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The Cell:
• the minimal self-reproducing unit
• the vehicle for transmission of the genetic information in all living
FUNDAMENTAL MEDICAL SCIENCE 1 species

Cytology

Ivet Suriapranata
2018 Alberts et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell

The word CELL comes from a Latin word:

CELLULA (small room)

Robert Hooke/ cork tree

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The Cell Theory Characteristics of each cell

1839 by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann;

All organisms are composed of one or more cells. • self-contained and self-maintaining

All cells come from preexisting cells. • takes in nutrients

Vital functions of an organism occur within cells • converts these nutrients into energy

All cells contain the hereditary information necessary • carries out specialized function
for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information
to the next generation of cells. • reproduces as necessary

• stores its own set of instructions for carrying out each of

these activities.

All cells store their hereditary information in the same linear

All cells replicate their hereditary information by templated
chemical code (DNA)
polymerization

The sequence of nucleotides in an existing DNA strand,

components of DNA: controls the sequence in which nucleotides are joined
together in a new DNA strand
four nucleotides: A, T, C, G

joined together by sugar-phosphate Base pairing: A<->T; C<->G

linkages

double strand DNA ->

double helix structure

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All cells transcribe portions of their hereditary information All cells translate RNA into Protein in the same way
into the same intermediary form (RNA)

All cells are enclosed in a plasma membrane across which

All cells use protein as catalysts nutrients and waste materials must pass
Plasma membrane: selective barrier
monomers of protein: amino acids separate and protect a cell from its surrounding
environment and is made mostly from a double
protein molecules are created by joining amino acids
layer of lipids
in particular sequence fold

each amino acid has a distinctive chemical character

proteins/ polypeptides bind with high specificity to other

molecules and act as enzymes

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Prokaryotes Eukaryotes
Plasma membrane Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm Cytoplasm
DNA DNA
No nucleus Nucleus
No Organelles Organelles
Small, simple, independent Bigger, complex, multicellular

cytoplasm

Ribosomes
Plasma membrance

DNA in nucleoid

Typical arrangements of bacterial flagella

Flagella

a long, slender projection from the cell body

composed of microtubules and surrounded by the plasma
membrane
In small, single-cell organisms they may function to propel the cell
by beating in a whip-like motion
Medical Microbiology. 4th edition.Baron S, editor.Galveston (TX):
University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 1996

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Two different types of cell wall in bacteria

Gram-positive and Gram-negative.

The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram stain,
a test for the classification of bacterial species

Gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall

consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by
a second lipid membrane containing lipopolysaccharides
Cell Wall and lipoproteins.
a fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell,
located external to the cell membrane,
that provides the cell with structural support, protection, In contrast, Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall
and a filtering mechanism containing many layers of peptidoglycan and teichoic acids.

The cell wall is constructed from different materials Most pathogenic bacteria have the Gram-negative cell wall
dependent upon the species.

Schematic representation of the cell wall of Gram-negative bacteria showing

several layers of polysaccharides and glycoconjugates

LTA: Lipoteichoic acid

1,3-polyglycerol-phosphate linked to glycolipid

Essentials of Glycobiology Essentials of Glycobiology
Second Edition Chapter 20, Figure 1 Second Edition Chapter 20, Figure 2

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Gram positive bacteria:

Bacillus anthracis

Gram negative bacteria:

Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Cell surface structures of bacteria

Cell capsule (or glycocalyx):

Layer outside bacterial cell wall
well organized and not easily washed off.
composed of polysaccharides
helps to protect bacteria against phagocytosis,
considered a virulence factor

Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition.Alberts B, Johnson A,

Lewis J, et al.New York: Garland Science; 2002.

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Plasma membrane:
Phospholipid bilayer Plasma membranes are the site of active transport,
respiratory chain components, energy-transducing
systems, the H+-ATPase of the proton pump, and
membrane stages in the biosynthesis of
phospholipids, peptidoglycan, LPS, and capsular
polysaccharides.

In essence, the bacterial plasma membrane is a

multifunction structure that combines the
mitochondrial transport and biosynthetic functions
that are usually compartmentalized in discrete
membranous organelles in eukaryotic cells.

The yellow polar head groups separate The plasma membrane is also the anchoring site for
the grey hydrophobic tails DNA and provides the cell with a mechanism (as yet
from the aqueous cytosolic unknown) for separation of sister chromosomes.
and extracellular environments.

Medical Microbiology. 4th edition.Baron S, editor.Galveston (TX):

University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston; 1996

Functions of the prokaryotic plasma membrane:

1. Osmotic or permeability barrier
2. Location of transport systems for specific solutes (nutrients and ions)
3. Energy generating functions (respiratory and
photosynthetic electron transport systems,
establishment of proton motive force, and transmembranous,
ATP-synthesizing ATPase)
4. Synthesis of membrane lipids
(including lipopolysaccharide in Gram-negative cells)
DNA in prokaryotes is condensed in nucleoid
5. Synthesis of murein
(cell wall peptidoglycan)
6. Assembly and secretion of extracytoplasmic proteins Mesosome: invagination of plasma membrane
7. Coordination of DNA replication and segregation
with septum formation and cell division Ribosome for Protein translation
8. Chemotaxis (both motility per se and sensing functions)
9. Location of specialized enzyme system

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Table 1. Summary: Characteristics of typical bacterial cell structures.

Predominant chemical
Three different shapes of Bacteria
Function(s)
Structure composition
Swimming movement
Flagella Protein
Pili
Sex pilus M ediates DNA transfer during conjugation Protein
Capsules
Attachment to surfaces; protection against phagocytic
(includes "slime Usually polysaccharide;
engulfment, occasionally killing or digestion; reserve of
layers" and occasionally polypeptide
nutrients or protection against desiccation
glycocalyx)
Cell wall
Gram-positive Prevents osmotic lysis of cell protoplast and confers Peptidoglycan (murein) complexed
bacteria rigidity and shape on cells with teichoic acids
Peptidoglycan (murein) surrounded
Peptidoglycan prevents osmotic lysis and confers rigidity
Gram-negative by phospholipid protein-
and shape; outer membrane is permeability barrier;
bacteria lipopolysaccharide "outer
associated LPS and proteins have various functions
membrane"
Plasma Permeability barrier; transport of solutes; energy
Phospholipid and protein
membrane generation; location of numerous enzyme systems
Ribosomes Sites of translation (protein synthesis) RNA and protein
Highly variable; carbohydrate,
Inclusions Often reserves of nutrients; additional specialized functions
lipid, protein or inorganic
Chromosome Genetic material of cell DNA
Plasmid Extrachromosomal genetic material DNA Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition.Alberts B, Johnson A,
Lewis J, et al.New York: Garland Science; 2002.

Bacterial disease: Multidrug resistance bacteria:

Mycobacterium tuberculosis Bacteria have been able to adapt so that antibiotics are no longer effective.

They have done this via several mechanisms:

Enzymatic deactivation of antibiotics

Escherichia coli
Decreased cell wall permeability to antibiotics

Altered target sites of antibiotic

Efflux mechanisms to remove antibiotics

Increased mutation rate as a stress response

Salmonella typhi

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Many different bacteria now exhibit multidrug resistance,

including staphylococci, enterococci, gonococci, streptococci, Resistance in tuberculosis (TB)
salmonella, Mycobacterium tuberculosis
WHO estimates that, in 2014, there were about 480 000 new cases of
multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB), a form of tuberculosis that is
resistant to the 2 most powerful anti-TB drugs.
To limit the development of antibiotic resistance:
Only about a quarter of these (123 000 cases) were detected and reported.
Only use antibiotics for bacterial infections MDR-TB requires treatment courses that are much longer and less effective
Identify the causative organism if possible than those for non-resistant TB.
Use the right antibiotic; don't rely on broad range antibiotics
Globally, only half of MDR-TB patients were successfully treated in 2014.
Don't stop antibiotics as soon as symptoms improve; Among new TB cases in 2014, an estimated 3.3% were multidrug-resistant.
finish the full course The proportion is higher among people previously treated for TB, at 20%.
Most colds, coughs, bronchitis, sinus infections,
and eye infections are viral; do not use antibiotics Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB), a form of tuberculosis that is
resistant to at least 4 of the core anti-TB drugs, has been identified in 105
countries. An estimated 9.7% of people with MDR-TB have XDR-TB.

Eukaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cell Structure

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Eukaryotic Cell Structure Functionally Interrelated membrane system

1. Nucleus, Nucleolus,
2. Chromatin,
3. Ribosome
4. Nuclear and plasma membrane
5. Cytosol or cytoplasm
6. Endoplasmic reticulum
7. Golgi apparatus
8. Mitochondria
9. Lysosomes
10. Peroxisomes
11. Microtubules/microfilaments
12. Centriole

Eukaryotic Membrane Traffic Intracellular

membranous structure
Nuclear membrane

Endoplasmic
reticulum

Golgi apparatus

Vesicles
Exocytosis
Plasma membrane
(Exocytosis)

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Plasma membrane Plasma membrane

many important biological reaction and processes occur
on membrane surface

Proteins mediate and regulate the transport of

metabolites, macromolecules and ions

Plasma membrane proteins Parts of Phospholipid molecule

At least 30% of genes are thought to encode membrane proteins

Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. New
York: Garland Science; 2002.

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Views of cell membrane Various ways in which membrane proteins associate

with the lipid bilayer

Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. New
York: Garland Science; 2002.

FLUID MOSAIC MODEL of PLASMA MEMBRANE FLUID MOSAIC MODEL of PLASMA MEMBRANE

A mosaic is a structure made up of many different parts.

The plasma membrane is composed of different kinds of macromolecules.

The components of a plasma membrane are:

§ integral proteins
§ peripheral proteins
§ glycoproteins
§ phospholipids
§ glycolipids
§ in some cases cholesterol, lipoproteins

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Mitochondria

Powerhouse of the cell The mitochondrion is shaped perfectly to maximize its

efforts.

Releases quantities of energy to

form ATP (adenosinetriphosphate)

Mitochondria Structure
Mitochondria
Mitochondria have two membranes. The outer membrane covers the organelle and
contains it. The inner membrane folds over many times (cristae).
• creates energy for the cell. The process of creating cell energy
is known as cellular respiration.

• very small organelles. You might find cells with several

thousand mitochondria. The number depends on what the cell
needs to do. If the purpose of the cell is to transmit nerve
impulses, there will be fewer mitochondria than in a muscle cell
that needs loads of energy. If the cell feels it is not getting
enough energy to survive, more mitochondria can be created.
Sometimes they can even grow, move, and combine with other
mitochondria, depending on the cell's needs. That folding increases the surface area inside the organelle. Many of
the chemical reactions happen on the inner membrane of the
mitochondria. The increased surface area allows the small organelle to
do as much work as possible. The fluid inside of the mitochondria is
called the matrix.

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Mitochondrial Diseases

Mitochondrial myopathies are a group of

neuromuscular diseases caused by damage to the
mitochondria-small, energy-producing structures that
serve as the cells' "power plants."

Nerve cells in the brain and muscles require a great

deal of energy, and thus appear to be particularly
damaged when mitochondrial dysfunction occurs.

NUCLEUS AND NUCLEOLUS

Nucleus
The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animals.
In mammalian cells, the average diameter of the
nucleus is approximately 6 micrometers (μm), which
occupies about 10% of the total cell volume. The viscous
liquid within it is called nucleoplasm.

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Nuclear Envelope

Nuclear
Envelope

Nuclear Envelope Nuclear Envelope

• The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope, • The nuclear envelope or nuclear membrane consists of two cellular membranes,
an inner and an outer membrane, arranged parallel to one another and
a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and separated by 10 to 50 nanometers (nm). The nuclear envelope completely
separates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm, and the nuclear encloses the nucleus and separates the cell's genetic material from the
lamina. surrounding cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from
diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm.
• Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to most molecules, • The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough
nuclear pores are required to allow movement of molecules across endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and is similarly studded with ribosomes. The space
the envelope. between the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with
the RER lumen.

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Nuclear Pores
Nuclear Pore These pores cross both of the membranes, providing a
channel that allows free movement of small molecules
and ions.
The movement of larger molecules such as proteins is
carefully controlled, and requires active transport
regulated by carrier proteins. Nuclear transport is
crucial to cell function, as movement through the pores
is required for both gene expression and chromosomal
maintenance

Transmission Electron Micrograph

Structure of the Nuclear Pore Complex

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