UNIVERSITY OF Kerbala

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Dr. Emad Qasem Hussein

Petr. Eng. Department
2020 - 2021
& WATER

STRENGTH
OF MATERIALS

Lecture Notes Prepared by:

Assistant Professor
Dr. Emad Q. H.
Mechanical Engineering
Design and Technology
 UNIVERSITY OF Kerbala
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING Dr. Emad Qasem Hussein
Petr. Eng. Department
2020 - 2021
& WATER

Course Description

1.Concept of Stress
2.Concept of Strain
3.Statically Indeterminate Problems
4.Thermal Stresses
5.Stresses in Thin Wall Vessels, Poison's Ratio
6. Simple Bending Theory
7.Shear Force and Bending Moment Diagrams
8.Stresses in Beams, Bending Stresses
9.Shear Stresses in Beams
10. Deflection of Beams
11. Torsion
12. Buckling of Columns
13- Combined Stress
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

REFERENCES

1. Strength of Materials (Fourth Edition) Ferdinand L. Singer

2. Mechanics of Materials (Seventh Edition) R.C. Hibbeler.

3. Mechanics of Materials (Second Revised Edition) Roy R. Craig, Jr.

4. Mechanics of Materials (Second Edition) E. P. Popov.
Introduction
Strength of materials is a branch of applied mechanics that deals with the
Behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. The solid
bodies Considered in this book include bars with axial loads, shafts in torsion,
and beams in bending and columns in compression. The principal objective of
strength of Material is to determine the stress, strains and displacements in
structures and their components due to the loads acting on them.

Strength of materials is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure

or plastic deformation. The field of Strength of materials deals with forces and
Deformations that result from their acting on a material.
 CHAPTER 1_ STRESS

Concept of Stress: Let us introduce the concept of stress, as we know

that the main problem of engineering mechanics of material is the
investigation of the internal resistance of the body, i.e. the nature of forces
set up within a body to balance the effect of the externally applied forces.
These externally applied forces may be due to any one or more of the
followings:

(i) due to service conditions

(ii) due to the environment in which the component works
(iii) due to fluid pressures
(iv) due to gravity or inertia forces (self-weight of the structure).

From equilibrium point of view, this action

should be opposed or reacted by internal forces
which are set up within the particles of material
due to cohesion. These internal forces give rise to
a concept of stress.

Stress:
Let us consider a rectangular bar
of some cross–sectional area and
subjected to some load or force.

Let us imagine that the same

rectangular bar is assumed to be cut into
two halves at section XX. Each portion
of this rectangular bar is in equilibrium
under the action of load P and the
internal forces acting at the section XX
has been shown.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Simple Stress
Simple stress is expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the
resisting area or:

ζ = Force / Area.
It is the expression of force per unit area to structural members that are subjected to
external forces. Here we are using an assumption that the total force or total load
carried by the bar is uniformly distributed over its cross-section.

Units :

The basic units of stress in S.I units i.e. (International System) are N / m2 (or Pa,
Pascal)

MPa = 106 Pa , GPa = 109 Pa , KPa = 103 Pa

Sometimes N/mm2 units are also used, because this is an equivalent to MPa ,
while US customary unit is pound per square inch , psi. (lb/in2).

Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress.

Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional

area of the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be
tensile stress and compressive stress develops when the material is being compressed
by two opposing forces.

Shear stress is developed if the applied force is

parallel to the resisting area. Example is the bolt
that holds the tension rod in its anchor. Another
condition of shearing is when we twist a bar along
its longitudinal axis. This type of shearing is
called torsion.

Another type of simple stress is the bearing

stress, it is the contact pressure between two
bodies. ( It is in fact a compressive stress ).
Normal Stress

The resisting area is perpendicular to the applied force, thus normal. There are two
types of normal stresses; tensile stress and compressive stress. Tensile stress applied
to bar tends the bar to elongate while compressive stress tend to shorten the bar.

ζ = Force / Area, ζ = P/ A
Bar in Tension Bar in Compression

Where; P is the applied normal load in Newton and A is the area in mm2. The
maximum stress in tension or compression occurs over a section normal to the
load.

Solved Example in Normal Stress

 Example 102. A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable
as shown in figure below. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is
not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel.

Solution:

Example 103 An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze
rod as shown in figure. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the
maximum value of P that will not exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in aluminum of
90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa.
HW.
A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies between an 8-inches diameter wooden post
and a concrete footing as shown in figure. Determine the maximum value of the
load P if the stress in wood is limited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to 650 psi.
Shearing Stress
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. It differs to
tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to the
area on which they act. Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.

Where; V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area
A being shd.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Solved Example in Shear Stress

Example 106 .Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown
in figure if P = 400 kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.

Solution :
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Solution:

Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separated bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Solved Example in Bearing Stress

Example 125. In figure below, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates
that are each 110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the
plate material and 60 MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum
thickness of each plate; and (b) the largest average tensile stress in the plates.

Solution

Example 126. The lap joint shown in figure is fastened by four ¾-in.-diameter rivets.
Calculate the maximum safe load P that can be applied if the shearing stress in the
rivets is limited to 14 ksi and the bearing stress in the plates is limited to 18 ksi.
Assume the applied load is uniformly distributed among the four rivets.
Example 127: In the clevis shown in figure, find the minimum
bolt diameter and the minimum thickness of each yoke that will
support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a shearing stress of
12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

Solution:
 Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
A tank or pipe carrying a fluid or gas under a pressure is subjected to tensile
forces, which resist bursting, developed across longitudinal and transverse sections.

Tangential Stress, σt
Consider the tank shown being subjected to an internal pressure p. The length of
the tank is L and the wall thickness is t. isolating the right half of the tank:

Where, P – is internal pressure

D - is diameter of tank
t – is thickness of wall
- is tangential stress

If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi, the formula may
be expressed as:

Longitudinal Stress, σL
Consider the free body diagram in the transverse section of the tank:

The total force acting at the rear of the tank F must equal
to the total longitudinal stress on the wall PT = ζL Awall.
Since t is so small compared to D, the area of the wall is
close to πDt.
σL
If there exist an external pressure po and an internal pressure pi , the formula may
be expressed as:
( )

It can be observed that the tangential stress is twice that of the

longitudinal stress.
ζt = 2 ζL
Solved Example in Thin Walled Pressure Vessels
Example 133: A cylindrical steel pressure vessel 400 mm in diameter with a wall
thickness of 20 mm, is subjected to an internal pressure of 4.5 MN/ . (a) Calculate
the tangential and longitudinal stresses in the steel. (b) To what value may the
internal pressure be increased if the stress in the steel is limited to 120 MN/m2.

Solution
Example 134. The wall thickness of a 4-ft-diameter spherical tank is 5/16 in. Calculate the
allowable internal pressure if the stress is limited to 8000 psi.

Example 136.A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plating that has a thickness
of 20 mm. The diameter of the pressure vessel is 450 mm and its length is 2.0 m. Determine
the maximum internal pressure that can be applied if the longitudinal stress is limited to
140 MPa, and the circumferential stress is limited to 60 MPa.
 CHAPTER 2_ STRAIN
Simple Strain
Strain (  ) is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied force, to
the original length.(Also known as unit deformation).

Where; δ is the deformation

L is the original length,
ε is dimensionless.

Stress-Strain Diagram
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression testing
machine. As the axial load is gradually increased in increments, the total
elongation over the gage length is measured at each increment of the load and
this is continued until failure of the specimen takes place. Knowing the
original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ
and the strain ε can be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress ζ
along the y-axis and the strain ε along the x-axis is called the stress-strain
diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for various materials. The
diagram shown below is that for a medium carbon structural steel.
Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or brittle
materials. A ductile material is one having relatively large tensile strains up
to the point of rupture like structural steel and aluminum, whereas brittle
materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture like cast
iron and concrete.

Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)

From the origin O to the point P is called proportional limit, the

stress-strain curve is a straight line. This linear relation between elongation
and the axial force causing was first noticed by Robert Hooke in 1678 and is
called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain or:

The constant of proportionality k is called the Modulus of Elasticity E

or Young's Modulus and is equal to the slope of the stress-strain diagram
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go
back to its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum
stress that may be developed such that there is nonpermanent.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range.
The region from P to R is called the plastic range.

Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.

Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength
or tensile strength.

Rupture Strength
Rupture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known
as the breaking strength.

Axial Deformation
In the linear portion of the stress-strain diagram, the tress is proportional
to strain and is given by
 To use this formula, the load must be axial, the bar must have a
uniform cross- sectional area, and the stress must not exceed the
proportional limit.

If however, the cross- sectional area is not uniform, the axial deformation
can be determined by considering a differential length and applying
integration.

Where; A = ty and y and t, if variable, must be

Solving Problems in Axial deformation
Example 203 :An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries
the axial loads applied at the positions shown in figure. Compute the total
change in length of the bar if E = 10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is suitably
braced to prevent lateral buckling.
Example 204: Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the
largest value of P that will not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0 mm, or
the following stresses: 140 MPa in the steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80
MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is suitably braced to prevent
buckling. Use Est = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa, and Ebr = 83 GPa.
Example 212 :The rigid bar ABC shown in figure is hinged at A and supported by a steel rod at B.
Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is limited to 30 ksi
and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.
Example 215. A uniform concrete slab of total weight W is to be attached, as shown in figure,
To two rods whose lower ends are on the same level. Determine the ratio of the Areas of
the rods so that the slab will remain level.
Poisson's Ratio:
If a bar is subjected to a tensile loading there will be an increase in length
of the bar in the direction of the applied load, but there is also a decrease in a
lateral dimension perpendicular to the load. It has been observed that for
elastic materials, The ratio of the lateral strain to longitudinal strain is known
as the Poison's ratio and is denoted by ν.

Poison's ratio (ν) = - lateral strain / longitudinal strain

Where, εx is strain in the x-direction and εy and εz are the strains in the
perpendicular direction. The negative sign indicates a decrease in the
transverse dimension when εx is positive. For most engineering materials the
value of (ν) is between 0.15 and 0.33. For most steel, it lies in the range of
0.25 to 0.3, and 0.20 for concrete.
Biaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by tensile stresses, ζx and ζy, in
the x and y directions, the strain in the x-direction is ζx / E and the strain in the
y direction is ζy / E. The resulting strain in the x direction and y direction
respectively will be,
:

Triaxial Deformation
If an element is subjected simultaneously by three mutually perpendicular
normal stresses σx, σy, and σz, which are accompanied by strains εx, εy, and εz,
respectively,

Tensile stresses and elongation are taken as positive. Compressive stresses and
contraction are taken as negative.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Shear Deformation and Shear Strain

Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear
does not change in length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is

called the Shear Strain and is expressed as:

The ratio of the shear stress η and the shear strain γ is called the Modulus
of Elasticity in Shear or Modulus of Rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa,

The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing
force is :

Relationship between E, G, and ν

The relationship between Modulus of Elasticity E, Shear Modulus G and
Poisson's ratio ν is given as:
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Solved Problems in Shearing Deformation

Problem 222: A solid cylinder of diameter d carries an axial load P. Show

that its change in diameter is 4Pν / πEd.

Solution 222
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Problem 225 : A welded steel cylindrical drum made of a 10-mm plate has an
internal diameter of 1.20 m. Compute the change in diameter that would be
caused by an internal pressure of 1.5 MPa. Assume that Poisson's ratio is 0.30
and E = 200 GPa.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Thermal Stresses

Temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract. The amount δT, is
given by:

Where (α) is the coefficient of thermal expansion in m/m°C, L is the length

in meter, and (Ti and Tf) are the initial and final temperatures, respectively in
°C. For steel, α = 11.25 × 10–6 / C°. Stress will be induced in the structure. In
some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal
stress is created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.
For a homogeneous rod mounted between unyielding supports as shown, the
thermal stress is computed as:

Deformation due to temperature changes;

Deformation due to equivalent axial stress;

 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Where (ζ) is the thermal Stress in MPa and E is the Modulus of Elasticity of
the rod in MPa.

Take note that as the temperature rises above the normal, the rod will be in
compression, and if the temperature drops below the normal, the rod is in
tension.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 3_ Statically Indeterminate Members

There are many problems, however, in which the internal forces cannot be determined
from statics alone. In fact, in most of these problems the reactions themselves which are
external forces cannot be determined by simply drawing a free-body diagram of the member
and writing the corresponding equilibrium equations. The equilibrium equations must be
complemented by relations involving deformations obtained by considering the geometry of the
problem.Because statics is not sufficient to determine either the reactions or the internal forces,
problems of this type are said to be statically indeterminate. The following examples will
show how to handle this type of problems.

Solved Problems in Statically Indeterminate Members

Example 243. A homogeneous rod of constant cross section is attached to unyielding

supports. It carries an axial load P applied as shown in Fig. P-243. Prove that the
reactions are given by R1 = Pb/L and R2 = Pa/L
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 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Example 245. The composite bar in Fig. P-245 is firmly attached to unyielding
supports. Compute the stress in each material caused by the application of the axial
load P = 50 kips.
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 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Example 247. The composite bar in Fig. P-247 is stress-free before the axial loads
P1 and P2 are applied. Assuming that he walls are rigid, calculate the stress in each
material if P1 = 150 kN and P2 = 90 kN

.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Example 252 .The light rigid bar ABCD shown in figure is pinned at B and connected to two
vertical rods. Assuming that the bar was initially horizontal and the rods stress-free, determine the
stress in each rod after the load after the load P = 20 kips is applied.
STREMGTH OF MATERIALS
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

CHAPTER 5_ Shear and Moment in Beams

A beam is a bar subject to forces or couples that lie in a plane containing the
longitudinal of the bar. According to determinacy, a beam may be determinate or
indeterminate.

Statically Determinate Beams

Statically determinate beams are those beams in which the reactions of the supports
may be determined by the use of the equations of static equilibrium. The beams
shown below are examples of statically determinate beams.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Statically Indeterminate Beams

If the number of reactions exerted upon a beam exceeds the number of equations in
static equilibrium, the beam is said to be statically indeterminate. In order to solve
the reactions of the beam, the static equations must be supplemented by equations
based upon the elastic deformations of the beam.

The degree of indeterminacy is taken as the difference between the umber of

reactions to the number of equations in static equilibrium that can be applied. In the
case of the propped beam shown, there are three reactions R1, R2, and M and only
two equations ( ∑M = 0 and sum;Fv = 0) can be applied, thus the beam is
indeterminate to the first degree
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Types of Loading

Loads applied to the beam may consist of a concentrated load (load applied
at a point), uniform load, uniformly varying load, or an applied couple
or moment. These loads are shown in the following figures.

Shear and Moment Diagrams

At any section in beams carrying transvers loads, the shearing force is defined
As the algebraic sum of the forces taken on either side of the section. Similarly
the bending moment at any section is the algebraic sum of the moments of the
forces about the section, taken on either side.
 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Shear Fore (S.F) Sign

Bending Moment (B.M) sign

 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

One method of determining the shear and moment diagrams is by the

following steps:
1. Determine the reactions from equilibrium of the entire beam.
2. Cut the beam at an arbitrary point.
3. Show the unknown shear and moment on the cut using the positive sign
convention shown in figure.
4. Sum forces in the vertical direction to determine the unknown shear.
5. Sum moments about the cut to determine the unknown moment.

Solved Problems in Shear and Moment Diagrams

 STREMGTH OF MATERIALS

Example 403. Beam loaded as shown in figure below, draw the shear and moment
diagram.
STREMGTH OF MATERIALS
Example 404. Beam loaded as shown in figure below, draw the shear and moment
diagram.
Example 405. Beam loaded as shown in figure below, draw the shear and moment
diagram.
Example 406. Beam loaded as shown in figure below, draw the shear and moment
diagram.
 CAPTER_6 Simple Bending Theory

Forces acting on the beam cause bending (flexural stresses) and shearing
stresses on any cross section of the beam and deflection perpendicular to the
longitudinal axis of the beam. If forces produce the bending, the bending is
called ordinary bending.

Assumptions
1) A plane section of the beam normal to its longitudinal axis.
2) The beam is initially straight and of uniform cross section.
3) The modulus of elasticity in tension and compression are equal.
4) The stresses and strains are small (within elastic range),
material is homogeneous and Hooks law is applied.
 Flexure Formula:

Where,
M- The bending moment in N·mm (lb·in),
- The flexural stress in MPa (psi),
I- The centroidal moment of inertia in m (i )
y- The distance of the centroid of the area from the N.A
R- Radius of curvature due to bending.

Solved Problems in Flexure Formula

E1. A simply supported beam, 2 in wide by 4 in high and 12ft long is subjected to a
concentrated load of 2000lb at a point 3ft from one of the supports. Determine the
maximum fiber stress and the stress in a fiber located 0.5in from the top of the beam
at midspan
 Stress in a fiber located 0.5 in from the top of the beam at midspan:

E2. Determine the minimum height h of the beam shown in figure if the flexural
stress is not to exceed 20MPa
E3. A 50mm diameter bar is used as a simply supported beam 3m long. Determine
the largest uniformly distributed load that can be applied over the right two-thirds of
the beam if the flexural stress is limited to 50MPa.
E4. A cantilever beam, 50 mm wide by 150 mm high and 6 m long, carries a load
that varies uniformly from zero at the free end to 1000 N/m at the wall.
(a) Compute the magnitude and location of the maximum flexural stress.
(b) Determine the type and magnitude of the stress in a fiber 20 mm from the top of
the beam at a section 2m from the free end.
 Shearing stress distribution in typical cross-sections
Let us consider few examples to determine the sheer stress distribution in a given X-
sections.

Rectangular x-section:
Consider a rectangular x-section of dimension b and d .A is the area of the x-section cut off by a line
parallel to the neutral axis. is the distance of the centroid of A from the neutral axis.

This shows that there is a parabolic distribution of shear stress with y.

The maximum value of shear stress would obviously beat the location y = 0.
Therefore the shear stress distribution is shown as below.
It may be noted that the shear stress is distributed parabolically over a rectangular cross-
section, it is maximum at y = 0 and is zero at the extreme ends.

I –section : Consider an I - section of the dimension shown below.

The shear stress distribution for any arbitrary shape is given as

Let us evaluate the quantity , the quantity for this case comprise the
contribution due to flange area and web area.

Flange area

Web Area
To get the maximum and minimum values of t substitute in the above relation.
y = 0 at N. A. And y = d/2 at the tip.
The maximum shear stress is at the neutral axis. i.e. for the condition y = 0 at N. A.

.......(2)

Hence,
The minimum stress occur at the top of the web, the term bd 2 goes off and shear stress is
given by the following expression :

............(3)

The distribution of shear stress may be drawn as below, which clearly indicates a parabolic
distribution:

Note: from the above distribution we can see that the shear stress at the flanges is not zero,
but it has some value, this can be analyzed from equation (1). At the flange tip or flange or
web interface y = d/2. Obviously then this will have some constant value and then onwards
this will have parabolic distribution.
 CHAPTER 7_ Torsion

Consider a bar to be rigidly attached at one end and twisted at the other end by a torque or

twisting moment T equivalent to F × d, which is applied perpendicular to the axis of the

bar? as shown in the figure. Such a bar is said to be in torsion.

Simple Torsion Theory
When a uniform circular shaft is subjected to a torque it can be show that every

Section of shaft is subjected to a state of pure shear as shown in Fig.(x). The moment

of resistance developed by the shear stresses equal to the magnitude and opposite

in direction to the applied torque.

The following basic assumptions of simple theory;

 The material is homogeneous , uniform elastic properties

 The material is elastic , Hooke's with shear stress proportional to shear strain
 The stress does not exceed the elastic limit
 Circular section remain circular
 Cross section remains plane.
 Cress-section rotate as if rigid, every diameter rotates through the same angle.

 Angle of twist

Consider now the solid circular shaft of radius R subjected to a torque T at one end,

The other end being fixed, under the action of this torque a radial line at the free end

Of the shaft twists through an angle , point A moves to B and AB subtends an

angle at the fixed end. This is the angle of distortion of the shaft.

The Shear Strain

Therefore, the theory of pure torsion states that;

− is the applied external torque, constant over length L

− is the polar second moment of area of shaft cross-section

is the shear stress at radius R

is the modulus of rigidity

is the angle of twist in radians on a length L

Polar Second Moment of Area

The polar second moment of area, J is defined as

Where, D is outer diameter for shaft

d is inner diameter for shaft

Angle of twist
The angle through which the bar length, L will twist is

Where; T – Torque in N.m

L- Length of shaft, m

G- Shear modulus in MPa

J- Polar moment of inertia,

D- Diameter in m

R- Radius of shaft in m
Power Transmitted by the Shaft
The power transmitted by the shaft is

Where, – angular velocity, rad/sec

T– Torque, N.m

n – Number of revolution per second

P – Power in watts
Series Connection
If two or more shaft of different material diameter are connected together in such a
way that each carries the same torque then the shaft are said to be connected in series
Parallel Connection
If two or more material are rigidly fixed together such that the applied torque is

Shared between them, then the composite shaft so formed is said to be connected

in parallel.