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Contents

Contents .........................................................................................................................................................................................3
Basic of Photogrammetry ..........................................................................................................................................................7
History of Photogrammetry .......................................................................................................................................................8
CLASSIFICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS..............................................................................................................................9
1.3 GEOMETRY OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS .........................................................................................................................9
13. A MISSION PLANNING ..........................................................................................................................................................9
2. AERIAL CAMERAS .............................................................................................................................................................11
Aerials photographs .................................................................................................................................................................11
These points are important because certain types of displacement and distortion radiate from them. It is the Isocenter of
the aerial photo from which tilt displacement radiates. It is Nadir from which topographic displacement radiates. ...........14
2.1 CAMERA ORIENTATION................................................................................................................................................15
Vertical Low oblique ..........................................................................................................................................................16
Vertical Low oblique High oblique Fig. Grid pattern on different aerial photographs ......................................................16
α = 2 tan -¹(d/2F) ......................................................................................................................................................................17
O ...............................................................................................................................................................................................17
2.2 FILM FORMAT AND ANNOTATION ...............................................................................................................................17
Example and contents of an Aerial Photograph ......................................................................................................................19
So ground coverage and resolution and scale are all determined by: ....................................................................................20
What is meant by resolution? ..................................................................................................................................................20
What is meant by flight line? ...................................................................................................................................................20
What is meant by focal length? ...............................................................................................................................................20
2.4 ORIENTATION ...............................................................................................................................................................20
A. INTERIOR ORIENTATION: .................................................................................................................................................20
A 1. RELATIVE ORIENTATION:...................................................................................................................................................22
A.2. ABSOLUTE ORIENTATION: ................................................................................................................................................22
B. EXTERIOR ORIENTATION ..................................................................................................................................................22
2.5 Aerial Triangulation ......................................................................................................................................................22
The following essential inputs are required for AT..................................................................................................................23
2.5 Photogrammetric Work flow .......................................................................................................................................23

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2.5. 1 Step by step delays. If any of this input is not available or available in distorted form. ..........................................28
During the setup of a block: .....................................................................................................................................................28
During the Tie measurement: ..................................................................................................................................................28
During GCP measurement: ......................................................................................................................................................28
➢ Able to locate the GCP Panel but don’t know which Panel is for which GCP id: .............................................................28
During Final bundle block adjustment: ....................................................................................................................................30
2.5.2 Possible errors \QC that can happen in AT INPUT Related ......................................................................................30
During Data preparation and setup .........................................................................................................................................30
Measurement...........................................................................................................................................................................30
Calculation ...............................................................................................................................................................................30
QC after final adjustment,........................................................................................................................................................32
2.6 APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY ......................................................................................................................32
3. STEREOSCOPY ..................................................................................................................................................................34
PARALLAX .................................................................................................................................................................................34
PARALLACTIC ANGLE: ...............................................................................................................................................................34
3.2 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS (DEM) ...........................................................................................................................36
APPLICATIONS OF DEM ............................................................................................................................................................36
TRIANGULATED IRREGULAR NETWORKS (TIN) ........................................................................................................................36
DATA COLLECTION ...................................................................................................................................................................36
ACCURACY OF DEM ..................................................................................................................................................................36
3.3 ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHS.................................................................................................................................................38
ORTHOPHOTO GENERATION DATA FLOW ...............................................................................................................................38
3.3 USES OF ORTHOPHOTOS ....................................................................................................................................................38
4. Accuracy ...........................................................................................................................................................................40
Accuracy of the aero triangulation (AT): ..................................................................................................................................40
Plane Accuracy of map database: ............................................................................................................................................40
4.1 The Importance of Error, Accuracy, and Precision ......................................................................................................40
Some Basic Definitions .............................................................................................................................................................42
.4.2 Types of Error ....................................................................................................................................................................43
. Positional accuracy and precision. .........................................................................................................................................43
Attribute accuracy and precision .............................................................................................................................................43
Conceptual accuracy and precision .........................................................................................................................................45
Logical accuracy and precision .................................................................................................................................................45
5. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY ........................................................................................................45

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 Tilt: ...........................................................................................................................................................................................45
Crab and Drift: ..........................................................................................................................................................................47
Flying Height: ...........................................................................................................................................................................47
Focal Length: ............................................................................................................................................................................47
Calibrated focal Length: ...........................................................................................................................................................47
Optical axis: ..............................................................................................................................................................................47
Perspective centre: ..................................................................................................................................................................47
Principal distance: ....................................................................................................................................................................47
Camera axis: .............................................................................................................................................................................47
Fiducial Marks: .........................................................................................................................................................................48
Floating marks: .........................................................................................................................................................................49
Principal Plane:.........................................................................................................................................................................49
Plate or Photograph perpendicular: ........................................................................................................................................49
Plate parallel: ...........................................................................................................................................................................49
Isometric parallel: ....................................................................................................................................................................49
Principal Line: ...........................................................................................................................................................................49
Vanishing Point: .......................................................................................................................................................................49
Vanishing Line: .........................................................................................................................................................................49
Principal Point: .........................................................................................................................................................................49
Air Base: ...................................................................................................................................................................................49
Plumb Point: .............................................................................................................................................................................49
Isocentre: .................................................................................................................................................................................49
Parallax, Absolute Stereoscopic: ..............................................................................................................................................33
Parallax difference: ..................................................................................................................................................................33
Stereoscopic Fusion: ................................................................................................................................................................33
Tilt: ...........................................................................................................................................................................................33
Fig. Geometry of tilted photograph .........................................................................................................................................34
Psuedoscopy: ...........................................................................................................................................................................36
Crab: .........................................................................................................................................................................................36
Side wind ..................................................................................................................................................................................36
Attributes .................................................................................................................................................................................36
Base Map..................................................................................................................................................................................36
Cartesian coordinate ................................................................................................................................................................37
6. Some Short effective information........................................................................................................................................37

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 6.1 REMOTE SENSING: .......................................................................................................................................................37
6.2 PHOTOS, MAPS, AND GIS .............................................................................................................................................37
6.3 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS .......................................................................................................................39
6.4 Map: .............................................................................................................................................................................39
7. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR COORDINATE SYSTEM .........................................................................................41
8. MAPS AND MAP SCALE ....................................................................................................................................................43
8.1 SCALE EFFECTS ...................................................................................................................................................................43
Question Answer......................................................................................................................................................................43
Camera Components ...............................................................................................................................................................44
Unit 2
Aerial camera
2.1 Camera Orientation
2.2. Film format and annotation
2.3. photo scale
2.4. Orientation
2.5. Aerial Triangulation
2.5 Photogrammetric Work flow
2.5.1 Possible errors \QC that can happen in AT
2.6 Application of Photogrammetry
Unit 3
3.1 Stereoscopy
3.2 DEM, DSM and TIN
3.3 Orthophotographs
3.4 Use of Orthophoto
Unit 4
4. Accuracy
4.1 Importance of accuracy error and precision
4.2 Types of Error
5. Important definitions
6. Short effective information’s
6.1 Remote sensing and Photogrammetry
6.2 Mapping Photographic scale
Unit 5
6.3 GIS
7. UTM coordinate System
8. Map and map scale
8.1 Scale effects
9. Question answer
8.1 The Importance of Error, Accuracy, and Precision
8.2 Types of Error
8.3 Important Terminology in Photogrammetry
8.4 Question Answer

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 Basic of Photogrammetry

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 1.1 Introduction of Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry can be understand as the surveying technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects
and the environment through processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of
recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena.

The word Photogrammetry has been originated from the GREEK words: photo-meaning light, gramma-from graphy means
writing and Matron- means measure. Basically Photogrammetry deals with the precise measurements on the photographs
taken from a camera having metric qualities.

History of Photogrammetry
The science of creating images and photographs dates back to the 1400’s believe it onto! Leonardo di Vinci is one of the
earlier explorers of the science. Since then other scientists continued this work on projective geometry mathematically.
In 1525 Albrecht Duerer used laws of perspective and created an instrument that could be used to create a true
perspective drawing. From this same idea scientists began developing mathematical principles of a perspective image
using "space resection" (determining the coordinates of a point from two or more images) to find a point in space from
which a picture is made. The actual relationship between projective geometry and Photogrammetry was first developed
by R. Strums and Guido Haick in Germany in 1883. Since then the science went through four development cycles.
· Plane table Photogrammetry, from 1850 to 1900
· Analog Photogrammetry, from about 1900 to 1960
· Analytical Photogrammetry, from about 1960 to present
· Digital Photogrammetry, is just now beginning to be a presence in the

photogrammetric industry Now laser scanners and digital images are making a huge impact

on the profession of Photogrammetry.

1.2 TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

Photographs can be classified as:
1. Terrestrial
2. Aerial
Aerial photographs are taken from aerial camera mounted on airplane or helicopter whereas terrestrial
photographs are taken from ground based camera. The cameras used for photogrammetric applications are
called metric camera. These camera provide pictures of the terrain which are used for making precise
measurements and other information’s which

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help in determining the relative location of the points. It also helps in calculating angles, volumes, elevations, size
and shapes of the objects.

CLASSIFICATION OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Aerial photographs are classified
as: Frame photographs
Continuous strip
Panoramic photographs
Classification can be made as per the camera orientation, format size, angular coverage and type of emulsion.

1.3 GEOMETRY OF AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHS

Air photos are classified as vertical or oblique.
Vertical photos are taken with the optical axis of the camera normal to
the ground. "Truly" vertical photos are rare-- virtually all air photos are
tilted.
Planes fly along azimuths (usually N-S or S-N) called flight lines.
The trace of the flight line on the ground directly beneath the plane is the
nadir line. The nadir line connects the image centers.
Photos along the flight line are taken in "frames" that overlap 50-60%. This is
called endlap. Adjacent strips have sidelap (30%).
Successive photos with endlap of >=50% capture parallax, and can be used to see in stereo.

13. A MISSION PLANNING

Assume that the "correct" photography for an application is not
available. The interpreter often helps to plan the collection of
new photos.
Initial considerations:
Camera focal
length.
Camera/film
format. Desired
photo scale.
Size of area to be
photographed. Knowledge of
terrain elevation. Overlap
and end lap.
The planner provides a flight map for the crew:
Specifies flying height,
Location, direction, and # of flight
lines, Exposure interval,
# Of exposures on each line and total.

Aerial photography is typically captured using a specially calibrated metric large format camera mounted on an airplane.
The airplane follows a planned flight path made up of a series of parallel passes called flight strips. Each image in each
flight strip overlaps the adjacent images on either end (end lap) or either side (side lap) by 30 to 60 percent. Aerial
photography is usually captured vertically, but can also be taken at a low oblique or high oblique orientation, up to
approximately a 45 degree angle.

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The resulting imagery consists of 9-x-9-inch film dispositive, each with a set of imprinted markers, called fiducial, around
the edges. Two overlapping photographs can be viewed in stereo using a stereoscope, or with a stereoplotter. Using the
stereoscope, the analyst examines adjacent images simultaneously, which makes parallactic angles evident in areas of
overlap, thus permitting the user to perceive depth.

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Figure 1. End lap and side lap of imagery along flight lines in aerial photography

2. AERIAL CAMERAS

Camera is the most significant tool in photogrammetry. The camera used in taking photographs is quite different than the
ordinary camera as in case of aerial camera the lens used is of very good geometric quality. Since camera used for aerial
photography is fitted in an aircraft flying in a very high speed, therefore, it must have short cycling times, good quality
lenses and efficient shutters. It must offer good results in most extreme weather conditions and also to sustain the aircraft
vibrations.

These Cameras are called as Metric

Cameras. TYPES OF AERIAL CAMERA

Single lens frame
camera Multi-lens
frame camera Strip
camera
Panoramic camera

Single lens frame camera is most often used for mapping applications as it offers high geometric photo quality. In this
camera, lens is fixed with respect to focal plane. The film is generally fixed during exposure. In some cameras it is slightly
moved during exposure to compensate forward image motion. Single lens cameras are further classified according to the
angular field of view.

Normal angle (up-to 75 )

Wide angle (85 to
95 ) )
Super-wide angle (greater than 100

Some of the cameras used in aerial photography are:

1. Zeiss RMK 15/23;23 23cms picture format, 6 inch focal length
2. Fairchild KC-6A;23 23cms picture format, 6 inch focal length
3. WILD RC-10 (having different focal lengths; 89,152,210,305mm)
4. Hasselblad MK-70
5. ITEK LFC (Large Format Camera)

Aerials photographs

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Classification of Photographs

In his book on aerial photo interpretation, Paine presents a dichotomous key for classifying aerial photography. The key is
listed as follows:

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Photographs

Terrestrial Aerial

Vertical Oblique

(Tilted) True High Low

We can define vertical aerial photographs as a photo taken from an aerial platform (either moving or stationary) wherein
the camera axis at the moment of exposure is truly vertical. In actuality, vertical air photos with less than 3* tilt are
considered vertical (for most photo interpretation purposes); while those with more than 3* tilt are considered oblique.
There are two basic types of oblique aerial photography. These two types are:

1. High angle oblique; and

2. Low angle oblique.

In a high angle oblique, the apparent horizon is shown; while in a low angle oblique the apparent horizon is not shown.
Often because of atmosphere haze or other types of obscuration the true horizon of a photo cannot really be seen.
However we often can see a horizon in an oblique air photo. This is the apparent horizon.

. .

The basic advantages of vertical air photos are:

1. The scale is essentially constant;

2. Measurements of directions are easier than on oblique photograph. Directions can also be measured more accurately;

3. Within limits a vertical aerial photograph can be used as a map (if grids and marginal data are added); and,

4. Vertical aerial photographs are often easier to interpret than oblique and are better for stereo (there is no masking).

The advantages of an oblique aerial photograph include:

1. Given a constant altitude and camera you can cover a much larger area on a single photo;

2. The view of some objects is more familiar to the interpreter; and,

3. Some objects not visible on vertical photos may be seen on oblique.

(Paine talks about clearance and cloud cover; but that's a tricky one (too cloudy for vertical but maybe enough clearance
for an oblique).

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Three terms need defining here, they are Principal Point, Nadir and Isocenter. They are defined as follows:

1. Principal Point - The principal point is the point where the perpendicular projected through the center of the lens
intersects the photo image.

2. Nadir - The Nadir is the point vertically beneath the camera center at the time of exposure.

3. Isocenter - The point on the photo that falls on a line half- way between the principal point and the Nadir point.

On a true vertical aerial photograph all three of these would be at the same point. There is no such thing as a true
vertical aerial photo. All air photos have some degree of tip or tilt.

A quick review.

Vertical Airphotos (0-3* tilt)

3 Photo Centers: Principal Point, Nadir, Isocenter

These points are important because certain types of displacement and distortion radiate from them. It is the Isocenter
of the aerial photo from which tilt displacement radiates. It is Nadir from which topographic displacement radiates.

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CAMERA CALIBRATION
The camera used for taking photographs must be calibrated before taking photographs. The number of constants
determined during calibration is called the elements of interior orientation.

The process of accurately deterging the values that define the interior orientation elements such as the focal length,
principal point location and lens distortion characteristics

2.1 CAMERA ORIENTATION

Vertical photograph:
In vertical photographs optical axis of the camera is kept vertical or nearly vertical (less than 2-degree tilt
with vertical). High oblique:
In high oblique photographs optical axis is tilted from vertical so that earth’s horizon appears on the photograph.

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Low oblique:
In low oblique, camera axis is tilted but earth’s horizon does not appear on the
photograph. Convergent photography:
These are done with a single twin-lens, wide-angle camera, or with two single-lens, wide-angle cameras
coupled rigidly in the same mount so that each camera axis converges when intentionally tilted a prescribed
amount (usually 15 or 20°) from the vertical. Again, the cameras are exposed at the same time. For precision
mapping, the optical axes of the cameras are parallel to the line of flight, and for reconnaissance photography,
the camera axes are at high angles to the line of flight.

It is sequential pair of low oblique photographs in which optical

axes of the camera converges toward one another and each photograph covers the same area of the ground.

Optical axis of camera

Vertical Low oblique

Field of view

High oblique

Camera orientation on different types of aerial photographs

Horizon

Vertical Low oblique High

oblique Fig. Grid pattern on different aerial

photographs

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 ANGULAR COVERAGE
Angular field of view is calculated as follows
α = 2 tan -¹(d/2F)
Where: d is the diagonal distance (AB) of
the Photograph
α is the angle subtended at the rear
nodal Point O by the diagonal (d)
of the Picture format
F is the focal length of the camera
O

B
F

о′

1. Narrow Angle:10 - 20 Focal Length: 610-915 mm

Useful for mosaic, interpretation and intelligence
applications.

2. Normal Angle:50 - 75 Focal Length: 210-310 mm

Useful for interpretation, mapping, ortho-photography, mosaics.

3. Wide Angle: 85 - 95 Focal Length: 153

mm Most commonly used for mapping
applications.

4.Super wide Angle: 110 -130 , Focal Length: 88

mm Useful for mapping the area has very little
relief.

2.2 FILM FORMAT AND ANNOTATION

Format denotes the size of the image acquired by the
camera. Common formats are 23x23cm, 70mm, 35mm.
Most aerial photos carry some sort of annotation- markings that identify the photos and details of
their acquisition. Date, project code, and frame number are common.
More sophisticated cameras also record on each frame the time and position of a bubble level to
indicate tilt. Fiducial marks:
Most aerial cameras include index marks rigidly attached to the camera.
The locations of these index marks are recorded on the photo during
exposure. Connecting opposite pairs of fiducial marks locates the principal

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point of the photograph. It is defined as the intersection of the lens optical axis
and the film plane.
The point where the optical axis of the camera intersects the terrain is called the ground principal point.
On metric cameras, the photo origin coincides exactly with the PP (means the fiducials and lens are precisely located).

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Example and contents of an Aerial Photograph

2.3 PHOTOGRAPHIC SCALE

Amount of detail in a photo is dependent on film resolution, optics, viewing
geometry, and scale Defined like map scale
Ratio of photo distance to ground distance
The simplest way to measure scale is by measuring the corresponding distances on the photo
and a map. Scale is then specified as S = d/D
For vertical photos over flat terrain, scale is defined as: f/H'
(H'=AGL) If terrain elevation (h) is known, get H' by H' = H-h

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 Another expression: S = f/H-h
But, photos over varying terrain have a range of scales that varies with
terrain relief. Oblique or tilted photos have non-uniform scales too.
So we define average scale for the photo as:
Savg = f/H-havg

So ground coverage and resolution and scale are all determined by:
focal length
image format
flying height
photo
resolution
terrain height
viewing
geometry

What is meant by resolution?

Resolution refers to the ability to distinguish the smallest visible objects on a photograph. Resolution is a result of the
combination of film type and the camera lens system.
What is meant by flight line?
A flight line is a path on a map or chart to represent the track over which an aircraft has been flown or is to fly.
What is meant by focal length?
Focal length is the distance measured from camera lens to film. Knowledge of the focal length used, along with the
altitude of the photographic aircraft, makes it possible to determine the scale of the aerial photograph (assuming land
uniformity).

For example, with a camera focal length of six inches, a flight altitude of 6,500 feet above mean sea level, and an average
ground elevation of 1,500 feet, the representative fraction would be computed as follows:

0.5 ft. divided by (6,500 ft. - 1,500 ft.) = 1:10,000 scale

2.4 ORIENTATION

The process of forming a three dimensional model in its true shape and position using pair of aerial photographs is
called orientation. The orientation of a model consists of

Interior orientation
(IO) Relative (RO)
Absolute orientation (AO)

A. INTERIOR ORIENTATION:
IO of a photograph defines the form of bundle of rays emerging from the projection center to the points in the object
space. The position of projection centre with respect to the image coordinate system represents the geometric elements
of I.O. these elements are the principal point coordinates and focal length.

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This step is related to internal parameters of images.
This step restitutes the same position of exposure event on the geometric
instrument. This step sets affine tranformation.

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 This step defines the photo coordinate system.
This step provides the actual frame (geometry) to the photo.

Affine Transformation – coordinate transformation with the general property of carrying parallel lines into parallel lines
and straight lines remain straight lines, although angles and scale could change. In other words, parallel lines in one
coordinate system will remain parallel in the second coordinate system. The general affine transformation is a six
parameter transformation where the unknown parameters are the translations in the x and y directions, scale factors in
both the x and y directions, the rotation angle, and any non- orthogonality that exists.

A 1. RELATIVE ORIENTATION:

In relative orientation the pair of overlapping photographs are related with one other so that the corresponding rays
emerging out of the two exposure stations get intersected, in other words after the RO the model becomes free of Y-
parallax. This process involves the determination of 5 parameters (k1, K2, φ1, φ2, ω1 or ω2) i.e. 5-rotations. In some
instruments, with 3-rotation and 2-translational elements, RO can be performed.

A.2. ABSOLUTE ORIENTATION:

In AO the relatively oriented model is related with the ground by means of known ground control points. Seven
parameters, 3 shifts, 3 rotations and one scale are involved in AO.
The above 12 parameters i.e. 5 for RO and 7 for AO can also be calculated mathematically by bundle approach known as
Exterior Orientation.

B. EXTERIOR ORIENTATION

The E.O. of a photograph defines its position and orientation in the object space. The object space coordinates of the
perspective centre XL, YL, ZL (where L is perspective centre) defines the position of the photograph. Since photograph taken
at the time of exposure cannot be parallel with the ground, therefore, the photo axes do not remain parallel with ground
axes. The rotation angle around x, y, z- axes are designated as omega (ω), phi (φ), kappa (k) respectively. The position of
a photograph in the object space is defined by the six quantities
XL, YL, ZL, ω, φ, k, these are called exterior orientation parameters of the

photograph. The EO parameters are determined by the help of known

ground control points.

2.5 Aerial Triangulation

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Definition: The collective orientation of more than two photos is

called AT. To minimize the cost of surveying.

To control the area with minimum no of GCP.
To solve the problem of datum difference in between model and strip lap.

The following essential inputs are required for AT.

Camera calibration report or

file. Images
Flight Chart with strip and image
number\information. Overview of GCP with point
id overview with flight chart. GCP file in X Y Z -
ASCII format, with their sketches.
Information regarding projection, Accuracy, Contour Interval, Standard deviation of GCP etc.
2.5 Photogrammetric Work flow

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Example: Flight chart with the strip no, image no and GCP overview information

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Detailed Sketches or screen shots of GCP locations (GCP Panel) with GCP No and image
no are Required only in case when we could not locate the GCP as per overview.

For Panel (Signalized) points we just required this kind of overview i.e Loaction and correct point no on the photo.

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For other then signalized points we require the following kind of sketches

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2.5. 1 Step by step delays. If any of this input is not available or available in distorted form.

During import of Images in system:

CAM information is not available: Delay unlimited – until CAM information received.
Faulty images: Delay unlimited – until required images received.

During the setup of a block:

Faulty images (one or more in the block): Delay unlimited – until required images received. Cannot make
setup of whole\partial block as it depend on the location of the missing image in the block as well as the
distribution of the GCP’s

Flight Chart: Cases are

➢ One strip: Flight chart generally not needed.

➢ Cross strip: Delay unlimited – until we received flight chart.
➢ For more than one strip: Delay may be unlimited – until we received flight chart. In some
cases this could be solved by permutation and combination method up to three or four strips.

During the Tie measurement:

Bad quality images: Delay of 8 to 10 hrs for 20 images. As APM generally fails and manual tie
measurements is required.
Cross Strips: Delay of 8 to 10 hrs for 20 images. As APM generally fails and manual tie measurements is
required.

During GCP measurement:

Overview of GCP: Delay of 1 hrs per two GCP, as just to find the location (Panel) we have to search the
whole image.

Overview of GCP with point id on flight chart and their location\sketches: Cases if the above is not given.

➢ Not able to locate the Panel or GCP location. : Delay unlimited - Until we received the overview of
GCP with their point Id and location\sketches

➢ Able to locate the GCP Panel with respect to GCP Id - coordinate given: No delay except the time
spent on searching the panel location.

➢ Able to locate the GCP Panel but don’t know which Panel is for which GCP id:

1. Delay unlimited – Until we received the overview of GCP with their point Id and location\sketches.

2. Delay may vary - As we have to do lot of permutation and combination by changing the GCP
locations, just to find the actual GCP Id (coordinates) with respect to correct Panel, again that may
work or fail.

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➢ Faulty GCP coordinates: The case when any of GCP coordinates does not fit to the actual GCP
location after bundle adjustment is called faulty GCP coordinate. – Delay unlimited- until we
received new GCP coordinates or makes any decision.

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 ➢ Inadequate GCP’s: In case when the GCP distribution does not cover the required area\images -
Delay unlimited- until we received additional GCP coordinates\sketches to fill the coverage or
makes any decision.

During Final bundle block adjustment:

Wrong GCP locations: Can fail the Fix adjustment – Delay unlimited –until correct GCP locations measured.

Faulty GCP coordinates: This show high residual in particular point and affect the whole block, required to take
that point out from the calculation and adjust on the basis of remaining GCP’s- Delay unlimited- until we
received new GCP coordinates or makes any decision. As the point is also necessary for the block.

2.5.2 Possible errors \QC that can happen in

AT INPUT Related

Problem in Camera calibration file or certificate provided.

Problems in GCP and their sketches. (If the co-ordinates of Gcp are
wrong) Problem in GPS\INS data.
Problem in Images.

During Data preparation and setup

Importing the images in socetset with wrong camera file.

Measuring wrong IO, i.e. orientation. As well as RMS
value of IO. Errors in setup the block, i.e.

a) Setup is not refined properly, which may cause less and faulty tie connections as approximations are bad.
b) Setups with wrong GPS\INS may again cause less and faulty tie connections as approximations are bad.
c) Setups is not being checked with overlap and side lap before running the APM.
d) Selecting the correct Tie point pattern before running the APM

Measurement
If the measurement of the GCP is not according to the sketch
provided. Leakage of Six folded tie connections in the super lap
area.
Leakage of three folded tie connection’s in the overlap area.

Calculation

All the major gross tie measurement error should be eliminated at the free
calculation stage. No Gcp should be measured in one photo.
Rms value of the Gcp should be well within the limits as per client’s instructions and the

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scale defined. Values for Omega, kappa, and phi should be less than 10.
Check the redundancy of the overall block.
Proper care for the Distortion and the poorest precision value should
be taken. Check the nabla values of the measurement.

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 Correct parameters should be used as far as Sigma and standard deviation is concerned.

QC after final adjustment,

Check for RMS required for

GCP’s. Check for the parallax in
the models.
Datum difference in between models and strips.
Check for datum difference in between adjacent
blocks. Provided Gcp should match with the stereo
and sketches.

2.6 APPLICATIONS OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY

All kinds of maps whether Large, Small scale, can be created by photogrammetric techniques.
Earthwork calculations with the help of design map or directly from absolutely oriented
models on stereo plotting instruments.
Engineering applications-
Wave shapes
Structural
deformations
Sedimentation in
channels Vehicular
movements
Industrial
Applications
Agricultural
Applications Slope
Maps
Analyses of ground coverage, watershed areas, and snow depths to calculate run off quantities for water
supply studies. Useful for archeologists for interpretation and measurements of ruins dating to antiquity from
analyses of aerial and terrestrial photographs
Interpretation of geological forms and features
Mapping of landing sites on Lunar or Planetary surfaces as well as the geological explorations of the moon
and planets Preparation of planimetric & topographical maps
Determination of space position of ground
objects Acquisition of military intelligence
Disaster other natural hazard
management Engineering and civil
survey
Relocation and change
detection Medicine

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Urban
development
Telecommunicati
on
Transportation
Power
transmission
Mineral and
Mining
Agriculture and
Forestry Archaeology
Forensics investigation

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 Business and enterprise
solutions Coastal Zone
Management Distribution and
trading
Fleet Management
Environment
Management

3. STEREOSCOPY
When two overlapping photographs that have been taken of the same seen from two viewpoints are seen
through a stereoscope, the photographs appear in three dimensions, the perception of depth through binocular
vision is called stereoscopic viewing. The phenomenon by which we see 3-dimensional model of the two images
is called stereoscopy.

PARALLAX
In normal binocular vision the apparent movement of a point seen first with one eye and then with the other
eye is known as parallax. In case of aerial stereoscopic views, parallax of a point is the displacement of the image
of the point on two consecutive photographs is called parallax of that point.

The difference between the displacements of the images of two points on successive exposures is called the
difference in parallax between the two points.

PARALLACTIC ANGLE:
When we focus our eyes on a particular point, the optical of our eyes converge at that point at an angle called
parallactic angle. When we focus our eyes at point A the two eyes make an angle Фа.

LEFT EYE RIGHT EYE

Фа

Фь

B Where: d= AB

Similarly at point B eyes make an angle Фь. The points are imaged at different positions on the retina of the eye.
The brain interprets the difference in these positions as a difference of two angles (Фа – Фь ). This
difference of angles gives the impression of a distance d between the two object points. The angles Фа, Фь
are called the parallactic angles.

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For distinct vision of about 25 cm the limiting value of Ф is about 16˚ and lower limiting value of Ф ranges from
10 to 20 seconds of arc and represent a distance between 600 to 800 for average eye separation.

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3.2 DIGITAL ELEVATION MODELS (DEM)

The DEM or DTM is defined as the digital cartographic representation of the earth in any form, rectangular grids,
triangular networks or irregular spot heights and break lines or in other words it is the representation of the earth
surface in the form of x, y, z coordinates. In some organizations Digital Terrain Models (DTM) is used as synonyms
of DEM and in some organizations DEM is considered as subset of DTM and they consider DTM as representation
of earth surface by x, y, z coordinates and the elevation of the significant topographical features such as break
lines, ridge lines etc. which represent the earth surface more accurately and describe a change in the smoothness
or continuity of the earth surface.
In general both the terms are quite frequently used and are considered synonymous.

APPLICATIONS OF DEM

1. The DEMs have wide variety of applications in civil and military applications. It is used in calculating area
and volume of the earth work to be done in various engineering works.
2. To estimate the area to be affected by natural flooding or by newly constructed dam.
3. It is useful for making visibility map which helps in selecting communication towers and antennas. These
maps are useful for various military applications.
4. Slope, aspect maps and perspective view of the terrain can be generated from DEM.
5. Other applications are surface area and length calculation, generation of contours, interpolation of
surface z values, generation of profiles 3-D visualization and simulation.
6. Useful in engineering designs such as roads, airports, canals etc.
7. Land administration management, development planning, environment management, landscape analyses
and planning, erosion analyses and control.
8. Assessment of land suitability.

TRIANGULATED IRREGULAR NETWORKS (TIN)

A TIN is set of adjacent, non-overlapping triangles computed from irregularly spaced points with x, y
coordinates and z values. It is based on irregularly based points, line polygon data, interpreted as mass
points and break lines.
A TIN surface can be created from any one or more of the following data:
Contour maps
Photogrammetric
data Point, line,
polygon data Break
lines
DEM lattices
x, y, z coordinates of the terrain points

DATA COLLECTION

Data may be collected in the form of grids, profiles, contour lines, morphologic lines and points. Profile may
be regular and semi-regular.
Grid pattern may be regular (square, rectangular), irregular (triangular, polygon), semi-regular
(heterogeneous square grid).

ACCURACY OF DEM

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There are no such accuracy specifications laid down for the DEM that can be called as ‘standards’. However, it
can be seen practically that the accuracy increases with the decrease of the grid interval at which the data is
acquired. Apart from this, scale and quality of the photograph also affect the accuracy. In general, the accuracy
for plane area is about 1/20th of the grid size and for hilly terrain it is around 1/10th of the grid size. The accuracy
also depends on the incorporation of the additional

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information such as break lines, ridge lines etc. at such places where abrupt changes take place in height. Spot
heights selected at places such as hill tops, ditches change of slopes etc. also improve the accuracy of the DEM.

The precision of DEM data collected by photogrammetric methods

depends on: Scale and quality of the photography
Scale of the model and instrument
used Operator
Type of terrain

Comprehensiveness of DEM depends

on: Sampling density
Sampling pattern

Overall accuracy ( ) is given

by: 2²

² = 1² +
Where 1 observational error
σ2 sampling error

DEM accuracy can be checked by observing the check points randomly distributed over the entire area and
calculating the rms values.

3.3 ORTHOPHOTOGRAPHS
An Orthophoto is a photograph showing images of objects in their true planimetric positions. They are
equivalent to conventional planimetric maps. A vertical photograph has central projection and images are
affected by the relief and tilt distortions. If these distortions are removed by differential rectification then the
image so obtained is called orthophotograph. Hence in orthophoto scale is constant throughout.
Orthophoto generates orthophoto imagery and offers many applications. The options possible are; removal of
building lean with feature data, embedding grid lines within the orthophoto, magnification and choice of image
interpolation methods.

ORTHOPHOTO GENERATION DATA FLOW

IMAGES DTM FILE FEATURE

DATABASE
(OPTIONAL)

ORTHOPHOTO

OUTPUT OUTPUT
IMAGE SUPPORT
FILE

3.3 USES OF ORTHOPHOTOS

Orthophoto has the advantages of both aerial photo and a line map. They have pictorial qualities of photograph
and are planimetrically correct.
1. They serve the purpose of a map

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2. Contour lines can be superimposed over the orthophoto
3. Useful for making orthophoto mosaics; edge matching is easy in preparing mosaics
4. Angles, distances, areas calculation possible on orthophoto
5. They can be prepared faster and cheaper than conventional maps.

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 4. Accuracy

Accuracy of field survey:

The accuracy of a point on the ground is calculated as
follows: σ= √(σx2 + σy2)

Photo scale Plane Height

accuracy σ Accuracy
σp
1:5000 5 cm 5cm
1:10000 10 cm 8 cm

Accuracy of the aero triangulation (AT):

Accuracy of the AT points depend on the photo scale, film quality, GCPs used in the adjustment,
photogrammetric instrument, and operator. The following table shows that accuracy increases as scale
increases.

Photo scale Plane Height

accuracy σ Accuracy
σp
1:5000 7 cm 10
1:10000 14 cm 20
1:20000 30 cm 50
1:25000 40 cm 60
1:30000 50 cm 75

Plane Accuracy of map database:

The accuracy depends on photo scale, image quality, GCPs, definition of the objects, instrument used and operator.

Photo scale Plane Accuracy Height Accuracy

1:5000 10 cm 15 cm
1:10000 20 cm 30 cm
1:20000 70 cm 75 cm
1:25000 85 cm 85 cm
1:30000 100 cm 100 cm

4.1 The Importance of Error, Accuracy, and Precision

Until quite recently, people involved in developing and using GIS paid little attention to the problems caused by error,
inaccuracy, and imprecision in spatial datasets. Certainly there was an awareness that all data suffers from inaccuracy and
imprecision, but the effects on GIS problems and solutions was not considered in great detail. Major introductions to the
field such as C. Dana Tomlin's Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling (1990), Jeffrey Star and John
Estes'sGeographic Information Systems: An Introduction (1990), and Keith Clarke's Analytical and Computer Cartography
(1990) barely mention the issue.

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This situation has changed substantially in recent years. It is now generally recognized that error, inaccuracy, and
imprecision can "make or break" many types of GIS project. That is, errors left unchecked can make the results of a GIS
analysis almost worthless.

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The irony is that the problem of error is devolves from one of greatest strengths of GIS. GIS gain much of their power from
being able to collate and cross-reference many types of data by location. They are particularly useful because they can
integrate many discrete datasets within a single system. Unfortunately, every time a new dataset is imported, the GIS also
inherit its errors. These may combine and mix with the errors already in the database in unpredictable ways.

One of first thorough discussions of the problems and sources error appeared in P.A. Burrough's Principles of Geographical
Information Systems for Land Resources Assessment (1986). Now the issue is addressed in many introductory texts on
GIS..

The key point is that even though error can disrupt GIS analyses, there are ways to keep error to a minimum through
careful planning and methods for estimating its effects on GIS solutions. Awareness of the problem of error has also had
the useful benefit of making GIS practitioners more sensitive to potential limitations of GIS to reach impossibly accurate
and precise solutions.

Some Basic Definitions

It is important to distinguish from the start a different between accuracy and precision:

1) Accuracy is the degree to which information on a map or in a digital database matches true or accepted values.
Accuracy is an issue pertaining to the quality of data and the number of errors contained in a dataset or map. In
discussing a GIS database, it is possible to consider horizontal and vertical accuracy with respect to geographic
position, as well as attribute, conceptual, and logical accuracy.

o The level of accuracy required for particular applications varies greatly.

o Highly accurate data can be very difficult and costly to produce and compile.

2) Precision refers to the level of measurement and exactness of description in a GIS database. Precise locational data may
measure position to a fraction of a unit. Precise attribute information may specify the characteristics of features in great
detail. It is important to realize, however, that precise data--no matter how carefully measured--may be inaccurate.
Surveyors may make mistakes or data may be entered into the database incorrectly.

o The level of precision required for particular applications varies greatly. Engineering projects such as road
and utility construction require very precise information measured to the millimeter or tenth of an inch.
Demographic analyses of marketing or electoral trends can often make do with less, say to the closest zip
code or precinct boundary.
o Highly precise data can be very difficult and costly to collect. Carefully surveyed locations needed by utility
companies to record the locations of pumps, wires, pipes and transformers cost $5-20 per point to collect.

High precision does not indicate high accuracy nor does high accuracy imply high precision. But high accuracy and high
precision are both expensive.

Be aware also that GIS practitioners are not always consistent in their use of these terms. Sometimes the terms are used
almost interchangeably and this should be guarded against.

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Two additional terms are used as well:

1. Data quality refers to the relative accuracy and precision of a particular GIS database. These facts are often
documented in data quality reports.
2. Error encompasses both the imprecision of data and its inaccuracies.

.4.2 Types of Error

Positional error is often of great concern in GIS, but error can actually affect many different characteristics of the
information stored in a database.

. Positional accuracy and precision.

This applies to both horizontal and vertical positions.

Accuracy and precision are a function of the scale at which a map (paper or digital) was created. The mapping standards
employed by the United States Geological Survey specify that:

"requirements for meeting horizontal accuracy as 90 per cent of all measurable points must be within 1/30th of an inch
for maps at a scale of 1:20,000 or larger, and 1/50th of an inch for maps at scales smaller than 1:20,000."

This means that when we see a point on a map we have its "probable" location within a certain area. The same applies to
lines.

Beware of the dangers of false accuracy and false precision, that is reading locational information from map to levels of
accuracy and precision beyond which they were created. This is a very great danger in computer systems that allow users
to pan and zoom at will to an infinite number of scales. Accuracy and precision are tied to the original map scale and do
not change even if the user zooms in and out. Zooming in and out can however mislead the user into believing--falsely--
that the accuracy and precision have improved.

Attribute accuracy and precision

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The non-spatial data linked to location may also be inaccurate or imprecise. Inaccuracies may result from mistakes of
many sorts. Non- spatial data can also vary greatly in precision. Precise attribute information describes phenomena in
great detail. For example, a

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precise description of a person living at a particular address might include gender, age, income, occupation, level of
education, and many other characteristics. An imprecise description might include just income, or just gender.

Conceptual accuracy and precision

GIS depend upon the abstraction and classification of real-world phenomena. The users determines what amount of
information is used and how it is classified into appropriate categories. Sometimes users may use inappropriate categories
or misclassify information. For example, classifying cities by voting behavior would probably be an ineffective way to study
fertility patterns. Failing to classify power lines by voltage would limit the effectiveness of a GIS designed to manage an
electric utilities infrastructure. Even if the correct categories are employed, data may be misclassified. A study of drainage
systems may involve classifying streams and rivers by "order," that is where a particular drainage channel fits within the
overall tributary network. Individual channels may be misclassified if tributaries are miscounted. Yet some studies might
not require such a precise categorization of stream order at all. All they may need is the location and names of all stream
and rivers, regardless of order.

Logical accuracy and precision

Information stored in a database can be employed illogically. For example, permission might be given to build a residential
subdivision on a floodplain unless the user compares the proposed plat with floodplain maps. Then again, building may
be possible on some portions of a floodplain but the user will not know unless variations in flood potential have also been
recorded and are used in the comparison. The point is that information stored in a GIS database must be used and
compared carefully if it is to yield useful results. GIS systems are typically unable to warn the user if inappropriate
comparisons are being made or if data are being used incorrectly. Some rules for use can be incorporated in GIS designed
as "expert systems," but developers still need to make sure that the rules employed match the characteristics of the real-
world phenomena they are modeling.

Finally, It would be a mistake to believe that highly accurate and highly precision information is needed for every GIS
application. The need for accuracy and precision will vary radically depending on the type of information coded and the
level of measurement needed for a particular application. The user must determine what will work. Excessive accuracy
and precision is not only costly but can cause considerable details.

5. IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS OF PHOTOGRAMMETRY

Relief displacement:
If photography is intended for making profiles then the photographs must have minimum relief displacement. For
making the mosaics, the adjoining photographs are joined together to make one composite scene of the terrain. It
will be difficult to make a mosaic if relief displacement on the successive photographs is too large. In order to
reduce the effect of the relief displacement two factors, focal length and flying height must be taken into account.
An increase in flying height decreases the displacement. Similarly increase in focal length also causes the same
effect. However for mapping purposes, relief displacement makes no adverse effect on map compilation.

Tilt:
The tilt in the photograph may be due to angle φ and ω, the first one is called y-tilt and second is x-tilt. The y-tilt
causes one side overlap greater than the other side of the photograph. Two adjoining photographs with opposite
tilt will cause increase or decrease in overlap to accumulate whereas y-tilt in the same direction will cancel out
increase or decrease in the overlap. The x-tilt increases the sidelap on one side of the flight line and decreases the
overlap on the other side. The effect of y-tilt may be allowed by reducing the computed exposure spacing slightly

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to produce slight increase in the calculated spacing. On the other hand x-tilt effect may be allowed by decreasing
the spacing between the two adjacent flight lines which will increase the sidelap.

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Crab and Drift:
If the edges of the photographs in the x-direction are not parallel with the flight direction then the photograph is
said have crab. Due to crab stereoscopic coverage decreases. This defect can be corrected by rotating the camera
about the vertical axis.
Drift is caused due to the failure of the aircraft to fly along the planned flight line. It happens due to strong winds.
If drift is too large then gap in the photo coverage takes place and in such case re-flight is to be carried out.
Therefore it is important that photography should be free from crab or drift.

Flying Height:
Various factors such as scale, relief displacement and tilt affect the selection of the flying height. The type of the
equipment to be used for compilation of maps also plays important role in selecting the flying height of the aircraft.
The flying height can be increased if the precise equipment is to be used for map compilation.
Relative vertical accuracy of different photogrammetric equipment can be compared on the basis of the C-factor
of the equipment which is defined as:

C-factor = Flying height/Contour

Interval or Flying height = C-factor x Contour

interval
The value of C ranges from 800-2000 depending upon the precision of the equipment; greater the value of C
means higher is the precision of the equipment.
If the equipment to be used for map compilation is known then flying height can be computed as
shown below. For example: C-factor value=1000

Desired contour interval=5 m

Flying height =1000x5
=5000 m

Focal Length:

The intercept on the optical axis between the rear node of a lens and the point at which a sharp image of a
distant object is formed.

Calibrated focal Length:

An adjusted value of the focal length so computed which distribute the effect of lens distortion over the entire
field used in aerial camera.

Optical axis:
The straight line passing through the centres of curvature of the lens surfaces.

Perspective centre:
The real or imaginary point of origin of bundles of perspective rays. Two such points are usually associated with
a survey photograph and are called the internal and external perspective centres. The internal perspective
centre refers to the image points and the external perspective centre refers to the corresponding object points.
Corresponding to these perspective centres, there are nodal points, which satisfy the simple lens equation. In a
well-adjusted camera lens system, the nodal points coincide.

Principal distance:
The perpendicular distance from the internal perspective centre to the plane of the finished negative or print.

Camera axis:
A line perpendicular to the focal plane of the camera and passing through the internal perspective centre of the lens

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system.

Fiducial Marks:

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Reference marks rigidly connected with the camera lens through the camera body and which form images on
the negative and usually define the principal point of the photograph.

Floating marks:
Pairs of identical marks which when viewed stereoscopically, in conjunction with a photographic overlap combine
to form a single floating mark.

Principal Plane:
The vertical plane through the internal perspective centre containing the photograph perpendicular of a
tilted photograph or the plane containing the vertical through the interior perspective centre and the plate
perpendicular of a tilted photo.

Plate or Photograph perpendicular:

The perpendicular from the interior perspective centre to the plane of the photographic film or plate.

Plate parallel:
The image on the plate or photograph of any horizontal line in the object space which is perpendicular to the
principal plane. Thus all photograph parallels are perpendicular to the principal line.

Isometric parallel:
The plate parallel through the isocentre or the intersecting line between the plane of the photograph and a
horizontal plane having an equal perpendicular distance from the same perspective centre.

Principal Line:
The trace of the principal plane upon the photograph.

Vanishing Point:
The image on the plane of the photograph of the point towards which a system of parallel lines in the
object space converge.

Vanishing Line:
The straight line on the photograph upon which the vanishing points of all systems of parallel lines parallel to
one plane will lie. The vanishing line for all systems of horizontal parallel lines in the object space is the horizon
trace.

Principal Point:
The foot of the perpendicular from the rear node of the lens to the plane of the photographic plate or film.

Air Base:
The line joining two successive air stations. The air station is the position of the camera lens in space at the
moment of exposure.

Plumb Point:
The point where the plumb line through the rear node cuts the plane of the photograph.

Isocentre:
A point in the plane of a tilted photograph at which all angles on the photograph are equal to their traces on the g
 Parallax, Absolute Stereoscopic:
The algebraic difference of the distances of the two photo images from their respective photo nadirs,
measured in the direction of the air base. This is also called X-parallax.

Parallax difference:
The difference in the absolute stereoscopic parallaxes of two points imaged on a pair photo is called parallax difference.

Stereoscopic Fusion:
The observation by the eyes and mental interpretation of two perspective views as a three dimensional model in space.

Tilt:
The deviation of a plate from the horizontal plane at the time of exposure. It may also be defined as the

angle at the perspective center between the plate perpendicular and the plumb lin
 Property of center Projection

Fig. Geometry of tilted photograph

Inter-ocular distance:
The length of the eye base i.e. the distance between the centres of rotation of the two eyes of an individual.
 Psuedoscopy:
The fusion of two stereoscopic pictures to produce an effect of inverted relief.

Crab:
The condition caused by failure to orient the camera with respect to the track of the airplane as indicated in the
vertical photography by the edges of the photographs not being parallel to the air base lines.
Side wind

Reduced width of coverage

Drift:
Drift is caused by the failure of the aircraft to stay on the predefined flight line. As a result of which the overlap
between the photographs reduces. It is generally caused by strong wind.

Pre defined flight Line

Attributes
Single element of non-graphic data assigned to a spatial feature either as an imbedded data element
within the spatial database or located in a linked database record.
Descriptive characteristics of a feature, site or phenomenon.
Set or collection of data that describe the characteristics of real-world conditions.

Base Map
Basic representation of a region of the earth as it would appear if viewed from above.
Portrays basic reference information onto which other information of a specialized nature is placed. Usually
shows the location and extent of natural earth surface features and permanent man-made objects.
Contains basic digital survey control and topographic elevation reference framework for integrating all of
the other map features of a particular geographic area.
Cartesian coordinate
Point whose location is expressed in terms of its distance above or below an X, a Y and a Z coordinate plane. Location
of a point on a plane is expressed by two coordinate values, one representing the distance from the Y-axis and the
other representing the distance from the X-axis.

6. Some Short effective information

6.1 REMOTE SENSING:

The science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or phenomena through analysis of data
acquired by a device not in contact with the object of study.
Tends to be "earth-looking."
Collects data that must be converted to information...
The data can take many forms-- sonar, gravity,
electromagnetic. "Remote" in this course means an
aircraft or satellite platform.
Sensors are the devices used to record differences in electromagnetic
energy. The two basic elements of remote sensing are acquisition and
analysis.

6.2 PHOTOS, MAPS, AND GIS

MAP: A diagram of points, lines, and polygons that portrays spatial relationships of earth features at a reduced scale
and according to systematic rules.

What a map tells you:

1. Geographic position.
2. Attributes.
3. Spatial relationships.
4. Time.
1. Geographic position:
Each feature is uniquely identified in a coordinate
system. "Where"
Locations are recorded as coordinate pairs (X,Y).
GISs, the modern data management protocol, require common coordinate systems for all
data layers. Data will have been collected at different levels of positional accuracy.
2. Attributes:
"The spatial characteristics or nature of a spatial
feature..." "What"
Like position, attributes have inherent inaccuracies
3. Spatial Relationships:
Are numerous, complex, intuitive, and subjective.
Cannot all be practically encoded and stored in
any GIS.
TOPOLOGY: the set of essential spatial relationships between mapped entities or features.
4. Multi-temporal data can be integrated only if items 1-3
are known. Maps vs. Sketches:
Both show a limited # of
features. Both are reductions
of reality.
Maps are systematic.
 Maps are PROJECTED.

6.3 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS

A GIS is a computerized system

for Compiling,
Storing,
Retrieving,
Analyzing,
and
Displaying spatial data.
Resource managers rely heavily on maps and photos to assist decision
making: Traditionally, these are paper maps analyzed manually.
Paper maps are:
Static and hard to update.
Difficult to use many at one
time. Overlay is difficult.
Fixed scale and projection.
Advantages of GIS:
Data are in compact form.
Data can be updated and easily
maintained. Speed of retrieval.
Many manipulation options.
Can generate high-quality output.
Disadvantages:
Technical overhead.
Cost of initial
acquisition.
Merging GIS with traditional
methods. Cost to acquire and
standardize data.

6.4 Map:
A 2-d graphic of points, lines, and polygons that portrays spatial
relationships of earth features at a reduced scale according to
systematic rules.
What a map tells you:
5. Geographic position:
each feature is uniquely located
locations are recorded as coordinate pairs (X,Y (Z))
6. Attributes:
the nature of a spatial feature
7. Spatial Relationships:
are numerous, complex
cannot all be practically
represented Maps vs. Sketches:
Both show a limited # of
features Both are a
reductions of reality
 Maps are systematic and are
projected Distortion:
The geometric relationships on the sphere cannot be entirely duplicated
on a plane. Projection:
A mathematical model that transforms the locations of features on the (curved) earth's surface to their correct
positions on a 2-d surface (plane)
Errors occur in:
distanc
e
directio
n area
shape
Projecting a map:
Step 1: Pick a spheroid to approximate the shape of the
earth. Step 2: Select a datum (NAD27 or NAD83)
Step 3: Select a projection type to match your needs.
Projections are classified into 3 types:
1. Planar (azimuthal or zenithal)
2. Cylindrical
3. Conic
Each projection has desirable
properties: Conformal.
Equivalent.
Distortion minimized at point(s) of
tangency. Less of a problem for small
areas.
A major aching raging headache for
GIS. Coordinate Systems:
used to define location on sphere or
plane retain distance and direction
relations relative or absolute
(universal)
Latitude/Longitude:
Defining an origin...
X = LATITUDE (parallels)
Y = LONGITUDE (meridians)
lat/long lines = GRATICULE
lat/long is Base6 math
unprojected/spherical
coordinates
Universal Transverse Mercator:
divides the earth into 6°
strips covers 80N to 80S
coordinates are (Easting,Northing)
there are Mercator and Transverse Mercator
projections is metric, Base10 math

7. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR COORDINATE SYSTEM

An international plane coordinate system developed by the US Army.
Because it is planar, it uses Cartesian (rectangular) coordinates from 80N
to 80S. Divides the world into 6 degree wide zones.
Zones are numbered consecutively east-to-west starting at the 180 degree meridian.
Each zone has a central meridian; and extends 3 degrees east and 3 degrees west of
the CM. Each zone is mapped using a transverse Mercator projection.
The developable cylinder is rotated 90 degrees from vertical, and twisted so that the great circle of tangency is
along the CM. Because of the placement of the Cm and the unique projection for each gore, distortion in the
coordinate system is minimized. Turn to page 532 in the handout Appendix to read more about TM projections.
A square grid is superimposed, and a Cartesian (X, Y) grid is then set up for
each zone. The equator serves as the X axis; and is used to determine
"eastings".
The central meridian serves as the Y axis, and is used to measure
"northings". Coordinates are always specified as right and up; easting,
northing.
 The central meridian is assigned a false easting of 500,000m.
The equator is given a northing of 0mN for the northern hemisphere (10,000,000mN in the southern
hemisphere). Each zone is further broken down into 6X8 degree quadrilaterals with 10,000m spacing.
UTM tics are shown in blue, lat/long in black, the edges of USGS maps are lat/long not UTM.

8. MAPS AND MAP SCALE

1. Maps are smaller than the earth area; or are "SCALED."
2. SCALE: A statement of a measurement (length) on a map and the corresponding measurement on
the earth's surface.
3. Ways to represent scale:
4. Representative Fraction
(RF): 1:24,000 or
1:250,000
5. Verbal:
"1 inch equals 1 mile"
6. Bar scale:
7. "Small scale" has an RF << 1:250,000.
8. "Large scale" maps have an RF>> 1:250,000.

8.1 SCALE EFFECTS

Small scale maps show less detail than large scale
maps. Small scale maps are more "generalized".
The level of detail is called "resolution".
Small scale maps show larger areas in equivalent amounts of space.
In the case of mapping forest cover, we MUST rely on generalization to "see the forest
through the trees". Different disciplines generalize using different schemes:
WBIO might map "density" as understory or vertical
structure. FOR might map "density" as stems per acre.
We adjust scale of photos to match their intended application:
Adjust flying height.
Selecting a lens and
film.

Question Answer

Q. What is Photogrammetry?
The science and art of obtaining reliable measurements by means of photograph, taken from the calibrated camera, is
called as Photogrammetry

Q.What is an aerial camera?

The aerial camera is a high-precision instrument designed for making photographs on which reliable measurements
can be made after resolvable errors have been analyzed and removed. The camera must be maintained in
calibration at all times. To insure this the calibration should be checked periodically by a competent testing agency
such as the Bureau of Standards. The aerial camera used for cadastral surveys should include the following features:
Camera Components

The main difference between aerial camera systems and traditional cameras is the need for aerial systems to be
spatially accurate. Metric precision is necessary because aerial photography is often used to measure very small
distances, and to create high resolution elevation models from stereo imagery. For these purposes it is necessary to
have photography that is extremely accurate. It is possible to do your own photo reconnaissance by pointing a regular
camera out the window of a plane and taking a picture of the ground, but in order to make reliable measurement you
need a more stable setup. Certified "metric quality" cameras are expensive sensitive devices but necessary if
precise/accurate measurements are required.

Aerial cameras consist of essentially six component;

1. Lens Assembly; 3.5, 6, 8.25 and 12 inches are typical focal lengths. The lenses of aerial systems have the focus fixed at
infinity.

2. Focal Plane; this is a perfectly perpendicular plate aligned with the axis of the lens, a vacuum system is used to fix
the film to the plate so the focal plane is perfectly flat during exposure.

3. Lens Cone; this holds the lens and filter, and covers the front part of the camera preventing light from leaking into the
camera body.

4. Body; encloses the camera, the mounting bolts and stabilization mechanism.

5. Drive Assembly; the guts of the camera, the winding mechanism, shutter trigger, the vacuum pressure
system and motion compensation.

6. Magazine; holds the roll of unexposed film, advances the film between exposures, holds the film in place and winds-
up the exposed film.
Aerial camera systems also have a mounting bracket, power supply, vacuum lines, heating jackets, filters, forward
motion compensation (FMC) and an Inertial Motion Unit (IMU). Also part of the system is a viewfinder for targeting the
camera, an intervalometer that determines the rate at which exposures are taken (the amount of overlap) as the plane
flies along the flight path, a navigation control system and an exposure control system. Computers have assumed many
of these tasks which were once manual/mechanical. Global Positioning Systems (GPS) are now integrated into the
camera system to provide very precise in-flight positional control.

Q .What are fiducial marks?

These are index marks, generally four in number. They are rigidly connected with the camera lens through the camera
body and which forms images on the negative when exposure is made. This set of four fiducial marks defines the
principal point of the photograph in an adjusted camera.

Q .What is fiducial axis?

The line joining opposite fiducial marks on the photograph is called as fiducial axis. The point where these two lines
intersects defines the principal point of the photograph.

Q.What is Datum?
A reference plane in relation to which the position to which the position of other features are determined. In general
mean sea level is taken as the reference plane or Datum.
Q.What is Exposure station?
The point in space or on the ground occupied by the camera lens at the moment of exposure is called as the exposure
station, camera station or in case of aerial photography also called as Air station.

Q.What is Air base?

The line joining two successive camera station of the aerial photography is called as the Air base.
Q.What is Exposure time?
The time during which the lens shutter is open to allow the light to enter inside the camera, is called as the
exposure time. Q.What is corresponding images?
The image of the same objects on two or more photographs, are called as the corresponding photographs.
Q. What is overlap?
The corresponding images share the common area, where we can be able to see4 the 3D, this area is called as the overlap
area .The overlap between the same strips is called as the forward overlap and between the adjoining strips is called as
the lateral overlap or the side lap.
Q.What is Aerial photograph? How many types of photographs are there in Photogrammetry?
An aerial photograph is not a map with a uniform scale throughout, but merely a pictorial representation of the
terrain. Geometrically speaking, an aerial photograph is a perspective projection of an area as viewed from a single
point above the ground. Relief displacement, lens characteristics, film and paper distortion, and tilt of the camera
preclude its having a uniform scale.

There are three types of photographs on the basis of the direction of the camera axis-
1.Terrestrial photographs-They are taken from phototheodolites with camera station on the ground with the axis of
camera horizontal to the ground. This type of photographs are used for survey of structures and monuments of
architectural and archaeological value.
2. Vertical photographs – Thee are taken with the camera axis vertical or nearly vertical to the ground. These are
generally used for mapping and photo interpretation purposes.
3. Oblique photographs – They are taken with the camera axis tilted from the vertical. These photographs cover larger
areas on the ground but the clarity of the details diminishes towards the far end of the photograph. These can be
classified again as-
(a)Low oblique –The photograph in which horizon does not appear .These are generally used to compile
reconnaissance maps. (b)High oblique – The camera axis is tilted to the extent the horizon appears.
Apart from these some special types of photographs are also taken with two or more cameras-
1. Convergent photographs – These are low oblique photographs taken with two cameras exposed simultaneously at
successive exposure stations with their axis tilted at a fixed inclination from the vertical in opposite direction in the
direction of the flight line so that the forward exposure of the first station forms the stereo pair with the backward
exposure of the another exposure.

2. Trimetrogon photography – It is a combination of one vertical and two oblique photographs, in which the central
photograph is vertical and side ones are oblique. They can be used for rapid production for reconnaissance maps on
small scale.

Q . What is the information recorded on an aerial

photograph? The following information is found:
• Fiducial marks or collimating marks –for determination of principal point.

• Altimeter recording - for determination of flying height of the aircraft above the mean sea level at the time of
exposure.

• Watch recording – gives time of exposure.

• Level Bubble –indicates the tilt of camera axis at the time of exposure.

• Principal distance – for determining the scale of photograph.

• Number of photograph – The strip number and the specification number for indexing of the photograph.

• Number of Camera – so that the camera calibration report can be obtained.

• Date of

photography Q .What is

projection?
A map projection is a method of representing the surface of a sphere or other shape on a plane. Map projections are
necessary for
creating maps. All map projection distorts the surface in any ways. Depending upon the purpose of the map, some of the
distortion are acceptable while some are not, therefore different map projections exists in order to in order to preserve
some properties of the sphere like body at the expense of others.
Projection can be defined as any mathematical model that transforms coordinates of curved surface into
plane surface. In geometrical terms projection are of three types:
1. Parallel projection-In this projecting rays are parallel to each other.

2. Orthogonal projection-The projecting rays perpendicular to the ground

3 .Central projection –The projecting rays pass through one point and diverge on the surface in
different directions. Q . What is parallax?
The Term parallax refers to the apparent change in the position of an object caused by change in the position of
the observer. The points at higher elevation exhibits greater parallax than at lower elevation.
Parallax can be resolved in two directions -
X parallax-Also called as absolute stereoscopic parallax or horizontal parallax. The algebraic difference of the
distance of the two images of an object from their respective principal point.(in the direction of the air base)
Y parallax –Also called as the vertical parallax. If the stereo pair is considered to be vertical and taken from equal
altitude above the datum, Y parallax is assumed to be absent.

Q .What is floating marks?

These are also called as measuring marks as these are used for the precise measurement on stereophotographs.These
are defined as the pairs of identical reference marks when viewed stereoscopically in conjunction with a photographic
overlap combine to form a single floating image.

Q. What is stereoscopic exaggeration?

It is the ratio between the heights of the object as we see (relative to the horizontal dimensions) and as it is in actual.

Q. What is orientation?
In stereophotogrammetry the photograph is considered as bundle of rays. The process of reconstructing such a bundle
with the help of photograph and its perspective centre, is called as orientation.
The orientations are of three types –
1. Interior orientation –the process by which image forming bundle of rays for each photo is reconstructed, true in
its geometry. By interior orientation the central projection in the image space is completely fixed.
2 .Exterior Orientation –This is the process of fixing the relationship between the image spaces to the
object space. The exterior orientation can be achieved by six elements-
1.3 translations along X Y Z axis , represented as bx by bz.
2. 3 rotations around these axis. The rotation around X axis is called as transverse tilt and is
denoted by
w The rotation around y axis is called longitudinal tilt and is denoted by phi.
The rotation around z axis is called swing and is
denoted by k. There are six elements of exterior
orientation -
a).3 translations along X Y Z axis. These are represented as bx, by, bz, respectively.
b). 3 Rotations around these axis. The rotation around X axis is called as transverse tilt and is denoted by phi; and the
rotation around Z-axis is called as swing and is denoted as k.

Exterior orientation is achieved in two steps

a. Relative
orientation
B.Absolute
orientation

Relative orientation- It is the process of establishing the angular relationship between the two consecutive
photographs as it existed at the instant of exposure.
Absolute orientation – It establishes the relationship between the image coordinates and the ground coordinates i.e. it
converts image coordinates to the ground coordinates with the help of GCPs provided.
In other words AO involves horizontalisation and scaling of the photographs.
Leveling the model- At least three points located at the corners of the overlapping area must be known in height. A
fourth point of known height provides check on leveling.
Scaling the model – At least 2 points of known planimetric coordinates, well separated in overlapping area must
be known. By comparing the distance between these two points and that measured in the model, a scale factor is
determined and calculated.
Q .What is rectification?
Photograph is on the central projection of the ground. Practically a ground can never be flat and horizontal and the
camera axis can also never be exactly vertical, thus practically a photograph is always tilted and shows a regular scale
variation in the direction of the tilt. To overcome this drawback of an aerial photograph a process of rectification is
done.
Rectification consists of a reprojection of the photograph/ negative in such a manner that the image points occupy the
same relative position as they would have occupied if the axis had been vertical. Rectification process is applied for
flat terrain only.

Q. What is Orthophoto?
A perspective photo which is free from tilt and relief displacement is called as Orthophoto.Thus a orthophoto is of
uniform scale and orthogonal projection.

Q . What is Aerial mosaic?

It is an assembly of photographs in which the edge have been cut and matched to form a continuous photographic
representation of a portion of the earth’s surface.
Due to variation of terrain height, flying height and tilt, it is not possible to fix the scale of a photo, so these photographs
give only the approximate representation of the desired scale. Thus in order to produce scale of desirable limits, the
photographs is brought to the mean scale of the area.

Q . What are the differences in map and mosaic?

A mosaic is similar to planimetric map but differs in following respects-
• Mosaic is in perspective projection while map in orthographic projection.

• A mosaic has nonuniform scale while map has uniform scale.

• A mosaic shows actual photographic image while these are portrayed by conventional symbols on the map.

Q . Represent Principal point, Isocenter and nadir point on a photograph.

 Q,. What is Principal point?
A point where the perpendicular projected from the center of the lens intersects the photo image.

Q. What is nadir point?

A point vertically beneath the camera lens at the time of exposure.
Q. What is isocenter?
The point on the photo that falls on a line approximately halfway between the principal point and
the nadir point Q . What are the products of Photogrammetry?
Aerial Photographs:
Used for interpretation, mapping, and general
planning. Mosaics:
It is a continues picture of the terrain assembled using photographs such that it gives full view of the
area. Orthophoto:
If the perspective aspect of the photograph is removed then the photograph becomes an ortho-photo. It can be used as a
planimetric map. Contour lines can be super-imposed over the ortho photograph.
The scale of such photo remains uniform throughout the
photograph. Ortho Mosaic:
The series of contiguous ortho-photographs joined
together makes Ortho mosaic.
Radar Mosaic:
The series of radar pictures when joined together
makes a continuous Radar image of the ground.
Planimetric map:
Planimetric map contains only the horizontal positions of the
features Existing on the ground.
Topographic map:Planimetric features of the terrain and shape as well as the
elevation of The ground is shown on the topographical maps. Elevation is shown
by the contour lines. Thematic Maps:
A particular theme is delineated on the thematic map. Any
number of Maps can be made of one given area e.g.
Transportation network, Drainage patterns, vegetation types,
slopes etc.
Digital terrain model: A model which represents the terrain with the help of mass points and breaklines are called as
Digital terrain model. In this manmade features and trees are not considered, only ground features are captured.

Q . What are the applications of photogrammetry?

• All kinds of maps whether Large, Small scale, can be created by photogrammetric techniques.
• Earthwork calculations with the help of design map or directly from absolutely oriented models on
stereo plotting instruments.
• Engineering applications-
• Wave shapes
• Structural deformations
• Sedimentation in channels
• Vehicular movements
4. Industrial Applications
5. Agricultural Applications
6. Slope Maps
• Analyses of ground coverage, watershed areas, snow depths to calculate run off quantities for water supply studies.
• Useful for archeologists for interpretation and measurements of ruins dating to antiquity from analyses of
aerial and terrestrial photographs.
• Interpretation of geological forms and features.
10. Mapping of landing sites on Lunar or Planetary surfaces as
well as The geological explorations of the moon and
planets.