1.

1 Functions and Their Graphs 11

Logarithmic Functions These are the functions ƒsxd = loga x, where the base a Z 1 is
a positive constant. They are the inverse functions of the exponential functions, and we
discuss these functions in Section 1.6. Figure 1.23 shows the graphs of four logarithmic
functions with various bases. In each case the domain is s0, q d and the range is
s - q , q d.

y y  log 2 x
y  log 3 x

x
0 1
y  log5 x
1
–1 y  log10 x
x
–1 0 1

FIGURE 1.23 Graphs of four logarithmic FIGURE 1.24 Graph of a catenary or

functions. hanging cable. (The Latin word catena
means “chain.”)

Transcendental Functions These are functions that are not algebraic. They include the
trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential, and logarithmic functions, and many
other functions as well. A particular example of a transcendental function is a catenary.
Its graph has the shape of a cable, like a telephone line or electric cable, strung from one
support to another and hanging freely under its own weight (Figure 1.24). The function
defining the graph is discussed in Section 7.3.

Exercises 1.1
Functions 8. a. y b. y
In Exercises 1–6, find the domain and range of each function.
1. ƒsxd = 1 + x 2 2. ƒsxd = 1 - 2x
3. F(x) = 25x + 10 4. g(x) = 2x 2 - 3x
4 2
5. ƒstd = 6. G(t) = 2
3 - t t - 16

x x
In Exercises 7 and 8, which of the graphs are graphs of functions of x, 0 0
and which are not? Give reasons for your answers.
7. a. y b. y Finding Formulas for Functions
9. Express the area and perimeter of an equilateral triangle as a
function of the triangle’s side length x.
10. Express the side length of a square as a function of the length d of
the square’s diagonal. Then express the area as a function of the
diagonal length.
11. Express the edge length of a cube as a function of the cube’s diag-
x x onal length d. Then express the surface area and volume of the
0 0 cube as a function of the diagonal length.
12 Chapter 1: Functions

12. A point P in the first quadrant lies on the graph of the function 31. a. y b. y
ƒsxd = 2x . Express the coordinates of P as functions of the (–1, 1) (1, 1)
slope of the line joining P to the origin. 1 2

13. Consider the point (x, y) lying on the graph of the line x
3 x
2x + 4y = 5. Let L be the distance from the point (x, y) to the 1
origin (0, 0). Write L as a function of x. (–2, –1) (1, –1) (3, –1)
14. Consider the point (x, y) lying on the graph of y = 2x - 3. Let
L be the distance between the points (x, y) and (4, 0). Write L as a 32. a. y b. y
function of y. (T, 1)
1
Functions and Graphs A
Find the domain and graph the functions in Exercises 15–20.
15. ƒsxd = 5 - 2x 16. ƒsxd = 1 - 2x - x 2 t
0 T T 3T 2T
17. g sxd = 2ƒ x ƒ 18. g sxd = 2 - x 2 2
x –A
0 T T
19. F std = t> ƒ t ƒ 20. G std = 1> ƒ t ƒ 2
x + 3
21. Find the domain of y = .
4 - 2x 2 - 9 The Greatest and Least Integer Functions
2 33. For what values of x is
x
22. Find the range of y = 2 + . a. : x ; = 0 ? b. < x = = 0 ?
x2 + 4
34. What real numbers x satisfy the equation : x ; = < x = ?
23. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not
graphs of functions of x. 35. Does < - x = = - : x ; for all real x? Give reasons for your answer.
a. ƒ y ƒ = x b. y 2 = x 2 36. Graph the function
24. Graph the following equations and explain why they are not :x;, x Ú 0
graphs of functions of x. ƒsxd = e
<x=, x 6 0.
a. ƒ x ƒ + ƒ y ƒ = 1 b. ƒ x + y ƒ = 1
Why is ƒ(x) called the integer part of x?
Piecewise-Defined Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 25–28. Increasing and Decreasing Functions
x, 0 … x … 1 Graph the functions in Exercises 37–46. What symmetries, if any, do
25. ƒsxd = e
2 - x, 1 6 x … 2 the graphs have? Specify the intervals over which the function is in-
creasing and the intervals where it is decreasing.
1 - x, 0 … x … 1
26. g sxd = e 1
2 - x, 1 6 x … 2 37. y = - x 3 38. y = -
4 - x , 2
x … 1 x2
27. F sxd = e 1 1
x 2 + 2x , x 7 1 39. y = - x 40. y =
ƒxƒ
1>x , x 6 0 41. y = 2ƒ x ƒ 42. y = 2 - x
28. G sxd = e
x, 0 … x 43. y = x 3>8 44. y = - 4 2x
Find a formula for each function graphed in Exercises 29–32. 45. y = - x 3>2 46. y = s - xd2>3
29. a. y b. y
Even and Odd Functions
(1, 1) In Exercises 47–58, say whether the function is even, odd, or neither.
1 2
Give reasons for your answer.
47. ƒsxd = 3 48. ƒsxd = x -5
x t 2
0 2 0 1 2 3 4 49. ƒsxd = x + 1 50. ƒsxd = x 2 + x
y 51. gsxd = x 3 + x 52. gsxd = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1
30. a. b. y
1 x
2 3 53. gsxd = 54. gsxd =
(2, 1) x2 - 1 x2 - 1
2 1
x 55. hstd = 56. hstd = ƒ t 3 ƒ
2 5 1 t - 1
x
–1 1 2 57. hstd = 2t + 1 58. hstd = 2 ƒ t ƒ + 1
–1
(2, –1)
–2 Theory and Examples
–3 59. The variable s is proportional to t, and s = 25 when t = 75.
Determine t when s = 60.
 1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs 19

y If 0 6 c 6 1, the graph of Equation (1) horizontally stretches the circle; if c 7 1 the cir-
cle is compressed horizontally. In either case, the graph of Equation (1) is an ellipse
(Figure 1.36). Notice in Figure 1.36 that the y-intercepts of all three graphs are always - r
and r. In Figure 1.36b, the line segment joining the points s ;r>c, 0d is called the major
b
axis of the ellipse; the minor axis is the line segment joining s0, ;rd. The axes of the el-
lipse are reversed in Figure 1.36c: The major axis is the line segment joining the points
Major axis
x
s0, ;rd, and the minor axis is the line segment joining the points s ;r>c, 0d. In both cases,
–a Center a the major axis is the longer line segment.
If we divide both sides of Equation (1) by r 2 , we obtain
–b
x2 y2
+ = 1 (2)
a2 b2

where a = r>c and b = r. If a 7 b, the major axis is horizontal; if a 6 b, the major axis
FIGURE 1.37 Graph of the ellipse is vertical. The center of the ellipse given by Equation (2) is the origin (Figure 1.37).
x2 y2 Substituting x - h for x, and y - k for y, in Equation (2) results in
2
+ 2 = 1, a 7 b , where the major
a b
axis is horizontal. sx - hd2 s y - kd2
+ = 1. (3)
a2 b2

Equation (3) is the standard equation of an ellipse with center at (h, k). The geometric
definition and properties of ellipses are reviewed in Section 11.6.

Exercises 1.2
Algebraic Combinations 1 1
9. ƒsxd = 2x + 1, gsxd = , hsxd = x
In Exercises 1 and 2, find the domains and ranges of ƒ, g, ƒ + g , and x + 4
ƒ # g. x + 2 x2
10. ƒsxd = , gsxd = , hsxd = 22 - x
1. ƒsxd = x, g sxd = 2x - 1 3 - x 2
x + 1
2. ƒsxd = 2x + 1, g sxd = 2x - 1
Let ƒsxd = x - 3, g sxd = 2x , hsxd = x 3 , and jsxd = 2x . Ex-
In Exercises 3 and 4, find the domains and ranges of ƒ, g, ƒ>g, and press each of the functions in Exercises 11 and 12 as a composite in-
g >ƒ. volving one or more of ƒ, g, h, and j.

3. ƒsxd = 2, g sxd = x 2 + 1 11. a. y = 2x - 3 b. y = 2 2x

4. ƒsxd = 1, g sxd = 1 + 2x c. y = x 1>4 d. y = 4x

e. y = 2sx - 3d3 f. y = s2x - 6d3
Composites of Functions 12. a. y = 2x - 3 b. y = x 3>2
5. If ƒsxd = x + 5 and g sxd = x 2 - 3 , find the following. c. y = x 9 d. y = x - 6
a. ƒ( g (0)) b. g(ƒ(0)) e. y = 2 2x - 3 f. y = 2x 3 - 3
c. ƒ( g (x)) d. g(ƒ(x)) 13. Copy and complete the following table.
e. ƒ(ƒ(- 5)) f. g (g (2))
g(x) ƒ(x) (ƒ  g)(x)
g. ƒ(ƒ(x)) h. g (g (x))
6. If ƒsxd = x - 1 and gsxd = 1>sx + 1d , find the following. a. x - 7 2x ?
a. ƒ(g (1>2)) b. g (ƒ(1>2)) b. x + 2 3x ?
c. ƒ(g (x)) d. g (ƒ(x)) c. ? 2x - 5 2x 2 - 5
e. ƒ(ƒ(2)) f. g (g (2)) x x
d. ?
g. ƒ(ƒ(x)) h. g (g (x)) x - 1 x - 1
1
In Exercises 7–10, write a formula for ƒ  g  h. e. ? 1 + x x
7. ƒ(x) = x + 1, gsxd = 3x , hsxd = 4 - x
1
8. ƒ(x) = 3x + 4, gsxd = 2x - 1, hsxd = x 2 f. x ? x
20 Chapter 1: Functions

14. Copy and complete the following table. 22. The accompanying figure shows the graph of y = x 2 shifted to
g(x) ƒ(x) (ƒ  g)(x) two new positions. Write equations for the new graphs.
1 y
a. ƒxƒ ? Position (a)
x - 1
x - 1 x
b. ? x x + 1 y  x2
c. ? 2x ƒxƒ 3
d. 2x ? ƒxƒ

15. Evaluate each expression using the given table of values x

0
Position (b)

x -2 -1 0 1 2

ƒ(x) 1 0 -2 1 2
–5
g(x) 2 1 0 -1 0
23. Match the equations listed in parts (a)–(d) to the graphs in the ac-
companying figure.
a. ƒsgs - 1dd b. gsƒs0dd c. ƒsƒs -1dd a. y = sx - 1d2 - 4 b. y = sx - 2d2 + 2
2
d. gsgs2dd e. gsƒs -2dd f. ƒsgs1dd c. y = sx + 2d + 2 d. y = sx + 3d2 - 2

16. Evaluate each expression using the functions y

- x, -2 … x 6 0
ƒ(x) = 2 - x, g(x) = b Position 2 Position 1
x - 1, 0 … x … 2.

a. ƒsgs0dd b. gsƒs3dd c. gsgs -1dd

d. ƒsƒs2dd e. gsƒs0dd f. ƒsgs1>2dd 3
2
In Exercises 17 and 18, (a) write formulas for ƒ  g and g  ƒ and (–2, 2) (2, 2)
Position 3 1
find the (b) domain and (c) range of each. x
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1
17. ƒ(x) = 2x + 1, g (x) = x Position 4

18. ƒ(x) = x 2, g (x) = 1 - 2x (–3, –2)

x
19. Let ƒ(x) = . Find a function y = g(x) so that (1, –4)
x - 2
(ƒ  g)(x) = x.
24. The accompanying figure shows the graph of y = - x 2 shifted to
20. Let ƒ(x) = 2x 3 - 4. Find a function y = g(x) so that four new positions. Write an equation for each new graph.
(ƒ  g)(x) = x + 2. y
(1, 4)

Shifting Graphs (–2, 3)

21. The accompanying figure shows the graph of y = - x 2 shifted to (b) (a)
two new positions. Write equations for the new graphs.
(2, 0)
y x
(–4, –1)
x
–7 0 4

(c) (d)

Position (a) y  –x 2 Position (b)

 1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs 21

Exercises 25–34 tell how many units and in what directions the graphs 56. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function g(t) with
of the given equations are to be shifted. Give an equation for the domain [ - 4, 0] and range [ - 3, 0] . Find the domains and ranges
shifted graph. Then sketch the original and shifted graphs together, of the following functions, and sketch their graphs.
labeling each graph with its equation. y
25. x 2 + y 2 = 49 Down 3, left 2
t
26. x 2 + y 2 = 25 Up 3, left 4 –4 –2 0
27. y = x 3 Left 1, down 1
2>3
28. y = x Right 1, down 1 y  g(t)
–3
29. y = 2x Left 0.81
30. y = - 2x Right 3
a. g s - td b. - g std
31. y = 2x - 7 Up 7
c. g std + 3 d. 1 - g std
1
32. y = sx + 1d + 5 Down 5, right 1 e. g s - t + 2d f. g st - 2d
2
g. g s1 - td h. - g st - 4d
33. y = 1>x Up 1, right 1
34. y = 1>x 2
Left 2, down 1 Vertical and Horizontal Scaling
Exercises 57–66 tell by what factor and direction the graphs of the
Graph the functions in Exercises 35–54. given functions are to be stretched or compressed. Give an equation
for the stretched or compressed graph.
35. y = 2x + 4 36. y = 29 - x
57. y = x 2 - 1, stretched vertically by a factor of 3
37. y = ƒ x - 2 ƒ 38. y = ƒ 1 - x ƒ - 1
58. y = x 2 - 1, compressed horizontally by a factor of 2
39. y = 1 + 2x - 1 40. y = 1 - 2x
1
41. y = sx + 1d2>3 42. y = sx - 8d2>3 59. y = 1 + , compressed vertically by a factor of 2
x2
43. y = 1 - x 2>3 44. y + 4 = x 2>3 1
60. y = 1 + , stretched horizontally by a factor of 3
3
45. y = 2 x - 1 - 1 46. y = sx + 2d3>2 + 1 x2
61. y = 2x + 1, compressed horizontally by a factor of 4
1 1
47. y = 48. y = x - 2 62. y = 2x + 1, stretched vertically by a factor of 3
x - 2
2
63. y = 24 - x , stretched horizontally by a factor of 2
1 1
49. y = x + 2 50. y = 64. y = 24 - x 2, compressed vertically by a factor of 3
x + 2
65. y = 1 - x 3, compressed horizontally by a factor of 3
1 1
51. y = 52. y = - 1 66. y = 1 - x 3, stretched horizontally by a factor of 2
sx - 1d2 x2
1 1 Graphing
53. y = + 1 54. y =
x2 sx + 1d2 In Exercises 67–74, graph each function, not by plotting points, but by
55. The accompanying figure shows the graph of a function ƒ(x) with starting with the graph of one of the standard functions presented in
domain [0, 2] and range [0, 1]. Find the domains and ranges of the Figures 1.14–1.17 and applying an appropriate transformation.
following functions, and sketch their graphs. x
67. y = - 22x + 1 68. y = 1 -
A 2
y
69. y = sx - 1d3 + 2 70. y = s1 - xd3 + 2
1 2
71. y = - 1 72. y = + 1
2x x2
1 y  f (x)
3
73. y = - 2 x 74. y = s - 2xd2>3

75. Graph the function y = ƒ x 2 - 1 ƒ .

x
0 2 76. Graph the function y = 2ƒ x ƒ .

a. ƒsxd + 2 b. ƒsxd - 1 Ellipses

Exercises 77–82 give equations of ellipses. Put each equation in stan-
c. 2ƒ(x) d. - ƒsxd
dard form and sketch the ellipse.
e. ƒsx + 2d f. ƒsx - 1d 77. 9x 2 + 25y 2 = 225 78. 16x 2 + 7y 2 = 112
g. ƒs -xd h. - ƒsx + 1d + 1 79. 3x 2 + s y - 2d2 = 3 80. sx + 1d2 + 2y 2 = 4
28 Chapter 1: Functions

y To establish these inequalities, we picture u as a nonzero angle in standard position

(Figure 1.49). The circle in the figure is a unit circle, so ƒ u ƒ equals the length of the circular
P arc AP. The length of line segment AP is therefore less than ƒ u ƒ .
Triangle APQ is a right triangle with sides of length
1 
QP = ƒ sin u ƒ , AQ = 1 - cos u.
sin 


O Q
x From the Pythagorean theorem and the fact that AP 6 ƒ u ƒ , we get
A(1, 0)
cos  1 – cos  sin2 u + (1 - cos u) 2 = (AP) 2 … u2. (9)
The terms on the left-hand side of Equation (9) are both positive, so each is smaller than
their sum and hence is less than or equal to u2:
sin2 u … u2 and (1 - cos u) 2 … u2.
FIGURE 1.49 From the geometry
of this figure, drawn for By taking square roots, this is equivalent to saying that
u 7 0, we get the inequality ƒ sin u ƒ … ƒ u ƒ and ƒ 1 - cos u ƒ … ƒ u ƒ ,
sin2 u + (1 - cos u) 2 … u2.
so
- ƒ u ƒ … sin u … ƒ u ƒ and - ƒ u ƒ … 1 - cos u … ƒ u ƒ .
These inequalities will be useful in the next chapter.

Exercises 1.3
Radians and Degrees
1. On a circle of radius 10 m, how long is an arc that subtends a cen- U 3P>2 P>3 P>6 P>4 5P>6
tral angle of (a) 4p>5 radians? (b) 110°?
sin u
2. A central angle in a circle of radius 8 is subtended by an arc of cos u
length 10p . Find the angle’s radian and degree measures. tan u
3. You want to make an 80° angle by marking an arc on the perime- cot u
ter of a 12-in.-diameter disk and drawing lines from the ends of sec u
the arc to the disk’s center. To the nearest tenth of an inch, how csc u
long should the arc be?
4. If you roll a 1-m-diameter wheel forward 30 cm over level In Exercises 7–12, one of sin x, cos x, and tan x is given. Find the other
ground, through what angle will the wheel turn? Answer in radi- two if x lies in the specified interval.
ans (to the nearest tenth) and degrees (to the nearest degree).
3 p p
7. sin x = , x H c , pd 8. tan x = 2, x H c0, d
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions 5 2 2
5. Copy and complete the following table of function values. If the
1 p 5 p
function is undefined at a given angle, enter “UND.” Do not use a 9. cos x = , x H c- , 0d 10. cos x = - , x H c , pd
3 2 13 2
calculator or tables.
1 3p 1 3p
11. tan x = , x H cp, d 12. sin x = - , x H cp, d
2 2 2 2
U P 2P>3 0 P>2 3P>4

sin u Graphing Trigonometric Functions

cos u Graph the functions in Exercises 13–22. What is the period of each
tan u function?
cot u 13. sin 2x 14. sin ( x>2)
sec u
csc u px
15. cos px 16. cos
2
px
6. Copy and complete the following table of function values. If the 17. - sin 18. - cos 2px
3
function is undefined at a given angle, enter “UND.” Do not use a
p p
calculator or tables. 19. cos ax - b 20. sin ax + b
2 6
 1.3 Trigonometric Functions 29

p 2p Solving Trigonometric Equations

21. sin ax - b + 1 22. cos ax + b - 2
4 3 For Exercises 51–54, solve for the angle u, where 0 … u … 2p.
Graph the functions in Exercises 23–26 in the ts-plane (t-axis horizon- 3
51. sin2 u = 52. sin2 u = cos2 u
tal, s-axis vertical). What is the period of each function? What sym- 4
metries do the graphs have? 53. sin 2u - cos u = 0 54. cos 2u + cos u = 0
23. s = cot 2t 24. s = - tan pt
Theory and Examples
pt t 55. The tangent sum formula The standard formula for the tan-
25. s = sec a b 26. s = csc a b
2 2
gent of the sum of two angles is
T 27. a. Graph y = cos x and y = sec x together for - 3p>2 … x
… 3p>2 . Comment on the behavior of sec x in relation to the tan A + tan B
tansA + Bd = .
signs and values of cos x. 1 - tan A tan B
b. Graph y = sin x and y = csc x together for - p … x … 2p . Derive the formula.
Comment on the behavior of csc x in relation to the signs and
56. (Continuation of Exercise 55.) Derive a formula for tan sA - Bd .
values of sin x.
57. Apply the law of cosines to the triangle in the accompanying fig-
T 28. Graph y = tan x and y = cot x together for - 7 … x … 7 . Com-
ure to derive the formula for cos sA - Bd .
ment on the behavior of cot x in relation to the signs and values of
tan x. y
29. Graph y = sin x and y = : sin x ; together. What are the domain
and range of :sin x ; ? 1
30. Graph y = sin x and y = < sin x = together. What are the domain
and range of < sin x = ?
A
Using the Addition Formulas 1
B
Use the addition formulas to derive the identities in Exercises 31–36. x
0 1
p p
31. cos ax - b = sin x 32. cos ax + b = - sin x
2 2
p p
33. sin ax + b = cos x 34. sin ax - b = - cos x
2 2
35. cos sA - Bd = cos A cos B + sin A sin B (Exercise 57 provides a
different derivation.) 58. a. Apply the formula for cos sA - Bd to the identity sin u =
36. sin sA - Bd = sin A cos B - cos A sin B p
cos a - u b to obtain the addition formula for sin sA + Bd .
2
37. What happens if you take B = A in the trigonometric identity
cos sA - Bd = cos A cos B + sin A sin B ? Does the result agree b. Derive the formula for cos sA + Bd by substituting - B for B
with something you already know? in the formula for cos sA - Bd from Exercise 35.
38. What happens if you take B = 2p in the addition formulas? Do 59. A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle C = 60° . Find
the results agree with something you already know? the length of side c.
60. A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle C = 40° . Find
In Exercises 39–42, express the given quantity in terms of sin x and
the length of side c.
cos x.
61. The law of sines The law of sines says that if a, b, and c are the
39. cos sp + xd 40. sin s2p - xd
sides opposite the angles A, B, and C in a triangle, then
3p 3p
41. sin a - xb 42. cos a + xb sin A sin B sin C
2 2
a = b = c .
7p p p
43. Evaluate sin as sin a + b . Use the accompanying figures and the identity sin sp - ud =
12 4 3
sin u , if required, to derive the law.
11p p 2p
44. Evaluate cos as cos a + b.
12 4 3 A A
p 5p
45. Evaluate cos . 46. Evaluate sin .
12 12
c h b c h
b
Using the Half-Angle Formulas
Find the function values in Exercises 47–50. B C B C
p 5p a a
47. cos2 48. cos2
8 12
62. A triangle has sides a = 2 and b = 3 and angle C = 60° (as in
p 3p
49. sin2 50. sin2 Exercise 59). Find the sine of angle B using the law of sines.
12 8
 1.5 Exponential Functions 39

annual interest rate expressed as a decimal), and t is time in years. To predict the amount in
the account in 2004, after four years have elapsed, we take t = 4 and calculate
y(4) = 100e 0.055(4)
= 100e 0.22
= 124.61. Nearest cent using calculator

This compares with $123.88 in the account when the interest is compounded annually
from Example 1.

EXAMPLE 4 Laboratory experiments indicate that some atoms emit a part of their
mass as radiation, with the remainder of the atom re-forming to make an atom of some
new element. For example, radioactive carbon-14 decays into nitrogen; radium eventually
decays into lead. If y0 is the number of radioactive nuclei present at time zero, the number
still present at any later time t will be

y = y0 e -rt, r 7 0.
The number r is called the decay rate of the radioactive substance. (We will see how this
formula is obtained in Section 7.2.) For carbon-14, the decay rate has been determined ex-
perimentally to be about r = 1.2 * 10 -4 when t is measured in years. Predict the percent
of carbon-14 present after 866 years have elapsed.
Solution If we start with an amount y0 of carbon-14 nuclei, after 866 years we are left
with the amount
-4
y(866) = y0 e (-1.2 * 10 )(866)

L (0.901)y0. Calculator evaluation

That is, after 866 years, we are left with about 90% of the original amount of carbon-14, so
about 10% of the original nuclei have decayed. In Example 7 in the next section, you will
see how to find the number of years required for half of the radioactive nuclei present in a
sample to decay (called the half-life of the substance).

You may wonder why we use the family of functions y = e kx for different values of the con-
stant k instead of the general exponential functions y = a x. In the next section, we show
that the exponential function a x is equal to e kx for an appropriate value of k. So the formula
y = e kx covers the entire range of possibilities, and we will see that it is easier to use.

Exercises 1.5
Sketching Exponential Curves Applying the Laws of Exponents
In Exercises 1–6, sketch the given curves together in the appropriate Use the laws of exponents to simplify the expressions in Exercises
coordinate plane and label each curve with its equation. 11–20.
1. y = 2x, y = 4x, y = 3-x, y = (1>5) x 11. 162 # 16-1.75 12. 91>3 # 91>6
x x -x x
2. y = 3 , y = 8 , y = 2 , y = (1>4) 44.2 35>3
13. 14.
-t
3. y = 2 and y = - 2 t -t
4. y = 3 and y = - 3 t 43.7 32>3
4
5. y = e x and y = 1>e x 6. y = - e x and y = - e -x 15. A 251>8 B 16. A 1322 B 22>2
17. 223 # 723 # A 212 B 1>2
1>2
In each of Exercises 7–10, sketch the shifted exponential curves. 18. A 23 B
7. y = 2x - 1 and y = 2-x - 1 2
4
26 2
x -x 19. a b 20. a b
8. y = 3 + 2 and y = 3 + 2 22 3
9. y = 1 - e x and y = 1 - e -x
10. y = -1 - e x and y = - 1 - e -x
50 Chapter 1: Functions

Equation (5) holds for the other values of x in [-1, 1] as well, but we cannot conclude this
1 cos–1 x from the triangle in Figure 1.72. It is, however, a consequence of Equations (2) and (4)
x (Exercise 74).
sin–1x The arctangent, arccotangent, arcsecant, and arccosecant functions are defined in
Section 3.9. There we develop additional properties of the inverse trigonometric functions
in a calculus setting using the identities discussed here.
FIGURE 1.72 sin-1 x and cos-1 x are
complementary angles (so their sum is p>2).

Exercises 1.6
Identifying One-to-One Functions Graphically Graphing Inverse Functions
Which of the functions graphed in Exercises 1–6 are one-to-one, and Each of Exercises 11–16 shows the graph of a function y = ƒsxd .
which are not? Copy the graph and draw in the line y = x . Then use symmetry with
1. y 2. respect to the line y = x to add the graph of ƒ -1 to your sketch. (It is
y
not necessary to find a formula for ƒ -1 .) Identify the domain and
y  3x 3 range of ƒ -1 .
11. 12.
x x y y
0 –1 0 1 y  f (x)  1  1x , x  0
y  x4  x2 y  f (x)  2 1 , x  0 1
x 1
1 x
0 1
3. y 4. y

y  int x
x
0 1
y  2x
x 13. 14.
y y
x
y  f (x)  sin x, y  f (x)  tan x,
–x 1 –x
2 2 2 2
5. y 6. y x x
– 0  – 0 
2 2
y  1x 2 2
y  x1/3 –1
x
x
0 15. 16.
y y
x  1, 1  x  0
6 f (x) 
f (x) 5 6 2 2x, 2 x, 0  x  3
1 2 
0 x 3 3
In Exercises 7–10, determine from its graph if the function is x
one-to-one. –1 0 3
3 - x, x 6 0
7. ƒsxd = e x –2
3, x Ú 0 0 3
2x + 6, x … -3
8. ƒsxd = e
x + 4, x 7 -3 17. a. Graph the function ƒsxd = 21 - x 2, 0 … x … 1 . What
x symmetry does the graph have?
1 - , x … 0
2 b. Show that ƒ is its own inverse. (Remember that 2x 2 = x if
9. ƒsxd = d x Ú 0 .)
x
, x 7 0
x + 2 18. a. Graph the function ƒsxd = 1>x . What symmetry does the
2 graph have?
2 - x , x … 1
10. ƒsxd = e b. Show that ƒ is its own inverse.
x 2, x 7 1
 1.6 Inverse Functions and Logarithms 51

Formulas for Inverse Functions Inverses of Lines

Each of Exercises 19–24 gives a formula for a function y = ƒsxd 35. a. Find the inverse of the function ƒsxd = mx , where m is a con-
and shows the graphs of ƒ and ƒ -1 . Find a formula for ƒ -1 in each stant different from zero.
case. b. What can you conclude about the inverse of a function
19. ƒsxd = x 2 + 1, x Ú 0 20. ƒsxd = x 2, x … 0 y = ƒsxd whose graph is a line through the origin with a
nonzero slope m?
y y
36. Show that the graph of the inverse of ƒsxd = mx + b , where
y  f (x)
m and b are constants and m Z 0 , is a line with slope 1> m and
y-intercept - b>m .

y  f (x)
37. a. Find the inverse of ƒsxd = x + 1 . Graph ƒ and its inverse
1
together. Add the line y = x to your sketch, drawing it with
x dashes or dots for contrast.
1 y  f –1(x) 0 1
b. Find the inverse of ƒsxd = x + b (b constant). How is the
x graph of ƒ -1 related to the graph of ƒ?
0 1 y  f –1(x)
c. What can you conclude about the inverses of functions whose
graphs are lines parallel to the line y = x ?
21. ƒsxd = x 3 - 1 22. ƒsxd = x 2 - 2x + 1, x Ú 1
38. a. Find the inverse of ƒsxd = - x + 1 . Graph the line
y y y = - x + 1 together with the line y = x . At what angle do
y  f (x) the lines intersect?
b. Find the inverse of ƒsxd = - x + b (b constant). What angle
y  f –1(x) does the line y = - x + b make with the line y = x ?
y  f –1(x)
c. What can you conclude about the inverses of functions whose
1
graphs are lines perpendicular to the line y = x ?
x 1 y  f (x)
–1 1
x Logarithms and Exponentials
–1
0 1 39. Express the following logarithms in terms of ln 2 and ln 3.
a. ln 0.75 b. ln (4> 9)
3
c. ln (1> 2) d. ln 2 9
e. ln 3 22 f. ln 213.5
23. ƒsxd = sx + 1d2, x Ú - 1 24. ƒsxd = x 2>3, x Ú 0
40. Express the following logarithms in terms of ln 5 and ln 7.
y y a. ln (1> 125) b. ln 9.8
y  f (x) yf –1
(x) c. ln 7 27 d. ln 1225
e. ln 0.056 f. sln 35 + ln s1>7dd>sln 25d

Use the properties of logarithms to simplify the expressions in Exer-

y  f –1(x)
1 y  f (x) cises 41 and 42.
sin u 1
x 1 41. a. ln sin u - ln a b b. ln s3x 2 - 9xd + ln a b
–1 0 1 5 3x
–1 1
x c. ln s4t 4 d - ln 2
0 1 2
42. a. ln sec u + ln cos u b. ln s8x + 4d - 2 ln 2
3 2
c. 3 ln 2t - 1 - ln st + 1d
Each of Exercises 25–34 gives a formula for a function y = ƒsxd . In
each case, find ƒ -1sxd and identify the domain and range of ƒ -1 . As a Find simpler expressions for the quantities in Exercises 43–46.
43. a. e ln 7.2
2
check, show that ƒsƒ -1sxdd = ƒ -1sƒsxdd = x . b. e -ln x c. e ln x - ln y
2 2
ln sx + y d -ln 0.3
25. ƒsxd = x 5
26. ƒsxd = x , 4
x Ú 0 44. a. e b. e c. e ln px - ln 2
2
- y2
27. ƒsxd = x 3 + 1 28. ƒsxd = s1>2dx - 7>2 45. a. 2 ln 2e b. ln sln e d e
c. ln se -x d
x
sec u se d 2 ln x
29. ƒsxd = 1>x , 2
x 7 0 30. ƒsxd = 1>x , 3
x Z 0 46. a. ln se d b. ln se d c. ln se d
x + 3 2x In Exercises 47–52, solve for y in terms of t or x, as appropriate.
31. ƒsxd = 32. ƒsxd =
x - 2 2x - 3 47. ln y = 2t + 4 48. ln y = - t + 5
33. ƒsxd = x 2 - 2x, x … 1 49. ln s y - 40d = 5t 50. ln s1 - 2yd = t
(Hint: Complete the square.) 51. ln s y - 1d - ln 2 = x + ln x
34. ƒsxd = s2x 3 + 1d1>5 52. ln s y 2 - 1d - ln s y + 1d = ln ssin xd
52 Chapter 1: Functions

In Exercises 53 and 54, solve for k. 72. If a composite ƒ  g is one-to-one, must g be one-to-one? Give
53. a. e 2k = 4 b. 100e 10k = 200 c. e k>1000 = a reasons for your answer.
1 73. Find a formula for the inverse function ƒ -1 and verify that
5k
54. a. e = b. 80e k = 1 c. e sln 0.8dk = 0.8
4 (ƒ  ƒ -1)(x) = (ƒ -1  ƒ )(x) = x.
In Exercises 55–58, solve for t. 100 50
1 a. ƒ(x) = b. ƒ(x) =
55. a. e -0.3t = 27 b. e kt = c. e sln 0.2dt = 0.4 1 + 2-x 1 + 1.1-x
2
1 1 74. The identity sin-1 x + cos-1 x = P>2 Figure 1.72 establishes
56. a. e -0.01t = 1000 b. e kt = c. e sln 2dt = the identity for 0 6 x 6 1 . To establish it for the rest of [ - 1, 1] ,
10 2
2 verify by direct calculation that it holds for x = 1 , 0, and - 1 .
57. e 2t = x 2 58. e sx de s2x + 1d = e t Then, for values of x in s - 1, 0d , let x = - a, a 7 0 , and apply
Simplify the expressions in Exercises 59–62. Eqs. (3) and (5) to the sum sin-1s - ad + cos-1s - ad .
59. a. 5log5 7 b. 8log822 c. 1.3log1.3 75 75. Start with the graph of y = ln x. Find an equation of the graph
1 that results from
d. log4 16 e. log3 23 f. log4 a b
4 a. shifting down 3 units.
log2 3 log10 s1>2d logp 7
60. a. 2 b. 10 c. p b. shifting right 1 unit.
1 c. shifting left 1, up 3 units.
d. log11 121 e. log121 11 f. log3 a b
9
d. shifting down 4, right 2 units.
61. a. 2log4 x b. 9log3 x c. log2 se sln 2dssin xd d
e. reflecting about the y-axis.
log5 s3x 2d x x
sin x
62. a. 25 b. log e se d c. log4 s2e d
f. reflecting about the line y = x.
Express the ratios in Exercises 63 and 64 as ratios of natural loga- 76. Start with the graph of y = ln x. Find an equation of the graph
rithms and simplify. that results from
log 2 x log 2 x log x a a. vertical stretching by a factor of 2.
63. a. b. c.
log 3 x log 8 x log x2 a
b. horizontal stretching by a factor of 3.
log 9 x log210 x log a b
64. a. b. c. c. vertical compression by a factor of 4.
log 3 x log22 x log b a
d. horizontal compression by a factor of 2.
Arcsine and Arccosine T 77. The equation x 2 = 2x has three solutions: x = 2, x = 4, and one
In Exercises 65–68, find the exact value of each expression. other. Estimate the third solution as accurately as you can by
-1 1 - 23 graphing.
65. a. sin-1 a b b. sin-1 a b c. sin-1 a b
2 22 2
T 78. Could x ln 2 possibly be the same as 2ln x for x 7 0? Graph the two
1 -1 23 functions and explain what you see.
66. a. cos-1 a b b. cos-1 a b c. cos-1 a b
2 22 2 79. Radioactive decay The half-life of a certain radioactive sub-
67. a. arccos (-1) b. arccos (0) stance is 12 hours. There are 8 grams present initially.
1 a. Express the amount of substance remaining as a function of
68. a. arcsin (-1) b. arcsin a - b time t.
22
b. When will there be 1 gram remaining?
Theory and Examples
80. Doubling your money Determine how much time is required
69. If ƒ(x) is one-to-one, can anything be said about gsxd = - ƒsxd ?
for a $500 investment to double in value if interest is earned at the
Is it also one-to-one? Give reasons for your answer.
rate of 4.75% compounded annually.
70. If ƒ(x) is one-to-one and ƒ(x) is never zero, can anything be said
81. Population growth The population of Glenbrook is 375,000
about hsxd = 1>ƒsxd ? Is it also one-to-one? Give reasons for your
and is increasing at the rate of 2.25% per year. Predict when the
answer.
population will be 1 million.
71. Suppose that the range of g lies in the domain of ƒ so that the
82. Radon-222 The decay equation for radon-222 gas is known to
composite ƒ  g is defined. If ƒ and g are one-to-one, can any-
be y = y0 e -0.18t , with t in days. About how long will it take the
thing be said about ƒ  g ? Give reasons for your answer.
radon in a sealed sample of air to fall to 90% of its original value?

Chapter 1 Questions to Guide Your Review

1. What is a function? What is its domain? Its range? What is an ar- 3. What is a piecewise-defined function? Give examples.
row diagram for a function? Give examples. 4. What are the important types of functions frequently encountered
2. What is the graph of a real-valued function of a real variable? in calculus? Give an example of each type.
What is the vertical line test?