Introduction to Mechanical Engineering (22ESC144/244)

MODULE 4:
Engineering Materials: Types and applications of Ferrous & Nonferrous Metals, silica, ceramics, glass,
graphite, diamond and polymer. Shape Memory Alloys.

Engineering materials
Metals
A metal is a material that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and features good electrical and thermal
conductivity. Metals are generally malleable: they can be hammered or pressed permanently out of shape
without breaking or cracking well as fusible and ductile
Metals can be either ferrous or non-ferrous. Ferrous metals contain iron while non-ferrous metals do not.
Both ferrous and non-ferrous metals are divided into pure metals and alloys.
A pure metal is an element – Ex: iron, copper, gold - unalloyed (not mixed) with another substance.
An alloy is a mixture of two or more elements (Ex: iron and carbon) to make another metal with particular
properties (Ex: steel).
Pure
Metals
Ferrous
Alloys
Metals
Pure
Non Metals
Ferrous
Alloys

Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain iron. Examples are cast iron, mild steel, medium carbon steel, high
carbon steel, stainless steel, and high speed steel.

Non-ferrous metals: Non-ferrous metals do not contain iron. Some common non-ferrous metals are
aluminium, copper, zinc,tin, brass (copper + zinc), and bronze (copper + tin).

Types of Ferrous metals

Cast iron
Composition: Alloy of iron and 2-5% carbon, 1-3% silicon and traces of magnesium, sulphur and
phosphorus

Properties and characteristics: it is very strong but brittle. Cast iron has relatively low melting point, is
wear resistant, possesses good fluidity, has admirable machinability and is resistant to deformation

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Application: It is used to manufacture machine frames, columns, beds and plates, housing flywheel,
manhole cover, automotive parts such as engine block, cylinder head, gear box case and machine parts
which are not subjected to tension and shocks.

Cast Iron is divided into following types:

 Grey Cast Iron

 White Cast Iron
 Malleable Cast Iron
 Ductile Cast Iron
 Wrought Iron

Steel: Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon which is produced either by basic oxygen steelmaking process or
by electric arc furnace.

Steels are broadly classified into

a) Carbon Steels
b) Alloy Steels
c) Tool Steels

a) Carbon steels: Carbon steels are types of steel containing primarily iron and carbon. Other elements
present in small proportions are sulphur, phosphorous, manganese and magnesium. The following types of
carbon steel are.

Mild steel or Low carbon steel

Composition: It has a carbon content of 0.05 to 0.3%. The balance is iron. The most popularly used carbon
steel is mild steel.

Properties and characteristics: Tough, ductile and malleable. Good tensile strength, poor resistance to
corrosion

Application: General-purpose engineering material like rivets, bolts, keys plain washer boiler plate’s shaft,
camshafts and gear.

Medium carbon steel

Composition: It has a carbon content of 0.3 - 0.6% carbon. The remainder is iron content.

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Properties and characteristics: Strong, hard and tough, with a high tensile strength, but less ductile than
mild steel.

Application: It finds application in transmission shafts, springs, spring washers, crane hooks and hand
tools etc.

High carbon steel

Composition: It has a carbon content of 0.6 - 1.5%. it has an iron content of 96% to 97%

Properties and characteristics: Even harder than medium carbon steel, and more brittle. Can be heat
treated to make it harder and tougher

Application: Cutting tools, hammers, chisels, screw, punches, drills lathe tools, leaf springs and milling
cutter

Stainless steel

Composition:Alloy of iron and carbon with 16-26% chromium, 8-22% nickel and 8% magnesium

Properties and characteristics: Hard and tough, resists wear and corrosion

Application: Cutlery, kitchen equipment, surgical equipment, chemical handling equipments and cutlery
etc.,

High speed steel

Composition: Alloy of iron and 0.8 - 1.2% carbon (medium carbon steel) with tungsten, chromium,
vanadium, and sometimes cobalt

Properties and characteristics: Very hard, high abrasion- and heat resistance

Application: Cutting tools for machines

Types of Non -Ferrous metals

Aluminium
Composition: Pure aluminium (an element)

Properties and characteristics: Good strength-to-weight ratio, light, soft, ductile, good conductor of heat
and electricity

Application: Kitchen equipment, window frames, general cast components

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The alloys of Aluminium are Duralumin and Y-Alloy

Copper

Composition: Pure copper (an element)

Properties and characteristics: Malleable and ductile, good conductor of heat and electricity, good
corrosion resistance and light weight.

Application: copper tubes used in refrigerator and air conditioners and radiators due to high thermal
conductivity, electrical wires and cables, used to make door knobs.

Alloys of copper are Brass and Bronze.

Brass

Composition: Alloy of copper (51% to 81%) and zinc (19% to 49%), small amount of aluminium, tin,
manganese and lead give special properties to brass.

Properties and characteristics: Resistant to corrosion, fairly hard, good conductor of heat and electricity

Application: electrical fuses and fittings, brazing solder, musical instruments such as horns, trumpets and
bugles etc.,

Bronze

Composition: Alloy of copper and tin

Properties and characteristics: Fairly strong, malleable and ductile when soft

Application: Decorative goods, architectural fittings

Zinc

Composition: Zinc is a heavy, bluish white metal which can be extracted from zinc sulphide.

Properties and characteristics: fair conductor of electricity, has relatively low melting and boiling point,
resistant to corrosion

Application: Usually used for coating steel to make galvanised items

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Tin

Composition: it is a silvery-white metal obtained from an oxide called tin stone by refining in a
reverberatory furnace.

Properties and characteristics: Soft, malleable and ductile, corrosion resistant from water but is not
resistant for acids and alkalies, low melting point (232ºC)

Application: It is coated for storing food and water, Used in perforated lanters, candle shields and mirror
frames, Used as roofing material due to its light weight and corrosion resistance.

SILICA
It is also called silicon dioxide, compound of the two most abundant elements in Earth's crust, silicon and oxygen, SiO2.
Crystalline silica is a common mineral found in the earth's crust. Materials like sand, stone, concrete, and mortar
contain crystalline silica. Silica is a chemical compound also known as silicon dioxide or silox. The chemical
formula for silicon is SiO2. Silica may be found in many forms of nature. For example, flint, quartz, and opalIt is
also used to make products such as glass, pottery, ceramics, bricks, and artificial stone.
Applications of Silica: Silica has many industrial applications in abrasives and polishes; in glass manufacturing,
fillers and extenders, silica brick manufacturing as a catalyst; in specialty coatings, cleaners ceramics, electronics
optics, and refractories; in ferro-silicon manufacturing and rubber.
It is usually used to manufacture glass, ceramics and abrasives.
Flooring, mortars, cement, roofing shingles, asphalt, and other industrial materials all use silica to improve
durability and structural integrity. As silica is resistant to weather, wear and corrosion, it is often used as a caulk
or sealant.

Ceramics
 The word "ceramic" is derived from the Greek word keramikos meaning pottery.
 “Ceramics can be defined as inorganic, non-metallic materials that are typically produced using clay
and other minerals from the earth or chemically processed powders.”
 Ceramics may be crystalline in nature and are compounds of metallic and non-metallic elements such
as aluminum and oxygen (alumina), silicone and nitrogen (silicon nitride) and silicon and carbon
(silicon carbide).
GLASS:
 “Glass may also be defined as a hard, brittle, transparent or translucent material mainly compound
of silica, combined with varying proportions of oxides of sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesia, iron
and other minerals.”

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 The term "glass" as ordinarily used refers to material which is made by the fusion of mixture of silica,
basic oxides and a few other compounds that react either with silica or with the basic oxides.
 What are the properties and applications of glass?
 The main characteristics of glasses are transparency, heat resistance, pressure and breakage resistance
and chemical resistance. Glass has several strong points concerning optical properties: It can be
produced in large and homogeneous panes. Its optical properties are not affected by ageing.

Properties of Glass
1. Glass is an amorphous solid that is its constituent particles are not arranged in any regular fashion.

2. Glass is brittle that is it can easily crack by applying little external force.

3. Glass may be transparent or translucent depending upon the compounds used in its manufacturing.

4. Glass melt over a range of temperature.

5. Glass is isotropic.

6. Glass does not have definite heat of fusion.

7. Glass gives smooth cooling curves.

8. Glass is a good insulator of heat and electricity.

9. Glass has a high melting point and does not react with external reagents. That's why they are used in
laboratories.

10. Glass has no definite structure that means they have high compressive strength, can absorb, transmit,
and reflect light.

GRAPHITE :
Graphite is a distinct material as it displays the properties of both a metal and a non-metal. Although
graphite is flexible, it is not elastic and has high electrical and thermal conductivity. It is also chemically
inert and highly refractory.
Properties of Graphite
 A greyish black, opaque substance.
 Lighter than diamond, smooth and slippery to touch.
 A good conductor of electricity( Due to the presence of
free electrons) and good conductor of heat.
 A crystalline solid.
 Very soapy to touch.
 Non-inflammable.
 Soft due to weak Vander wall forces.

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What are graphite properties and uses?

It is unique in that it has properties of both a metal and a non-metal: it is flexible but not elastic, has a high thermal
and electrical conductivity, and is highly refractory and chemically inert. Graphite has a low adsorption of X-
rays and neutrons making it a particularly useful material in nuclear applications. Graphite is very weak because the
layer it is made of is very weakly bounded amongst each other.
USES: Used in making a pencil. Used as a dry lubricant. For making electrodes. For polishing iron articles.
Graphite is used in pencils, lubricants, crucibles, foundry facings, polishes, arc lamps, batteries, brushes for
electric motors, and cores of nuclear reactors.

DIAMOND:
 Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known because of its covalent bond structure.
Over 70 percent of diamonds are used for industrial applications and demand for the material is
continuously growing.
 Natural diamond is carbon crystals that forms under high temperature and pressure conditions that
exist only about 100 miles beneath the earth’s surface. It is typically about 99.95 percent carbon. The
other 0.05 percent can include one or more trace elements, which are atoms that aren’t part of the
diamond’s essential chemistry.
 Diamond’s crystal structure is isometric, which means the carbon atoms are bonded in essentially the
same way in all directions.
 Another mineral, graphite, also contains only carbon, but its formation process and crystal structure are
very different. The result is that graphite is so soft that you can write with it, while diamond is so hard
that you can only scratch it with another diamond.
 Without any one of these factors, diamond might be just another mineral. Fortunately, though, this
special combination of chemical composition, crystal structure, and formation process gives diamonds
the qualities that make them extraordinary.
Properties
Besides the hardness, diamond provides an impressive combination of chemical, physical and
mechanical properties:

 Hardness
 Low coefficient of friction
 High thermal conductivity
 High electrical resistivity
 Low thermal expansion coefficient
 High strength
 Broad optical transparency from ultra violet to infra red
 Resistant to chemical corrosion
 Biologically compatible
Example of applications:
 The use of diamond has grown enormously since World War 2, exploiting the unique combination of
properties and the increased availability of the material as synthesis methods developed.
 Wear components
 Cutting tools

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 Thermal management (in e.g. substrates, heat spreaders and heat sinks)
 Semiconductor devices
 Optical components
 Other high performance applications

Polymers
The word polymer comes from the Greek poly-, which means "many", and the mer, which means "parts".
 A polymer is a large molecule made up of chains or rings of linked repeating subunits, which are called
monomers.
 Polymers usually have high melting and boiling points. Because the molecules consist of many monomers,
polymers tend to have high molecular masses.
Types of Polymers:
1. Thermoplastic Polymer
2. Thermosetting Polymer

Thermoplastic Polymer:
“Capable of softening or fusing when heated and of hardening again when cooled.”
1. They have long chain molecules held by secondary bonds
2. Polymerization is linear
3. They soften when heated harden when cooled i.e. reversible
4. At higher temperatures these polymers liquify due to breaking of secondary bonds
5. They are relatively soft and ductile
6. Suitable for only at low temperature

Thermosetting Polymer:
“A thermosetting plastic is a polymer that irreversibly becomes rigid when heated.”
1. They have 3-D network of primary bonds
2. Polymerization is in all direction
3. They become permanently hard when heated.
4. At higher temperatures the strong cross linked bonds are broken and leads to polymer degradation
5. They are harder, stronger and brittle
6. Suitable at both low and high temp.

Optical fiber:
 Optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter
slightly thicker than that of a human hair.

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 Optical fibre are used most often as a means to transmit light between the two ends of the fibre and find
wide usage in fiber-optic communications.
Cermets:
“Cermet compose of metals and ceramics. Cermets are used instead of metals and ceramics to avoid
corrosion. Cermet is used for better conductivity.”
 Cermet has a high thermal conductivity and a good electrical conductivity compared to ceramic.
 Cermet has a very high melting point because of its elements which is metals and ceramics. Its boiling
point is also very high.

SMART MATERIALS:
 Smart materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials developed in recent times and which
have a tremendous influence on many of our latest technologies.
 The word "smart" implies that these materials are able to sense changes in their environment and then
respond to these changes in a pre-determined manner.
 Smart materials, also called intelligent materials, are a concept that extends to both newer and traditional
materials which form a part of modem sophisticated systems.
Two major categories of smart materials are discussed they are:
1. Piezo-electries
2. Shape memory alloys
Piezo-electric:
 Certain materials possess a property by which they experience a dimensional change when an electrical
voltage is applied to them. Such materials are known as piezoelectric because of converse effect; that is
they generate electricity when pressure is applied.
 Common among those which are used as piczo-electric materials are — Barium titanate (BaTiO3), lead
titanate (PbTiO3), lead zirconate (PbZr03), potassium niobate (KNb03) etc.

Shape Memory Alloys:

 Shape memory alloys are those materials, even after being deformed, have the ability to remember and
return to their original shape and size, upon appropriate heat treatment.
 Deformation is normally carried out at relatively low temperature, whereas, shape memory effect
happens due to heating.
 Among materials that arc capable of recovering significant amounts of deformation, the best known are
Nickel-Titanium (NITINOL) alloys; and some Copper based alloys (Cu-Zn-Al and Cu-Al-Ni).

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SHAPE MEMORY ALLOYS

A group of metallic materials that can return to some previously defined shape or size when subjected to the
appropriate thermal procedure. That is, shape memory alloys can be plastically deformed at some relatively low
temperature and, upon exposure to some higher temperature, will return to their original shape.

Shape memory effect is the result of a thermo-elastic martensitic transformation. Above the transformation
temperature, A shape memory alloy (Ni-Ti alloy) is austenitc. The crystalline structure of the austenite is a
cubic B2 or Calsium chloride structure. Cooling below the transformation temperature transforms the B2
structure into a twinned monoclinic structure, called martensite. No macroscopic shape change occurs with this
transformation. However, the twinned martensite can be easily deformed up to approximately 8% strain by an
unconventional de-twinning mechanism. This deformation can be recovered by heating the material to
temperatures above the transformation temperature, completing the shape memory cycle.

As mentioned above, significant changes of material properties accompany this phase transformation. A
typical plot of property changes with temperature is shown in Figure, depicting the characteristic hysteresis
curve with the associated defining temperatures As (Austenite Start), Af (Austenite Finish), Ms (Martensite
Start) and f (Martensite Finish) (See figure). At temperatures above Af, martensite can be stress induced,
i.e. subjecting the material to a deforming stress yields recoverable strains of up 8% with little stress
increase by transforming the austenite into martensite and immediately deforming it by detwinning. As
austenite is the stable phase at this temperature under no-load conditions, the material springs back into its
original shape when the stress is no longer applied. This is an isothermal event called super elasticity or
elastic memory.

One-way shape memory effect

When a shape memory alloy is in its cold state (below As), the metal can be bent or stretched and will hold those
shapes until heated above the transition temperature.

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One-way shape memory effect

Upon heating, the shape changes to its original. When the metal cools again it will remain in the hot shape, until
deformed again. With the one-way effect, cooling from high temperatures does not cause a macroscopic shape
change. A deformation is necessary to create the low-temperature shape. On heating, transformation starts at As
and is completed at Af (typically 2 to 20 °C or hotter, depending on the alloy or the loading conditions). As is
determined by the alloy type and composition. It can be varied between −150 °C and 200 °C.

Two way shape memory effect

The two-way shape memory effect is the effect that the material remembers two different shapes: one at low
temperatures, and one at the high temperature shape. A material that shows a shape memory effect during both
heating and cooling is called two-way shape memory. This can also be obtained without the application of an
external force (intrinsic two-way effect).

Two way shape memory effect

The reason the material behaves so differently in these situations lies in training. Training implies that a shape
memory can "learn" to behave in a certain way. Under normal circumstances, a shape memory alloy
"remembers" its high-temperature shape, but upon heating to recover the high-temperature shape, immediately
"forgets" the low-temperature shape. However, it can be "trained" to "remember" to leave some reminders of
the deformed low-temperature condition in the high-temperature phases. There are several ways of doing this. A
shaped, trained object heated beyond a certain point will lose the two way memory effect, this is known as
"amnesia".

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Properties of NITINOL and Copper-Zinc alloy

NITINOL:
The properties of Nitinol alloys are dictated by their composition. The equiatomic composition forms the basis
of many Nitinol alloys. Adding an additional nickel up to an extra 1% is the most common modification. This
increases the yield strength of the austenitic phase while at the same time depressing the transformation
temperature.Other common additions are made to alter the phase transformation temperature, such as iron and
chromium which lower the temperature. Copper can also be added to lower the stress required to deform the
martensitic phase and decreases hysteresis. The properties of Nitinol alloys are dictated by their composition.
heat treatments can also play a part in affecting properties of Nitinol alloys. However, for most Nitonol alloys,
their density is approximately 6.5 g/cm3 and will have a melting temperature in the range 1240 to 1310°C. The
transformation temperature can be modified from less than –100°C to over 100°C.
For most Nitonol alloys, their density is approximately 6.5 g/cm 3 and will have a melting temperature in the
range 1240 to 1310°C. The transformation temperature can be modified from less than –100°C to over 100°C.

Key properties of Nitinol alloys include:

Large forces that can be generated due to the shape memory effect
Excellent damping properties below the transition temperature
Excellent corrosion resistance
Nonmagnetic
High fatigue strength
Moderate impact resistance
Moderate heat resistance
Biocompatible
Applications
 Aerospace and naval applications - Nitonol fluid fittings or coupling have are being used in military
aircraft and naval craft.
 Medical Applications - Tweezers for removing foreign objects via small incisions, anchors for tendon
fixation and stents for cardiovascular applications
 Dentistry - Orthodontic wires, which no not need to be retightened and adjusted
 Safety devices - Safety valves/actuators to control water temperature and fire sprinklers
 Other uses include:
 Spectacle frames
 Household appliances and deep fryers
 Clothing including underwire brassieres
 Vibration control in the form of engine mounts and actuators for buildings
 Fasteners, seals, connectors and clamps
 Mobile telephone antennaes
Copper-Zinc alloy
CuZnAl SMA’s usually contain 15-30% zinc and 3-7% aluminium, with the balance being copper. The addition
of small quantities (usually less than 1%) of boron, cerium, cobalt, iron, titanium, vanadium and zirconium are
commonly added to control grain size. Use of grain growth control additives keeps grain size down and
overcomes brittleness issues. However, additions should be made carefully as they can upset the stability of the
structure, thus affecting the shape memory characteristics.
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 Density 7.60-7.65 g/cm3

 Values for Young’s modulus and yield strength are higher for the high temperature phase of the alloy.
 Recoverable strain is approximately 4-5%
 Poor corrosion resistance
 CuZnAl SMA’s have the advantage that they are made from relatively cheap metals using conventional
metallurgical processes.
Pseudoelastic (or Superelastic) Effect
In elastic deformation of typical materials a load will result in deformation that will disappear again upon
removal of this load. The difference between this typical elastic deformation and the pseudoelastic (or
superelastic) deformation, which occurs in SMAs, is that these can be stretched or compressed elastically 5-10
times the amount of conventional materials. This is called the Pseudoelastic Effect (PE). This PE can be
observed at temperatures above the temperature necessary to transform the SMA from martensite to austenite
(Af). By selecting an alloy on basis of the fact that this temperature corresponds with ambient temperatures in
which the SMA is intended to be used, it is able to demonstrate the PE. Unlike the Shape Memory Effect, the
PE occurs without the need for a change in temperature. This is because the solid-to-solid phase change, which
is the cause of the special properties of SMAs, can also be induced by the application of a load.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Shape Memory Alloys
The advantages are:
 High work output per unit of volume, thus compact powerful actuators
 Large actuation displacement
 Large recovery force
 Few mechanical parts, reducing overall system complexity
 Variable shapes
 Low voltage operation (below 40 V)
 Usable in clean room environment
 Intrinsic sensory capabilities (in case of thermal actuation)
 Large energy absorption and damping capacity (because of hysteresis, which can also be undesirable)
 Noiseless operation
 Reliability: a SMA active element ‘has to’ transform to its original parent
 phase/shape, even when the actuator was not in use for some decades

The Disadvantages are:

 Limited range of transformation temperatures (which, however, can be controlled by a change in the
composition of the alloy)
 Hysteresis (which can also be beneficiary)
 Duration and stability of the SME uncertain, because research in this area is relative young.
 Relatively low velocity
 Low efficiency when applying resistive heating
 Actuation requires heating and cooling (which is cause to the low velocity)
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JOINING PROCESSES

Joining Processes: Soldering, Brazing and Welding, Definitions, classification of welding process, Arc
welding, Gas welding and types of flames.

Welding

Welding may be defined as the metallurgical joining of two metal pieces together to produce
essentially a single piece of metal. Welding is extensively used in the fabrication work in which metal
plates, rolled steel sections, casting of ferrous materials are joined together. It is also used for repairing
broken, worn out, or defective metal part.

Principle of welding

A welding is a metallurgical process in which the junction of the two parts to be joined are heated
and then fused together with or without the application of pressure to produce a continuity of the
homogenous material of the same composition and characteristics of the part which are being joined.

Types of welding

Welding are classified in to two type

• Pressure welding

• Fusion welding

In Pressure welding the parts to be joined are heated only up to the plastic state and then fused
together by applying the external pressure.

Ex: Forgewelding, resistance welding

In Fusion welding which also known as non-pressure is welding, joints of the two parts are heated
to the molten state and allowed to solidify.

Ex: Arc welding, gas welding.

Arc Welding

The arc welding operates under the principle that when two conductor of an electric circuit are
touched together momentarily and then instantaneously separated slightly, assuming that there is sufficient
voltage in the circuit to maintain the flow of current, an electric arc is formed. Concentrated heat is

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produced throughout the length of the arc at a temperature of about 5000 to 6000°C. in arc welding, usually
theparts to be welded are wired as one pole of the circuit, and the electrode held by the operator forms the
other pole. When the arc is produced, the intense heat quickly melts the work piece metal which is directly
under the arc, forming a small molten metal of the electrode. The molten metal in the pool is agitated by
the action of the arc, thoroughly mixing the base and the filler metal. A solid joint will be formed when the
molten metal cools and solidifies. The flux coating over the electrode produces an inert gaseous shield
surrounding the arc and protects the molten metal from oxidizing by coming in contact with atmosphere.

Arc welding electrodes

There are two types of electrodes that are used in arc welding

(A) Consumable electrodes

(B) Non- consumable electrodes

Consumable electrodes

Consumable electrodes are the electrodes which also melts along with the work piece and fill the
joint. Consumable electrodes could be either bare or coated. When bare electrodes are used globules of the
molten metal while passing from the electrodes absorb oxygen and nitrogen from atmosphere. Which gets
trapped in the solidifying weld metal and thereby decreases the strength of the joint Electrodes are madeup
of soft steel or alloy steel The coating consists of chalk, starch, ferro manganese and binding agents.

Coated electrode facilitates:

(a) Protection of molten metal from oxygen and nitrogen by providing a gaseous shield around the arc
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(b) To establish and maintain the arc throughout the welding

(c) The formation of the slag over the joint thus prevents from rapid cooling

(d) Addition of alloying element

Non- consumable electrodes

When these are used, an additional filler material is also required Advantage in using this electrode
is that amount of metal deposited can be controlled which is not possible in other type of electrode.

Resistance welding

This type of welding employs the principles of both the pressure and fusion welding methods. It
consistsof heating of the Parts to be welded are heated up to the plastic state and joined by applying
mechanical pressure. Heating is done by passage of heavy localized electric current, the current flowing
from one part of joint to other encounters a high resistance and temp increases. This method is employed
for fastening thin metal sheets and wires.

General Welding Procedure

1. Cleaning: The surfaces of the parts to be welded need to be thoroughly cleaned for removal of dirt, oil,
grease, etc.

2. Edge preparation: The process of preparing a contour at the edges of the pieces to be joined is called as
edge preparation. This involves bevelling or grooving. The idea of doing this is to get fusion or penetration
through the entire thickness of the member.

3. Clamping: Next, the parts to be welded are clamped suitably through jigs and fixtures to that there are
no undesirable movements during welding.

4. Check for safety devices: safety devices like goggles and shield to protect the eyes, protective clothing
to prevent the sparks and flying globules of molten metal, safety shoes, gloves,apron and other safety
devices must be ensured

5. The initial weld:Initial tack welds are done at opposite corner of the joints to secure the pieces together.
Any cracks at this stage must be chipped off as the presence of these cracks causes residual stresses. The
length and spacing of the tack weld varies with the thickness of the metal and length of the joint.

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6. Intermediate and final welding:The weld joint is formed through various weaving movement. During
the process, filler metal and a suitable flux are used. After the intermediate run of welding, the final run is
taken

7. Excess material removal: Extra material on the weld surface can be removed using tongs and chipper.
The final weld is now allowed to cool and finally cleaned.

Gas Welding

It is a fusion welding, in which a strong gas flame is used to raise the temperature of the work piece
to melt them. As in the arc welding, a filler metal is used to fill the joint. The gases that can be used for
heating are

(i) Oxygen and acetylene

(ii) Oxygen and hydrogen.

Oxy-acetylene gas mixture is most commonly used in gas welding

Oxy-acetylene welding

When Right proportions of oxygen and acetylene are mixed in the welding torch and then ignited.
The flame produced is called as the oxy-acetylene flame. The temperature attained n this welding is around
3200ºC hence has an ability to melt all commercial metals.

Working:

 The typical oxy-acetylene welding process is shown in fig.

 After the initial equipment preparation, the to-be welded component setup and safety checks are
completed, the pressure regulators fitted to the oxygen and oxyacetylene cylinders are adjusted to draw the
oxygen and acetylene gas in the required proportions from the cylinders respectively.
 The pressure regulator in each of the cylinders is fitted with two gauges.
 One gauge indicates the gas pressure inside the cylinder and the other gauge indicates the reduced
pressure at which the gas goes out.
 The respective gases from the cylinders are carried from the pressure regulator to the welding torch
using the rubber hose pipe.
 Upon reaching the welding torch, these gases are allowed to mix in a mixing chamber and then are led
out of the torch through the orifice of the blow pipe.

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 The resultant flame at 3200oC is used to melt the work pieces. To fill up the gap between work pieces
and to add strength to the joint, filler rods are added to the molten metal pool.
 The molten metal pool that contains molten metal of the filler rod and the work pieces solidifies to
form a welded joint.

Types of Oxy-Acetylene Flames

The types of flames depend on the gas ratio i.e. ratio of the parts of oxygen to the parts of the
acetylene Depending on the gas ratio following flames are obtained

(i) Neutral flame

(ii) Oxidizing flame

(iii) Reducing flame (carburising flame)

(i) Neutral flame

• A neutral flame is obtained by supplying equal volume of oxygen and acetylene

• It consists of a small whitish inner cone surrounded by sharply defined blue flame

• Most of the gas welding is done using the neutral flame

(ii) Oxidizing flame

• This is obtained when there is excess of oxygen, gas ratio

• It appears to be similar to that of neutral flame but the inner white cone flame is shorter than that of
neutral flame

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• This flame is generally used in metal cutting rather than welding since weld metal gets oxidized

(iii) Reducing flame

• This is obtained by supplying excess of acetylene in the gas ratio

• It has 3 cones, an inner white cone, surrounded by an intermediate whitish cone known as “intermediate
flame feather” and a bluish envelope flame

• This flame is used for welding alloy steels, cast iron, aluminium

Advantages of oxy-acetylene welding

1. Most versatile process of welding with wide use in various manufacturing process

2. Low cost of the equipment and low cost of maintenance of the equipment

3. Because of separate heat source and filler metal the control can be exercised on the rate at which the
filler metal deposits.

4. The rate of heating and cooling is slow. This help in retaining the structural homogeneity.

5. The equipment is portable and multi-functional because, apart from gas welding, it can also be used in
torch brazing, braze welding, preheating and post heating.

Disadvantages

1. Difficult to attain low cost target while joining heavy section.

2. Handling and storage of gases not an easy job.

3. It takes long time for the flame to heat up the metal piece than compared to the arc welding.

4. Possible hazards due to explosion of gases.

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Soldering

Soldering is a method of uniting two thin metal pieces using a dissimilar metal or alloy by the
application of heat. The alloy of lead and tin is called soft solder, is used in varying proposition for sheet
metal work, plumbing work and electrical junctions. The melting temp of the soft solder will be between
150̊ to 350̊ C. To clean the joint surfaces and to prevent oxidation a suitable flux is used while soldering.
Zinc chloride is the flux that is commonly used in soft soldering. A soldering iron is used to apply the heat
produced from the electrical source.

An alloy of copper, tin, and silver known as hard solder is used for stronger joint. The soldering
temp of hard solder ranges from 600̊ to 900̊ C

Method of soldering

(i) Cleaning of joining surfaces

(ii) Application of flux

(iii) Tinning of surface to be soldered

(iv) Heating

(v) Final clean-up

(i) Cleaning of joining surfaces: Firstly, the joining surface are cleaned mechanically to make free from
dust, oil scale etc. and ensure that the molten filler metal wets the surfaces.

(ii) Application of flux: Then the joining surfaces are coated with a flux usually rosin or borax. This
cleans the surfaces chemically and helps the solder in making bond.

(iii) Tinning of surface to be soldered: before carrying out the soldering operation, the soldering iron
must be tinned. This is to remove a thin film of oxide that forms on the copper bit, which in turns does not
allow the job to be heated and thus it becomes difficult to solder. In tinning the copper bit is heated andthen
rubbed with a file to clean it properly and then rotating with solder using resin. This causes the formation
of a thin film of solder over the copper bit. This whole process is called tinning

(iv) Heating: the soldering iron is then heated and flowing molten filler metals fills the joints interface.
Allow the soldered area to cool and then solidify thus making the joint.

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(v) Final clean-up: after completing the soldering and joints are formed, clean it with steel wool or solvent
to remove left over flux. After this clean the soldering iron using a damp sponge

Advantages of soldering

1. Low cost and easy to use

2. Soldered joints are easy to repair or do rework

3. The soldered joint can last for many years

4. Low energy is required to solder

5. An experienced person can exercise a high degree of control over the soldering process

Disadvantages of soldering

1. Not suitable for heavy sections

2. Temperature is limited

3. Strength is limited.

Brazing

Brazing is the method of joining two similar or dissimilar metals using a special fusible alloy. Joints
formed by brazing are stronger than that of soldering. During the brazing, the base metal of the two pieces
to be joined is not melted. The filler metal must have ability to wet the surfaces of the base metal to which
it is applied. Some diffusion or alloying of the filler metal with base metal takes place even though the base
metal does not reach its melting temperature. The materials used in brazing are copper base and silver base
alloy. These two can be classified under the name spelters.

Method of brazing

1. Cleaning the surface of the parts.

2. Application of flux at the place of joint.

3. Common borax and mixture of borax and boric acid is used as flux.

4. The joint and the filler material are heated by gas welding torch above the melting temperature of the
filler material.

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5. It flows into the joint space and a solid joint is formed after cooling.

Advantages of Brazing

1. It is easy to learn.

2. It is possible to join virtually any dissimilar metals.

3. The bond line is very neat aesthetically.

4. Joint strength is strong enough for most non-heavy-duty type of application.

Disadvantages of Brazing

1. Brazed joints can be damaged under high temp.

2. Brazed joint require a high degree of cleanliness.

3. The joint colour is often different from that of the base metal.

Difference between Brazing, Soldering and Welding

Brazing Soldering Welding

In brazing filler metal is Soldering using the filler Welding using the filler metal
having the melting point metal having the melting having the melting
greater than 450ºC point less than 450ºC point nearly equal to the base
metal
Joints takes place due to Capillary action is also No capillary action is present.
capillary actionbetween the present in soldering between Joint takes place due
base metaland the filler metal the base metal and filler to fusion.
metal.
Base metal does not melt Base metal does not melt. Base metal melts in welding
Filler metal is having the Filler metal is having the In welding filler metal is not
melting point less than the melting point less than the having the melting point less
base metal. base metal. than the base metal.
Filler metal is uniformly Filler metal is uniformly Filler metal melts and gets
distributedbecause of distributed because of mixed with the base metal
capillaryaction. capillary action
Joints are stronger than Joints are weaker than Joints are stronger as
soldering but weaker than brazing compared to brazing,
welding soldering
It was uses filler metal It uses the filler metal which It uses the filler metal mostly
which contains copper contains lead and tin. having the same composition
and zinc etc. as that of base metal.

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