Class 12-

Subject – Physics
Chapter- Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and simple circuits

Before the discovery of transistor, devices such as vacuum diode

were used to control the flow of electrons in a circuit. But these devices were
bulky, consumed high power, operated at high voltages and had limited life
and low reliability. In the 1930’s it was realized that come solid state
semiconductors and their junction offered the possibility of controlling the flow
of charge carriers through them. This led to the development of the modern
solid-state semiconductors. They consume low power, are small in size,
operate at low voltages and have a long life and high reliability. In this
chapter, we study the following concepts:

• Basic concepts of semiconductor physics

• Semiconductor devices - junction diodes.
• Applications of semiconductors

What are Semiconductors?

• Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between

conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such
ceramics). Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium
arsenide or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon. Physics
explains the theories, properties and mathematical approach governing
semiconductors.

Examples of Semiconductors:
Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly
used semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and
gallium arsenide is used in solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

Holes and Electrons in Semiconductors

Holes and electrons are the types of charge carriers accountable for the flow
of current in semiconductors. Holes (valence electrons) are the positively
charged electric charge carrier whereas electrons are the negatively charged

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particles. Both electrons and holes are equal in magnitude but opposite in
polarity.

Mobility of Electrons and Holes

In a semiconductor, the mobility of electrons is higher than that of the
holes. It is mainly because of their different band structures and scattering
mechanisms.
Electrons travel in the conduction band whereas holes travel in the valence
band. When an electric field is applied, holes cannot move as freely as
electrons due to their restricted movement. The elevation of electrons from
their inner shells to higher shells results in the creation of holes in
semiconductors. Since the holes experience stronger atomic force by the
nucleus than electrons, holes have lower mobility.
The mobility of a particle in a semiconductor is more if;

• Effective mass of particles is lesser

• Time between scattering events is more
For intrinsic silicon at 300 K, the mobility of electrons is 1500 cm2 (V·s)-1 and
the mobility of holes is 475 cm2 (V·s)-1.
The bond model of electrons in silicon of valency 4 is shown below. Here,
when one of the free electrons (blue dots) leaves the lattice position, it
creates a hole (grey dots). This hole thus created takes the opposite charge
of the electron and can be imagined as positive charge carriers moving in the
lattice.

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 Concept of Electrons and Holes in Semiconductors

Band Theory of Semiconductors

We know that the electrons in an atom are
present in different energy level. When we try to assemble a lattice of a solid
with N atoms, then each level of an atom must split up into N levels in the
solid. This splitting up of sharp and tightly packed energy levels
forms Energy Bands. The gap between adjacent bands representing a range
of energies that possess no electron is called a Band Gap.

Energy Band Diagram for Semiconductors, Conductors, and Insulators

Conduction Band and Valence Band in Semiconductors

Valence Band:
The energy band involving the energy levels of valence electrons is known as
the valence band. It is the highest occupied energy band. When compared
with insulators, the bandgap in semiconductors is smaller. It allows the
electrons in the valence band to jump into the conduction band on receiving
any external energy.

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Conduction Band:
It is the lowest unoccupied band that includes the energy levels of positive
(holes) or negative (free electrons) charge carriers. It has conducting
electrons resulting in the flow of current. The conduction band possess high
energy level and are generally empty. The conduction band in
semiconductors accepts the electrons from the valence band.

What is Fermi Level in Semiconductors?

Fermi level (denoted by EF) is present between the valence and conduction
bands. It is the highest occupied molecular orbital at absolute zero. The
charge carriers in this state have their own quantum states and generally do
not interact with each other. When the temperature rises above absolute
zero, these charge carriers will begin to occupy states above Fermi level.
In a p-type semiconductor, there is an increase in the density of unfilled
states. Thus, accommodating more electrons at the lower energy levels.
However, in an n-type semiconductor, the density of states increases,
therefore, accommodating more electrons at higher energy levels.

Properties of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can conduct electricity under preferable conditions or
circumstances. This unique property makes it an excellent material to
conduct electricity in a controlled manner as required.
Unlike conductors, the charge carriers in semiconductors arise only because
of external energy (thermal agitation). It causes a certain number of valence
electrons to cross the energy gap and jump into the conduction band, leaving
an equal amount of unoccupied energy states, i.e. holes. Conduction due to
electrons and holes are equally important.

• Resistivity: 10-5 to 106 Ωm

• Conductivity: 105 to 10-6 mho/m
• Temperature coefficient of resistance: Negative
• Current Flow: Due to electrons and holes

Why does the Resistivity of Semiconductors go down with Temperature?

The difference in resistivity between conductors and semiconductors is due to
their difference in charge carrier density.

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The resistivity of semiconductors decreases with temperature because the
number of charge carriers increases rapidly with increase in temperature
making the fractional change i.e. the temperature coefficient negative.

Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the

temperature, it works as a conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be
modified by doping to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy
conversion, switches, and amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase
in temperature and vice-versa.

Types of Semiconductors
Semiconductors can be classified as:

• Intrinsic Semiconductor
• Extrinsic Semiconductor

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 Classification of Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor
An intrinsic type of semiconductor material is made to be very pure
chemically. It is made up of only a single type of element.

Conduction Mechanism in Case of Intrinsic Semiconductors (a) In

absence of electric field (b) In presence of electric Field
Germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si) are the most common type of intrinsic
semiconductor elements. They have four valence electrons (tetravalent).
They are bound to the atom by covalent bond at absolute zero temperature.
When the temperature rises, due to collisions, few electrons are unbounded
and become free to move through the lattice, thus creating an absence in its
original position (hole). These free electrons and holes contribute to the
conduction of electricity in the semiconductor. The negative and positive
charge carriers are equal in number.
The thermal energy is capable of ionizing a few atoms in the lattice, and
hence their conductivity is less.

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Lattice of Pure Silicon Semiconductor at Different Temperatures

• At absolute zero kelvin temperature: At this temperature,

the covalent bonds are very strong and there are no free electrons and
the semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator.
• Above absolute temperature: With the increase in temperature few
valence electrons jump into the conduction band and hence it behaves
like a poor conductor.

Energy Band Diagram of Intrinsic Semiconductor

The energy band diagram of an intrinsic semiconductor is shown below:

(a) Intrinsic Semiconductor at T = 0 Kelvin, behaves like an insulator (b)

At t>0, four thermally generated electron pairs
In intrinsic semiconductors, current flows due to the motion of free electrons
as well as holes. The total current is the sum of the electron current Ie due to
thermally generated electrons and the hole current Ih
Total Current (I) = Ie + Ih
For an intrinsic semiconductor, at finite temperature, the probability of
electrons to exist in conduction band decreases exponentially with increasing
bandgap (Eg)
n = n0e-Eg/2.Kb.T
Where,

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 • Eg = Energy bandgap
• Kb = Boltzmann’s constants

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly improved by introducing a
small number of suitable replacement atoms called IMPURITIES. The
process of adding impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor is called
DOPING. Usually, only 1 atom in 107 is replaced by a dopant atom in the
doped semiconductor. An extrinsic semiconductor can be further classified
into:

• N-type Semiconductor
• P-type Semiconductor

Classification of Extrinsic Semiconductor

N-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to electrons

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 • Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Electrons and Minority – Holes
When a pure semiconductor (Silicon or Germanium) is doped by pentavalent
impurity (P, As, Sb, Bi) then, four electrons out of five valence electrons
bonds with the four electrons of Ge or Si.
The fifth electron of the dopant is set free. Thus the impurity atom donates a
free electron for conduction in the lattice and is called “Donor“.
Since the number of free electron increases by the addition of an impurity, the
negative charge carriers increase. Hence it is called n-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the donor atom becomes an immobile
positive ion. As conduction is due to a large number of free electrons, the
electrons in the n-type semiconductor are the MAJORITY CARRIERS and
holes are the MINORITY CARRIERS.

P-Type Semiconductor

• Mainly due to holes

• Entirely neutral
• I = Ih and nh >> ne
• Majority – Holes and Minority – Electrons
When a pure semiconductor is doped with a trivalent impurity (B, Al, In, Ga )
then, the three valence electrons of the impurity bonds with three of the four
valence electrons of the semiconductor.
This leaves an absence of electron (hole) in the impurity. These impurity
atoms which are ready to accept bonded electrons are called “Acceptors“.
With the increase in the number of impurities, holes (the positive charge
carriers) are increased. Hence, it is called p-type semiconductor.
Crystal as a whole is neutral, but the acceptors become an immobile negative
ion. As conduction is due to a large number of holes, the holes in the p-type
semiconductor are MAJORITY CARRIERS and electrons are MINORITY
CARRIERS.

Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors

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Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

Pure semiconductor Impure semiconductor

Density of electrons is equal to Density of electrons is not equal to the

the density of holes density of holes

Electrical conductivity is low Electrical conductivity is high

Dependence on temperature Dependence on temperature as well

only as on the amount of impurity

No impurities Trivalent impurity, pentavalent impurity

What is P-N Junction?

Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two
semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the n-type, inside a
semiconductor.
The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes
and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of electrons. In a
semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping. The
process of doping is explained in further details in the next section.

Formation of P-N Junction

As we know, if we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n
junction, there will be a grain boundary that would inhibit the movement of
electrons from one side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and
thus we use the process of doping. We will understand the process of doping
with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon
semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to

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this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-type silicon. This sheet will
now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction between
these two regions. The processes that follow after the formation of a p-n
junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a
difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a
junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-side and the electrons from
the n-side diffuse to the p-side. This gives rise to a diffusion current across
the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized
donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As the process goes on,
a layer of positive charge is developed on the n-side of the junction. Similarly,
when a hole goes from the p-side to the n-side, an ionized acceptor is left
behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges
in the p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative
charge on either side of the junction is termed as the depletion region. Due to
this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric
field direction from positive charge towards the negative charge is developed.
Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed as the drift. Here, we see that
the direction of drift current is opposite to that of the diffusion current.

Biasing conditions for the p-n Junction Diode

There are two operating regions in p-n junction diode:

• P-type
• N-type
There are three biasing conditions for p-n junction diode and this is based on
the voltage applied:

• Zero bias: There is no external voltage applied to the p-n junction diode.

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 • Forward bias: The positive terminal of the voltage potential is connected
to the p-type while the negative terminal is connected to the n-type.
• Reverse bias: The negative terminal of the voltage potential is
connected to the p-type and the positive is connected to the n-type.

Forward Bias

When the p-type is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
n-type to the negative terminal then the p-n junction is said to be forward
biased. When the p-n junction is forward biased, the built-in electric field at
the p-n junction and the applied electric field are in opposite directions. When
both the electric fields add up the resultant electric field has a magnitude
lesser than the built-in electric field. This results in a less resistive and thinner
depletion region. The depletion region’s resistance becomes negligible when
the applied voltage is large. In silicon, at the voltage of 0.6 V, the resistance
of the depletion region becomes completely negligible and the current flows
across it unimpeded.

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Forward characteristics of pn junction diode.

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Reverse Bias

When the p-type is connected to the negative terminal of the battery and the
n-type is connected to the positive side then the p-n junction is said to be
reverse biased. In this case, the built-in electric field and the applied electric
field are in the same direction. When the two fields are added, the resultant
electric field is in the same direction as the built-in electric field creating a
more resistive, thicker depletion region. The depletion region becomes more
resistive and thicker if the applied voltage becomes larger.

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Reverse characteristics of pn junction diode

The flow of electrons from n-side towards p-side of the junction takes place
when there is increase in the voltage. Similarly, flow of holes from p-side
towards n-side of the junction takes place along with the increase in the
voltage. This results in the concentration gradient between on both the sides
of the terminals. Because of formation of concentration gradient, there will be
flow of charge carriers from higher concentration region to lower
concentration region. The movement of charge carriers inside the pn junction
is the reason behind current flow in the circuit.

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

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Applications of PN Junction Diode

• p-n junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is

sensitive to the light when the configuration of the diode is reverse-
biased.
• It can be used as a solar cell.
• When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting
applications.
• It is used as rectifiers in many electric circuits and as voltage-controlled
oscillator .
The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits. These
circuits are used to describe the conversion of a.c signals to d.c in power
supplies. Diode rectifier gives an alternating voltage which pulsates in
accordance with time. The filter smoothes the pulsation in the voltage and to
produce d.c voltage, a regulator is used which removes the ripples.
There are two primary methods of diode rectification:

• Half Wave Rectifier

• Full Wave Rectifier

What is Half Wave Rectifier?

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 • In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified.
When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance
and when it is reversing biased it provides high resistance. During one-
half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is
applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased. During
alternate half cycles, the optimum result can be obtained.

Working of Half Wave Rectifier

• The half wave rectifier has both positive and negative cycles. During the
positive half of the input, the current will flow from positive to negative
which will generate only positive half cycle of the a.c supply. When a.c
supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be decreasing at
the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the a.c supply
will reduce and we will get the pulsating d.c voltage to the load resistor.

In the second half cycle, current will flow from negative to positive and
the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no
current generated and we cannot get power at the load resistance. A small
amount of reverse current will flow during reverse bias due to minority
carriers.

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Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is the ratio of output DC power to the input AC power. For
a half wave rectifier, rectifier efficiency is 40.6%.

Advantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Affordable
• Simple connections
• Easy to use as the connections are simple
• Number of components used are less

Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier

• Ripple production is more

• Harmonics are generated
• Utilization of transformer is very low
• Efficiency of rectification is low

Applications of Half Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of half wave rectification:

• Power rectification: Half wave rectifier is used along with transformer

for power rectification as a powering equipment.
• Signal demodulation: Half wave rectifiers are used for demodulating
the AM signals.

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 • Signal peak detector: Half wave rectifier is used for detecting the peak
of the incoming waveform.

What is Full Wave Rectifier?

Full wave rectifier circuits are used for producing an output voltage or output
current which is purely DC. The main advantage of full wave rectifier over half
wave rectifier is that such as the average output voltage is higher in full wave
rectifier, there is less ripple produced in full wave rectifier when compared to
half wave rectifier.

Working of Full Wave Rectifier

Full wave rectifier utilizes both halves of each a.c input. When the p-n
junction is forward biased, the diode offers low resistance and when it is
reversing biased it gives high resistance. The circuit is designed in such a
manner that in the first half cycle if the diode is forward biased then in the
second half cycle it is reverse biased and so on.

INPUT OUTPUT WAVEFORMS FOR FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

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Rectifier Efficiency
Rectifier efficiency is used as a parameter to determine the efficiency of the
rectifier to convert AC into DC. It is ratio of DC output power to the AC input
power. Rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is 81.2%.

Types of Full Wave Rectifier

There are two main types of full wave rectifiers and they are:

• Two diode full wave rectifier circuit (requires center-tapped

transformer and is used in vacuum tubes)
• Bridge rectifier circuit (doesn’t require centre-tapped transformer and
is used along with transformers for efficient usage)

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• The rectifier efficiency of a full wave rectifier is high

• The power loss is very low
• Number of ripples generated are less

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

• Very expensive

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

Following are the uses of full wave rectifier:

• Full wave rectifiers are used for supplying polarized voltage in welding
and for this bridge rectifiers are used.

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 • Full wave rectifiers are used for detecting amplitude of modulated radio
signals.

Half Wave and Full Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter

The filter is one type of electronic device mainly used to perform signal
processing. The main function of this filter is to allow the ac components and
blocks the dc components of the load. The filter circuit output will be a stable
dc voltage. The construction of a filter circuit can be done with the basic
electronic components like resistors, inductors, and capacitors. There are
different types of filters available namely LPF (low pass filter), BPF
(bandpass filter), HPF (high pass filter), capacitor filter, etc. The main
function of the capacitor, as well as an inductor in this circuit, is, a capacitor
allows the ac and blocks the dc, whereas an inductor permits only DC
components to supply and blocks ac.
What is a Capacitor Filter?
A typical capacitor filter circuit diagram is shown below. The designing of
this circuit can be done with a capacitor (C) as well as load resistor (RL). The
rectifier’s exciting voltage is given across the terminals of a capacitor.
Whenever the voltage of the rectifier enhances then the capacitor will be
charged as well as supplies the current to the load.

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At the last part of the quarter phase, the capacitor will be charged to the
highest rectifier voltage value that is denoted with Vm, and then the voltage of
the rectifier starts to reduce. As this happens, the capacitor starts discharging
through the voltage across it and load. The voltage across the load will
reduce little only because the next peak voltage occurs instantaneously to
charge the capacitor. This procedure will repeat many times and the output
waveform will be seen that very slight ripple is missing in the output.
Furthermore, the output voltage is superior because it remains significantly
close to the highest value of the output voltage of the rectifier.

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Zener Diode
Definition: A heavily doped semiconductor diode which is designed to
operate in reverse direction is known as the Zener diode. In other words, the
diode which is specially designed for optimising the breakdown region is
known as the Zener diode.

The symbolic representation of Zener diode is shown in the figure below.

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Zener Diode Circuit Diagram
The circuit diagram of the Zener diode is shown in the figure below. The
Zener diode is employed in reverse biasing. The reverse biasing means the
n-type material of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the supply
and the P-type material is connected to the negative terminal of the supply.
The depletion region of the diode is very thin because it is made of the
heavily doped semiconductor material.

Working Principle of Zener Diode

When a PN junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity
atoms will be high in the crystal. This higher concentration of impurity atoms
causes the higher concentration of ions in the depletion layer hence for same
applied reverse biased voltage, the width of the depletion layer becomes
thinner than that in a normally doped diode.

Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field strength
across the depletion layer is quite high. If the reverse voltage is continued to
increase, after a certain applied voltage, the electrons from the covalent

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bonds within the depletion region come out and make the depletion region
conductive. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. The voltage at which
this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage. If the applied reverse voltage
across the diode is more than Zener voltage, the diode provides a conductive
path to the current through it .The Zener voltage of the diode gets adjusted
during manufacturing with the help of required and proper doping.
When a zener diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source
voltage is more than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remain
fixed irrespective of the source voltage. Although at that condition current
through the diode can be of any value depending on the load connected with
the diode. That is why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling voltage in
different circuits.

When the reverse bias applies across the diode and the supply voltage is
equal to the Zener voltage then it starts conducting in the reverse bias
direction.

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Characteristics of a Zener Diode
Now, discussing about the diode circuits we should look through the graphical
representation of the operation of the zener diode. Normally, it is called the
V-I characteristics of a Zener diode.
When forward biased, it behaves like a normal signal diode, but when the
reverse voltage is applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide range
of currents. Due to this feature, it is used as a voltage regulator in d.c. circuit.
The primary objective of the Zener diode as a voltage regulator is to maintain
a constant voltage. Let us say if Zener voltage of 5 V is used then, the
voltage becomes constant at 5 V, and it does not change.

What is a Voltage Regulator?

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A voltage regulator is a device that regulates the voltage level. It essentially
steps down the input voltage to the desired level and keeps it in that same
level during the supply. This ensures that even when a load is applied the
voltage doesn’t drop. The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons and
they are:

• To vary or regulate the output voltage

• To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of
variations in the supply voltage.
Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to
control the output of the plant.

Zener Diode as a Voltage Regulator

There is a series resistor connected to the circuit in order to limit the current
into the diode. It is connected to the positive terminal of the d.c. It works in
such a way the reverse-biased can also work in breakdown condition. We do
not use ordinary junction diode because the low power rating diode can get
damaged when we apply reverse bias above its breakdown voltage. When
the minimum input voltage and the maximum load current is applied, the
Zener diode current should always be minimum.
Since the input voltage and the required output voltage is known, it is easier
to choose a Zener diode with a voltage approximately equal to the load
voltage, i.e. VZ = VL.

Here the Zener diode is connected across the load RL. We want the voltage
across the load to be regulated and not cross the value of Vz. Zener diode
provides a path for the current to flow and hence the load gets protected from
excessive currents. Thus the Zener diode serves Depending on our
requirement, we choose the suitable Zener diode with a Zener breakdown

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voltage near to the voltage we require across the load. We connect the Zener
diode in reverse bias condition. When the voltage across the diode exceeds
the Zener breakdown voltage, a significant amount of current starts flowing
through the diode. As the load is in parallel to the diode, the voltage drop
across the load is also equal to the Zener breakdown voltage. The two
purposes here: Zener diode as a voltage regulator as well as it protects the
load from excessive current.

Keeping the zener diode in parallel with a variable load resistance RL,
ensures a constant output voltage even though the load current and the
supply voltage varies. In practical circuits the simplest form of current source
is a resistor. The key in using the zener diode as voltage regulator is that as
long as the zener diode is reverse biased, the flow of current greater than a
few micro amperes must be accompanied by a voltage greater than the
Zener voltage.
Selecting the appropriate values of series resistance Rs is also important
because it also causes greater diode current, so that maximum power
dissipation of the diode should not be exceeded under no load or at high
impedance condition.

Whenever a load is connected in parallel with zener diode, voltage across the
load is same as the zener diode voltage. However the source voltage must
be greater than the zener voltage and the upper limit of zener current
depends on the power rating of the zener diode; otherwise the zener voltage
will simply follow the applied input voltage.

Optoelectronic junction devices

Optoelectronic junction devices are p-n junction devices in which, carriers are
generated by photons. Photodiodes, light emitting diodes (LEDs) and solar
cells are examples of optoelectronic devices.
A photodiode is a device that is used to detect optical signals. It is a
specially fabricated p-n junction diode, with a transparent window that allows
light to be incident on the diode. The magnitude of the photocurrent is too
small compared to the large current that flows through the diode under
forward bias. Thus, a photodiode is always operated under reverse bias.
A light emitting diode or an LED is a device that produces photons of
different frequencies of light. An LED is operated under forward bias. The
energy of the emitted photons, and the colour of the light produced, depends
on the nature and the band-gap of the semiconductor material used in the

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LED. LEDs offer several advantages over conventional electrical light
sources:
· Low operational voltage and power consumption
· Instant on-off switching without any warm-up time
· Source of near monochromatic light
· Long life and negligible wear and tear

A solar cell is a device that converts light energy into electrical energy. A
solar cell works on the same principle as that of a photodiode, where incident
light generates electron-hole pairs in the depletion region of the p-n junction.
Unlike a photodiode, a solar cell works without any external bias. The large
surface area of the p-n junction in a solar cell generates measurable
photocurrent making it a source of electricity. The photocurrent produced by a
solar cell depends on the intensity of the incident light.

What is a Photodiode?

It is a form of light-weight sensor that converts light energy into electrical

voltage or current. Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device with PN
junction. Between the p (positive) and n (negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is
present. The photo diode accepts light energy as input to generate electric
current.

It is also called as Photodetector, photo sensor or light detector. Photo diode

operates in reverse bias condition i.e. the p – side of the photodiode is
connected with negative terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n –
side to the positive terminal of battery.

Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium

Arsenide Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide.

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Working of Photodiode
In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device that
is termed as dark current. It is called so because this current is totally the
result of the flow of minority carriers and is thus flows when the device is not
exposed to radiation.

The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the
minority carriers. When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then
minority carrier, holes from n-side experiences repulsive force from the
positive potential of the battery.

Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the
negative potential of the battery. Due to this movement electron and hole
recombine at the junction resultantly generating depletion region at the
junction.

Due to this movement, a very small reverse current flows through the device
known as dark current.

The combination of electron and hole at the junction generates neutral atom
at the depletion. Due to which any further flow of current is restricted.

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Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light. As the light falls on
the surface of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets
increased. This causes the electron and hole to get separated from each
other.

At the two gets separated then electrons from n side gets attracted towards
the positive potential of the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get
attracted to the negative potential of the battery.

This movement then generates high reverse current through the device.

With the rise in the light intensity, more charge carriers are generated and
flow through the device. Thereby, producing a large electric current through
the device.

This current is then used to drive other circuits of the system.

So, we can say the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the
current through the device.

Only positive biased potential can put the device in no current condition in
case of the photodiode.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PHOTODIODE
The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a photodiode:

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Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the
device and the horizontal line represents the reverse-biased potential.

The change in reverse current with change in light intensity is shown above.
The photocurrent is proportional to the incident light intensity.

Light emitting diode LED

Application – They convert electrical energy into light

o It is a heavily doped p-n junction which under forward bias emits

spontaneous radiation
o The diode is encapsulated with a transparent cover so that the emitted
light can come out
o When the diode is forward biased, the electrons are sent from n layer to p
layer and the holes are sent from p to n
o Thus, at the boundary due to forward bias, the concentration of the
minority carriers increases
o The excess minority carriers recombine with the majority carriers, near the
junction
o On recombination, energy is released in the form of photons
o Photons with energy equal to or slightly less than the band gap is emitted
o When the forward current of the diode is small, the intensity of the light
emitted is small
o As the forward current increases, the intensity of light increases and
reaches maximum.
o Further increase in forward current, results in the decrease of light intensity
o LEDs are thus biased in such a way such that the efficiency is maximum
o The reverse breakdown voltage of LED is very small (say) 5V. Proper
precaution should be taken such that high reverse voltage do not appear
across them
o LEDs have the following advantages over the conventional lamps:
o Low operational voltage and less power

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 o Fast action and no warm-up time required
o Long life
o Fast on-off switching capacity
o LEDs are current dependent devices with its forward voltage drop (VF)
depending on the forward biased LED current. Light emitting diode I-V
characteristics as given below:

Solar cell

Principle–These photo voltaic devices convert the optical radiation into

electricity

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Circuit

o When solar light falls on a p-n junction, it generates emf

o As the solar radiation is incident at the junction, the junction area is kept
much larger for more power generation
Working

o The generation of emf by the solar cell, when light falls on, is due to the
following three basic processes – (a) generation (b) separation and (c)
collection
o Generation
o The generation of electron-hole paid due to light with energy h‫>ט‬
Eg close to the junction
o Separation
o The separation of electrons and holes due to the electric field of the
depletion region
o The electrons are swept to the n-side and the holes to the p-side
o Collection

o The electrons reaching the n-side are collected by the front contact and
holes reaching the p-side are collected by the back contact
o Thus, the p-side becomes positive and the n-side becomes negative giving
rise to photo voltage
o When external load is connected, a photo current IL flows through the load
Graph

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o The graph showing the VI characteristics, with V along the X-axis and I
along the Y-axis is as given above
o The graph is indicated in the fourth quadrant as solar cell does not draw
current but supplies the same to the load
Application
o Solar cells are used in power electronic devices in satellites and space
vehicles
o They are also used as power supply in calculators

Criteria for material selection of material for solar cell

o Band gap between 1.0 and 1.8 eV

o High optical absorption
o Electrical conductivity
o Availability of raw material
o Cost effective

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