Parts of Speech

The classification of words in a language is known as parts of speech. In English language,

there are the following parts of speech
Noun
Pronoun
Adjective
Verb
Adverb
Preposition
Conjunction
Interjection

NOUN

Noun is a naming word, the name of a person, place thing or idea is called a noun.

1 Proper Noun: The noun that is used for a specific name is called proper noun.
. Mary, Ram, Jaipur.
2 Common Noun: The noun that is used for general name is called common noun.
. Girl, Man, Book, Pen.
3 Collective Noun: A collective noun shows a collection or group of persons or
. things taken together.
Crowd, Mob, Team, Flock, Herd, Army, Fleet, Jury, Family,
Nation, Parliament, Committee.
4 Abstract Noun: It is usually the name of a quality, action or state.
. Goodness, Honesty, Bravery, Wisdom, Darkness, Laughter,
Theft, Movement, Judgment, Childhood, Slavery, Sleep, Death,
Poverty, Grammar, Music, Chemistry (Arts and Sciences).
5 Material Noun: It is usually the name of materials.
. Gold, Milk, Water.

Countable or Uncountable Noun

Countable Noun: The noun that can receive singular or plural cardinal or determiner is a
countable noun.
Book, Accident, Actor, Baby, Page, Town.

Uncountable Noun: The noun that does not receive singular or plural cardinal or determiner
is called an uncountable noun.
Advice, Accommodation, Applause, Damage, Baggage, Behaviour,
Bread, Cash, Countryside, Crockery, Furniture, Cutlery, Equipment,
Evidence, Fruit, Fun, Gossip, Hair, Harm, Health, Housework,
Jewellery, Land, Homework, Luck, Pollution, Rubbish, Scenery,
Information, Thunder, Toast, Transport, (a system or method for
carrying passengers or goods from one place to another ), Travel,
Violence, Knowledge, Weather, Luggage, Machinery, Money, News,
Progress, Paper, Research, , Traffic, Work, Pay, Rain.
Uncountable nouns are always singular and are not used with a/an and a singular verb is used.

This is a good news   This is a piece of good news. 

Give me a paper   Give me a sheet of paper. 
I have a work   I have a piece of work. 
Her hairs are black.   Her hair is black. 
Mass Noun: In some situations, the uncountable nouns are used as countable nouns, these
are called mass nouns.
Three cups of coffee   Three coffees. 
We stopped for a coffee at a small café. 
Plentiful cheap beer   profits from low alcohol beers. 
We were not allowed to buy wine or spirits at lunch time.
I like wines and liqueurs.

Some common mass nouns:

Brandy, Coal, Cloth, Cotton, Jam, Jelly, Juice, Meat, Milk, Point, Perfume, Poison, Salad,
Sauce, Soup, Sted, Tea, Whisky, Yarn.

Collective Noun

A collective noun can receive both singular and plural verb and pronoun according to the
context.

The committee [has/have] met and [it has / they have] rejected the proposal.

(1) Use singular concord if you think of the group as a single unit or uniformly one
body.
(2) Use plural concord if you identify individual by individual/ divided/scattered.

Our family isn’t poor any more.

My family are perfectly normal.

Furniture is royal.
Furniture are scattered in the ground.

The army have taken their position.

The army of India is highly disciplined.

Indian cricket team is highly disciplined.

Indian cricket team are taking their bath.

Collective noun + Which = singular concord.

Collective noun + Who = plural concord.

Family which is divided is bound to lose its reputation.

Family who are divided are bound to lose their reputation.

Numbers are not used before collective nouns.

Three family were killed. 
Three of the family were killed.

Name of subjects:

The name of subjects that end with ‘ics’ are generally considered as uncountable nouns.

Acoustic, Aerobics, Aerodynamics, Aeronautics, Athletics, Classics, Economics, Obstetrics,

Thermodynamics, Electronics, Genetics, Linguistics, Logistics, Mathematics, Mechanics,
Physics, Politics, Statistics.

The above nouns are used with a singular verb when they are used as subject names. And if
they are used for different roles, a plural verb is used.

Politics plays a large part in our life.

The office politics are not in the right way.
Physics is fun.
Acoustics is the science of sound.
The acoustics of this hall are excellent.
Linguistics has developed rapidly in modern times.
Mathematics is a scoring subject.
My mathematics have gone wrong.
Economics is often studied with politics.
The economics do not add up.
Name of games
The following name of games end with ‘s’ are considered as uncountable noun, receive a
singular verb.

Billiards, Bowls, Cards, Darts, Checkers, Ninepins, Draughts, Skittles, Tiddlywinks,

Dominoes, Fives.

Billiards was gradually replaced by bridge.

Diseases
The following names of different diseases are considered as uncountable nouns and they
receive a singular verb (yet some speakers also accept a plural verb).

Diabetes, Mumps, Measles, Rabies, Rickets, Shingles.

Diabetes is a harmful disease.

Singular or Plural Nouns

(i) The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding ‘s’.

Boy – Boys Girl – Girls Book – Books

(ii) Nouns ending in –s, -sh, -ss, -ch or –x from the plural by adding ‘es’ to singular.
Class – Classes Kiss – Kisses Dish – Dishes
 Match – Matches Watch – Watches Tax – Taxes

Exception: Stomach – Stomachs Monarch – Monarchs

(iii) Most nouns ending in –o form the plural by adding –es.

Buffalo – Buffaloes Mango – Mangoes Hero – Heroes
Potato – Potatoes Cargo – Cargoes Echo – Echoes

(iv) A few nouns ending in –o merely add – s.

Dynamo – Dynamos Solo – Solos Ratio – Ratios
Canto – Cantos Memento – Mementos Quarto – Quartos
Piano – Pianos Photo – Photos Stereo – Stereos
Commando – Commandos Radio – Radios Auto – Autos
Alto – Altos Bamboo – Bamboos Zoo – Zoos
Disco – Discos

(v) Nouns ending in –y preceded by a consonant form their plural by replace ‘y’ with
‘ies’.
Baby – Babies Lady – Ladies City – Cities
Army – Armies Story – Stories Pony – Ponies

Exception: (a) The Kennedys, The two Germanys, Stand-bys.

(b) ‘y’ after a vowel (except the ‘u’ if any) receives only ‘s’
Day – Days Boy – Boys Journey – Journeys

(vi) The nouns ending in –f or –fe form their plural by replacing ‘f’ or ‘fe’ with ‘ves’.
Thief – Thieves Wife – Wives Loaf – Loaves
Life – Lives Calf – Calves Wolf – Wolves
Leaf – Leaves Elf – Elves Knife – Knives
Self – Selves Half – Halves Sheaf – Sheaves
Shelf – Shelves

(vii) The nouns dwarf, hoof, scarf, wharf handkerchief receive either –s or –ves.
Dwarf – Dwarfs  Dwarves

(viii) The following nouns form plurals with only ‘s’

Chief – Chiefs Safe – Safes Proof – Proofs
Gulf – Gulfs Cliff – Cliffs Roof – Roofs
Belief – Beliefs

(ix) Mutation  change in vowels.

Foot – Feet Man – Men Woman – Women
Tooth – Teeth Louse – Lice Goose – Geese
Mouse – Mice

(x) The –en plural.

Brother – Brethren Child – Children Ox – Oxen

(xi) Zero plural are always used as plurals and take plural verb.
 Cattle, Gentry – of high social class, Police, Vermin – insects, People (but regular
when ‘nation’), Youth (but regular when ‘young man’), Livestock, Poultry’

Cattle are grazing.

The police are coming.
Vermin have destroyed the crop.

(xii) Plural with ’s.

(a) Letters – Book  There are two O’s/Os in the word book.
(b) Numerals in the 1980’s/1980s.
(c) Abbreviations – Two MP’s/MPs.

(xiii) Quantitative nouns: Hundred, Thousand, Dozen, Million (usually)

(a) Indefinite article/cardinal + singular form
There were hundred/thousand people.
(b) Un-premodified + plural form
He always wanted to have hundreds/thousands of books.
Mangoes are sold in dozens.
Dozens of glasses.
He is six foot/feet tall. 
He bought eight ton(s) of coal. 

Some nouns only have their plural forms:

Clothes Flares
Bermudas Galoshes
Braces Glasses
Briefs Jeans
Cords Jodhpurs
Corduroys Knickerbockers
Culottes Knickers
Dungarees Leggings

Overalls Sunglasses
Panties Tights
Pants Trousers
Pyjamas Trunks
Shorts Underpants
Slacks Pajamas (AME)
Spectacles Flannels

Tools Pliers
Binoculars Scales
Clippers Scissors
Compasses Secateurs
Dividers Shears
Field-glasses Tongs
Nutcrackers Tweezers
Pincers
In singular form these nouns are used with  (some / a pair of / a piece of / a sheet of) +
noun.

In plural form these nouns are used with  plural cardinal + pairs of / pieces of / sheets of +
noun.

I got some scissors out of the kitchen drawer. 

I was sent out to buy a pair of scissors. 
Liza has three pairs of jeans. 
He was wearing a pair of old grew trousers. 

The scissors are in the study drawer. 

His new trousers were given to him by his sister. 
Four clothes  - four garments , four items of clothing. 
How have three pairs of scissors managed to disappear. 

When we use ‘a pair of’ with a noun in the plural form, the verb is singular, if it is in the
same clause. If the verb is in the following relative clause, it is usually plural.

I always wear a pair of long pants underneath, or a pair of pajamas is just as good.
He put on a pair of brown shoes, which are not good.
He wore a pair of earphones, which were plugged into a tape recorder.
He brought out a pair of dark glasses and handed them to walker.

List of count nouns that have the same form for both singular and plural. We use singular or
plural verb as the contexts

Bison Shellfish
Deer Aircraft
Aircraft Hovercraft
Grouse Spacecraft
Moose Crossroads
Reindeer Dice
Sheep Fruit
Fish Gallows
Offspring Hovercraft
Series Chassis
Species Precis
Headquarters Barracks
Works Means
Fish Kennels

A sheep is grazing
Nine sheep are grazing.

A chemical works causes a lot of pollution.

The chemical works cause a lot of pollution.
One aircraft was shot down.
Two aircraft were shot down.

(i) Irregular Plurals: Noun in ‘s’ – plural is – ‘es’

Analysis – Analyses Diagnois – Diagnoes
Axis – Axes Oasis – Oases
Basis – Bases Synopsis – Synopses
Crisis – Crises Thesis – Theses

(ii) Noun in ‘um’ – plural is – ‘a’

Addendum  Addenda = An item of additional added at the end of the book
Bacterium  Bacteria
Corrigendum  Corrigenda = A thing to be corrected error in a particular book
Desideratum  Desiderata = Something that is needed or wanted
Stratum  Strata = A series of layers

(iii) Noun in ‘ex’ – plural is – ‘ices’

Index  Indices
Codex  Codices = Hard written book

(iv) Noun in ‘on’ – plural is – ‘a’

Criterion  Criteria
Phenomenon – Phenomena

What is your criteria for admission. 

What are your criteria for admission. 

Alumni of English department is coming. 

Alumni of English department are coming. 

Bacteria is harmful. 
Bacteria are harmful. 

Plural of Mr. = Messrs.

Wages
(i) Wages = a fixed payment on daily basis  Plural Verb
The wages are very low.
(ii) Wages = result or reward  Singular Verb
The wages of sin is death.
Means
Means = method  Either singular or plural verb
The means applied by him to pass the examination was/were unfair.

Means = income, financial resources  plural verb

His means are not up to his needs.
My means were much reduced.
 Pronoun
A word used instead of a noun is called a pronoun

This (pronoun) is my book.

This (adjective) book is mine.
Difference between pronoun and Adjective/determiner
After a pronoun, there cannot be a noun as a noun is replaced with a pronoun. A determiner is
used before a noun.
Kinds of pronoun
Personal Pronoun

Person Case Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive

Case Case Adjective Pronoun

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plura Singular Plural

l
I Person, I We Me Us My Our Mine Ours

II Person You You You You Your Your Yours Yours

III Person He They Him Them His Their His Theirs

She Her Her Hers
It It Its x

I, he and you are friends. 

You, he and I are fiends. 
The sequence of personal pronoun is -
Second Person + Third Person + First Person = 231

1. For child, animals, weather, and time it is used –

When I saw the child it was crying.
The horse fell and broke its leg.
It rains. It snows. It thunders.
It is fine. It is winter. It is ten O’clock.

2. With temporary subject –

It is easy to find fault = To find fault is easy.

3. With collective noun the use of pronoun is situational –

Indian army is known for its power.
The Jury were divided in their opinions.
The Jury was singular in its decision.

4. When two singular nouns joined by “and” refer to the same person or thing, pronoun
is used in singular form –
 The secretary and treasurer is negligent of his duty.

5. When two or more singular nouns are joined by or, either-or, neither-nor, the pronoun
is singular.
Ram or Hari must lend his hand.
Neither Abdul nor Karim has done his lesson.

6. When a plural noun and a singular noun are joined by or, nor, either-or, neither-nor
pronoun must be in plural – (Singular + plural subject)
Either the manager or his assistants failed in their duty.

7. Coordinated pronouns in objective case are used only in objective form.

The presents are for you and me (not I).
My uncle asked Mohan and me to dinner (not I).

8. With preposition, objective form of a pronoun is used.

It is for her.
It is between you and me.
Nobody will help you but me.
He looked about him.
Have you any money on you.
They placed their papers in front of them.

9. Pronouns after ‘as’ and ‘than’ has the object form unless there is a verb after it.
I am not as tall as him / as tall as he is.
The other teams played better than us / better than we did.

Emphatic and Reflexive Pronouns

Both are formed with self or selves.

Emphatic Pronoun is not an integral part of the sentence. It can be dropped from the
sentence without any grammatical error. It is used either just after the word on which stress is
given or in the last of the sentence.

I (myself) talked to Lata.

I talked to Lata myself.
I talked to Lata herself.

By + Emphatic Pronoun – (For more emphatic)

I wrote my Ph.D. dissertation by myself.

Reflexive Pronoun is an integral part of the sentence. It is used after the verb. It acts as an
object.
She hurt herself.

Preposition + Reflexive Pronoun

He gave the largest portion to himself.
Demonstrative Pronoun

The pronouns that are used to point out the nouns to which they refer.

Both cars are good, but this is better than that.

Mumbai mangoes are better than Bangalore. 
Mumbai mangoes are better than those of Bangalore.
There is no period in ancient Indian history so glorious as that of the Guptas.
The climate of Delhi is like that of Pune.

Indefinite Pronoun

One, None, They, All, Few, Many, Some, Any, Nobody, Somebody, Anybody.
One hardly knows what to do.
None of his poems are well known.
They say he has lost heavily.
Some are born great.
Few escaped unhurt.
I shall be glad to help everyone of my boys in his/their studies.

Distributive Pronoun

Each, Every, Either, Neither

These pronouns refer to persons or things one at a time.

Reciprocal Pronoun

Each other – For two

One another – For more than two
The three students quarreled with each-other ()
The three students quarreled with one-another ().

Interrogative Pronoun

These pronouns are used for asking question.

Who gave you that knife? – Subjective
Whose is this book? – Possessive
Whom did you see? / Who did you see? – Objective
To whom were you speaking? / Who were you speaking to? – Objective
What is that? – Subjective
What do you want? – Objective
Which is he? – Subjective
Which do you prefer? – Objective

Subjective – Who
Possessive – Whose Persons
Objective – Whom/Who
Which – Persons/Things
What – Generally for Things

Relative Pronoun

Relative pronoun refer or relates (carries us back) to some noun going before, which is called
its Antecedent.
I met Hari, Hari had just returned.
I met Hari (Antecedent), who (Relative Pronoun) had just returned.

Subject Object Possessive

Who Whom/Who Whose
For Persons
That That
Which Which Whose, Of Which
For Things
That That

These are the boys who work hard. – Subjective

These are the boys whose exercises are done well. – Possessive
These are the boys whom/who all praise. – Objective
He that is content is rich. – Subjective
They that tough pitch will be defiled. – Subjective
Take anything that you like. – Objective
The moment which is lost is lost forever.
The horse which I recently bought is an Arab.
He whom we worship, by whose gifts we live, is the Lord.

Which is also used when the antecedent is a whole clause:

He arrived late for his interview, which was very regrettable.

Use of That

1. Used for both persons and things.

This is the boy that I told you of.
I know the house that he lives in.

2. That is used only restrictive relative clause.

The boy that met you yesterday is my student. 
Ram, that met you yesterday, is my student. 

3. That is never used just after a preposition.

This is the book about that I was telling to you. 
This is the book about which I was telling to you. 
This is the book that I was telling to you about. 
The ladder on that I was standing began to slip. 
The ladder on which I was standing began to slip. 
The ladder which/that I was standing on began to slip. 
The ladder I was standing on began to slip. 
His house for that he paid 5,00,000, is now worth 10,00,000. 
 His house for which he paid 5,00,000, is now worth 10,00,000. 
Ashdown forest through that we’ll be driving is not a forest any longer. 
Ashdown forest through which we’ll be driving is not a forest any longer. 

4. All, little, much, none, everything, superlative degree, any, only, no, and compounds
of no – that is preferred or the relative is dropped altogether.
All that glitters is not gold.
This is the best hotel that I knew.
He is the fastest runner that I have ever seen.
I can give you the little money that I have.
Man is the only animal that can talk.

5. That is used after the expressions as; it is / was, is it?, what is it?
It is time that you said something.
What is it that you did?

6. If in the last clause, there is only ‘be verb’, that is used.

He is not the man that he was.
He that is not with me is against me.
He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty.

7. If relative pronoun is used as the object ‘that’ is preferred.

The boy whom/that you met yesterday is my student.
The book which/that I bought yesterday is expensive.

8. After interrogative pronouns who, what.

Who that saw her did not pity her?
What is there that I do not know?

9. After two antecedents, one denoting a person and the other denoting an animal or a
thing.
The boy and his dog that had trespassed on the club premises were turned out.

Name of countries, ships, rivers = whose

The Ganga whose water is transparent is holy river.

Same – As/that
Such – As
Such girls as he knew were teachers.
This is the same book that/as I gave you yesterday.
He went to the same school in that / as I did.
Have you ever seen such hats as she wears?

Adjective

An adjective qualifies either a noun or pronoun.

Ram is an intelligent (adjective) boy (noun).

 He (pronoun) is intelligent (adjective).
I want to buy those fresh (adjective) ones (pronoun).

Kinds of Adjective

Attribute: Adjectives are attributive when they pre-modify nouns, i.e. they are used before
nouns.
This is a beautiful painting.

Predicative: Adjectives are predicative when they are used after a verb.
The painting is beautiful.

The predicative adjectives can be used as:

(i) Subject Complement:

Your daughter is pretty.

(ii) Object Complement:

He made his wife happy.
He pulled his belt tight.

Generally, an adjective can be used both attributively and predicatively. These are called
central adjectives.

He is a hungry man. – Attributive

The man is hungry. – Predicative

Inherent or Non-Inherent Adjective

Inherent: The adjective that characterize the referent noun directly is called inherent
adjective.
The wise man.

Non-Inherent: The adjective that does not characterize the referent noun directly is called
non-inherent adjective.
An old friend – It does not mean that friend is old, it shows a longtime friend.
A complete fool. a perfect idiot. The wooden actor.

An adjective may be inherent or non-inherent according to the context.

A big house – inherent
A big fool – non-inherent

Only Attributive:

(i) Mere, sheer, utter, close, entire, very, adoring, belated, chequered, choked,
commanding, fateful, flagrant, fleeting, knotty, paltry, pushing, ramshackle, scant,
searing, thankless, unenviable, atomic, bridal, cardiac, countless, cubic, digital, east,
eventual, existing, federal, forensic (searching crime), indoor, institutional,
introductory, investigative, judicial, lane, maximum, north, occasional, orchestral,
 outdoor, phonetic, preconceived, remedial, reproductive, smokeless, south,
supplementary, underlying, west, woolen, former, latter, inner, outer, minus, plus.

This is shear/mere folly. 

The folly is shear/mere. 
He is an utter fool. 
The fool is utter. 
He is a close friend. 
The friend is close. 
He is fond of music.
She is fond mother. – meaning is changed.
A mother who loves too much that the child spoils.

(ii) When new, big, complete, perfect are used as non-inherent, they are attributive only.
A complete fool. 
The fool is complete. 
A perfect idiot. 
The idiot is perfect. 
My new friend. 
My friend is new. 
He is a big eater. 
The eater is big. 

Only Predicative: Ashamed, averse, unable, ready, ill, asleep, faint, well, unwell, afraid
(that, of about), fond (of), loath (to), glad, safe, alive, aware, sorry, alone, content, sure, apart.

He is ill. 
He is an ill man. 
The boy is asleep. 
He is an asleep boy. 
He is faint. 
He is a faint man. 
The woman is loath to admit it. 
A loath woman. 

Post Positive: Adjectives can sometimes be past positive, i.e. they can sometimes follow the
item they modify.

(i) Indefinite pronouns ending -body, -one, -thing, -where, can be modified only post
positively.
I want to try on something larger.

(ii) Several compound adjectives are post posed.

Attorney general, body politic, court martial, notary public, postmaster general. Heir
apparent, time immemorial, lord paramount, letters patent, knights temporal, sum
total.

(iii) The following are the adjectives that have different meanings depending on whether
they are put in front of a noun or immediately after one.
 (a) Visible + Noun = That can be seen.
The visible stars can be seen at night.

Noun + Visible = That are shining

The stars visible are the source of the brightness.

(b) Present + Noun = Before a noun, present refers to time; happening or existing
now.
The present international situation.

Noun + Present = after a noun it means ‘here/there’, 'not absent’, who are now on the
spot.
Of the 18 people present, I know only one.
The present members on the committee are 200 but the members present are
only 10.

(c) Proper + Noun = real, ‘genuine, suitable.

This is the proper thing to do.

Noun + Proper = central or main part of something.

I live in Jaipur proper.

(d) Involved + Noun = Complex (noun only non-animate)

This is the most involved problem.

Noun + Involved = concerning, containing, affected

The people involved in the riot have been arrested.

(e) Concerned + Noun = worried

He is a concerned father.

Noun + Concerned = correlated

The idea needs to come from the individuals concerned.

(f) Responsible + Noun = sensible – able to judge things well

Parents are trying to act in a responsible manner.

Noun + Responsible = blamed for

The person responsible for his death must be arrested.

–ed and –ing Adjectives

When there is no adjective for the meaning concerned, participles are used.

(i) Present Participle = V1 + ing

(ii) Past Participle = V3

The film is good / bad. 

 The film is boring. 

The news was shocked – shocking.

The work got tired – tiring.
The film got bored – boring.
The music was interested – interesting.

I was shocked. 
I got bored. 
I got tired. 
I am interested in music. 

The noun or pronoun for which the present participle is used affects the other noun or
pronoun, while the noun or pronoun for which the past participle is used, affects its
own. In other sense present participle is used in a passive sense.

He gave a provoked speech – provoking.

The audience got provoking – provoked.

Damaged car, damaging remarks.

Order of Adjectives

1. Subjective + Objective
(i) This is an old fine house. 
This is a fine old house. 

(ii) This is a red beautiful carpet. 

This is a beautiful red carpet. 

In sentence (i) fine is a subjective adjective because what is fine for one man, may be
coarse for others, and ‘old’ is an objective adjective because old is old for all.

2. Shorter + Larger
He is a quite intelligent boy.

3. Style, colour, nationality and material adjectives are generally used before noun.
This is a beautiful Moghul painting.
This is a beautiful red carpet.
She is a famous American scholar.
This is a cheap cotton shirt.

4. Size + Age + Colour + Nationality + Material

All those big old red Indian wooden chairs are on sale.

Manner + Size + Age + Shape + Colour + Nationality + Type + Material

All these beautiful big old square red Indian handmade wooden chairs are on sale.

5. Generally comparative and superlative come in front of all other adjectives.

 It is better parental control.
She is the most famous American lady.

6. When a noun group contains both an adjective and a noun modifier, the adjective is
placed in front of the noun modifier.
The world’s biggest and most prestigious book fair.

7. The adjectives: designate, elect, galore, incarnate, manqué (has been successful but
never become), par excellence are used immediately only after a noun.
She was now president elect.
He is wisdom incarnate.
There are empty houses galore.
The ambassador designate, teacher manqué.

8. The adjectives: broad, deep, high, long, old, tall, thick, wide are used immediately
after measurement nouns.
Six feet tall.
Three meters wide.
Twenty-five years old.

9. Some + Noun + Other

A man should do some or other work. 
A man should do some work or other. 

Comparison of Adjectives

An adjective can change in form (sweet-sweeter-sweetest) to show comparison. These forms

are called the three Degrees of Comparison.

The adjective ‘sweet’ is said to be in the Positive Degree.

The adjective ‘sweeter’ is said to be in the Comparative Degree.
The adjective ‘sweetest’ is said to be in the Superlative Degree.

Positive degree is used when no comparison is made.

He is a strong boy.

Comparative degree is used when two things are compared.

This boy is stronger than that.
Which of these two pens is the better?
To show that two things increase or decrease in the same ratio.
The earlier you detect a problem, the easier it is to cure.
The more militant we became, the less confident she became

Formation of Comparative and Superlative

Most adjectives of one syllable for the comparative by adding ‘er’ and the superlative by
adding ‘est’.

Sweet Sweeter Sweetest

Small Smaller Smallest
 Brave Braver Bravest
Happy Happier Happiest
Big Bigger Biggest

Adjectives of more than two syllables form the comparative by adding ‘more’ and the
superlative by adding ‘most’.

Beautiful More Beautiful Most Beautiful

Courageous More Courageous Most Courageous

Irregular Comparison

Good, Well Better Best

Bad, Evil, Ill Worse Worst
Little Less, Lesser Least
Much More Most
Many More Most
Late Later, Latter Latest, Last
Old Older, Elder Oldest, Eldest

 The comparative in ‘er’ is not used when we compare two qualities in the same
person or thing.
Ram is braver than nobler. 
Ram is more brave than noble. 

 The comparative degree is generally followed by than, but the following

adjectives are followed by the preposition ‘to’.

Elder, Senior, Junior, Prefer, Prior, Superior, Inferior, Preferable, Anterior, Posterior.
He is senior than me in service. 
He is senior to me in service. 
 Ordinals + Cardinals + Noun
The first two years have been very successful.
Throughout the first four months of this year.
The last two volumes.
In the previous three years.
 Cardinal + Hyphen + Singular Noun
I wrote a five-page summary of the situation.
A six-day leave.

Older/ Elder
Older – for both things and persons.

Elder – only for persons.

(i) Elder is used only for family members.

(ii) Than is not used after elder – ‘to’.
(iii) Elder is use as an attributive adjective or as a noun.
 He is elder older than me. 
He is elder to me. 
My elder sister has gone abroad. 
She is my elder by 2 years.  (as a noun)

Elder statesman (much experienced and respected)

Respect your elders. 
The elders of a village. 
The adjectives that take people (man) word with them is used in singular form.
He provides the blinds man food. 
He provides the blind man food. 
There are many poors in India. 
There are many poor in India. 
The riches hate the poors. 
The rich hate the poor.

Open/Close
The college is open. 
The college is close. 
The college is closed. 
Open – Verb, Adjective
Close – Verb, Adjective (very near)

 -Ly Adjectives
Costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely, lively, lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely,
manly, lordly.

Due to or Owing to
Due to illness, he was unable to go on his holiday. 
Many trains were late due to the fog. 
Due to the state of the ground, the match has been postponed. 
Due is an adjective so in the above sentence owing to or because of should be used.

1. Due to is used as a compliment to a verb.

His absence is due to illness. 
The accident was due to driver’s failure to give a signal. 

2. Following a noun, and introducing an adjectival construction which qualifies that

noun.
Mistakes due to carelessness may have serious consequences. 

All, Both, Half – Pre determiners:

These all mangoes are sweet.  All these mangoes are sweet. 
My both hands are dirty.  Both my hands are dirty. 
The half work is over.  Half the work is over. 
Difference between determiner (adjective) and pronoun:

No determiner no noun. The use of a noun is a must with a determiner but there cannot be
any noun with a pronoun.
Mine car is red.   My car is red. 
My is the mistake.   Mine is the mistake.   It is my mistake. 
His is the mistake.  Hers is the mistake. 

VERBS

Verbs tell or assert something about a person or thing. It tells about an action or a link.
Ram writes a book
Linking/Intensive Verb: These are the verbs that receive either a complement or adjunct
after them. Never receive an object.
Ram (S) is (V) a doctor (C).
It (S) seems (V) true (C).

Copula verb: These are the verbs that receive either a complement or adjunct after them.
Never receive an object
Be, appear, feel, look, prove, seem, smell, sound, taste, become, fall, grow, keep, remain,
stay, turn.

Transitive: That takes an object.

He writes a letter. (Mono Transitive)
He gave me (indirect) a book (direct). (Di Transitive)
He writes a letter every day. (Complex Transitive)

Intransitive: That does not take any object.

Bob coughed.
Vicki wept bitterly.
Her whole body ached.
I sympathized with them. (Prepositional Phrase)
Donald was lying on the bed.
Verb with Cognate Object (Similar in meaning to verb)
I have fought a good fight.
He laughed a hearty laugh.
I dreamt a strange dream.
Reflexive Verb: Buy, content, pride, avail, absent, enjoy.
He had busied himself in the laboratory.
Mohan and I contented ourselves with expressing our relief.
He prides himself on his success.

The following verbs take a reflexive pronoun as their object when you refer to a person.
Apply, compose, distance, excel, exert, express, strain.
Prof. Verma expresses himself very forcibly.
He applied himself to learning how parliament worked.
Static/Dynamic: Stative verbs can’t be used in continuous form abhor, adore, astonish, apply
to (everyone), believe, be, belong to, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve,
desire, detest, dislike, doubt, equal, feel, fit, forgive, guess, hate, hear, have, imagine,
impress, include, intend, involve, know, like, love, mean, mind, matter, need, owe, own,
possess, perceive, please, prefer, presuppose, remain (bachelor), require, resemble, realize,
recall, recognize, regard, remember, satisfy, see, smell, suppose, seem, sound, suffice, tend,
taste, think, understand, want, wish, see, hear.
Note: the same verb can be static in one meaning and Dynamic in other meaning.
I am smelling the rose. 
Is the meat smelling bad? 
Does the meat smell bad? Or Can the meat smell bad? 

I am loving. 
I love. 
I can love. 
Was he understanding the question? 
Did he understand the question? 
Have they been guessing for a long time? 
Have they guessed for a long time? 
We are thinking about move. 
I think we ought to move. 

Simple continuous is changed into indefinite.

Perfect continuous is changed into perfect.

Finite/Non-Finite Verb

The verb that is controlled by number, person and tense is called Finite Verb. On the
contrary, the verb that does not control by number, person and tense is called Non-Finite
Verb.
have been playing football for two hours.
They Finite verb Non finite verb

He Finiteisverb going to market.

Non finite verb

may have been being punished by his teacher.

He Finite verb Non finite verb

The verb forms: infinitive (to + V 1), -ing participle (V1 + ing) and –ed participle (V 3) are non-
finite verb forms.

Modal Auxiliaries: The helping verb that tells the writer’s or speaker’s attitude is called a
Modal Auxiliary.

Can, Could, May, Might, Shall, Should, Will, Would, Must, Ought to, Used to, Need, Dare.

Marginal Modal Auxiliaries: The Models ‘used to’, ‘dare’ and ‘need’ are called marginal
modal auxiliaries as they can be used like both helping verbs and main verbs.
He used to go to swim. 
Used he to go to swim? 
He needn’t go now. 
He doesn’t need to go now. 
Need he go now? 
 Does he need to go now? 
Needn’t he go now? 

ADVERB

Adverb qualifies either a verb or an adjective or another adverb. Advert is the answer of
‘when’, ‘where’ and ‘how’.

He plays well.
Adverb

well.
He is Adjective

He plays very
Adverb
well.
Adverb

He is a very
Adverb
best player.
Adjective

When we have no adverbs we use prepositional phrase (Pre. + Noun) as adverbs.

He is at gate (prepositional phrase as an adverb).
You are in time (prepositional phrase as an adverb).
The voice was coming from my room (prepositional phrase as an adverb).

Adverbs like adjectives have their degrees.

Well  Better  Best
Much  More  Most
He plays best (adverb).
I like it most (adverb).

Generally, the comparative of an adverb is formed with ‘more’ and the superlative with
‘most’, and by adding ‘-er’ and ‘-est’.
You should manage the business more effectively (adverb).
Rekha most closely (adverb) resembles to her mother.

However, adverbs which have the same form as adjectives also have the same comparatives
and superlatives as the adjectives.
They worked harder (adverb) they were more honest.
The winning blow is the one that strikes hardest (adverb).

Place or Order of Adverb

Generally, adverbs are used in the end of the sentence.

 He is there.
Birds fly in the sky.
I like coffee very much.

If the ‘adverb of manner’ is of a single word it is put before the verb; or in end position.
I simply adore this flat.
You speak English well.

MPT (When verb does not show physical movement.)  Manner + Place + Time
He studied yesterday hard at the library. 
He studied hard at the library yesterday. 

PMT  (When verb shows physical movement.)

He walked hurriedly to the theatre yesterday. 
He walked to the theatre hurriedly yesterday. 
He left for England by air yesterday.
Somebody violently knocked at his door at 7 am yesterday. 
Yesterday at 7 am, somebody violently knocked at his door. 

The adverb of time can be put at the beginning or in the end of the sentence.

Mid-Position of an Adverb

 If there is only one adverb it is used before verb.

He seldom goes to the cinema.

 If the verb is ‘be’ verb, it is used after the verb.

He is never late.

 If there is a verb group, the adverb is used after the first verb.
He has never been there.

 If a sentence or clause begins with a negative adverb or restrictive adverb, the structure of
the sentence or clause is that of an interrogative. Yet the sentence is not interrogative.
Hardly he comes late. 
Hardly does he come late. 
Little he knows about maths. 
Little does he know about maths. 
Only by labouring hard you can take a first. 
Only by labouring hard can you take a first. 
Only yesterday I came to know about his success in exam. 
Only yesterday did I come to know about his success. 

A: I don’t go to cinema.
B: Nor do I.

A: I haven’t had lunch.

B: Neither have I.
 ‘So’ and ‘As’ are used like negative words.
A: I go to the cinema on Sunday.
B So do I.

 ‘No’ and ‘Any’ are not used in the same clause.

I have no any friends. 
I do not have any friends. 
I have no friends. 
I have not any friends. 
I am very much sorry (adjective). 
I am very sorry (adjective). 
I like coffee very much (adverb). 

Much is used in comparative degree as an adjective.

His condition is now much better (adjective).

Exception: With past participle much can be used with positive degree.
I am much worried about your health.

 If you put a prepositional phrase which refers to the position of something at the
beginning of the clause when you are using a verb intransitively, the verb is placed before
the subject.
On the ceiling hangs the fan.
Beyond them lay the fields.

Prepositional Phrase + Verb (intransitive) + Subject

Next to it is a different sign.
Under her chin was colossal brooch.

No sooner – than
Hardly – when/before
Scarcely – when
Hardly he had finished lunch than somebody knocked at the door. 
Hardly had he finished lunch when/before somebody knocked at the door. 
No sooner had the bell rung than the teacher entered the class. 
The bell had no sooner rung than the teacher entered the class. 
The bell had scarcely rung when the teacher entered the class. 
Scarcely had the bell rung when the teacher entered the class. 

Ago / Before / Earlier

The train had left a few minutes ago. 
The train left a few minutes ago. 
The train had left a few minutes earlier/before. 

Ago is used with past simple and not with past perfect.
Lately/Recently
Did you see any Hindi film lately? 
Have you seen any Hindi film lately? 

Lately is used with present prefect tense, while recently is used with both simple past and
present perfect.

Near = close Nearly = almost

There is a bank quite near.
We have nearly finished.

Free = Without Paying Freely = Uncontrolled

Airline staff travel free.
The prisoners can move around freely.

Hard = difficult Hardly = almost not

He works hard.
He hardly worked.

Late = not on time Lately = Recently

You are late.
Have you seen any film lately?

In Short = In Brief Shortly = Soon

He did it in short.
He came very shortly.

Most = For the Larger Part Mostly = To the Greatest Extent

It was the most exciting holiday I have ever had.
The audience consisted mostly of women.

Fairly = Positive Sense Rather = Negative Sense

She is fairly tall.
She is rather tall.
Tom is fairly clever, but Peter is rather stupid.

Too = Negative Sense Very = Positive Sense

It is too hot.
She is very beautiful.
She is too beautiful. 

High = higher Highly = very

The plane flew high above the clouds.
The theory is highly controversial.

 Here/There + Verb + Subject (Noun)

Here comes the bus. 
Here the bus comes. 
Pronoun subjects come directly after here and there.

 Here/There + Subject (Pronoun) + Verb

Here it comes. 
Here comes it. 
There she goes. 
There goes she. 

Preposition
Preposition refers the relation/situation between nouns. Preposition is a linking word but after
a preposition there always comes either a noun or a pronoun.

On
(1) When one thing is in touching to another.
The book is on the table.
(2) When one thing is hanging from, supported by or connected with to a particular thing.
Stand on one foot,
Pictures stuck on the wall.
A ball is on a sting.
(3) In a particular direction.
He is on my right /on my left.
(4) To show the person or thing affected by an action or someone’s behaviour.
A tax on cigarettes.
The divorce has had a particular bad effect on the children.
(5) On one of the sides of something such as a river or road.
A cafe on the river.
A beautiful village on the Austrian border.
London on the Thames.
(6) At sometime during a particular day or date.
On Friday, on 24th January.
I was born on July 1st.
(7) About a particular subject matter. (Scientific Study)
A book on India/on cats.
But: For subject matter, when we do not deal with scientific study, about is used.
A book about politics
(8) With transport means. = On + Article+ means of transport
Everyone on the plane was frightened.
He managed to be on the first train back to London.
Exception: foot and horseback are used with zero article with preposition “on”
He came on foot.
He went on horseback.
(8.a) “By” is also used with means of transport. = By +zero Article+ means of transport
By train / by plane / by car / by land / sea / air.
(8.b) “In” is also used with means of transport = In + Article+ means of transport
He came in a boat.
Everyone in the plane was frightened.
(9) Used to say what food someone needs to survive.
We can’t live on rice and water forever.
(10) Used to say what money people use to live, the amount of money someone earns.
 People on high salaries should pay more tax.
(11) Used to say that someone takes a particular drug or medicine.
She is on Morphine.
(12) Using a radio or telephone. = to show that someone is using the instrument.
I’m on the phone.
But: When we talk about Medium “over” is used
I don’t want to talk about this over the telephone.
(13) During a trip or journey.
I am on the way.
(14) Used to say that someone is a member of a team.
He is on the team.
(15) Compare with other person or thing.
This essay is a definite improvement on your last one.
(16) If there is a date/day with morning and evening, on is used not in.
He came on Saturday morning.
I met him on the evening of 26th January.
(17) If early and late are used with day/date, in is used not on.
In the early morning of 31st March.
In the late night/afternoon of 31st March.
(19) If the thing is visible on is used, if it is invisible in is used.
The ball is on the grass. (visible)
The ball is in the grass. Invisible)
(20) On-upon-onto: If one thing is in physical touch on is used, if there is movement upon
is used, if a thing falls from above to a surface, onto is used.
The cat sprang upon the table.
The cat is sitting on the table.
The ball fell onto his head.
On the general’s command, all soldiers must salute.
On arrival/on return.
On fire, on business / pleasure / holiday / vacation, on duty / watch / guard, on purpost, on
second thought, on the average.
In
1. Used with the name of a container, place or area to say where someone or something is.
There is some sugar in the cup.
She is in the room.
2. To show a particular condition.
He died in debt / difficulties / danger.
He is in love.
3. To show medium. = In + Zero Article + Medium
He writes in Hindi / in ink / in pencil.
These painting are done in oils.
The statue was cast in bronze.
His name was cut in stone.
But: To show an instrument “with” is used. = With + Article + Instrument.
Write with a pen/pencil/ink (Instrument).

4. Period of time.
In the morning, in January, in 1999, in winter, in the 20th century.
4. a If there is a date/day with morning and evening, on is used not in.
He came on Saturday morning.
 I met him on the evening of 26th January
But: to show the point of time at is used
At 6, At 2 PM, At dawn, At noon, At sunrise, At sunset, At midnight.
Exception:
At night – whole night (Period of time)
5. Used with the names of Countries and Town (large cities)
My father is in Boston this week.
Exception: But one could treat the country or town as a point in the map if global distance
were in mind “at” is used.
Our plane refueled at London on its way from New York to Moscow.
6. With Building: Both at and in can be used. The difference here is that at refers to a
building in its institutional or functional aspects, whereas in refers to it as a three-
dimensional structure:
He is at school. (He is attending school) (Studying)
He is in school. (Inside the building)
7. Include as part of something.
She said all this in her speech.
8. Working at a particular Job.
She used to be a doctor, but she is in marketing now.
9. Wearing something.
He looked very handsome in his uniform.
A woman in gold earring.
But: (a) With is used with anything which is carried.
A lady with a black handbag.
A man with an umbrella.
(b) With is used for physical features and peculiarities or diseases.
A man with red hair.
A boy with a limp.
(c) Of is used with permanent qualities of character & age.
A man of violent temper.
A man of fifty- three.
(d) If we talk less permanent quality we use with not of.
A man with common sense.
10. For arranging so as to from a particular shape.
Stood in line, Sit in small groups, Arrange the words in alphabetical order.
11. Used to show a connection between two things.
Milk is very rich in calcium.
We need a further increment in investment.
She never shows any interest in music.
A lecturer in English.
But A professor of English. A teacher of English.
13. Used to show the feelings you have when you do something.
She looked at me in horror.
14. Idiomatic Expressions.
In tears
He is blind in one eye.

At
(1) Used to show a point in space where someone or something is, or where an event is
happening.
 We’ll meet at my house.
A huge queue at the bus stop.
(2) Used to show an exact time – (Clock- time)
The film starts at 8 O’clock.
(3) Used to show a particular period of time during which something happens.
My brother often works at night.
(4) Used to show the person or thing that an action is directed or aimed at.
Protesters threw rotten eggs at the speakers.
He threw a ball at me. (To hit)
Stop shouting at the kids all the time.
(5) To show someone to be Good/bad etc. at (doing/knowledge).
Ananya is a genius at chemistry.
Enakshi is always good at maths.
(6) Used to show a price, rate, level, age, speed.
Old books selling at 10 cents each.
The house was sold at a price of Rs. 2,50,000.
You should have more sense at your age.
The car was going at about 50 mph.
(7) At or in
He was in the street.
He was at the street.
(8) For holding periods.
At Christmas, At Easter, At the Weekend.
(9) Idiomatic Expressions.
At Jack’s (house)
At the doctors / the book / the airport
At a party / club / funeral.
At school/work.
At lunch / dinner / breakfast / table.
At the moment / at a time.
At least / worst / most.
At the very least / worst / most.
At its / her / their best.
At somebody’s invitation/command.
Rahul attended the dinner at the chairman’s command.
And……At that = also or besides (aur vah bhi) (it is used in the last in the sentence)
He came at night, and at 12 o’clock at that.
It is a new idea, and a good one at that.
At work/play, at will, at best / worst / most / least / first, at a profit/loss, at home /
church / sea / mass / school.
For
1. Intended to be given to or belong to a particular person.
I have got a present for you.
2. Intended to be used in a particular situation.
We have bought some new chairs for the office.
A name plate for the door.
3. Used to show the purpose of an object, action etc.
A knife for cutting bread.
4. Used to express a length of time /period of time.
Bake the cake for 10 minutes.
5. Used to express distance.
We walked for miles.
6. For destination.
He leaves for London tomorrow.
7. Used to show (a price) or an amount.
A cheque for a hundred pounds.
I bought a book for ten rupees.
8. Representing a meaning or sign of something.
B for Bombay.
What is the word for ‘happy’ in French.
9. For showing “in favour of”.
He is for the Congres-I.
He is for the topic.
10. Idiomatic expression.
For sale / hire / rent.
On sale: to be available to be bought in shop: New novel will go on sale next week.
For Sale: available to be bought: Are those for sale.
For a while / for now / for the moment.
I am for bed/home (going to).
What is for lunch?

To
1. To show a direction towards.
The road to London.
2. To show a direction from a particular person or thing.
China is north of India. 
China is to the north of India. 
China is in the north of India. 
3. From (beginning point) – to/till (last point) / From – to/till.
He sits in his clinic from 8 to 12 in the morning.
He sits in the clinic from 8 to/till 12.
3.a Between (beginning point) – and (last point)
He sits in his clinic between 8 and 12 in the morning.
3.b From (beginning point) – Through (last point) (it is American use = for more clearity)
From January to/till September. (It is not clear that whole September is included or
not)
From January through September. (It is clear that Whole September is included)
4. Used to show the person or thing to which actions or words are directed.
This is a letter to Mohan from Gopal.
5. Used when adding one number to another.
Add fifty to seventy five.
6. Used to show that there is a certain amount of time before an event or before a
particular time.
Only two weeks to Christmas.
Ten to five.
7. Idiomatic expression.
Check to check, face to face, back to back.
I invited him to lunch
What is for lunch.
I told it to his face.
 By
1. To show person or thing that does something.
I was attacked by a dog.
2. Show for using a particular thing.
You can reserve the tickets by phone.
3. Means of transport.
By train / by plane / by car / by land / sea / air.
4.
5. Used to show the name of someone who wrote a book, produced a film or composed a
piece of music.
Abhigyan Shakuntalam by Kalidas
6. Not later than a particular time or date.
By 6 O’clock, by Monday, by June 5, 2021.
7. Parts of things or body that someone holds.
He took her by the arm.
8. For oaths: (for making serious promise)
By God, by Father.
9. For divide and multiply.
48 divided by four.
2 multiplied by 2.
10. For giving the measurements of a room, container etc.
A room 15 meters by 23 meters.
11. Idiomatic expression.
By far = by a large amount or degree.
Day by day / bit by bit.
By day / by night (period during which something happens)
By accident / by mistake / by luck.
By yourself, by rights, by degrees, by no means.
By letter, post, hand, cable, telegram.
By chance, design.
With
1. Near someone or something, or in someone’s presence.
I saw Ramesh in town with his brother.
2. Having, possessing or showing a particular thing, quality or feeling.
A book with a green cover.
He is busy with his work.
Jack beamed with pleasure when he heard the news.
3. By means of something or using it.
Eat your maggi with a fork.
4. Used to show the idea of filling, covering or containing something.
Her boosts were covered with dust.
Fill the bowl with sugar.
5. Supporting or linking someone or something.
Some opposition MPs voted with the Government.
6. In the same direction as someone or something.
We sailed with the wind.
7. Used in some expressions to show that one person or thing separates from another.
A complete break with tradition.
Joan doesn’t want to part with the money.
8. With instruments.
 He killed the snake with a stick.
9. For the Meaning: Cause
Her face was wet with tears.
10. With a part of physique.
The man with a limb on his back.
The girl with blue eyes.
But: He is blind in one eye.
She is lame in one leg.
From
1. Starting from a particular place, position, condition, time.
Running from one side of the building to the other.
She went from house to house.
From office to office things work differently.
He’ll be here tomorrow from about 7 O’clock onwards.
From the top of hill, you can see for miles.
2. Used to express distance.
We live about five KM from Jaipur.
3. To show the origin of something.
He gets his good looks from his mother.
An infectious disease which he got from another sick dog.
Members are chosen from a list drawn up by the CM.
I got it from cabin.
I bought it from a shop in the market.
4. Sent or given by someone.
I have received a bill for nineteen thousand from hospital.
I had a phone call from John.
5. Someone who comes from a particular place, work or field.
Students from all faculties will come.
Rohan from the Job center is on phone.
6. For the Meaning: Suffer from
I am suffering from fever.

Over Under
Above Below
(i) Over and under will be used specially for two conditions.
(a) Vertically higher / vertically lower.
(b) Only for short distance.
The fan over my head.
The cat under the table.
(i) Above means ‘simply higher’.
The sky above us. (Over)
(ii) Below means simply lower.
The valley below us.
Over – (Vertically higher & short distance)
1. On something, so that it is covered.
Over the body lay on a thin white sheet.
2. From one side of something to the other side of it.
Some how the sheep had jumped over the fence.
The road over the mountains is steep is dangerous.
3. Down from the edge of something.
 The shirt was hanging over the back of the chair.
Apparently the car fell over a cliff.
4. In many part of a particular area, organization etc.
I have travelled over most of Europe.
5. In control or authority of someone.
He ruled over a large kingdom.
6. More than a particular number, amount or level.
Children over 12 are not allowed in the swimming area.
7. Using something such as a telephone or radio. (Medium)
I don’t want to talk about this over the telephone.
8. When something touches another and rises up and touches again.
A bridge over the river.
9. For the Meaning: immediate superior.
He is over me.

Under – (vertically lower & short distance)

1. Directly below something.
Write your name under your picture.
2. Less than a particular number, amount, age or price.
Gifts for under ten dollars are to be bought.
Nursery education for children under five.
3. Be under construction /discussion/attack.
Road is under repair.
The National Health Service is very much under attack by the Congress Party.
4. For the Meaning: During the reign of.
Tansen lived under Akabar.
Foreign policies under congress.
5. For the Meaning: Subordinate (Position at work)
He works under me.
6. For the Meaning: Under treatment.
He is under Dr. Verma’s treatment.
Above – (simply higher)
1. Higher in rank, power, authority.
A captain is above a lieutenant.
2. More than a particular number, amount, or level.
50 feets above sea level.
3. In a higher position than something.
Our office is above the hairdresser’s.
Raise your arms above your hand.
A saint is above the worldly matters.
4. To a greater degree than someone or something.
The management has always valued hard work above good ideas.
5. Lower or higher in pitch.
We heard a voice above the cry.
Below – (simply lower)
1. In a lower, less important job than someone.
A captain is below a general.
2. Less than a particular number, amount or level.
These families are living below the official poverty line.
3. In a lower place or position than or lower level than.
 Please trim my hair just below the ears.
Fish are swimming below the surface of water.
4. Lower in degree.
The temperature is below freezing.
About
1. For subject matter (not for scientific study)
A book about politics.
But For scientific study “on” is used.
A book on India/on cats.
2. In many different directions with in a particular place.
We spent the whole afternoon waiting about town.
Books were scattered about the room.
3. In the nature or character of a person or thing.
There is something really odd about Liza.
What I like about the movie is the dialogue.
4. For asking for news or information about someone or something.
What about Jack?
Between (Generally for Two)
1. In or into the space or time that separates two things or people.
I sat between Sue and Jane.
Are there any public holidays between Christmas and Easter?
The project will cost between eight and ten million dollars.
They are building a new road between Jaipur and Delhi.

Among (More than Two)

The girl quickly disappeared among the crowd.
Jim relaxed knowing he was among friends.
She was the eldest among them.
For – During – In – Within – At – On (For Time)
1. For is used for a fixed time.
For two hours, For three month.
2. During is used for the whole known period.
During the summer I was in London.
3. In is used to show ‘at the end of the period.
You should complete your work in a month.
4. Within is used to show ‘before the end of the period’.
You can do it within a week.
5. At is used for exact time (Clock Time).
At 9 O’clock.
6. On is used for days and dates.
On Monday, On 5th June.
Of – From – With
1. If the thing of which something is made is visible “of” is used, it is invisible “from” is
used, and if we talk about ingredients, “with” is used.
The table is made of wood. (Wood is visible)
Wine is made from grapes. (Grapes are not visible)
The cake is made with eggs, sugar etc. (talking about ingredients)
Beside, Besides
1. Beside Means  by the side of.
Sit beside me.
2. Besides Means  in addition to.
Besides my friends, Mohan will also go.
Since – For – From (Time)
(i) Since is used for ‘point of time’/ ‘naming time’.
Since Monday, Since February, Since 1995.
(ii) For is used for ‘period of time’ ‘counting time’.
For two years, for three days.
(iii) From is also used for the beginning time of an action. But it is not used in perfect and
perfect continuous tenses.
From Tuesday, from July, from 1976.
Distinguish between “for the …” and “Since …”
He has been ill since last week.
He has been ill for the last week.
‘For the …’ is a day-counting preposition that includes the day on which the statement is
asserted.
‘For the last week’ means the last seven days in which today is included.
He has been ill for the last week. (seven days including today).
“Since last week” means simply last week.
If the speaker states on Monday, and the week begins on Sunday, He has been ill for 9
days.
I am going to remain busy since next week. (from next week not from today).
I am going to remain busy for the next week. (for seven days including today).
Next week, month etc (without the) is the week, month etc just after this one.
The next week, month etc is the period of seven/thirty/etc days starting at the moment of
speaking.
Next year will be difficult. (= the year starting next January)
The next year will be difficult. (= the twelve months starting now)
Through
1. Used when we enter from one edge and come out from another edge. (generally in
covered sense)
The train passed through turned.
He went through the forest.
The ball went flying through the window.
As the water passes through the filter a log of dirt is taken out.
2. If you see something through grass, a window etc. You are on one side of the glass etc
and it is on the other.
I could see her through the window.
Through the mist I could see the tree.
3. Passing a place where you are supposed to stop.
The driver had gone straight through the traffic lights and hit an ongoing car.
4. Cutting, breaking, or making a hole from one side of something to the other.
The drill pierced through the wood.
5. During and to the end of a period of time.
Sometimes I go to bed at 5 AM and sleep right through the day.

Across
1. Going or looking from one side to another. (not in covered sense)
He went across the road.
We gazed across the valley.
2. On or towards the opposite side of something.
 There is a tree across the road.
3. Reaching or spreading from one side of an area to the other.
The only bridge across/over the river.
Slowly a smile spread across her face.
Do you think this shirt is too tight across the shoulders?
4. To show in every part of country, organization, etc.
The TV serial that became popular across the country.
Teachers are expected to teach a range of subjects right across the curriculum.
He swam across the river.
But He waded through the river.
During – Through
1. During indicates the frequency only one time while throw shows many times
People threw stones at the speaker during his speech. (only one time = beginning or
middle or end).
People threw stones at the speaker right through the speech. (From beginning to end =
many times).
During
1. All through a length of time.
We did not see any student during the holidays.
2. At some point in a period of time.
Henry died during the night.
During – For
1. Always answer to the question that begins with when, with during, but not for.
When did you get those scars? – During the last war.
2. Always answer to the question that begins with How long, with for, but not during.
How long did you stay in ths city of Jaipur? – For two days.
Into
1. For the Meaning: Go inside. When a movement is talked about.
I saw him going into the paper shop.
2. For the Meaning: Involved in something.
At the age of 16, I went into the printing trade.
She puts a lot of time and effort into her work.
3. To show getting different appearance or situation.
You’ll have to eat your vegetables if you want to grow into a big strong boy.
Put the car into reverse.
Cut the cake into pieces.
4. Used when you are dividing one number by another (spoken use).
Eight into twenty four is three.

Up
1. For the Meaning: Towards or in a higher place.
We climbed slowly up the hill.
2. For the Meaning: Towards or at the top of or for end of.
Her office is up those stairs.
They live just up the road. (Further along the road).
After
1. When a particular time or event has happened or is finished.
After the war many soldiers stayed in France.
2. Following someone or something else in a list, series, pieces of writing line of people.
Whose name is after yours on the roll?
 The date should be written after address.
3. Used when telling the time to say how many minutes it is after the hour. (American
use)
The movie starts at a quarter after seven. = 7:15
The movie starts at a quarter past seven. = 7:15 (British use)
4. To show that the same name is given to someone else, especially an older member of
your family.
Her name is Rekha, after her grandmother.
5. To show the same style as particular painter, musician etc.
A painting after Turner.
6. Idiomatic expression:
Day after day / year after year / page after page. (the nouns joined by after are in
singular form)
One after another / one after the other.

Along
1. For the Meaning: going side by side.
I went along the road / bridge / river.
She glanced anxiously along the line of faces.
Off
2. For the Meaning: meaning remove, not toughing.
Wipe the dust off the table.
Keep off the glass.
3. Take from someone or something.
Tom borrowed Rs. 500 off his sister.
4. For the Meaning: to get out of bus / train / car.
Both robbers jumped off the train.
5. To show at a particular distance from something.
My house is about 50 yards off main street.
Some more important rules
1. With marry, resemble, pity, bag and baggage no preposition is used.
He married __ an American lady.
He resembles __ his father.
I pity __ you.
He had to have Jaipur __ bag and baggage.
2. Reach and make do not receive any preposition, arrive receive “at”, and got receive
“to”.
Hea reached __ the station.
He made __ the station.
He arrived at the station.
He got to the station.
3. Senior, Junior, prefer, prior, superior, interior, preferable are followed by “to” and not
“than”.
He is senior to me.
4. Idiomatic expression:
He was sitting in the shade of tree.
He was sitting under a tree.
He was playing __ the guitar.
He was playing a modern tune on the guitar.
 He entered __ the room.
He came into the room.
He did not answer __ my question. (answer is verb)
It is no answer to my question. (answer is noun)
He did not reply to my question.
The committee consists of ten members.
I pity __ her. (pity is verb)
I took pity on her. (pity is noun)
He emphasized/stressed __ the value of discipline. (emphasized/stressed are verb)
He laid emphasis on / put stress on the value of discipline. (emphasized/stressed are
noun)
The police are investigating __ the case.
China invaded / attacked __ India in 1962. (invaded / attacked are verb)
It is a bitter attack on monopoly. (attacked attack is noun)
Useful to sb. = it is useful to me.
Useful for sth. = it is useful for the beg.
Be sad to do sth. = I was very sad to hear that he has died.
Thankful: to do sth = I am thankful to make this journey.
Thankful + For = I am thankgul for a glass of water that she offered me.
Honest: be honest about sth: = At least he has been honest about it.
Be honest with the sb: = She is completely honest with me.
Honest in: = She is honest in all her dealing.
Honest of: = It was very honest of him to give them the money back.

Conjunction
Conjunction links two phrases or two clauses.
Ram and Shyam are my brother. (Two nouns)
The book is on the table or in the chair. (Two phrases)
Ram is my brother and Shyam is my cousin. (Two clauses)
Conjunctions are classified as
(1) Coordinator: and, or, nor, but, yet, still, so, both-and, either-or, neither-nor, not only-
but also
(2) Subordinator: if, whether, foe, since, that, which, who, whose, whom, where, what,
since, as, because, so-that, lest, as though, although, though, however, even if etc.
Interjection
The word which expresses sudden or strong feelings is called an Interjection.

Oh, Alas, O etc.

O! we have won!
Alas! They are ruined!
 Sentence
What is a sentence and what are main requirements of a sentence?
He gone. 
He going. 
He to go. 
These are not sentences because have not a finite verb.
No finite verb, no sentence and no clause
A simple sentence contains one finite verb and its sense is complete.
He is a doctor.
He writes a book.
Kinds of sentences (According to meaning)
Affirmative/Assertive/Declarative Sentence
It imparts information.
Birds fly.
He is rich.
He writes a book.
He gave me a book.

S+V (s/es)+O/C/A +(full stop)

Negative Sentence
It negates the verb.
Birds do not fly.
He is not rich.
He does not write a book.
He did not give me a book.
He has not a car.
He does not have a car.
S+V+Not+…..+(full stop)
Note: with do or does we do not add “s” or “es” with V1

Interrogative Sentence

In it we seek information or ask question. In it the inversion of verb (H.V.) and subject is
must.
V (h.v.) + S +…..+ (sign of interrogation)
Interrogative with main verb: if there is a main verb in the sentence, we choose a H.V.
according to concord for making an interrogative.
Does he write a book?
Do they come here?
Why did he leave class?
Interrogative without main verb: if there is not a main verb in the sentence, we use the
same H.V. as is used in the sentence.
Is he a doctor?
Has he a car?
Were they brothers?

Yes/ No question: its reply may be in yes or no. In it we do not use wh. Word.
Is he a doctor?
Does he write a book?
Has he a car?
Does he has a car?
Full information question: its reply cannot be in yes or no. In it we use wh. Word.
Which is your brother?
What does he write?
Why did he break the chair?
Subjective question: in it we ask about subject/doer. In it we do not use H.V. after wh.
Word.
Who did write the book? 
Who wrote the book? 
Objective Question: in it we do not ask about subject/doer. In it we have to use H.V. after
wh. Word.
What he writes? 
What does he write? 
Indirect questions: In an indirect question, we do not put an auxiliary before the subject, and
we do not use a question mark.
Tell me when you are leaving.

Interrogative and Negative Sentence: it negates the verb by seeking information.

Why is he not studying English?
Why isn’t he studying English?
Did he not tell the story?
Didn’t he tell the story?

Imperative: in it we make a request or give a command or orders. It begins with V 1. Here the
subject “you” remains implied.
Come here.
Do it.
Pass the sugar, please.

Optative: in it we talk about wish or desire. Generally it begins with “may”

May you live long.
May God save the king.

Exclamatory: it expresses one’s sudden feelings.

How horrible the event is!
What a beautiful flower it is!
What a funny name it is!
How + Adj. ……….! or What + Noun ……….!
Meaning or Function
1. Declarative – to import information.
2. Interrogative – to seek information.
3. Imperative – to make a request or to give a command.
4. Exclamatory – to express one’s sudden strong or feeling.
But it does happen generally.
Tell me your name.
It seems that the above sentence is an imperative but its function or meaning is quite different
because in it we seek information which is a characteristic of an Interrogative Sentence.
I would like to know your whereabouts.
It is a declarative sentence but it function is an as Interrogative.
Will you, please, close the door?
It is an interrogative sentence, but functions as an imperative.

Kinds of sentences (According to Structure)

Simple sentence:
A simple sentence contains one finite verb and its sense is always complete.
He written a book.  (No finite verb)
When I reached station.  (Sense not complete)
He wrote a book. 

Compound sentence: A compound sentence contains two or more than two equal-level
clauses.

Ram is my father and Sita is my mother.

Ram is my father and Sita is my mother .

Main Caluse Main Clause

Coordinator = And
Clause: it is a part of sentence generally contains a finite verb.
Main/Independent clause: its sense is complete.

Subordinate/ Dependent clause: its sense is not complete.

Complex sentence: a complex sentence contains two or more than two unequal level clauses.

When I reached station the train had left .

Subordinate Clause Main Clause
Subordinator = When

Do your homework or your teacher will punish you. (Compound Sentence)

If you do not do your homework, your teacher will punish you. (Complex Sentence)
Note: with negative condition, we use “or” in compound sentence.
Say it again and I will tell your mother. (Compound Sentence)
If you say it again, I will tell your mother. (Complex Sentence)
Note: with positive condition, we use “and” in compound sentence.

Note:
1. A clause with coordinator can be used as a sentence.
 Ram is my father. 
And Sita is my mother. 
2. A clause with subordinator can not be used as a sentence.
When I reached station. 
The train had left. 
3. We can change the order of the clauses in Complex Sentence but the order of clauses
in Compound Sentence can not be changed.
Ram is my father and Sita is my mother. 
And Sita is my mother, Ram is my father. 
When I reached station, the train had left. 
The train had left, when I reached station. 
4. The pronoun in first clause and the noun in the second clause in a Compound
Sentence are not Co-referential. But the pronoun in first clause and the noun in the
second clause in a Complex Sentence are Co-referential.
(1) She was tired, but Mary stayed there the whole night.

(2) Although she was tired, Mary stayed there the whole night.

In sentence (i) sa She and Mary are not Co-referential but in sentence (ii) She and
Mary are Co-referential.
So we can write the sentence No. (2) as
Though Mary was tired, she stayed there the whole night.
Elements of sentence ( Subject and predicate)
The doer in a sentence is subject while the rest of the part of a sentence is predicate.
We went to the airport.
Subject: “We”
Predicate: “went to the airport”

Elements of sentence ( SVOCA)

S= Subject V= Verb O= Object C= Complement A=

Adverbial/Adjunct
(1) It is the (1) It (1) It is (1) It follows (1) It is the
doer in indicates affecte “be” verb answer of
the action d by (2) It follows “when”,
sentence (2) It shows the “copula” verb “where”, and
(2) It is the a link action (3) The identity “how”
answer (linking of the of subject and (2) Preposition
of verb) verb complement +Noun
“who” (2) It is the is the same (3) If the
answer (CS) phrase/word
of (4) The identity that is the
“what” of object and answer of
complement “how” is an
is the same Adjective, it
(CO) is a
Copmlement
(4) If the
phrase/word
that is the
 answer of
“how” is an
Adverb, it is
an Adjunct

He is a doctor
S V C
Honey tastes sweet.
S V C

Ram writes a book.

S V O
He gave me a book.
S V OI OD

Indirect Object: It is recipient. It is generally living.

Direct Object: It is not recipient. It is generally non-living.

He painted the door green.

S V O CO
In the meeting he called me fool very angrily.
A S V O CO A
The boy in the corner is my student.
S V CS
We elected Ram president yesterday.
S V O CO A
She was singing a sad song very sweetly from the window in the morning.
S V O A A A
That he will come tomorrow is uncertain.
S V CS
The value of a Subordinate Clause in a sentence is limited to an element or it may be a
part of an element.
The boy who is sitting in the corner in the red shirt is my student.
S V CS
The belief that we will win appears true.
S V CS
 Tense
The form of the verb tells the tense.
The verb indicates action.
Tense indicates time of the action.
Tense  Past, Present, [Future]
Time  Past, Present, and Future
Present form of the verb  Present Tense
Past form of the verb  Past Tense
In English language there are two tenses (generally we consider three tenses) but time can be
classified in three types. There is no one to one correspondence between tense and time.
I am leaving for London tonight.
Tense = Present Continuous; Time = Future
I leave for London tonight.
Tense = Present Indefinite; Time = Future
You will have read it at school.
Tense = Future Perfect; Time = Past
If only he talked to me.
Tense = Past (Pseudo Past Tense); Time = Future

Newspaper Headline
India loses the match.
Tense = Present; Time = Past

Simple Present
I write. We write.
You write. You write.
He/She/It writes. They write.
In present indefinite tense we add ‘s’ or ‘es’ with singular subject and third person singular
number personal pronoun.
Assertive sentence
1. S + V1 (s/es) + O
Ram writes.
He/Boy writes.
She/Girl writes.
People write.
Ram and Shyam write.
They write.
2. If there is not a main verb in the sentence, we use ‘be’ verb ‘is/am /are’.
He is a doctor.
 They are good workers.
I am a teacher
3. To show a relation or possession, we use ‘be’ verb ‘has/have’.
He has a car.
They have three cars.
Interrogative sentence
For an interrogative sentence the inversion of subject and verb (operator) is a must.
1. For making a yes/no question helping verb ‘do’ or ‘does’ is used as operator. With
‘do’/ ‘does’ we don’t add ‘s’ or ‘es’ with first form of the verb. (Do /does + S + V 1 +
O)
Does Ram write a book?
Do they play football?
2. For making a Wh. question, Wh. Word (according to the sentence) plus helping verb
‘do’ or ‘does’ is used. (Wh. Word + Do /does + S + V1 + O)
What does Ram write?
When do they play football?
3. If there is not a main verb in the sentence, we use the linking verb (is/am/are) as
operator.
Is he a doctor? Yes/no question
Are they students?

What is that? Wh. question

Who is there?
4. If the Wh. question is a subjective question (in which we ask about the subject/doer)
we don’t use operator (‘do’ or ‘does’) with Wh. Word.
Who makes such a harsh noise?
Who leaves for America on Monday?
5. With ‘has/have’ we can make interrogative both by using ‘do’ or ‘does’ as operator
and treating ‘has/have’ as operator.
Does he have two cars?
Do they have three bikes?
Has he two cars?
Have they three cars?
Negative Sentence
1. For making a negative sentence helping verb ‘do’ or ‘does’ is used with ‘not’. (S + Do
/does + not + V1 + O)
He doesn’t write a book.
They don’t lie.
2. If there is not a main verb in the sentence, we use the linking verb (is/am/are) with
‘not’ for making a negative. (S + is/am/are + not + V1 + O)
He isn’t a doctor.
They aren’t students.
3. With ‘has/have’ we can make negative both by using ‘do’ or ‘does’ as operator and
treating ‘has/have’ as operator.
He hasn’t a car.
He doesn’t have a car.
Imperative sentence
An imperative sentence begins with V1 (first form of verb). In it the subject is ‘you’ which
remains implied. It may be either positive or negative.
Positive imperative
Go there.
Open the window.
Negative Imperative
Don’t go there.
Don’t open the window.

Simple Present is used for:

1. The Universal Truths
Two and two make four.
Honesty is the best policy.
Birds fly.
Wood floats.
2. Habitual Truths, Regular Customary or Almost Permanent Actions.
Ram smokes.
He goes to school daily.
The bus reaches Jaipur at 6 pm.
He cuts a tree. 
I write him a letter. 
He drives a scooter. 
He sells a book. 
He reads a book. 
He cuts trees. 
I write him letters. 
He rides a scooter. 
He sells books. 
He reads a book daily / He reads books. 
We can also correct a sentence with adverbial of frequency.
I write him a letter every Monday.
3. Newspaper Headlines
India loses the match to England.
4. Commentaries  Only for Matches
Botham bowls to Gauskar.
5. Quote someone
Tilak writes, “Swaraj is my birth right.”
6. Historical view
Akbar inters the planes of India.
He Uproots the throne.
7. Profession
He writes novels. = Profession
He is writing a novel. = May be first or last, here we are not talking the profession.
8. With the verbs as Say, Tell, Write we can use simple present to show the meaning of
present perfect.
It says the Bible = It is said in the Bible.
My friend tells/writes me that you are not interested in the job.
With the structures like I hear, I learn, I gather, I find, I understand, we can use simple
present to show the meaning of present perfect.
I hear you have resigned your post.
I learn there is a vacancy in your department.
9. To convey an Exclamatory statement with ‘Here/There’  An Exclamatory
 Here comes the bus! (Verb + Noun)  Declarative – The bus is coming.
There she goes! (Pronoun + Verb)  Declarative – She is going

Present Continuous
In present continuous the action remains in progress at the speaking time.
In it ‘be’ verb (is/am/are) + V1 + ing is used.
Am  I
Is  Singular subject and third person singular number personal pronoun (he/she/it)
Are  Plural subject
Present Continuous is used for
1. Immediate Present = At the time of speaking/writing.
The children are playing.
2. General Present =These days
I am doing my A.M. in English.
3. Showing Future Time = especially with the verbs as Go, Come, See, Leave, etc.
I am seeing my doctor this evening.
I am going to Delhi tomorrow.
4. Intention / Probability
I am going to buy a car.
It is going to rain.
5. Habitual Actions (but for only negative sense)
He is always cutting his class.
They are always grumbling.
He is always beating his wife.
His wife is always complaining.
Difference between Present Indefinite and Present Continuous
1. If the situation is temporary present continuous is used. But for a permanent situation
present indefinite is used.
Jack is running along the road.
This road runs from Jaipur to Delhi.

2. For habitual action, with ‘always’, Present Indefinite is used in the positive sense
while Present Continuous is used in the negative sense/for disapproval/ unplanned
happenings.
He always does his homework. = He always does his homework. So it is a good habit.
He is always doing his homework. = He is always doing his homework. And he does
not do other work. So, it is not a good habit.
3. For fixed plan/programme (to alter does not depend on the doer’s will) present
indefinite is used while for intention/probability / subjective view present continuous
is used.
The PM leaves for America tomorrow. This is an objective view; to alter it does not depend
on PM’s will  Fixed Plan/Programme
He is leaving for America tomorrow.  This is a subjective view; to alter it depends on the
doer’s will  intention / probability / subjective view.
4. To show contrast between what is usual and what is not usual. For usual activities
simple present is used while for non-usual activities present continuous is used.
He usually sits at the back of the class but today he is sitting in the front row.
 Stative
Generally verbs are of two categories; stative and dynamic. The stative verbs are not used in
continuous tense while the dynamic verbs are used in continuous tense.
Verb of perception: See, Hear, Feel, Taste, Smell
Involuntary Voluntary
These are not used in Continuous Tense. These are used in Continuous Tense.
With these verbs the action is not in the
control of the doer
Are you seeing the house on the corner?  Look At:
Can you see the house on the corner?  I am looking at the map. 
Do you see the house on the corner? 
Are you hearing me?  Listen To:
Can you hear me?  I am listening to the match. 
Smell = (xa/k gksuk)  Stative
Smell = (lwa?kuk)  Dynamic
Rose smells sweet. 
Rose is smelling sweet. 
He is smelling the bread. 
A dead rat smells bad. 
You (smell) gas? The gas stove is leaking.
Can you smell gas? The gas stove is leaking.
Taste = (Lokn gksuk)  Stative
Taste = (p[kuk)  Dynamic
Mangoes taste sweet. 
She is tasting the mango. 
Hear = listen  Stative
Hear = to try (advocate)  Dynamic
I am hearing a noise in the next room. What is going on there? 
I hear a noise in the next room. What is going on there? 
Who is hearing your case?  (To try)
I am hearing you loud and clear.  [Only Distance Call]
See = look, understand  Stative
See = meet  Dynamic
I am seeing in the corner. 
I can see in the corner. 
I am seeing my doctor this evening. 
Present Perfect  Pre-Present
1. This tense is used to show the impact of the action on the spoken moment that has
happened in the Pre-Present time.
2. In it ‘be’ verb (has/have) + V3 is used.
3. This tense can not be used if the impact of the action does not relate to the spoken
moment.
He has gone to Delhi.  he is either in Delhi or on the way. He is not here.
I have had lunch.  Effect is to the spoken moment. I cannot take lunch now.
I have done my M.A. is 2001. 
I have taught it yesterday. 
I have seen the Taj in 1964. 
I have taught it. 
 I have seen the Taj. 
I have done my M.A. 
I did my M.A. in 2001. 
I taught it yesterday. 
I saw the Taj in 1964.
4. Present Perfect is used to show the result at the spoken time of an action that
happened in past time. Simple past is used to tell the time of an action that happened
in the Past Time. There cannot be any Past-Time-Marker in a sentence of Present
Perfect.
I have read the Ramayan. 
I have read the Ramayan yesterday. 
I read Ramayan yesterday. 
I have seen 6 Hindi films last week. 
I have seen 6 Hindi films this week. 
5. Immediate Past
He has just left. 
He has left just now. 
He left just now. 
Just Now is used with Simple Past and not with present perfect.
6. If there is any quoted time, day, date to show an action that occurred during distant
past to spoken moment, we cannot use Present Perfect. Such sentence must be in
simple past.
India and Pakistan have played 40 test matches (in the 80s). 
India and Pakistan have played 40 test matches. 
India and Pakistan played 40 test matches in the 80s. 
I have gone to Delhi. 
We have gone to Delhi. 
You have gone to Delhi. 
They have gone to Delhi.
S/he has gone to Delhi. 
Go verb cannot be used with first- and second-person personal pronoun in
present perfect.
I have been to Delhi. 
We have been to Delhi.
You have been to Delhi.
They have been to Delhi.
S/he has been to Delhi. 
Have you ever gone to America? 
Have you ever been to America? 
Present Perfect Continuous
In this tense the action is supposed to be continue for a given time at the spoken moment.
1. In it ‘be’ verb (has/have + been) + V1 + ing is used.
2. In it ‘for’ and ‘since’ are used with time. For is used with ‘counting time’/ ‘duration
of time’ and ‘since is used with ‘naming time’/ ‘point of time’.
He has been studying English for two hours.
3. If the total time of the frequency of an action is given, we use Present Perfect. If the
total time of the frequency of an action is not given, we use Present Perfect
Continuous.
 He has been failing the exam 10 times. 
He has failed the exam 10 times. 
I have telephoned you 6 times. 
I have been telephoning you all day. 
It is raining since morning. 
He is working hard since 1985. 
It is raining. 
He is working hard. 
It has been raining since morning. 
He has been working hard since 1985. 
4. Lie, Know, Wait are used with Perfect Continuous and not with Perfect.
I have knocked at the door for 10 minutes. 
I have waited for you for 20 minutes. 
The book has lain on the table for the last 10 days. 
I have been knocking at the door for 10 minutes. 
I have been waiting for you for 20 minutes. 
The book has been laying on the table for the last 10 days. 
5. All day, All night, All morning, All evening, All afternoon are used with Perfect
Continuous.
I have been working in the garden all day. 
I have worked hard in the garden all day. 
I know him for the last ten years. 
He is known to me for the last ten years. 
He is ill since Monday. 
He is here since 1966. 
I have been knowing him for the last ten years. 
I have known him for the last ten years. 
He has been known to me for the last ten years. 
He has been ill since Monday. 
He has been here since 1966. 
I know him. 
He is ill. 
He is here. 

Simple Past
It is used to show the time of an action that happened in the past time.
In it V2 (second form of the verb) is used.
I did an MA in 2001.
I taught it yesterday.
I played chess at school.
He visited us on Sundays.
1. If there is not a main verb in the sentence, we use ‘be’ verb ‘was’/ ‘were’.
He was a doctor.
They were good workers.
2. To show a relation or possession, we use ‘be’ verb ‘had’.
 I had a car.
They had three cars.
Past continuous
Past continuous is used to show the continuity of an action in the past time.
In it ‘be’ verb ‘was/were’+ V1 + ing is used.
He was writing a letter.
They were playing football.

1. To indicate complete knowledge about some action simple past is used while to
indicate incomplete knowledge past continuous is used.
A: Did you hear about the accident?
B: (i) Mr. Verma told me about it. = I have complete knowledge about it.
(ii) Mr. Verma was telling me about it. = I have incomplete knowledge about it.
I saw him when he came to college. (Complete)
I saw him when he was coming to college. (Incomplete)
2. When one action was in progress (Past Continuous is used) then other action took
place (Simple Past is used)
Point of Time  Simple Past
Period of Time  Past Continuous
I was washing my hands when the telephone rang.
We were taking supper when the light went off.
The plane was flying very low when I caught sight of it.
Her aunt was working in the garden when I saw her.
While I was watching (Period of Time) TV my wife was mending (Period of Time)
her dress.
Past perfect

Past perfect is used to differentiate between two actions that occurred in past time. The past
perfect is common after past verbs of saying and thinking, to talk about things that had
happened before the saying or thinking took place.
For the action that took place first, past perfect is used while with the action that happened
secondly past indefinite is used.
I had done my MA in 2002. 
I did my MA in 2002. 
I had already done an MA when I was selected for the post in 2002.
The train had left before/when I reached the station.
The patience had died before/when the doctor came.
I told her that I had finished. (Not ... that I have finished.)
I wondered who had left the door open.
I thought I had sent the cheque a week before.
After
1. After is used in the beginning of Past Perfect Clause.
I reached the station after the train had left. 
After the train had left, I reached the station. 
The train had left after I reached the station. 
He had closed the window before he went to bed.
The show had started when the chief guest came.
When he had left his house, he remembered that he had forgotten his purse.
2. Exception: to show unfulfilled wish, past perfect can be used for a single action.
Hope, Expect, Think, Want, Wish, etc.
 He had hoped to take a first in the exam.
I wish you hadn't said that. (= It would be nice if you hadn't said that.)
Now she wishes she had gone to university.
Past Perfect Continuous
Past Perfect Continuous is used to show an action that began during Pre-Past and the speaker
tells in Post-Past. We use the past perfect progressive to talk about actions or situations which
had continued up to the past moment that we are thinking about, or shortly before it.
Pre-Past  Past (2021)  Post-Past
I had been doing am MA when I was selected for this post in 2002.
At that time we had been living in the caravan for about six months.
When I found Mary, I could see that she had been crying.
I went to the doctor because I had been sleeping badly.
Besides Conditional Sentences, this tense is not used much.
Future Indefinite
It is used to show that some action will occur in future time.
In it ‘be’ verb ‘will/shall’+ V1 is used.
Shall = is used with I, we, you, they and plural subjects.
Will = is used with he, she, it, and singular subjects.
I shall see you tomorrow.
She will go to Delhi next month.

Future Continuous
It is used to show that an action will be continued in the future time. Generally, it shows a
matter of routine.
In it ‘be’ verb ‘will/shall’+ be + V1 + ing is used.
She will be studying French in the evening.
We have other options to convey the meaning, as;
1. I am going to see my doctor this evening. = Probability + Intention
2. I am seeing my doctor this evening. = Plan/Arrangement
3. I’ll be seeing my doctor this evening. = As a Matter of Routine
4. I’ll see my doctor this evening. = Pure Future
Future Perfect
In it some action is supposed to have done in future time.
In it ‘be’ verb ‘will/shall’+ have + V3 is used.
He will have completed this work by 2025.
1. For the action that took place first in future time, future perfect is used while with the
action that happened secondly present indefinite is used.
By the time you reach home, you will have received my parcel.
By the time you reach the theatre the show will have started.
2. It is also used to Predict / Assume / Guess
You will have read it at school.
He will have reached Delhi by now.

Future Perfect Continuous

In it some action is supposed to have done in future time.
In it ‘be’ verb ‘will/shall’+ have + been + V1 + ing is used.
He will have been completing 20 years of his prison life in 2025.
Future tense is never used in the following situations.
1. Time Clause
2. Hypothetical Expression
3. Conditional Clause
Time Clause
I will allow you to go when you will finish the work. 
I will allow you to go when you finish the work. 
Future tense is not used in Time Clause.
Time – Future
Tense – Simple Present / Present Perfect
By the time this letter reaches you, you will have received my parcel.
Now that you are a B.Tech., you must search for a job.
After, you have completed your homework / After you complete your homework, you
can go.
You can go, when you have finished your work / when you finish your work.
Hypothetical Expression
I wish you will win. 
I wish you won. 
Past tense is used after Hypothetical Expression.
I wish I knew. 
I wish I were rich. 
I wished I had known. 
I would rather you came tomorrow.
He looks pale as if he were dead. (Were is used instead of was).
It is high (9:15) time I got ready.
It is time (9) for me to get ready.
If only = Supposing =in Exclamatory Sentences
If only (supposing dk'k)
If only he talked to me!  Tense = Past (Pseudo Past Tense); Time – Present/future
If only I were rich!
Supposing 10 people came!
He looks pale as if he saw (had seen) a ghost.
Past Perfect is used to show the effect of past at present time.

Conditional Sentences
If you will labour you pass. 
If you labour you will pass. 
Future tense is not used in Conditional Sentence.
Unless you do not labour you will not pass. 
Unless = if not
Unless you labour you will not pass. 
If you don’t labour you will not pass. 
 Active and Passive Voice
Active Voice: If the subject is doer and verb is according to tense the sentence is of active
voice.
Ram writes a book.
Passive Voice: If the subject is affected and verb is be + V3 the sentence is of passive voice.
A book is written by Ram.
Middle Voice: According to subject the sentence seems to be of passive voice as it is not
doer, according to verb the sentence seems to be of active voice as it is not be + V3. This type
of sentences is marked middle voice.
The house is to let.
Rules for making passive:
1. Object of active voice is used as the subject of passive voice.
2. Be verb is used according to tense.
3. V3 is used.
4. Subject of active voice is used the agent of passive voice, generally by adding ‘by’.
5. Pronoun is changed according to concord.
Passive is blocked:
1. If there is no object in the sentence.
He is a doctor.
2. If object is reciprocal pronoun.
They hate each other.
3. If object is reflexive pronoun.
She saw herself in the mirror.
4. If subject and object are co-referential.
She washed her hands.
5. A sentence of Middle Voice.
The house is to let.
Present Tense
1. The teacher often beats her/them/me.
She is often beaten by the teacher.
They are often beaten by the teacher.
I am often beaten by the teacher.
2. The teacher is beating her.
She is being beaten by the teacher.
3. The teacher has beaten them.
They have been beaten by the teacher.
4. The teacher has been beating her.
She has been being beaten by the teacher.
Past Tense
1. The teacher beat her.
She was beaten by the teacher.
2. They were beating her.
She was being beaten by them.
3. The teacher had beaten her.
She had been beaten by the teacher.
4. The teacher had been beating her.
She had been being beaten by the teacher.
Future Tense
1. The teacher will beat her.
She will be beaten by the teacher.
2. The teacher will be beating her.
Generally passive is not done.
3. The teacher will have beaten her.
She will have been beaten by the teacher.
4. The teacher will have been beating her
Generally passive is not done.

Passive with double object

me book
He gave Io a Do .
I was given a book.
A book was given to me.
For convenient we should make passive with Io because with Do we have to insert a
preposition where mistake may occur.
me question
He asked Io a Do .
I was asked a question by him.
A question was asked of me by him.
With some verbs passive is possible with only Do. As Buy, Call, Make, Find, Get, Care, etc.
These verbs receive for preposition with Io.
me book
He bought Io a Do .
A book was bought by me for him.
I was bought a book by him. 
Passive of interrogative sentence
Who typed this letter?
By whom this letter was typed? 
By whom was this letter was typed? 
Who was this letter typed by? 
In interrogative sentence whether it is subjective or objective we have to use ‘be’ verb just
after the ‘wh’ word.
Passive of imperative sentence
 Do it. (with object) – the sentence in which object is used passive is made with let.
Let it be done.
Let + O + be + V3
Go there. (without object) – the sentence in which object is not used passive is made
with you are requested / ordered / forbidden / denied etc.
You are ordered to go there.
Please sit down.
You are requested to sit down.
Be seated.
Do not touch the wire.
The wire must not be touched.
The negative sentence with object are changed into passive as follows:
Must + not + be + V3

Passive of modals with all four forms

(i) Simple Form
You must do it.
It must be done by you.
Modal + Be + V3
(ii) Continuous Form
He must be doing it.
It must be being done by him.
Modal + Be + Being + V3
(iii) Perfect Form
He must have done it.
It must have been done by him.
Modal + Have + Been + V3
(iv) Perfect Continuous Form
The police may have been harassing him.
He may have been being harassed by the police.
Modal + Have + Been + Being + V3
In active Voice the action takes place once but in Passive Voice it takes place at many times.

Passive of infinitive with all four forms

1. Simple Form
He has to do it.
It has to be done by him.
To + Be + V3
2. Continuous Form
He is supposed to be doing it.
It is supposed to be being done by him.
To + Be + Being + V3
3. Perfect Form
He is supposed to have done it.
It is supposed to have been done by him.
To + Have +Been + V3
4. Perfect Continuous Form
He is supposed to have been doing it.
It is supposed to have been being done by him.
 To + Have +Been + Being + V3

Passive of gerund
He does not like people laughing at him.
He does not like being laughed at.
Being +V3 of Gerund and preposition is used in the last.

Substitute of ‘by’ with agent

1. With surprise, astonish, alarm ‘at’ is used
Your intelligence surprised me.
I was surprised at your intelligence.
2. With know, oblige ‘to’ is used
Everybody knows Gandhi Ji.
Gandhi Ji is known to everybody.
3. With please, satisfy, disgust, charm, throng, line ‘with’ is used
My behavior pleased him.
He was pleased with my behavior.
4. With contain, interest ‘in’ is used
Music interests him.
He is interested in music.

Direct-Indirect Speech

said I will go there tomorrow .

He reporting verb , “ direct speech ”
that he would go there the next day .
He said indirect speech / reported speech

Rules for changing direct speech into indirect speech:

1. Inverted commas are removed.

2. Comma is replaced by a connective generally ‘that’.
3. Capital letter is replaced by small letter.
4. Change of tense.
5. Change of pronoun.
6. Change of adverbial of time and place.
7. In indirect speech every kind of sentence is changed into declarative sentence.
8. In indirect speech all kind of terminal punctuation marks are changed into full stop.

Say/Tell

Say is used both in direct and indirect speech.

 Say + to + object
Tell is used generally in indirect speech.
Tell + object

If the object is small one tell is used and if the object is longer one say is used.
He said that he was busy.
He told me that he was busy.
He said to all the members present at the meeting that he was going to resign himself
from his post.

Change of pronoun

Person Case Subjective Objective Possessive Possessive

Case Case Adjective Pronoun

Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plura Singular Plural

l
I Person, I We Me Us My Our Mine Ours

II Person You You You You Your Your Yours Yours

III Person He They Him Them His Their His Theirs

She Her Her Hers
It It Its x
Change of pronoun
123
SON

1. 1st person pronoun is changed according to the subject of reporting verb.

He said, “I am busy.”

He said that he was busy.

She said, “I am busy.”
She said that she was busy.
You said, “I am busy.”
You said that you were busy.
2a. 2nd person pronoun is changed according to the object of reporting verb.
He said to me, “Why are you sad?”
He asked me why I was sad.
He said to her, “Why are you sad?”
He asked her why she was sad.
He said to him, “Why are you sad?”
He asked him why he was sad.

2b. Sometimes the object of reporting verb is placed somewhere other place than after the
reporting verb, in this condition we should be careful to find out the object.
He said, “Go to your classes boys.”
He told the boys to go to their classes.
He said, “Ram, go to your class.”
 He told Ram to go to his class.

2c. Sometimes the object of reporting verb is not mentioned at all and we have to change
the 2nd person pronoun, in this condition we have to assume the object of reporting
verb.
He said, “Go to your class.”
He said me to go to my class.
He said you to go to your class.
He said us to go to our class.
He said him to go to his class.
He said them to go to their class.
He said her to go to her class.

3. There is no change in 3rd person pronoun.

1. For change in pronoun we have to check its number.

2. In which form/function the pronoun is used in direct speech in the same form/function
will be the pronoun in indirect speech.
He said, “We have finished the work.”
He said that they had finished the work.
(a) We have to change the pronoun ‘we’, which is first person pronoun so it will
be changed according to the subject of reporting verb.
(b) ‘We’ is in subjective case so the changed pronoun will be also in subjective
case (they).
(c) ‘We’ is in plural number, so the changed pronoun will also be in plural
number (they).
He said, “Give me a pen.”
He told me to give him a pen.
He said, “This is mine.”
He said that that was her.

Change of adverbial: Nearness to distance

This – That
That – That
These – Those
Now – Then
Here – There
Yesterday – The previous day
Ago – before
Ago is used in past indefinite, in past perfect before is used.

Change of Tense
1. If the reporting verb is in present or future tense there is no change in the tense.
He says, “I am busy.”
He says that he is busy.
He says, “I was present at the meeting.”
He says that he was present at the meeting.
He says, “I will attend the meeting.”
He says that he will attend the meeting.
 You will say, “The slaves are ours.”
You will say that the slaves are yours.
2. If reporting verb is in past tense the tense of reported verb will change.
Present indefinite – Past indefinite
Present continuous – Past continuous
Present perfect – Past perfect
Present perfect continuous – Past perfect continuous
Past indefinite – Past perfect
Past continuous – Past perfect continuous
Past perfect – No change
Past perfect continuous – No change
Shall – Should
Will – Would
Can – Could
May – Might

Exception
3a. If there is universal truth, there will be no change in reported verb even after the
reporting verb is in past tense.
He said, “Two and two make four.”
He said that two and two make four.
3b. If the statement applies to the present time or may be applied in future time, there will
be no change in tense.
He said, “Manmohan Singh is the PM of India.”
He said that Manmohan Singh is the PM of India.

Interrogative Sentence

1. Reporting verb – Ask

2. If there is any ‘wh’ word, this ‘wh’ word is used as the connective.
3. If there is no ‘wh’ word, if/whether is used as connective.
4. Interrogation is changed into declarative.
5. Sign of interrogation is changed into full stop.
He said to me, “Why are you sad?”
He asked me why I was sad.
He said, “Do you play chess.”
He asked me if I played chess.

Imperative Sentence

1. Reporting verb
Order – Told
Request – Asked
Advice – Advised
Suggestion – Suggested
2. Object is necessary.
3. Negative sentence – Not + to + V
4. Assertive sentence – To + V
 “Close the door.”
He told me to close the door.
“Don’t make a noise.”
He told me not make a noise.
He said, “Please bring me a glass of water.
He asked me to bring him a glass of water.
He said, “Consult a good doctor.”
He advised me to consult a good doctor.
He said, “Let us go for a walk.”
He suggested (that) they should go for a walk.
He suggested going for a walk.
He suggested them go for a walk.
Exclamatory sentence
He said, “Alass, I am ruined!”
He exclaimed with sorrow that he was ruined.
He said, “How beautiful!”

It is very beautiful. (declarative)

He exclaimed with joy that it was very beautiful.

Concord
Subject – Verb Agreement.
Singular Subject  Singular Verb.
Plural Subject  Plural Verb.
The boy  goes.
The boys  go.
Ram and Shyam  go.
1. With Name/Title singular verb is used
Wuthering Heights is a great novel.
War and Peace is regarded as the greatest novel in the world.
Jammu and Kashmir is a problem state.
The United States of America is a powerful country.
2. If the sense is singular a singular verb is used
Bread and Butter is my main worry.
Slow and steady wins the race.
3. Five fives () are twenty five.
Five times five () is twenty five.
The verb agrees according to either (1) Notion or (2) Proximity. (1) and (2) show notion and
(3) shows proximity.
4. The verb agrees according to the real notion.
50 rupees is not a big amount.
20 miles is not a great distance.
40 years is not a long period in the history of a country.
5. 60 per cent of our population live/lives in villages.
This sort of people always create/creates problems.
This is an ambiguous sentence we must write it like the following:
People of this sort always create problems.
6. Fractions
6.1 Singular verbs are normally used after fractions, decimals, and other expressions
referring to amounts and measurements.
Three quarters of a ton is too much. 
Three quarters of a ton are too much. 
3.6 kilometers is about 2 miles. 
3.6 kilometers are about 2 miles. 
6.2 Fractions of a singular form + Singular verb
Two third of the book have been torn. 
Two thirds of the book has been torn. 
Half of our work is to be completed. 
Two fifths of the forest was removed. 
6.3 Fractions of a plural noun + Plural verb
Two fifths of the students were seen individually.
Two thirds of Chad’s exports were cotton.
6.4 But plural verbs are used when we are talking about numbers of people or things,
even after a singular fraction.
A third of the students are from abroad. 
A third of the students is from abroad. 
Half of the glasses are broken. 
Half of the glasses is broken. 
7. One of is followed by a plural noun, but a singular verb is used:
One of the windows was open.
One of them has gone.
8. One in three, one out of five + plural noun, both singular and plural verbs are
possible.
One in three new cars break/breaks down in the first year.
One out of ten takes/ take drugs.
9..1 Some expressions joined by and receive singular determiners, verbs and pronouns.
This happens when the two nouns are used together so often that we think of them as
a single idea.
This gin and tonic isn't very strong, is it?
Your toast and marmalade is on the table.
9.2 But if we identify the separate notions, we use plural determiners, verbs and
pronouns
His physical and mental health is excellent. 
His physical and mental health are excellent. 
10. More than one: The verb agrees according to the noun used after more than.
More than one person have signed the petition. 
More than one person has signed the petition. 
11. The nouns connected with “after” are singular in forms and receive a singular verb.
Pages after pages are missing from the book. 
Page after page is missing from the book. 
12.1 If there are two posts (nouns) and two persons, the article “the” is used with both
posts and the verb is used in plural form.
The president of the congress-I and the Prime Minister of India are leaving for
the USA on Monday.
The principal and the headmaster are going to their houses.
12.2 If there are two posts (nouns) and one person, the article “the” is used with the only
first post and the verb is used in singular.
 The Prime Minister of India and  member of parliament from Vanarasi is a
very powerful leader.
The principal and  headmaster is coming to school.
The innocence and  purity of his singing comes entirely from his
identification with the character.
The power and  wealth of the United States is a natural source of envy.
The art of eloquence and  ever increasing popularity of Narendra Modi is a
natural source of envy among the opposition.

13. If the two subjecte are connected with With, Together with, Along with, Except,
Besides, As well as, the verb is used according to the first subject.
The King, with his bodyguards, was slain.
The students, along with their teacher are going for a picnic.
The captain as well as his soldiers is ready to march.
You as well as he are wrong.
He as well as I is wrong.
Nobody, except his friends likes him.

14. With either – or, neither – nor, not only- but also, both – and the verb is used
according to the second subject. Note: the singular subject is preferred at the first place.
Either Ram or his friend has done it.
Neither the parents nor the teachers are to blame.
Either his eyesight or his brakes were responsible for the accident.
Either brakes or his eyesight was responsible for the accident.
Note: In Traditional Grammar, the plural subject can not be used at the first place but
it is possible in Modern Grammar
15. Either, Neither  Singular Verb
Has either of you seen my book?
Neither of the boys was present.
16. Each/Every:
16.1 Each: for two and more than two.
Every: for three or more than three.
Each of the two boys was present there. (not everyone)

16.2 Each was present in his room. 

Each boy was present in his room. 
Every was present in his room. 
Every boy was present his room. 

Each – Determine/Pronoun.
Every – Only determine.
16.3 Each/Every + Singular Noun + Singular Verb + Singular Pronoun.
Each/Every boy was studying in his book.

16.4 Each/Every + of + P.N. + Singular Verb.

Each of the boys was given an orange.
Each of them has his/her own priorities.
Each of the boys plays games.
Each and every soldier has taken his place.
 Every book and magazine was found in its proper place.

16.5 Each and Every may be followed by a plural pronoun, especially when they are
talking about both male and female.
Each person must make up their/his/her own mind.
If each member of the party would do their/his/her best, the party would surely
prevail.

16.6 Plural noun/pronoun + Each + Plural verb + Plural noun/pronoun.

The workmen each take their lamps from the store.
They have each decided to comply with our request.
My brother and I have each decided to go our separate ways.
We each have our own priorities.
17. None:
17.1 None may be followed by either a singular or plural verb.
None of them was/were present there.

17.2 None always takes the singular when amount or quantity is referred to:
None of the money has been spent.
None of the rubbish has been removed.
18. Many/Many a:
Many: Plural noun + Plural verb + Plural pronoun.
Many a: Singular noun + Singular verb + Singular pronoun.
Many boys were absent themselves from their class.
Many a boy was absent himself from his class.

19. With a gerund subject a singular verb is used

Finding faults is easy.
20. With an infinitive subject a singular verb is used
To learn matters is difficult.
21. With a formal subject the verb is used according to the real subject
There was a tiger. (was  tiger)
There are forty students in the class. (are  students)
22. In order that  Never followed by can/could or will/would. The usual verb is
may/might.
They arrived early, in order that they may/might get a good seat.
We are sending our representative to see you, in order that you may discuss the
position with him.
But shall/should is also possible mainly in a negative clause.
They left by a side door, in order that no one should see them.
23. With suppose (that), it is time (that), it is high time, if only, as if, I’d rather (that), I
wish –past tense is used.
It is high time that you go home. 
It is high time that you went home. 
If only he can swim! 
If only he could swim! 
24. With already, Just, not yet, now – Present Perfect tense is used
She did not yet see the Queen. 
 She has not yet seen the Queen. 
He finished his dinner now and is satisfied. 
He has finished his dinner now and is satisfied. 
25. Collective Noun: A collective noun can receive both singular and plural verb and
pronoun according to the context.
The committee [has/have] met and [it has / they have] rejected the proposal.
(1) Use singular concord if you think of the group as a single unit or uniformly one
body.
(2) Use plural concord if you identify individual by individual/ divided/scattered.

Indian cricket team is highly disciplined.

Indian cricket team are taking their bath.

Collective noun + Which = singular concord.

Collective noun + Who = plural concord.
The family which is divided is bound to lose its reputation.
The family who are divided are bound to lose their reputation.
Note: For further study on the topic please refer to the topics: “Parts of Speech” and
“Tense”