about 100.000
troops who captured Abdel Kader in 1847 and consequently the whole of Algeria.
By 1848, the number of settlers had risen to about 100.000. This was the
beginning of the French colonial empire.

7.The 1846 Swiss Civil War

1846, a civil war erupted between Catholics and Protestants in Switzerland over
the form of government be adopted. The Protestants were secretly assisted by
Britain and the Catholics appealed for French resistance. The British foreign
secretary Palmer stone outmaneuvered Philippe by blindfolding him that was
organizing a conference to settle the Swiss crisis. Indeed before the conference
sat, the Swiss Protestants had defeated the Catholics. The French Catholics felt
betrayed. They expected Philippe to resist Co-religionists/brothers in faith.
However, Philippe was conscious to note that it would antagonize Britain and the
liberals at home. It made him to refuse to support the Swiss Catholics. This
disappointed the Catholics and glory seekers who accused him of pursuing a
boring foreign policy.

8. The Spanish marriage 1846

In 1846, Louis Philippe took a bold stand and registered some degree of success
over Palmer stone.

Princess Isabella and her sister Infanta of Spain were still not yet married.
Royalists were sought from Europe to marry them. Britain and France were the
most interested powers in providing candidates to marry the two sisters. This
was because of the possibility of providing a heir to the Spanish throne since
Spain was strategically located. So France and Britain agreed that Isabella was to
be married to Francisco Duke de Cadiz, a German Prince (favoured by Britain)
and her sister Infanta Maria was to get married to Duke de Montpensier, a
French prince. However, it was rumoured that the German prince was impotent
and yet Infanta was not to marry the French prince until Isabella was married
and had children with the German prince.

Following the above discovery, Philippe and Guizot organised and celebrated the
marriage of Infanta on the same day (October 10th 1846) when Isabella got
married to the German prince. This was a triumph for Philippe, which so ably and
so completely satisfied the glory seekers. However, Palmer stone protested
bitterly against the 'indirect influence' and the 'illegitimate methods' of Louis
Philippe. This was a blow to the Anglo-French diplomatic relationship. It deprived
him of the only ally and undermined his support from the middle class. This
made Britain to just watch Louis Philippe pack up for exile without raising any
accusing finger in 1848.

REASON/FACTORS FOR THE DOWNFALL OF

LOUIS
Right from 1830 when he was elected, Louis Philippe was surrounded by internal and external
problems.

This weaknesses in settling internal and external problems made his downfall inevitable by 1848. It
was largely his inglorious and non adventurous foreign policy that made his fall a foregone conclusion
.The reasons as to why Philippe fell from power are hereby discussed below:-

1. He was the first elected king in the history of France with the title by the grace of God and will of
the election. This meant that the Frenchmen could use their votes to unseat him if he went contrary
to their expectations. The revised 1830 constitution greatly reduced his powers. Amongst others, he
could not like special decrees, dissolve the parliament and the parliament was composed of voted
members who could even debate the budget. These made him a weak king with no proper control
over the social, political and economic affairs of France hence contributing to his downfall.

2. Louis Philippe was not the most popular politician at that time. He won election by a mere
majority of 219 votes out of430 members in the chamber of deputies. This meant that right from the
start he had a majority of 211 opposition members in the chamber of deputies. Even his election was
largely due to misconception rather than any concrete support for him. The liberals thought that he
would be a liberal king. The workers thought that the long years of poverty had taught him a lesson
of the need to alleviate poverty. The Bonapartists thought that he would revive Napoleon's glory
over Europe. Unfortunately, Louis Philippe had none of such in his political programs. Apart from the
middle class who were appeased up to 1846, the rest were disappointed and their disappointment
was displayed in the 1848 revolutions that sent Louis Philippe to exile.

3. Louis Philippe made a fatal mistake by over relying on the middle class who had elected him. He
pursued middle class oriented policies and programs at the expense of the Frenchmen. The middle
class dominated key government positions, the chamber of deputies, trade and were granted soft
loans for investment. The conditions of the workers and peasants that deteriorated with industrial
revolutions were ignored. His popularity was eventually confined to the middle class. Unfortunately,
the very middle class deserted him after the Spanish marriage in 1846. This left him with almost no
support and made him vulnerable to the revolution of 1848.

4. The rise and growth of socialism became a stumbling block to Louis Philippe's reign. The worsening
conditions of peasants and workers due to industrial revolution led to the rise of socialism. The
socialists condemned the bourgeoisie government of Louis Philippe and his insensitivity to the plight
of the workers.

Louis Blank demanded that the state must guarantee a living wage to all workers. He said; to the able
bodied citizens the state owes work, to the aged and infirm, it owes aid and Protection. The socialist
propaganda did a lot to add on the discontentment of the people. Socialist Propaganda was more
instrumental in the reform Banquet of 1848 through which Louis Philippe lost his power.

5. The return of Napoleon I's remains from St. Hellena to France was a boomerang that led to the
downfall of Louis Philippe. In 1846, Louis Philippe returned Napoleon's body and reburied it at a
place called Invalids. It provoked Napoleonic nostalgia as the Frenchmen remembered all that
Napoleon did for them.
Consequently, Napoleonic legend became very popular with the writings of Louis Napoleon who was
the nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte. The result of Napoleonic legend was that Louis Philippe became
more unpopular with the Frenchmen who compared his achievements with those of Napoleon
Bonaparte and practically found nothing. This made him to be rejected by the Frenchmen.

6. Louis Philippe's personality also undermined his popularity. Having experienced poverty and hard
life in exile, Philippe became obsessed with how to economize resources. He lived a very simple life
style, for instance he walked freely on streets unguarded, lit his own study fire and lived principally
on soup. This made some sections of the Frenchmen particularly the nobles and clergy to disown him
as not worthy to be a king. They were used to seeing their kings living luxuriously. They therefore
criticized his simple lifestyle and undermined his popularity.

NB His personality and character won him the admiration of the common people who viewed him as
a citizen king.

7. Louis Philippe's dictatorial tendencies strengthened his opponents and led to his downfall. By
1848, he had censored the press and restricted people's liberty through the laws of discussion and
association. All kinds of people were thrown in prison for leading strikes, demonstrations and revolts.
However, prison life became one of the main breeding grounds for republican propaganda and
socialist ideas that blew Louis Philippe out of power in 1848. It should be stressed that Louis
Philippe's dictatorship was a violation of the revised 1830 constitution, which was a disappointment
to the Frenchmen who had trusted him as a leader who would revive constitutionalism in France.

8. Internal political instability also contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe and Orleans
monarchy.

Louis Philippe's unrealistic policies e.g. dictatorship, favouratism of the bourgeoisie and inglorious
foreign policy were used by the opposition to mobilize the masses in a series of uprisings,
demonstrations and coup attempts. For instance, from 1830-1835 there were six uprisings in Paris,
Lyon, Lavandee and Marsailles. In 1836 and 1840, there were assassination and coup attempts
against Louis Philippe's life and his regime. These undermined the credibility of the Orleans
Monarchy and denied it internal support. It should be emphasized that Louis Philippe's suppression
of violence by 1841 backfired as it strengthened the opposition and left them more united. This
explains why opposition e.g. the liberals, republicans, socialists etc coordinated and mobilized the
masses to over throw the Orleans monarchy of Louis

Philippe through the 1848 revolutions.

9. Corruption, bribery and embezzlement of funds also contributed to the downfall of Louis Philippe.
The middle class who dominated political, social and economic affairs of France were very corrupt
and took bribes shamelessly. Guizot, the chief minister (1840-1848) was too corrupt to the extent
that corruption became official government policy e.g. in awarding tenders and bribing opposition
members of the chamber of deputies. Corruption and embezzlement made the government
inefficient in provision of social services and incapable of addressing the challenges of
unemployment and poor working conditions. The opposition most especially the liberals, republicans
and socialists capitalized on these problems to decampaign the Orleans monarchy under Louis
Philippe's leadership. This caused the 1848revolution that led to the downfall of Louis Philippe and
Orlean monarchy.

10. The economic crisis that befell France prior to 1848 fomented troubles for Louis Philippe. The bad
harvest of 1846 gave way to a serious famine. Besides, epidemic diseases like Typhoid and gonorrhea
had psychological and physical effects on the masses. Louis Philippe was unbothered about the
conditions of the people. This forced people to move to a few large towns and became desperate
mobs who greatly participated in the revolution that ousted Louis Philippe from power in 1848.

II. Louis Philippe's insensitivity to public outcry for parliamentary reforms became a turning point in
his political career. Property qualifications made the chamber of deputies to be flooded with middle
class members who were not concerned with the welfare of other classes especially peasants and
workers. The Frenchmen wanted an expanded Franchise by lowering property qualification but Louis
kept a deaf ear.

When Guizot his chief minister was questioned, he insisted that those who wished to vote or be
voted should work hard, save money and qualify to vote. This prompted the socialists and
republicans to organize reform banquets with barricades that forced Louis Philippe to exile in 1848.

12. it’s in foreign policy that Louis Philippe clashed head long with all the political groupings in
France. He pursued a submissive and non-adventurous foreign policy, contrary to the expectations of
the Frenchmen except the middle class. This made him very unpopular to be ousted out of power in
1848.

The first event was the Belgium revolt of 1830. The Belgians expected assistance from Philippe and
the Frenchmen even wanted Louis to intervene and gain glory. But Louis declined to assist the
Belgians for fear of antagonizing other powers. Even when the Belgians offered the throne to Louis
Philippe's son, he backed down after a stem warming from Palmer stone. This disappointed the
liberals, Bonapartists, republicans, legitimists and glory seekers who viewed him as a stooge of
Palmer stone. It reduced his popularity and made his fall inevitable by 1848.

13. Similarly, the poles and the Italians revolted in 1830. Both of them had keen eyes on French
assistance. But Louis declined to assist them for fear of the hostility of other powers. He refused to
assist the Poles because he feared war with Austria, Prussia and Russia who had Polish subjects. In a
similar manner, he declined to aid the Italians for the fear of Austria. This frustrated the liberals,
Bonapartists and glory seekers who wanted him to utilize such opportunities to revive French
influence in Europe. By 1848, they were fed up with his boring foreign policy and decided to
participate in the revolution that sent him on his feet to exile.

14. Louis Philippe also met his political fate through the Mehemet Ali's affairs in the Syrian question.

Mehemet Ah had declared war on the Sultan of Turkey for failing to give him the territories he had
promised after assisting him (the Sultan) in the Greek war of independence. Frenchmen wanted
Philippe to assist Mehemet Ah and revive the Napoleonic tradition in Egypt. He sent troops but
withdrew after being threatened by Britain and Russia. To crown up the humiliation, Palmer stone
called the 1840 London conference to settle the issue and did not invite France. This provoked a
wave of protests from the liberals, Bonapatists and glory seekers. His liberal chief ministers Adolph
Thiers urged him to organize war against the powers that had excluded France from the London
conference but Louis declined to do so.

This made Thiers to resign his seat and join the opposition. This was a blow to Louis Philippe and
Orleans monarchy. Thiers was the most influential leader whose resignation weakened the
government and strengthened the opposition. His successor Guizot was very unpopular and his
policy made the fall of Louis Philippe inevitable.

15. By colonizing Tahiti Island, Louis had lived to the expectations of the glory seekers and bellicose
(war like) French citizens. However, his withdrawal due to protest from Pahner stone destroyed the
little popularity he might have gained and made him more unpopular. They accused him of being too
weak to uphold France's high status and humiliating her in Europe and consequently rejected him.

16. The 1846 Swiss crisis was yet another diplomatic setback for Philippe. He refused to assist the
Catholics who were battling with the Protestants about the form of government to adopt. This led to
the defeat of Catholics by the Protestants. It made the Catholics in France to be very bitter for they
felt he was morally bound to support their fellow brothers in faith. The glory seekers equally
denounced him for not rendering the assistance. These undermined his power and contributed to his
eventual downfall in 1848.

17. Louis Philippe's fall can be explained from the Spanish marriage campaign. Although he
succeeded over Britain by breaching the agreement and arranging the marriage of Infanta on the
same day with that of Isabella, nevertheless, he lost the friendship of Britain, the only ally at the
time. Britain cut off diplomatic ties and trade with France. This touched the pockets of the middle
class whose trade suffered since Britain was the workshop of Europe. They therefore denounced him
and henceforth he was left with no support in France. The middle class joined the workers and
peasants in the February 1848 revolution through which Louis Philippe was unceremoniously seen
off the French throne. Britain just watched him pack without raising any accusing finger.

18. Lastly, the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe (France inclusive) prompted the downfall
of Louis Philippe. The revolution started from Palermo in Italy on 12th Jan 1848, spread to other
Italian slates and reached France in Feb 1848, The outbreak of the revolution in Italian states inspired
the Frenchmen who were already dissatisfied with Louis Philippe's policies to revolt. The various
opposition groups most especially the socialists mobilized the French men through reform banquets
to start the revolution that swept Louis Philippe and Orleans monarchy from power.

Note: - Louis Philippe lost control of French political affairs largely because of his over reliance on the
propertied middle class. They were very small in number and had no moral or historical right to
control a government that was hated by the aristocracy and the masses. If he had made reforms in
the social, political and economic fields, he would have won over people's support. However, he
closed his eyes and ears to the problems that faced the masses and no wonder that he was
dethroned. He would have perhaps escaped the fate that befell him if he had pursued an
adventurous foreign policy that would have cooled down most domestic factions who yearned for
glory. All the same, we should not over condemn Louis

Philippe for if he pursued a vigorous foreign policy, he would have entered war with the big powers
and risked to be defeated in the very way Napoleon I was defeated in 1815.

EVENTS OF THE DOWNFALL

As Louis Philippe increasingly became adamant to parliamentary reforms and the
issue of franchise the republicans and socialists organised reform banquets in
Paris and other centers. At these Banquets, a great number of people turned up
to listen to reformist political propagators. The reform Banquets gained
popularity throughout France and people were fully mobilized for reforms.
The largest of these reform Banquets was scheduled to take place in February
1848 in Paris. The principle

Guests were to be 87 sympathizers from the chamber of deputies. Sensing

danger, Guizot banned it and the organizers called it off. Although it was
cancelled, all the same people turned up in big numbers. They assembled and
shouted for reforms. On the night of 22"^, barricades were put up throughout
Paris. The next day, Louis ordered the National Guards to restore order but
demoralized as they were, they just joined the people; the crowd shouted down
with Guizot and Louis Philippe asked him (Guizot) to resign.

The situation went out of control when the soldiers guarding Guizot's residence
fired on the demonstrators killing 23 and injuring 30. The demonstrators put the
dead bodies on a wagon and displayed the same to the people of Paris in the
glaring daylight. This resulted into a revolution. More Barricades were erected in
Paris and Placards with the following contents were displayed in all parts of the
city; Louis Philippe massacres us as did Charles X let him go to join Charles X.
Hopeless as he was, Louis Philippe abdicated the throne in favour of his grandson
Count of Paris. On 24th February 1848, the revolutionaries plundered his palace
and set it ablaze. This was the end of the road for the Orleans monarchy and
monarchical rule in the history of France. Thus, the 1848 revolution in France
was successful and socialist leader Lamar time proclaimed the Second French
Republic in Hotel de Ville on 24th February 1848.

CONSOLIDATION OF POWERS
Louis Philippe's government was constantly challenged right from 1830 when he
rose to power.

Internally, there were revolts, strikes, demonstrations, assassination attempts on

his life and conspiracies as he observed, "It is only in hunting me that there is no
close season". Opposition parties like Republicans, Bonapartists, legitimists,
liberals had varied and divergent interests that made life hard for Louis Philippe.

External events like the 1830 revolutions in Europe, 1840 Syrian question, 1846
Swiss crisis and the way he responded to them intensified domestic opposition
against him. In spite of all these, Louis Philippe managed to sit on the throne for
18 years and this can be attributed to the following:-

1) Louis Philippe's peaceful foreign policy was the basis for his survival up to
1848. It made him to legitimize his power amongst European powers who were
scared of revolutionary France. Although he was opposed as a coward, his failure
to interfere in events outside France like Belgium, Italy and Poland won him the
friendship of the 1815 Vienna signatories who would have fought and overthrown
him the way they did to Napoleon I.

More so, his peaceful foreign policy pleased the middle class who were the basis
of his rise and hence survival up to 1848. This is because all that the middle
class needed was a peaceful atmosphere to conduct their business and Britain's
friendship that was won by Philippe. This explains why when the middle class
abandoned him in 1846 following the Spanish marriage, Philippe became too
vulnerable only to be ejected out in 1848.

2) Similarly, Philippe's peaceful reign won him the confidence of a large section
of the Frenchmen who were fed up with the vicious circle of violence and
bloodshed since 1789. The peasants and workers had suffered enough in 1789,
1792 -94, 1815 - 1817 and 1830 .All they wanted was a stable and peaceful era
for economic development. Indeed, under Philippe's administration, there was
economic progress and France was second to none other than Britain in Europe.
Although this was monopolized by the middle class, it nevertheless helped to cool
down criticism against him with the exception of the socialists.

3) Philippe's survival can also be gauged from the Anglo-Franco alliance that he
forged. He realized that France under a constitutional monarchy was bound to be
isolated from conservative and despotic powers like Russia, Austria and Prussia.
This made him to dance to the times of Britain and became Palmer stone's
rubberstamp in Europe. Although this was opposed by a large section of
Frenchmen, it earned him of official and diplomatic co-operation which the
despotic powers could not give him.

NB: 1 it was only in 1846 when Britain broke this diplomatic alliance that
Philippe's popularity was seriously eroded
2: The fact that France was not declared a republic in 1830 saved Philippe from
the hostility of divine monarchs who would have fought him right from the
beginning of his reign.

4) Louis Philippe's humble personality and simple lifestyle and helped him to
consolidate his reign in France. Having suffered poverty and hard life in exile,
Louis Philippe developed a simple lifestyle that helped him to gain and retain
power, e.g. he walked freely on streets unguarded holding a green umbrella,
shave his own beards and sent his children to the common man's school. This
saved French resources that were used for socio-economic development. His
simple lifestyle earned him the support

Of the common man who used to suffer excessive taxation to supplement

extravagancy of the royalists.

5) Louis Philippe's policy of neutrality on religious affairs also enabled his survival
for 18 years. He granted freedom of worship, which Charles x had undermined
by making Catholicism the state religion. The concordat that Napoleon had
signed with the Pope was maintained and the government continued to nominate
Bishops and pay salaries of the clergy. In 1831, Judaism was put on an equal
footing with Christianity. The government began to pay salaries of Jewish rabbis
just as it paid the protestant reverends and catholic priests. These gained Louis
Philippe support from different religious groups, hence consolidation of power up
to 1848.

6) The absence of revolutions in Europe that would have inspired Frenchmen

against Louis Philippe also made him safe for 18 years. Metternich system was
very effective in suppressing revolutionary movements from 1830-1847. Thus,
there was relative peace and stability that favoured some degree of economic
growth in many states. Absence of a revolution in Europe by 1848 denied the
opposition of an event that they could have utilized to convince the Frenchmen to
revolt against Louis Philippe. The fact that the Frenchmen were the first to revolt
(Feb 1848) following the Italians (Jan 1848) is a clear testimony that absence of
such a revolution prior to 1848 helped Louis Philippe to survive for the 18 years.

7) Ideological difference amongst the opposition also accounts for the survival of
Louis Philippe up to 1848. The liberals wanted a more democratic and liberal
system of government, republicans demanded an expanded franchise, legitimists
desired consolidation of their privileges, socialists aspired for nationalization of
property and establishment of state workshops and Bonapartists were nostalgic
about the revival of Napoleonic influence in Europe. By 1843, these factions
could not sacrifice their ideological interest for the purpose of defeating Philippe
who was their common enemy. Apart from leaning towards the middle class,
Philippe played the opposition well. He was not an ultra-royalist as the Bourbons;
neither was he a republican, a Bonapartist nor an extreme liberal. Thus,
ideological difference amongst the opposition and Philippe's neutrality helped him
to survive for 18years.

8) Although Philippe was surrounded by a cocktail of pressure groups since 1830,

he managed to survive for 18years because it was not until 1840's that they
intensified their criticism of him, Louis Blank (a socialist) gained prominence from
1840's when the conditions of workers reached frightening levels.

Bonapartism regained grounds after the return of Napoleon's body and the
writings of Napoleon

Bonaparte. It was even not until 1843 that the socialists, republicans and liberals
forged a united front through reform Banquets. Thus, Louis Philippe managed to
rule up to 1848 because his opponents were too disorganized to put a formidable
challenge to him. Secondly, by the time his opponents got organized and united,
he had effectively consolidated his power and that is why they could not over
throw him before 1848.

9) The 1830 constitutional charter was an instrument that also helped Louis
Philippe to survive from 1830-1848. The charter provided for a two chambered
parliament i.e. the chambers of peers and deputies, which transformed France
from absolute monarchy into a constitutional monarchy by 1840. The constitution
acted as checks and balances to any despotic tendency of the king, which could
have earned Louis Philippe a revolution. For example, he could no longer issue
special decrees as Charles X did in 1830 to dissolve the parliament. This could
have incited a revolution against Louis Philippe.

Secondly, it was not the king but the parliament to introduce laws. This also
checked Philippe's despotism, which would have provoked a revolution earlier
than 1848. Thirdly, the charter limited the franchise (voting power) to the rich
middle class. Although this was too undemocratic because it de-enfranchised
majority peasants, it nevertheless offered Philippe majority support in the
parliament. In other words, he lacked opposition to force him to resign in times
of a national crisis.

10) Louis Philippe's throne was protected by the restored, transformed and re-
equipped National Guard.

The loyalty of the army to him was indisputable. Had it been the army other than
the different pressure groups who were disappointed by Louis Philippe's cautious
non-adventurous foreign policy, he would not have survived up to 1848. Philippe
used the National Guard to suppress internal strikes, revolutions and
demonstrations such as the republican rising of 1830 and the Lavandee
Legitimist uprising.

NB. It was not until 1848 when the National Guard fraternized with the socialists
and republicans that Louis lost his power.

11) On top of that, Philippe had a secret spying network against his opponents in
state organs. They were very effective in unearthing subversive elements and
conspirators against his government. For example, assassination attempts
against his life and Louis Bonaparte's attempts to overthrow him in 1836 and
1840 were exposed by state intelligence that promptly arrested such "bad"
elements like Louis Bonaparte.

12) Louis Philippe's violation of the 1830 charter also aided his survival on the
French throne for 18 years.

When opposition intensified their activities from 1840, Louis Philippe resorted to
severe laws that drove opposition against him underground. He banned the press
and this reduced open criticism against him. He also passed the laws of
discussion and association that prohibited any obedience to past governments.
These undermined Bonapartism and Bourbons and left the Orleans monarchy
unchallenged up to 1848.

13) Socio-economic reforms were also used by Louis Philippe to consolidate his
power up to 1848. His pro-middle class and peaceful foreign policy attracted
massive investment that led to commendable progress in industrialization,
agriculture, education and trade. Transport and communication networks were
improved to enhance socio-economic development. Many railway lines including
the one from Paris to St German were also constructed to facilitate
transportation of raw materials and finished products. These created more
employment opportunities, improved the income level and standard of living. All
these earned Louis Philippe support that he used to survive amidst hostile
opposition up to 1848.

14) Lastly, Philippe's long reign can also be attributed to his chief ministers. His
government was managed by statesmen of talents, integrity and force of brain
like Thiers and Guizot whose patriotism and ability were great. Theirs (1836 -
1840) commanded a strong domestic loyalty and the great powers' respect in
favour of France. He effectively controlled liberal attacks in the chamber of
deputies that was against Louis Philippe. His successor, Guizot (1840 —1848)
supported his peaceful foreign policy to the advantage of the middle class that
earned him support in the chamber of deputies. He also maintained a strong hold
over the chamber of deputies through bribery, corruption in tenders and was
highly inclined to Britain's interest. Although this was a weakness in government,
it nevertheless enabled Philippe to survive attacks in the chamber of deputies

Thank you....

By UnRulY-LioN And King Tjay

DreaM Chasers ::DWMTM::