Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)

Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

BSN 1-A26 Schedule: ____________________________________
Section: ____________ 10/09/23
Date: _______________

Lesson title: NUCLEIC ACIDS Materials:

Lesson Objectives: by the end of this module, you should be Pen, SAS
able to
1. Describe the structural features of DNA and RNA. References:
2. Explain the central dogma of protein synthesis ▪ stoker, H. S. (2017).Biochemistry
3. Identify the processes related to replication (prokaryotic & (3rd ed.). (M. Finch, Ed.) Belmont
eukaryotic), transcription and translation of genetic CA, USA
information ▪ Campbell, MK & S.O. Farrell.
Biochemistry. Thomson Asia Pte.
4. Differentiate the mechanism of mutation that relates to some
Ltd. Singapore, 8th ed.
genetic disorders ▪ Ferrier, D. (2017). Lippincott's
Illustrated Biochemistry (7 ed.).
5.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins

Productivity Tip:
Are you confused of the type of vaccines and vaccines development over this pandemic? Well, try watching
these suggested videos:
▪ Why you can’t compare vaccines: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3odScka55A
▪ mRNA vaccines explained: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvA9gs5gxNY
Doing this for a minute will help your brain organize your thoughts before studying. After this module, try to talk
to them and share your thoughts about this module.

A. LESSON PREVIEW/REVIEW
1) Introduction (1 min)

One of the striking aspects of natural order is the sense of unity that exists between
members of successive generations in each species. This is made possible
because of the most remarkable property of our living cells which is their ability to
produce exact replicas of themselves. Furthermore, cells contain all the instructions
needed for making the complete organism of which they are a part. Hence, an
almost totally stable bank of information must always be preserved and passed
from one generation to the next if individual species are to maintain their identities relatively unchanged
over millions of years. It is well established that this bank of genetic information, within the cell, takes the
form
DNAof a macromolecule,
Double Helix deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which serves as the carrier of genetic information
in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes. DNA exhibits a rare purity of function by being one of the few
macromolecules known to perform, with only minor exceptions, the same basic functions across species
barriers.
In this module components and processes involving nucleic acids will be tackled. It will also
include examples of genetic mutations that may relate to genetic disorders.

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
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Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

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2) Activity 1: What I Know Chart, part 1 (3 mins)

Instructions: "In this chart, reflect on what you know now. Do not worry if you are sure or not sure of
your answers. This activity simply serves to get you started on thinking about our topic. Answer only
the first column, "What I know" based on the question of the second column. Leave the third column
"What I learned" blank at this time.

What I Know Questions: What I Learned (Activity 4)

DNA and RNA are both nucleic acids that carry genetic 1. What is the difference between DNA and RNA differ in two ways: RNA contains
information in cells. DNA has the double-stranded helix the sugar ribose and the nucleobase uracil,
structure and contains the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA
DNA and RNA?
while DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, a
is single-stranded and contains the sugar ribose. kind of ribose that lacks one oxygen atom and
2. Arrange the following processes contains thymine.
The correct order of the central dogma according to the order of the According to the order of the central
processes is: (2) Replication, (4) Transcription, central dogma. dogma, the correct arrangement is
(3) Translation, (1) Protein synthesis. (1) Protein synthesis,(2) Replication, (1) Replication, (2) Transcription, (3)
(3)Translation, (4) transcription Translation, (4) Protein synthesis.
Mutations are changes in the genetic material, either in 3. What are mutations?
A mutation is a change in an organism's
DNA or RNA. They can occur naturally or as a result of
exposure to mutagens such as radiation or chemicals. DNA sequence. Mutations can occur as a
Mutations can have various effects on an organism, result of mistakes in DNA replication during
ranging from no effect to causing genetic disorders or cell division, mutagen exposure, or viral
diseases. B.MAIN LESSON: Activity 2: Content notes (70 min). infection.
Instructions: Please make your own outline of the topic so that you can understand it better from your
own lenses.

NUCLEIC ACIDS is an unbranched polymer containing the monomer units called nucleotides.
Important differences between DNA and RNA appear in their secondary and tertiary structures.

2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleotide polymer in which

each of the monomers contains deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and
one of the heterocyclic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, or thymine.
2. Ribonucleic acid (RNA) a nucleotide polymer in which each of
the monomers contains ribose, a phosphate group, and one of the
heterocyclic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil. (stoker, 3rd
ed)

FRIEDRICH MIESCHER JAMES DEWEY WATSON FRANCIS CRICK

discovered nucleic Coined DNA molecule as three-dimensional

acids in 1869 while studying double helix structure
the nuclei of white blood cells

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
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FEATURES DNA RNA

Double helix w/ anti-parallel &
TYPE OF STRAND Single strand
complementary strands
LENGTH OF
STRANDS
Longer Shorter
Forms in the nucleolus, and then moves to
Found in the nucleus, with a small amount
LOCATION specialized regions of the cytoplasm
also present in mitochondria.
depending on the type of RNA formed.

PRIMARY Replicates and stores or the blueprint genetic converts the genetic information contained
FUNCTION information within DNA to a format used to build proteins

SUGAR UNIT Deoxyribose (deoxygenated at C2) Ribose

NUCELOTIDE BUILDING BLOCKS

1.PENTOSE SUGAR 2. NITROGENOUS BASES

3. PHOSPHATE

Purines “PurGA” DNA – A,G,C,T

Pyrimidine “PyCUT” RNA – A,G,C,U

NUCLEOTIDE FORMATION

1. Formation of Nucleoside = Sugar + Base

2. Then, Nucleotide = Nucleoside + Phosphate

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
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PRIMARY NUCLEIC ACID STRUCTURE:

Important points about nucleic acid structure:

1. Each nonterminal phosphate group of the sugar–

phosphate backbone is bonded to two sugar molecules
through a 3’(prime), 5’(prime )-phosphodiester linkage.
There is a phosphoester bond to the 5’ carbon of one sugar
unit and a phosphoester bond to the 3’ carbon of the other
sugar.
2. A nucleotide chain has directionality. One end of the
nucleotide chain, the 5’ end, normally carries a free
phosphate group attached to the 5’ carbon atom. The other
end of the nucleotide chain, the 3’ end, normally has a free
hydroxyl group attached to the 3’ carbon atom. By
convention, the sequence of bases of a nucleic acid strand
is read from the 5’ end to the 3’ end.
3. Each nonterminal phosphate group in the backbone of a
nucleic acid carries a -1 charge. The parent phosphoric
acid molecule from which the phosphate was derived
originally had three -OH groups . Two of these become
involved in the 3’,5’-phosphodiester linkage. The remaining
-OH group is free to exhibit acidic behavior—that is, to
produce a H+ ion.

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DNA DOUBLE HELIX

Base pair
A physical restriction, the size of the interior of the DNA
double helix, limits the base pairs that can hydrogen-bond to one COMPLEMENTARY BASE STRAND
another. Only pairs involving one small base (a pyrimidine) and one
3’ A- C- G- T- T- C 5’
large base (a purine) correctly “fit” within the helix interior. There is DNA – 5’ T- G- C- A- A- G 3’
not enough room for two large purine bases to fit opposite each
other (they overlap), and two small pyrimidine bases are too far Difference with RNA:
apart to hydrogen bond to one another effectively. Of the four 3’ A- C- G- T- T- C 5’
possible purine–pyrimidine combinations (A–T, A–C, G–T, and G– mRNA - 5’ U- G- C- A- A- G 3’
C), hydrogen-bonding possibilities are most favorable for the A–T
(2 H-bond) and G–C (3 H-bond) pairings, and these two
combinations are the only two that normally occur in DNA.
The pairing of A with T and that of G with C are said to be complementary. A and T are
complementary bases, as are G and C. The fact that complementary base pairing occurs in DNA
molecules explains, very simply, why the amounts of the bases A and T present are always equal, as are
the amounts of G and C. %A = 5 %T and %C 5 =%G For example, human DNA contains 30% adenine,
30% thymine, 20% guanine, and 20% cytosine.
The two strands of DNA in a double helix are not identical—they are complementary.
Complementary DNA strands are strands of DNA in a double helix with base pairing such that each
base is located opposite its complementary base. Wherever G occurs in one strand, there is a C in the
other strand; wherever T occurs in one strand, there is an A in the other strand. However, with RNA the
base A is paired with U not with T.

Hydrogen bond and Base stacking

H-bond stabilizes double helix together with base stacking (like stack of coins). These stacking
interactions are as important in their stabilization effects as is the hydrogen bonding associated with base
pairing—perhaps even more important. Purine and pyrimidine bases are hydrophobic in nature, so their
stacking interactions are those associated with hydrophobic molecules—mainly London forces.

Forms of DNA double helix (Campbell 8th ed.)

▪ B-DNA - the most common or prinicipal form of the DNA
double helix that occurs in nature.

▪ A-DNA- a form of a DNA double helix characterized by

having fewer residues per turn and major and minor
grooves with dimensions that are more similar to each
other than those of B-DNA. Found as artifact of DNA
preparation or dehydrated B-DNA samples

▪ Z-DNA - has been seen to occur naturally under certain

circumstances. Has zigzag look of the phosphodiester
backbone when viewed from the side.

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DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE FORMS OF DNA DOUBLE HELIX

FEATURES A-DNA B-DNA Z-DNA (Zigzag)

Helix turn Right handed it winds Right handed it winds Left handed it winds
in the direction of the fingers in the direction of the fingers in the direction of the
of the right hand as the of the right hand as the fingers of the left hand as
thumb is placed upward thumb is placed upward the thumb is placed upward
Major grove Narrow and Deep Wide and Deep Flat

Minor grove Wide and shallow Narrow and deep Narrow and deep

Number of base 11 10 12
pairs per helical
turn
present mostly In DNA-RNA hybrids or Chromosomal DNA In sequence of alternating
RNA-RNA double stranded purines and pyrimidines
regions (ex. polyGC like
dCpGpCpGpCpG)

PROKARYOTIC and EUKARYOTIC DNA MOLECULES

PROKARYOTIC DNA EUKARYOTIC DNA PROKARYOTIC DNA EUKARYOTIC DNA

DNA is found in the DNA is found in the nucleus Small amount of DNA in More DNA arranged in
cytoplasm of prokaryotic of the cell, inside the the form of a single, multiple, linear
cells & circular plasmids. chloroplast & mitochondria Circular chromosomes chromosomes
Not found inside the
organelles
Consist of 1 copy of Consist of more than 1 copy Introns are absent Introns are present
genome of genome
Contains of small number of Contains of large number of DNA replication occurs in DNA replication occurs in
genes genes the cytoplasm the nucleus
Organized into single Organized into many Chromosome contains Chromosome contains
chromosomes chromosomes single origin of replication many origin of replication
Not packed with histones Packed with histones to DNA replication is rapid DNA replication is slow
and condenses to form form chromatin
nucleoid

Each chromosome in the nucleus of a eukaryote contains one long, linear molecule of dsDNA,
which is bound to a complex mixture of proteins (histone and non-histone) to form chromatin. Eukaryotes
have closed, circular DNA molecules in their mitochondria, as do plant chloroplasts. A prokaryotic
organism typically contains a single, double-stranded, supercoiled, circular chromosome. Each
prokaryotic chromosome is associated with non-histone proteins that can condense the DNA to form a
nucleoid. In addition, most species of bacteria (prokaryotes) also contain small, circular,
extrachromosomal DNA molecules called plasmids. Plasmid DNA carries genetic information, and
undergoes replication that may or may not be synchronized to chromosomal division.
Plasmids may carry genes that convey antibiotic resistance to the host bacterium, and may
facilitate the transfer of genetic information from one bacterium to another

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PROKARYOTIC DNA SUPERCOILING at TERTIARY STRUCTURE

Prokaryotic DNA is circular, and this DNA forms

supercoils. If the strands are underwound they form
negative supercoils. If they are overwound they form
positive supercoils. Underwound duplex DNA has fewer
than the normal number of turns, whereas overwound
DNA has more. DNA supercoiling is analogous twisting
or untwisting a rope so that it is torsionally stressed.
Negative supercoiling introduces a torsional stress that
favors unwinding of the righthanded B-DNA double helix,
whereas positive supercoiling overwinds such a helix.
Naturally occurring circular DNA is negatively
supercoiled except during replication, when it becomes
positively supercoiled.

TOPOISOMERASE - Enzymes that are involved in changing

the supercoiled state of DNA.

2 TYPES OF TOPOISOMERASE

▪ Class I topoisomerases - cut the phosphodiester

backbone of one strand of DNA, pass the other end
through, and then reseal the backbone.
▪ Class II topoisomerase - cut both strands of DNA, pass
some of the remaining DNA helix between the cut ends,
and then reseal.

o DNA gyrase- is a bacterial topoisomerase that

introduces negative supercoils into DNA.

Note: Anticancer agents, such as etoposide,3 target human

topoisomerase II. Bacterial DNA gyrase is a unique target of a
group of anti-microbial agents called quinolones, for example,
ciprofloxacin.

SUPERCOILING IN EUKARYOTIC DNA

The supercoiling of the nuclear DNA of eukaryotes (such as plants, fungi and animals) is more
complicated than the supercoiling of the circular DNA from prokaryotes. Eukaryotic DNA is complexed
with a number of proteins, especially with basic proteins that have abundant positively charged side
chains at physiological (neutral) pH. Electrostatic attraction between the negatively charged phosphate
groups on the DNA and the positively charged groups on the proteins favors the formation of complexes
of this sort. The resulting material is called chromatin. Thus, topological changes induced by supercoiling
must be accommodated by the histone-protein component of chromatin.
The principal proteins in chromatin are the histones, of which there are five main types, called

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H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4. All these proteins contain large
numbers of basic amino acid residues, such as lysine and
arginine. In the chromatin structure, the DNA is tightly bound
to all the types of histone except H1.

In electron micrographs, chromatin resembles beads

on a string (Figure 9.16). This appearance reflects the
molecular composition of the protein–DNA complex. Each
“bead” is a nucleosome, consisting of DNA wrapped around
a histone core.

▪ chromatin a complex of DNA and protein found in

eukaryotic nuclei
▪ histones basic proteins found complexed to eukaryotic
DNA
▪ nucleosome a globular structure in chromatin in which
DNA is wrapped around an aggregate of histone
molecules

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PACKAGING OF DNA (after replication)

Chromosomes is an individual DNA molecule bound to a group of proteins. Typically 15% by mass
DNA and 85% by mass proteins (Lippincott, 7th ed)

5
Mitotic
chromosome
(highly
condensed
chromatin )

Telomere:
complexes of DNA
plus proteins
(collectively known
as shelterin) located
at the end s of. linear
chromosomes. Used
to maintain structural
integrity that protect
the chromosomes.

CENTRAL DOGMA

REVERSE
TRANSCRIPTASE
known as RNA-
directed DNA
polymerase. Used by
retroviruses for reverse
transcription.
REVERSE TRANSCRIPTION

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PROKARYOTIC REPLICATION OF DNA MOLECULES

DNA replication is the biochemical process by which DNA molecules produce exact duplicates of themselves.

In DNA replication,
the two strands of
the DNA double
helix unwind, with
the separated
strands serving as
templates for the
formation of new
DNA strands. Free
nucleotides pair
with the
complementary
bases on the
separated strands
of DNA. This
process ultimately
results in the
complete .
replication of the
DNA molecule

▪ REPLICATION FORK- The

point at which the DNA double
helix is unwinding, which is
constantly changing (moving).

▪ LEADING STRAND- The strand

that grows continuously

▪ LAGGING STRAND- The

strand that is synthesized in
small segments

▪ OKAZAKI FRAGMENTS- short

segments, (after their
discoverer, Reiji Okazaki), as
the DNA unwinds

▪ NICKS- The breaks or gaps in

the daughter strand

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▪ DNA HELICASE- influences

the unwinding of DNA double
helix, and the hydrogen bonds
between complementary
bases are broken

▪ DNA POLYMERASE III-

verifies that the base pairing is
correct and then catalyzes the
formation of a new
phosphodiester linkage
between the nucleotide and
the growing strand. Also,
recognizes the RNA primer &
begins to extend it with DNA.

▪ PRIMASE- Synthesizes a
short stretches of RNA (~10
nucleotides long) that are
completely complementary
and antiparallel to the DNA
template

▪ RNA PRIMER- is RNA that

prime (lay down short strand of
ribonucleotide) and initiates
DNA synthesis.

Note: DNA primer is used for

PCR (polymerase chain
reaction) amplification while
RNA primer is the main
ingredient of replication.

▪ DNA POLYMERASE I- excise

(removes) RNA primers from
fragments and replace it the
required nucleotides.

▪ DNA LIGASE - connect two strands

of DNA together by forming a bond
between the phosphate group of one
strand (synthesized by DNA pol III)
and the deoxyribose group on
another(made by DNA pol I) . It is
used in cells to join together the
Okazaki fragments which are formed
on the lagging strand

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PROKARYOTIC vs EUKARYOTIC REPLICATION

SIMILARITIES:
The steps for DNA replication are generally the same for all prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. Unwinding
the DNA is accomplished by an enzyme named DNA helicase. Manufacturing new DNA strands is
orchestrated by enzymes called polymerases.

Both types of organisms also follow a pattern called semi-conservative replication. In this pattern, the
individual strands of DNA are manufactured in different directions, producing a leading and a lagging strand.
Lagging strands are created by the production of small DNA fragments called Okazaki fragments that are
eventually joined together. Both types of organisms also begin new DNA strands with a small primer of RNA.

DIFFERENCES:
PROKARYOTIC EUKARYOTIC
It occurs in the cytoplasm It occurs inside the nucleus
There is a single origin of replication Origin of replication are numerous or multiple
Replication occurs in 2 opposing ends Uses unidirectional replication
Possess one or 2 types of polymerase Has 4 or more polymerase (ex. DNA polymerase γ
replicates mitochondrial DNA)
DNA polymerase III carries out both initiation and elongation. Initiation is carried out by DNA polymerase α while
elongation by DNA polymerase δ (lagging strand) and
ε (leading strand)
DNA repair and gap filling are done by DNA polymerase I DNA repair and gap filling are performed by DNA
polymerase β.
Okazaki fragments are large, 1000-2000 nucleotides long Okazaki fragments are short, 100-200 nucleotides long.
Replication is very rapid , some 2000 base pair per second . Replication is slow, some 100 nucleotides per second.
Like bacteria replication occurs at 40 mins Animal cells like human at 400hrs.
DNA gyrase is needed. DNA gyrase is not needed. But also have a distinct
process for replicating the telomeres at the ends of their
chromosomes.
With their circular chromosomes, they have no ends to only undergo DNA replication during the S-phase of the
synthesize and with short replication, it occurs almost cell cycle.
continuously.

The eukaryotic cell cycle

The events surrounding eukaryotic DNA replication and cell division (mitosis)
are coordinated to produce the cell cycle (Figure 29.21). The period preceding
replication is called the G1 phase (Gap1). DNA replication occurs during the S
(synthesis) phase. Following DNA synthesis, there is another period (G2
phase, or Gap2) before mitosis (M). Cells that have stopped dividing, such as
mature neurons, are said to have gone out of the cell cycle into the G0 phase.
Cells can leave the G0 phase and reenter the early G1 phase to resume
division.

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ANTIMETABOLITES: ANTICANCER DRUGS THAT INHIBITS DNA SYNTHESIS (stoker, 3rd ed)
Cancer is a disease characterized by rapid uncontrolled cell division. Rapid cell division necessitates the synthesis of
large amounts of DNA, as DNA must be present in each new cell produced. Numerous anticancer drugs are now
available that block DNA synthesis and therefore decrease the rate at which new cancer cells are produced.
Antimetabolites are a class of anticancer drugs that interfere with DNA replication because their structures are similar
to molecules required for normal DNA replication. The structural similarity is close enough that enzymes can be “tricked”
into using the drug rather than the real substrate needed. This “trickery” shuts down DNA synthesis, which causes cells
to die. Four examples of commonly used antimetabolites and the molecules they “mimic” are as follows:

Methotrexate: It is a structural analog of folic acid

(folate). A derivative of folic acid is needed in one
of the early steps of nucleotide synthesis.
Methotrexate inhibits the conversion of folic acid to
this needed derivative, which shuts down DNA
synthesis.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS:
The genetic master plan of an organism is contained in the sequence of deoxyribonucleotides in its
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). However, it is through the ribonucleic acid (RNA)—the “working copies” of the
DNA— that the master plan is expressed through transcription and then further translated.

Ribonucleic acids
In addition to sugar unit, strand difference and replacement of the base thymine with uracil for RNA,
unlike DNA, RNA does not contain equal amounts of specific bases and molecules are much smaller than
DNA molecules, ranging from 75 nucleotides to a few thousand nucleotides.

TYPES OF RNA (Refer to the central dogma for the location of synthesis)

RNA DEFINITION

Heterogenous nuclear RNA formed directly by DNA transcription. Post-transcription processing converts
(hnRNA) the heterogeneous nuclear RNA to messenger RNA.

Small nuclear RNA facilitates the conversion of heterogeneous nuclear RNA to messenger RNA.
(snRNA) It contains from 100 to 200 nucleotides.

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Messenger RNA carries instructions for protein synthesis (genetic information) to the sites for
(mRNA) protein synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA combines with specific proteins to form ribosomes, the physical sites for
(rRNA) protein synthesis. Most abundant type of RNA in a cell (75% to 80% by
mass).
Transfer RNA delivers amino acids to the sites for protein synthesis. Are the smallest of the
(tRNA) RNAs, possessing only 75–90 nucleotide units.

TRANSCRIPTION: RNA SYNTHESIS

Transcription is the process by which DNA directs the synthesis of hnRNA/mRNA molecules that
carry the coded information needed for protein synthesis. Messenger RNA production via transcription is
actually a “two-step” process in which an hnRNA molecule is initially produced and then is “edited” to
yield the desired mRNA molecule. The mRNA molecule so produced then functions as the carrier of the
information needed to direct protein synthesis.
A short segment of a DNA strand so transcribed, which contains instructions for the formation of a
particular hnRNA/mRNA, is called a gene. A gene is a segment of a DNA strand that contains the base
sequence for the production of a specific hnRNA/mRNA molecule.
In humans, most genes are composed of 1000–3500 nucleotide units. Hundreds of genes can exist
along a DNA strand. Obtaining information concerning the total number of genes and the total number of
nucleotide base pairs present in human DNA has been an area of intense research activity for the last
two decades. A genome is all of the genetic material (the total DNA) contained in the chromosomes of
an organism.

Steps in the transcription process:

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unwinding of DNA double

Release of newly DNA rewinds to reform
helix done by RNA
formed hnRNA & RNA the original double
polymerase not by DNA
polymerase. helix.
helicase.

Free ribonucleotides, one End of transcription TEMPLATE STRAND- The strand of

nucleotide at a time, align when RNA
along one of the exposed polymerase DNA used for hnRNA/mRNA
strands of DNA bases, the encounters a base synthesis
template strand, forming sequence that read as
new base pairs. stop signal.

INFORMATIONAL STRAND- The

Instead of T, U now pairs
RNA polymerase links other DNA strand,although not
with A. And ribose now
ribonucleotides to the involved in RNA synthesis, gives the
instead of deoxyribose is
growing hnRNA
incorporated in the base sequence present in the
molecule.
backbone. hnRNA strand being synthesized
(with the exception of U replacing T).

Note: The RNA produced from a gene through transcription is hnRNA, the precursor for mRNA

Post-Transcription Processing: Conversion of hnRNA to mRNA

Note: It is now known that not all bases in a gene convey genetic information. Instead, a gene is segmented; both
the introns and exons of a gene are transcribed in the production of hnRNA.

snRNA or the
splicing of introns and shortened RNA with . snRNA in complexed
joining of remaining genetic information of with protein in particles
exons the transcribed gene is called snRNPs (snurps)
formed

▪ EXON (ExpressiON of genetic

mRNA is produced as informatiON)- is a gene segment that
Snurps forms large the edited RNA. Serves conveys (codes for) genetic information
complex called for protein assembly.
spliceosomes (will form
Transcriptome) ▪ INTRON (INTeRruptiON of genetic
information)- is a gene segment that
does NOT conveys (codes for)
genetic information

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▪ SPLICING - is the process of

removing introns from an hnRNA
SPLICING molecule and joining the remaining
exons together to form an mRNA
molecule.
▪
▪ snRNPs (Small nuclear
ribonucleoprotein particle )
“snurps” - is the process of
removing introns from an hnRNA
molecule and joining the remaining
exons together to form an mRNA
molecule.
ALTERNATIVE SPLICING
▪ SPLICEOSOMES - s a large
assembly of snRNA molecules and
proteins involved in the conversion
of hnRNA molecules to mRNA
molecules.

▪ ALTERNATIVE SPLICING - is a
process by which several different
proteins that are variations of a basic
structural motif can be produced from
a single gene
A B C D A D ▪ TRANSCRIPTOME - is all of the
mRNA molecules that can be
THE GENETIC CODE generated from the genetic material
in a genome.
The genetic code is the assignment
of the 64 mRNA codons to specific amino
acids (or stop signals). A codon is a three-
nucleotide sequence in an mRNA molecule
that codes for a specifi c amino acid. There
were 61 of the 64 codons formed by various
combinations of the bases A, C, G, and U
were related to specific amino acids the
other three combinations were termination
codons (“stop” signals) for protein
synthesis.
The genetic code table was known:
to be highly degenerate, that is, many
amino acids are designated by more than
one codon except Met and Trp, which have
only a single codon; there is a pattern to the
arrangement of synonyms; it is almost
universal; and an initiation codon exists
(AUG for Met) and existence of “stop”

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

codons (UAG, UAA, and UGA).

ANTICODON and tRNA molecules

The amino acids used in protein synthesis do not directly interact with the codons of an mRNA
molecule. Instead, tRNA molecules function as intermediaries that deliver amino acids to the mRNA. At
least one type of tRNA (cloverleaf shape) molecule exists for each of the 20 amino acids found in proteins.

Two features of the tRNA structure are of particular importance:

1.The 3’ end of the open part of the cloverleaf structure is where an amino
acid becomes covalently bonded to the tRNA molecule through an ester
bond. Each of the different tRNA molecules is specifically recognized by
an aminoacyl tRNA synthetase enzyme. These enzymes also recognize
the one kind of amino acid that “belongs” with the particular tRNA and
facilitates its bonding to the tRNA .
2.The loop opposite the open end of the cloverleaf is the site for a
sequence of three bases called an anticodon. An anticodon is a three-
nucleotide sequence on a tRNA molecule that is complementary to a
codon on an mRNA molecule. And, the ability of certain anticodons to pair with codons that differ at the third base
is called a wobble.

TRANSLATION: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Translation is the process by which mRNA codons are deciphered and a particular protein molecule
is synthesized. The substances needed for the translation phase of protein synthesis are mRNA
molecules, tRNA molecules, amino acids, ribosomes, and a number of different enzymes. A ribosome
is an rRNA–protein complex that serves as the site for the translation phase of protein synthesis.
There are five general steps to the translation process: (1) activation of tRNA (2) initiation (3)
elongation (4) termination and (5) post-translational processing.

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

▪ P site or peptidyl site

▪ A site or aminoacyl site
▪ Translocation – part of
translation where the ribosome
moves down an mRNA
molecule three base position
(codon) so that a new occupy
the ribosomal subunit.

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

ANTIBIOTIC: PROTEIN SYNTHESIS INHIBITORS

1. In both cases, ribosomes are the sites for protein 1. Erythromycin: binds to the larger bacterial
synthesis. Human ribosomes are much larger ribosome subunit, blocking the exit of a growing
than bacterial ribosomes. peptide chain.
2. In bacteria, the initiator codon is N- 2. Terramycin: blocks the A-site location on the
formylmethionine. ribosome, preventing the attachment of amino-acid
3. In human cells, it is methionine. carrying tRNAs.
4. In bacteria, mRNA translation begins while the 3. Streptomycin: binds to the smaller bacterial
mRNA is still being transcribed from DNA. In ribosome subunit causing a shape change, which
human cells, mRNA translation begins only after in turn causes a misreading of mRNA information
transcription. 4. Neomycin: binds to the smaller bacterial ribosome
5. Bacteria/mRNAs undergo very little processing subunit in a manner similar to streptomycin.
after being transcribed and are very short-lived. In 5. Chloramphenicol: binds to the ribosome and
some cases, degradation of mRNA begins before interferes with the formation of peptide bonds
completion of transcription. In human cells, between amino acids.
transcribed mRNA (hnRNA) undergoes
considerable processing before mature RNA is
formed.

MUTATION:
Mutation is an error in base sequence in a gene that is reproduced during DNA replication. Such errors alter
the genetic information that is passed on during transcription. The altered information can cause changes in
amino acid sequence during protein synthesis. A mutagen is a substance or agent that causes a change in
the structure of a gene. Ex. Ultraviolet light

TYPES OF MUTATION
Note: there are a lot of class and type of mutation, however, we will only focus on the following examples.

CHROMOSOME MUTATION
GENE or DNA MUTATION
are alterations that affect whole
is a permanent alteration in the DNA chromosomes and whole genes
sequence that makes up a gene rather than just individual nucleotides
•Point mutation
•Inversion
•Substitution
•Deletion
•Silent
•Duplication
•Nonsense
•Translocation
•Missense
•Conservative
•Noncoservative
•Frameshift mutation
•Insertion
•Deletion

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

GENE or DNA MUTATION

A. Point mutation is a mutation in which one base in a DNA base sequence is replaced with another base.
a. Substitution - One base is incorrectly added during replication and replaces the pair in the
corresponding position on the complementary strand

SILENT MUTATION
MISSENSE MUTATION
code for the same amino acid (a
This type of mutation is a change in one DNA
"synonymous substitution"). A silent
base pair that results in the substitution of one
mutation does not affect the functioning of
amino acid for another in the protein made by
the protein. A single nucleotide can
a gene.
change, but the new codon specifies the
same amino acid, resulting in an CONSERVARTIVE MISSENSE
unmutated protein.
Result in an amino acid change. However, the
This type of change is called synonymous properties of the amino acid remain the same
change since the old and new codon code Ex. Lys (polar basic) to Arg (polar basic)
for the same amino acid. Ex. Lys to Lys

NONSENSE MUTATION
NONCONSERVARTIVE MISSENSE
When a base substitution results in a stop
codon ultimately truncating translation and Result in an amino acid change that has
most likely leading to a nonfunctional different properties than the wild type. The
protein. Ex. Lys (AAG) to UAG (stop protein may lose its function, which can result
codon) in a disease in the organism. Ex. Lys (polar
basic) or
b. Frameshift mutation a mutation that inserts to deletes
Thr (Polar neutral)
a base in a molecule base sequence.

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

This type of mutation occurs when the addition or loss of DNA bases changes a gene's reading
frame. A reading frame consists of groups of 3 bases that each code for one amino acid.
A frameshift mutation shifts the grouping of these bases and changes the code for amino acids.
The resulting protein is usually nonfunctional. Ex. Insertion and deletion

INSERTION

One or more extra nucleotides are

inserted or added into the replicating
DNA, often resulting in frameshift. As
a result, the protein made by the
gene may not function properly.

DELETION

Changes the number of DNA bases

by removing a piece of DNA. Small
deletions may remove one or a few
base pairs within a gene, while larger
deletions can remove an entire gene
or several neighboring genes. The
deleted DNA may alter the function of
the resulting protein(s).

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

CHROMOSOME MUTATION

DELETION TRANSLOCATION DUPLICATION INVERSION

• A region of a • A region from one • A region of a •One region of a

chromosome is lost, chromosome is chromosome is chromosome is
resulting in the absence aberrantly attached to repeated, resulting in flipped and
of all the genes in that another chromosome an increase in dosage reinserted
area from the genes in that
region

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 ▪

Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)

Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Activity 3: Skill-building Activities (with answer key) (25 mins + 5 mins checking)

A. VENN DIAGRAM-A: Using the information in the boxes below, place it in the diagram where it fits as
labelled DNA, RNA or both.

▪ Deoxyribonucleic acids ▪ Cytosine ▪ Long strand

▪ Ribose ▪ Uracil ▪ Short strand
▪ Single stranded ▪ Thymine ▪ Phosphate
▪ Guanine ▪ Ribonucleic acids ▪ Nucleotides
▪ Adenine ▪ Double stranded ▪ Deoxyribose
▪ Nucleus ▪ Nucleolus ▪ Cytoplasm
▪ Genetic blueprint ▪ Protein synthesis ▪ Copy the genetic blueprint
for transcription

DNA RNA

Both

Ribose
Deoxyribonucleic Acids Single stranded
Nucleus Guanine Uracil
Genetic blueprint Adenine Ribonucleic acids
Thymine Cytosine Nucleolus
Double stranded Phosphate Protein synthesis
Long strand ·
·

Nucleotides Short strand

Deoxyribose Cytoplasm
Copy the genetic blueprint
for transcription

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

B. MATCHING TYPE: With the prior knowledge that encountered, identify the similarities and difference of
eukaryotic and prokaryotic replications by matching the information. Write only the letter.

CHOICES: C.
_______1. Unwinding double helix with DNA helicase
A.
_______2. Replicate in cytoplasm
A. Prokaryotic A.
_______3. Single replication in 2 opposing ends.
B. Eukaryotic C.
_______4. Use primase enzyme
C. Both _______5.
B. Gap filling & DNA repair by DNA polymerase β
_______6.
B. Multiple origin of replication
_______7.
B. Elongation of lagging strand by DNA polymerase δ
_______8.
A. Short time replication
_______9.
B. Has telomeres
_______10.DNA
A. polymerase I and III

C. IDENTIFICATION & LABELING: Fill in the blanks of the enzymes and parts involved in the prokaryotic
replication process. Use your answers in the identification for the labelling of the illustration.

1. gyrase
The enzyme ______________ relieves any tension or supercoiling from the unwinding of the double
helix.
DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds holding the two complementary parent
2. The enzyme ______________
Replication fork
strands together, resulting in an unzipped helix that terminates at the _______________________.
3. Single stranded Single stranded binding protein
Primase
4. lays down RNA primers that will be used by _______________________ as a starting point to build
the new complementary strands.
DNA polymerase III adds the appropriate deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates to the 39 end
5. _______________________
of the new strand using the template strand as a guide. The energy in the phosphate bonds is used
leading strand strand is built continuously toward the replication fork. A
to drive the process. The ______________
lagging strand strand composed of short segments of DNA, known as
______________
okazaki fragments
__________________________, is built discontinuously away from the replication fork.
DNA polymerase I
6. _______________________ excises the RNA primers and replaces them with the appropriate
DNA ligase
deoxyribonucleotides. _________________________ joins the gaps in the Okazaki fragments by the
creation of aphosphodiester
__________________bond bond.
DNA polymerase I
7. _______________________ |||
and _______________________ proofread by excising incorrectly
paired nucleotides at the e

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

D. TABULATION: The table below outlines the steps in eukaryotic gene expression. briefly summarize each
step below
Gene Expression Molecules Involved What Summary : What happens during this step?
Steps molecules and proteins are
involved in this step?
Transcription RNA Polymerase, DNA, RNA Polymerase converts information
RNA, Exon and Intron from a section of the DNA into a
complementary sequence with the tRNA
RNA Splicing Spliceosome, Intron, The spliceosome cuts up introns and
Exon splices together exons to create mRNA
mRNA Transport The mRNA is sent out the nucleus and into the
mRNA cytoplasm
Translation mRNA, tRNA, Amino acids are put together in a chain by the
Ribosome, Polypeptide ribosome once it reads the code from the tRNA
that it recieved from the mRNA.Polypeptide
Protein When the chain is complete the polypeptide will
Processing fold into a 3D protein and do a specific kind of
Polypeptide
function. This is done in the Golgi or in the
cytoplasm

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

E. MUTATION: Following the same procedure you followed during the decoding activity (DNA to mRNA to
Amino Acid), decode the original and mutated sequences and classify each as either point or frameshift AND
as either Insertion, deletion, missense (conservative or nonconservative), silent or nonsense (hint: use the
genetic code table to interpret the codons as representatives of specific amino acids).
Guide: The original DNA sequence is:
DNA: TGC GTG CTT AAG CGG TGT ACA CGT TGC
mRNA: ACG CAC GAA UUC GCC ACA UGU GCA ACG
Amino acid: Thr His Glu Phe Ala Thr Cys Ala Thr
Symbol: THE FAT CAT (Remember the symbols of amino acids)

Now decode the following mutated sequences still basing on the original

1. Mutated: TGC GTG CTT AAG CGA TGT ACA CGT TGC
THE FAT CAT
Amino acids: ____________
Point mutation, silent.
What kind of mutation is this? _______________
2. Mutated: TGC GTG CTT AAG CGG TGT GCA CGT TGC
THE FAT RAT
Amino acids: _____________
Point mutation, missense nonconservative
What kind of mutation is this? ________________
3. Mutated: TGC GTG CTT AAG TAG TGT ACA CGT TGC
THE FIT CAT
Amino acids: _________
Point mutation, missense conservative
What kind of mutation is this? _________________
4. Mutated: GCG TGC TTA AGC GGT GTA CAC GTT GC
THE FLAT CAT
Amino acids: _________
Insertion, frameshift
What kind of mutation is this? __________________
5. Mutated: TGC GTG CTT ACT CGG TGT GCA CGT TGC
RTN SPH VQ
Amino acids: ___________
Deletion, frameshift
What kind of mutation is this? ___________________
F. MATCHING TYPE: Match the chromosome mutation with its description.
DESCRIPTION TYPE
A. Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome and Cri du chat syndrome, are
mutations which are caused by partial deletion of the short arm
of chromosome no.4 & 5, respectively.
C.
_______1. Translocation
D.
_______2. Inversion
B. Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease type 1A is a type of mutation which A.
_______3. Deletion
may be caused by duplication of the gene encoding peripheral
myelin protein 22 (PMP22) on chromosome 17. B.
_______4. Duplication

C. A type of mutation where sometimes, parts of different

chromosomes switch places (reciprocal exchange).

D. A portion of the chromosome has broken off, turned upside down

and reattached, therefore the genetic material is backward.

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

Activity 4: What I Know Chart, part 2 (2 mins)

Instruction: To review what was learned from this session, please go back to Activity 1 and
answer the “What I Learned” column. Notice and reflect on any changes in your answers.

Activity 5: Check for Understanding (20 mins)

Instruction: Now it’s time for you to figure this one out on your own! Take time to read, analyze, and understand
the following questions. For this instance, you will not have the chance to check if you have the correct answers
since there are no more keys to correction. WRITE the letter of your choice before each number Good luck!

1. He discovered nucleic acids in 1869 while studying 5. The following are correct in base pairing,
the nuclei of white blood cells except
a. James Dewey Watson a. A – T C. G - C
b. Friedrich Miescher b. C – T D. T – A
c. Francis Crick
d. Marie Curie 6. This type of mutation is a change in one DNA
base pair that results in the substitution of one
2. Formation of Deoxyribose + adenine + phosphate amino acid for another in the protein made by a
group will create ________________ gene.
a. dAMP a. Silent mutation
b. Nucleotide b. Missense mutation
c. Nucleoside c. Deletion
d. Both A and B d. Insertion

3. The two strands of DNA are running in a 7. This antibiotic has the ability to bind to the
__________ position bacterial ribosome subunit, blocking the exit of a
a. Antiparallel growing peptide chain.
b. Parallel a. Neomycin
c. Same b. Streptomycin
d. Both A and C c. Terramycin
d. Erythromycin
4. It is the biochemical process by which DNA
molecules produce exact duplicates of themselves 8. It is the process of removing introns from an
a. Translation hnRNA molecule and joining the remaining exons
b. DNA Replication together to form an mRNA molecule.
c. DNA Duplication a. Splicing
d. Transcription b. Translation
c. Transcription
d. Elongation

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

9. Translation is the process by which DNA directs the 11. What amino acid will appear if you have the codon
synthesis of hnRNA/mRNA molecules that carry the coded AUG?
information needed for protein synthesis. Transcription is a. Methionine
the process by which mRNA codons are deciphered and a b. Arginine
particular protein molecule is synthesized. c. Serine
e. Neither of the statements are correct d. Tyrosine
f. Both statements are correct
g. Only the 2nd statement is correct 12. General steps for translation process
h. Only the 2nd statement is wrong I. Activation of tRNA
II. Elongation
10. The following are considered STOP codons, except for: III. Initiation
a. AUG C. UAG IV. Post-translational
b. UAA D. UGA V. Termination
a. I-III-II-IV-V
b. III-I-II-V-IV
c. I-II-III-IV-V
d. I-III-II-V-IV
A. LESSON WRAP-UP

1) Activity 6: Thinking about Learning (1 min)

A. Work Tracker: You are done with this session! Let’s track your progress. Shade the session
number you just completed.

P1 P2
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

B. Think about your Learning:

Tell me about your thoughts! Today’s topic is all about the NUCLIEC ACIDS.
MUDDIEST POINT:
a. What interests you with the topic?
b. What else you want to learn?
c. What question you would like to ask?

___________________________________________________________
A. I find nucleic acids fascinating due to their role in genetic
information storage and transfer.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
B.________________________________________________________
I would like to learn more about the different types of nucleic
acids and their functions, as well as their relationship to genetic
disorders and diseases.
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
C.What are some current or potential applications of nucleic acid
__________________________________________________________
research in fields such as medicine or biotechnology?

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

FAQs

1. What is rDNA?
Ans: rDNA or recombinant DNA is a type
of DNA form from genetic engineering
procedure that contains genetic material
from two different organism that are of
value to science, medicine, agriculture,
and industry. Since the focus of all
genetics is the gene, the fundamental
goal of laboratory geneticists is to isolate,
characterize, and manipulate genes.

2. What is polymerase chain reaction?

(Note: Gold standard method used for
covid-19 test)
Ans: Is a method for rapidly producing
multiple copies of a DNA nucleotide sequence.

3. What is CRISPR?
Ans: CRISPR is a technology that can be used to edit genes and, as such, will likely change the world. it’s a way
of finding a specific bit of DNA inside a cell. After that, the next step in CRISPR gene editing is usually to alter
that piece of DNA. However, CRISPR has also been adapted to do other things too, such as turning genes on or

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

off without altering their sequence. CRISPR technology also has the potential to transform medicine, enabling us
to not only treat but also prevent many diseases. We may even decide to use it to change the genomes of our
children. An attempt to do this in China has been condemned as premature and unethical, but some think it could
benefit children in the future.

CRISPR is being used for all kinds of other purposes too, from fingerprinting cells and logging what happens
inside them to directing evolution and creating gene drives.

Read more: https://www.newscientist.com/term/what-is-crispr/#ixzz6TfuQIyvF

2. What type of covid-19 vaccines are being developed and how would they work?
Ans: Scientists around the world are developing many potential vaccines for COVID-19. These
vaccines are all designed to teach the body’s immune system to safely recognize and block the virus
that causes COVID-19.

Several different types of potential vaccines for COVID-19 are in development, including:

▪ Inactivated or weakened virus vaccines, which use a form of the virus that has been
inactivated or weakened so it doesn’t cause disease, but still generates an immune response.
▪ Protein-based vaccines, which use harmless fragments of proteins or protein shells that
mimic the COVID-19 virus to safely generate an immune response.
▪ Viral vector vaccines, which use a safe virus that cannot cause disease but serves as a
platform to produce coronavirus proteins to generate an immune response.
▪ RNA and DNA vaccines, a cutting-edge approach that uses genetically engineered RNA or
DNA to generate a protein that itself safely prompts an immune response.

https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/coronavirus-disease-(covid-19)-
vaccines?adgroupsurvey={adgroupsurvey}&gclid=Cj0KCQjwvYSEBhDjARIsAJMn0lj0BiiLU_gYk
_zE0riPfJx1hBbjgLnjgSS42zI65MhYgYsC7QR2BkYaArbaEALw_wc

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

KEY FOR CORRECTIONS ON ACTIVITY 3

VENN DIAGRAM-A: Using the information in the boxes below, place it in the diagram where it fits as
labelled DNA, RNA or both.
DNA BOTH RNA

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acids 1. Guanine 1. Ribose

2. Nucleus 2. Adenine 2. Single stranded
3. Genetic blueprint 3. Cytosine 3. Uracil
4. Thymine 4. Phosphate 4. Ribonucleic acids
5. Double stranded 5. Nucleotides 5. Nucleolus
6. Long strand 6. Protein synthesis
7. Deoxyribose 7. Short strand
8. Cytoplasm
9. Copy the genetic blueprint for
transcription

MATCHING TYPE: With the prior knowledge that encountered, identify the similarities and difference of
eukaryotic and prokaryotic replications by matching the information. Write only the letter.
1.C 2. A 3.A 4.C 5.B 6.B 7.B 8.A 9.B 10.A

IDENTIFICATION & LABELING: Fill in the blanks of the enzymes and parts involved in the prokaryotic
replication process. Use your answers in the identification for the labelling of the illustration.

Leading strand
DNA
Single stranded binding protein
polymerase III

DNA helicase

RNA primer
Primase
Gyrase Okazaki fragments
DNA ligase
DNA polymerase III

Parental DNA

1. gyrase
2. DNA helicase, Replication fork
3. Single stranded binding protein
4. Primase,
5. DNA polymerase III, Leading strand , lagging strand , okazaki fragments
6. DNA polymerase I, DNA ligase, phosphodiester bond
7. DNA polymerase I and III

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

G. TABULATION: The table below outlines the steps in eukaryotic gene expression. briefly summarize each
step below
Gene Expression Molecules Involved What Summary : What happens during this step?
Steps molecules and proteins are
involved in this step?
Transcription RNA Polymerase, DNA, RNA Polymerase converts information from a
RNA, Exon and Intron section of the DNA into a complementary
sequence with the tRNA
RNA Splicing Spliceosome, Intron, The spliceosome cuts up introns and splices
Exon together exons to create mRNA
mRNA Transport mRNA The mRNA is sent out the nucleus and into the
cytoplasm
Translation mRNA, tRNA, Amino acids are put together in a chain by the
Ribosome, Polypeptide ribosome once it reads the code from the tRNA
that it recieved from the mRNA.Polypeptide
Protein Polypeptide When the chain is complete the polypeptide will
Processing fold into a 3D protein and do a specific kind of
function. This is done in the Golgi or in the
cytoplasm

MUTATION:

1. Amino acids: THE FAT CAT, Point mutation, silent.

2. Amino acids: THE FAT RAT , Point mutation, missense nonconservative
3. Amino acids: THE FIT CAT, Point mutation, missense.conservative
4. Amino acids: THE FLAT CAT, Insertion, frameshift
5. Amino acids: RTN SPH VQ, Deletion, frameshift

MATCHING TYPE: Match the chromosome mutation with its description.

1. C 2. D 3.A 4.B

Suggested videos:

▪ Why you can’t compare vaccines: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K3odScka55A

▪ mRNA vaccines explained: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mvA9gs5gxNY
▪ short introduction of the basics of NUCLEIC ACIDS.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0lZRAShqft0
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gG7uCskUOrA

▪ DNA REPLICATION:
o Part 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ePZc-71PT_4

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 Course Code: BIO 024 (Biochemistry/Biomolecules)
Student Activity Sheet Module #6

Name: ____________________________________________________________ Class number: _______

Section: ____________ Schedule: ____________________________________ Date: _______________

o Part 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Dc21ml8-_PI
▪ TRANSLATION and TRANSCRIPTION
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6YqPLgNjR4Q
▪ MUTATION:
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3jwDl7nYBPM
▪ POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION (Ex. On RTPCR for Covid-19)
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gubLAtn2o4s
▪ CRISPR
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2pp17E4E-O8
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qc6xgb4VXl0
▪ TEDTALK: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TdBAHexVYzc

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