ZOOLOGY- CHAPTER 7 Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization

Phylum Porifera
PHYSALIA PHYSALIS, cells are grouped, Porifera or sponges, are primarily marine
specialized for various functions, and animals consisting of loosely organized cells.
interdependent. (ORGANIZATION OF DIVISION OF LABOR)
Swimmers of tropical waters who have meet - asymmetrical or radially symmetrical.
Physalia physalis, the Portuguese man-of-
war, know that this fictitious account rings. Characteristics of the phylum Porifera
Multicellularity arose multiple times in the include:
Eukarya, but probably one time in the animal 1. Asymmetrical or superficially radially
lineage. symmetrical
Larger size was less vulnerable to predation 2. Three cell types: pinacocytes,
by predatory protists. In addition, exchanges mesenchyme cells, and choanocytes
with the environment were more efficient in 3. Central cavity, or a series of branching
organisms made of more, smaller cells. chambers, through which water
Cells can be specialized for specific functions circulates during filter feeding.
like reproduction, feeding and digestion, 4. No tissues or organs
sensory perception, and communication.
CELL TYPES
Benefits of Multicellularity  Pinacocytes - Thin, flat cells, line the
• Defense against predators. outer surface of a sponge. Pinacocytes
• Efficient environmental exchanges. may be mildly contractile, and their
• Size restrictions of single cells. contraction may change the shape of
• Specialization of functions within an some sponges.
organism.  In a number of sponges, some
Two Hypotheses pinacocytes are specialized into tubelike,
COLONIAL HYPOTHESIS contractile phorocytes, which can regulate
 Most zoologists seem to favor it. water circulation.
 in which cells of a dividing protist  Mesophyll (mesenchyme cells)- jellylike
remained together. layer, Amoeboid cells called mesenchyme
 Multicellularity may have arisen when cells move about in the mesophyll and are
cells that a dividing protist produced specialized for reproduction, secreting
remained together. Cell invagination could skeletal elements, transporting and storing
have formed a second cell layer. food, and forming contractile rings around
 This hypothesis is supported by the openings in the sponge wall.
colonial organization of some protozoa.  CHOANOCYTES (choanocytes, or collar
COENOCYTIAL HYPOTHESIS cells) - are flagellated cells that have a
 coenocytic cell is a cell that has multiple collar like ring of microvilli surrounding a
nuclei as a result of mitosis, which is not flagellum,
followed by cytokinesis. SKELETON
 Multicellularity could have arisen when SPICULES- Sponges are supported by a
plasma membranes formed within the skeleton that may consist of microscopic
cytoplasm of a large, coenocytic protist. needlelike spikes.
Multinucleate, bilateral ciliates and SPONGIN the skeleton may be made (a
developmental patterns of certain insects fibrous protein made of collagen).
support this hypothesis.
ZOOLOGY- CHAPTER 7 Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization
BODY FORM OF PORIFERA (SPONGES) Phylum Cnidaria
ASCON - simplest and least common sponge Phylum Cnidaria is under the Kingdom
body form. Ascon sponges are vaselike. Animalia, which contains over 9,000 species
- Ostia are the outer openings of that can be found mostly in marine
phorocytes and lead directly to a chamber environments and are important in coral reef
called the spongocoel. ecosystems.
- Choanocytes line the spongocoel, and  Members of the Phylum Cnidaria possess
their flagellar movements draw water into
biradial or radial symmetry.
the spongocoel through the ostia.
- OSCULUM - Water exits the sponge  EXAMPLE: Starfish & Sea Anemone
through the osculum, which is a single, (radial) Comb jelly fish (biradial)
large opening at the top of the sponge. Characteristics of Phylum Cnidaria
SYCON - body form, the sponge wall appears • Radial symmetry or modified as biradial
folded. symmetry.
- Water enters a sycon sponge through • Diploblastic, tissue-level organization.
openings called dermal pores. • Gelatinous mesoglea between the
- Dermal pores are the openings of epidermal and gastrodermal tissue layers.
invaginations of the body wall, called • Gastrovascular cavity.
incurrent canals. • Nerve cells organized into a nerve net.
- Pores in the body wall connect incurrent • Specialized cells, called cnidocytes, used
canals to radial canals, and the radial
in defense, feeding, and attachment.
canals lead to the spongocoel.
Choanocytes line radial canals (rather
than the spongocoel) BODY WALL OF A CNIDARIAN
- The beating of choanocyte flagella moves • EPIDERMIS - outer layer of the body wall
water from the ostia, through incurrent and • GASTRODERMIS - inner layer of the
radial canals, to the spongocoel, and out body wall
the osculum. • MESOGLEA - jellylike layer
Leucon - sponges have an extensively • CNIDOCYTES - used for attachment,
branched canal system. defense, and feeding.
- Water enters the sponge through ostia
and moves through branched incurrent ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS
canals, which lead to choanocyte-lined • When a cnidarian life cycle involves both
chambers. Canals leading away from the polyp and medusa stages, the phrase
chambers are called excurrent canals.
“Alternation of Generations” is often
Proliferation of chambers and canals
has resulted in the absence of a
applied.
spongocoel, and often, multiple exit points • POLYP - is usually asexual and sessile. It
(oscula) for water leaving the sponge. attaches to a substrate at the aboral end
and has a cylindrical body, called the
REPRODUCTION column, and a mouth surrounded by food-
 Most sponges are monoecious, but do not gathering tentacles.
usually self-fertilize because individual • MEDUSA - is dioecious and free
sponges produce eggs and sperm at different swimming. The mouth opening is centrally
times. located. Facing downward, the medusa
 Certain choanocytes lose their collars and
swims by gentle pulsations of the body
flagella and undergo meiosis to form
flagellated sperm.
wall.
 Asexual Reproduction sponges involve the
formation of resistant capsules, called
gemmules, containing masses of amoeboid
cells.
ZOOLOGY- CHAPTER 7 Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization

 The gastrodermis of all cnidarians lines a ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:

blind-ending GASTROVASCULAR
CAVITY. This cavity functions in digestion, • Budding: Asexual reproduction mainly occurs
the exchange of respiratory gases and during the polyp stage. Polyps can produce
small, genetically identical offspring called
metabolic wastes, and the discharge of
"buds" through budding. These buds develop
gametes.
into new polyps. This process allows for clonal
 A HYDROSTATIC SKELETON is water or growth.
body fluids confined in a cavity of the body • Stolon Formation: Some hydrozoans form
and against which contractile elements of horizontal runners called stolons. New polyps
the wall act. develop from these stolons, effectively
REPRODUCTION extending the colony's reach.
 Most cnidarians are dioecious. Sperm • Fission: In some species, a polyp may divide
and eggs may be released into the into two or more separate individuals through
gastrovascular cavity or to the outside a process called fission.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Sexual reproduction
of the body. In some instances, eggs are
primarily occurs during the medusa stage. It
retained in the parent until fertilization. involves the following steps:
 A blastula forms early in development,
and migration of surface cells to the • Gamete Production: Mature medusae
interior fills the embryo with cells that will produce gametes - eggs (ova) in females and
sperm in males.
eventually form the gastrodermis.
 The embryo elongates to form a ciliated, • Fertilization: Fertilization occurs when sperm
free-swimming larva, called a PLANULA. is released into the water, where it encounters
 The planula attaches to a substrate, and fertilizes the eggs.
interior cells split to form the • Planula Larvae: The fertilized eggs develop
gastrovascular cavity, and a young polyp into a free-swimming, ciliated larval stage
develops. called "planula." Planula larvae are
microscopic and drift with ocean currents.
CLASS HYDROZOA
• Settlement: After a period of floating, planula
Hydrozoans - are small, relatively common larvae settle on a suitable substrate and
cnidarians. The vast majority are marine, but this undergo metamorphosis into the primary
is the one cnidarian class with freshwater polyp stage.
representatives. Most hydrozoans have life cycles
that display alternation of generations; however, • Polyp Growth: The primary polyp grows and
in some, the medusa stage is lost, while in others, eventually asexually produces more polyps to
the polyp stage is very small. form a colony.

Three features distinguish hydrozoans from • Medusa Formation: In some hydrozoans,

other cnidarians: polyps may undergo a metamorphic transition
and develop into the medusa stage.
• Nematocysts are only in the epidermis.
• Gametes are epidermal and released to the
outside of the body rather than into the
gastrovascular cavity.
• Mesoglea is largely acellular.
ZOOLOGY- CHAPTER 7 Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization

CLASS STAUROZOA CLASS SCYPHOZOA

are all marine. They were formerly classified into are all marine and are “true jellyfish” because the
an order (Stauromedusae) within the class dominant stage in their life history is the medusa.
Scyphozoa. Unlike hydrozoan medusae, scyphozoan
medusae lack a velum, the mesoglea contains
- staurozoans lack a medusa stage.
amoeboid mesenchyme cells, cnidocytes occur in
- the former order name is derived from the
the gastrodermis as well as the epidermis, and
resemblance of the oral end of the polyp
gametes are gastrodermal in origin.
to a medusa. The body form is in the
shape of a goblet with a series of eight REPRODUCTION OF CLASS SCYPHOZOA
tentacle clusters attached to the margin of
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
the goblet.
• Polyp Stage: Scyphozoans begin their life
REPRODUCTION OF CLASS STAUROZOA
cycle as tiny, planktonic larvae called
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Staurozoans are planulae. After settling on a suitable substrate,
capable of asexual reproduction. They can they metamorphose into polyps. These polyps
regenerate from damaged or broken parts of their are often referred to as "scyphistomae."
body. This process is called "fragmentation."
• Budding: Polyps are capable of asexual
When a stalked jellyfish is damaged or a part of
reproduction through budding. They produce
its stalk or arms is severed, it can regenerate into
small, genetically identical offspring, known as
a new individual.
"ephyrae." These ephyrae are essentially
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION: Staurozoans also juvenile jellyfish.
reproduce sexually, although the details of this
• Ephyra Stage: Ephyrae are released from the
process can vary between species. Here is a
polyp, and they swim freely in the water
general overview:
column. As they mature, they develop into the
• Gamete Production: Stalked jellyfish have recognizable medusa form.
separate sexes. Males produce sperm, and
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION:
females produce eggs. The gametes are
released into the surrounding water. • Medusa Stage: The medusa stage is the
sexually mature, bell-shaped body that most
• Fertilization: Fertilization occurs when the
people associate with jellyfish. During this
sperm from a male encounter the eggs from a
stage, males and females release gametes
female in the water.
into the water.
• Planula Larvae: After fertilization, the zygotes • Gamete Production: Males release sperm
develop into planula larvae, which are free- into the water, and females release eggs.
swimming and typically have cilia for • Fertilization: Fertilization occurs when the
movement. Planula larvae are the early stage sperm encounters the eggs in the water,
of the life cycle in Staurozoa. resulting in the formation of zygotes.
• Planula Larvae: The zygotes develop into
• Metamorphosis: The planula larvae
planula larvae. These larvae are free-
eventually settle on a suitable substrate, such
swimming and eventually settle on the
as rocks or other hard surfaces. They undergo
seafloor or other suitable substrates.
metamorphosis to transform into the juvenile
• Polyp Formation: The planula larvae
stalked form.
metamorphose into polyps, restarting the life
cycle.
ZOOLOGY- CHAPTER 7 Multicellular and Tissue Levels of Organization

CLASS COBUZOA
• Very similar to morphology and true jellies
except:
• Their bell is cube shaped, thus the name box
jelly.
• Relatively few tentacles that are arranged on
a Pedalium (stalk) extending from the corner
of the bell.
• Found in tropical marine water.
• Relatively great swimmers and predators of
fish.
• Often from large swarms to intimidate
predators.
• Contains some of the most venomous animals
in the world, Attacks, heart, nervous system,
and skin.

CLASS ANTHOZOA
• Largest and diverse group of cnidarians.
• Polyp-only life stage.
• Cylindrical shaped body with thick muscled
mesoglea.
• Some reproduced asexually via budding,
others reproduced sexually, monoecious
(hermaphroditic), viviparous, some do that.
• Basal/pedal disk for attacking substrate.
• Some can migrate periodically.

PHYLUM CTENOPHORA

 Comb Jelly Anatomy

• 8 evenly space comb rows
• Two anal pores
• Mouth led to pharynx.
• Branching digestive track
 Ctenophores Swim Mouth-First
 All ctenophores live in saltwater environment,
surface water to deep
 Surface water during the day to feed and
return to deep water at night.
 Comb rows exhibit prismatic light scattering.