CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1 and 2  This type of research is done on a very limited scope to solve

a particular problem which is not so big. It is almost problem

Prepared by: solving.

Micho V. Manalo, RCrim. F. According to Choice of Answers to Problems

 In Evaluation research, all possible courses of action are
Excellence in Criminological Research Awardee specified and identified and the researcher tries to find the
most advantageous.
 In developmental research, the focus is on finding or
Regional Research Champion
developing a more suitable instrument or process than has
been available.
Meaning of Research
G. According to Statistical Content
Etymology of Research: the word research is derived from the Middle  Quantitative or statistical research - is one in which
French “reserche” means “to go about seeking”; the word itself derived inferential statistics are utlized to determine the results of the
from the Old French term “recerchier = re + cerchier” menaing “to study. Inferential statistics such as correlation, chi-square,
search” analysis of variance, etc. are used to test the hypothesis.
 scientific investigation of phenomena which includes This type of research usually includes comparison studies,
collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts cause-and-effect relationships, etc.
that inks man's speculation with reality.  Non-quantitative research - This is research in which the
 systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of use of the quantity or statistics is practically nil. This is
hypothetical proposition about the presumed relations especially true in anthropological studies where description
among natural phenomena. is usually used.
 Descriptive data are gathered rather than quantitative data.
KINDS AND CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH
H. According to Time Element
A. According to Purpose  Historical research describes what was.
 Predictive or Prognostic Research - has the purpose of  Descriptive research describes what is.
determining the future operation of the variables under  Experimental research describes what will be.
investigation with the aim of controlling or redirecting such
for the better
Steps in Scientific Method of Research (Sequential)
 Directive Research - determines what should be done based
on the findings this is to remedy an unsatisfactory condition,
if there is any 1. Determining (recognizing) the problem
 Illuminative Research - is concerned with the interaction of
the components of the variable being investigated, as for 2. Forming a hypothesis
example, interaction of the components of educational
systems and aims to show the connections among, for 3. Doing the library search
example, students' characteristics, organizational pattern
and policies, and educational consequences 4. Designing the study

B. According to Goal 5. Developing the instruments for collecting data

 Basic or pure Research - is done for the development of
theories and Principles. 6. Collecting the date
 Applied Research - is the application of the results of pure
search. This is testing the efficacy of theories and principles.
7. Analyzing the data
aims to test theories and concepts developed for verification,
application, development and support and their relationship
to the existing fund of knowledge 8. Determining implications and conclusions from the findings

C. According to the Level of Investigation 9. Making recommendations for further research.

 Exploratory Research - the researcher studies the variables
pertinent to a specific situation.
 Descriptive Research - the researcher studies the
relationships of the variables. Standard format of Thesis Writing
 Experimental Research - the experiment studies the effects
of the variables on each other. 1. The Problem and the Seting

D. According to the Type of Analysis 2. Related Literature and Studies

 Analytical Research - the researcher attempts to identify and
is isolate the components of the research situation. 3. Methods of Research and Procedures
 Holistic Research - begins with the total situation. Focusing
attention on the system first and then on its internal
relationships. 4. Analysis, Presentation, and Interpretation of Data

E. According to Scope - Under this category is Action Research. 5. Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations.

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Attributes of Good Research Problem (SMART)  Researcher Instrument = the researcher obtains
information or data himself with little or no direct
 S= Specific - specifcally stated involvement of the other people
 M = Measurable - easy to measure by using research  Subject Instrument = the information is collected
instrument in collection of data directly from the Respondents
 A = Achievable - data are achievable using correct statistical  Informant Instrument = the information or data is
treatment/techniques to arrive at precise results collected from those knowledgeable of the subject
 R = Realistic - real results are not manipulated matter
 T= Time-bound - time frame is required in every activity
because the shorter completion of the activity the better Commonly Used Instruments

Plagiarism Vs Copyright Infringement  Questionnaire = written or printed form containing the

questions to be asked on the respondents.
 Plagiarism is an act of incorporating into one's work the work
of another without indicating the source Types of Questionnaire
 an act wherein the writer uses passages, ideas, writings, and
statements of others without giving due credit  Open-Ended = respondents are forced to answer the
 Copyright Infringement – use of works protected by the questions asked in the questionnaire; best suited to a
copyright law without permission. Infringing the rights of the qualitative research study
owner such as rights to reproduce, distribute, display or  Closed-Ended = also referred as guided response type,
perform the protected work or make derivative works. closed form or restricted; respondents are guided in
answering questions options may be provided like in
Theoretical Framework multiple choice test while answers are based on the
rating scales provided
 Theoretical framework is the foundation of the study.
 The theory should have a relationship with the issues posted Interview - involves face to face contact between the interviewee
in the study and the interviewer

Guidelines in choosing theory Types of Interview

 Research must be well-founded on universally accepted,  Structured Interview = there is a set of carefuly
known and tested theory, principles or concepts. prepared questions and their expected answers are
 Research may be anchored on several theories available. provided
 Unstructured Interview = respondents are free to
express their opinions - also termed as non-directive or
Conceptual Framework – illustration of how research problems
informal
are generated from the theoretical framework of the study; it may
be some sort of modification of the theoretical framework or
personally conceptualized by the researcher. Observation - may be defined as perceiving data through the
sense: sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell =sense of sight is
the most important and most used - most direct way and most
Presentation of Conceptual Framework/Paradigm
widely used in studying behavior

 The research paradigm must clearly show the major

Types of Observation
impact of an existing theory may be capsulized in a
research paradigm which may be adopted with some
modifications.  Formal Observation = researcher makes a guide on
 3. There must be textual explanations of the variables what to observe. Possible responses may also be
in the paradigm. outlined
 Informal Observation = needs critical evaluation of the
observation made to avoid biased results =
Assumption and Hypothesis
recommended for qualitative research

 Assumption = self-evident truth which is based upon

Qualities of Good Research Instrument
known fact or phenomenon. it is not usually answered
or proven because it is assumed true or correct which
are beyond the control of the researcher. 1. Validity = degree to which a measuring instrument measures
 Hypothesis = tentative conclusion or answer to specific what it intends to measure
question raised at the beginning of the investigation. It
is an educated guess about the answer to a specific Types of Validity
question.
 Content-Related Validity = refers to content and format
Research Instrument - a device designed or adopted by of the instrument which must answer the following
researcher for data gathering. criteria: appropriateness; logical; adequate, and, proper
format
Classification of Research Instrument  Criterion-Related Validity = refers to the relationship
between scores obtained using one or more
instruments or measures

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  Construct-Related Validity = refers to the nature of  Author’s name
psychological construction or characteristics being  Institutional affiliation
measured by the instrument  Course Number
 Instructor name
Reliability - extent to which the instrument is dependable, sell-  Assignment due date
consistent and stable consistency of responses from moment to
moment = even a person takes the same test twice, the test yields For Professional Paper:
the same results - reliable test may not always be valid
Include the author’s note (located beneath the institutional affiliation,
Usability = otherwise known as Practicability in the bottom half of the title page

 degree to which the research instrument can be 1. Author Note:

satisfactorily used. 1. Professional papers being submitted for
publication should include an author note on the
Levels of Interpretation title page. The note should be formatted into
separate paragraphs and include the following
 Table Reading information. Refer to the APA 7 Publication
 Implications or Meaning of Data Manual (2020) for detailed information about what
to include in each section (pp. 35-36).
 Cross referencing or corroboration wherein the results
1. In the first paragraph, provide each
are to be compared with the existing knowledge or
authors’ ORCID ID
finished studies
2. In the second paragraph, provide
information about any authors’ changes
APA 7TH EDITION in affiliation since the study began.
3. In the third paragraph, provide
General APA Guidelines acknowledgements and disclosures.

The new AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION, revised Abstract

new points in their 7th edition in October 2019.
Begin a new page. The word abstract shall be placed in the center and
Basic Guidelines that must be followed: in BOLD manner. All research information must not have any italics,
 Double-spaced underlining, or quotation marks.
 Standard-sized paper (8.5” x 11”)
 1” margins – all sides This section must be concise summary points taken from your
 Includes Page Header or also known as Running Head at research paper. Important note that ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION
the top of every page MUST NOT BE INDENTED.
1. Student paper only includes page number –
FLUSH RIGHT Abstract must contain the following:
2. Professional paper – includes title page in the  Research topic
FLUSH RIGHT and title of the paper in the
 Research questions
FLUSH LEFT
 Participants
 Paper’s title cannot exceed 50 characters including spacing
 Methods
and punctuation (applicable in the running head).
 Results
 Data analysis
FONTS
 Conclusions
 Must be accessible or legible
 Possible implications
 Must be consistent
Other important note:
FONT STYLES:
 Single paragraph
 11-point Calibri
 Double-spaced
 11-point Arial
 Not more than 250 words
 10-point Lucida Sans Unicode
 Keywords are necessary (italicized)
 12-point Times New Roman
 11-point Georgia
 10-point Computer Modern

Major Paper Sections:

 Title Page
 Abstract
 Main Body
 References

Title Page

The title page must contain:

 Title of the paper
3 CRIMINOLOGY/MANALO MICHO/CLE January 2024
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Note: Abstracts are common in scholarly journal articles and are not Footnotes, Headnotes, and Endnotes
typically required for student papers unless advised by an instructor. A footnote is a reference placed at the bottom of a page or footer. They
are referenced in the text in the same way as a citation i.e. the
APA CITATION – BASIC referenced text is followed by a superscript numeral ( 1), which
corresponds to the numbered footnote at the bottom of the page. When
writing your research paper, you would use a footnote for two major
In-text citation is follows two forms: Narrative and Parenthetical
reasons:
Citation and follows the author-date system. Meaning, the surname of
the author must come first and year of publication in the succeeding
space. When you are referring to an idea that comes from another 1. To cite sources of facts or quotations
work but not directly quoting the material – only use the author-date 2. Provide additional information
method. However, when quoting a direct work, always include the The two types of footnotes are:
page number (p. or pp.)
 Content: Supplements or simplifies substantive information;
In using signal phrases, one should use the past tense or present not detailed.
perfect tense (for example, Jones (1998) found or Jones (1998) has 
found...).  Copyright permission: Cites quoted text and any reprinted
materials used in the text.
Example:
Endnotes
(Manalo, 2022, p. 12); (Manalo, 2022, pp.12-15) Endnotes are much the same as footnotes except that they are placed
at the end your research paper instead of at the bottom of a page. In
A WORK BY ONE AUTHOR books, they can be placed after each chapter or at the end of the book.
In many cases, the book publisher decides the best placement.
Endnotes, as footnotes, are numerically noted in superscript. The
It still uses the same manner or methodology "AUTHOR-DATE”. format is the same as that for footnotes.
 As Manalo (2022) mentioned… MAJOR CHANGES THAT 7TH EDITION PROVIDED TO EXECUTE
 (Manalo, 2022) YOUR PAPER PRIM AND PROPER:

A WORK BY TWO AUTHORS

 As Apuya and Manalo (2022)
 (Apuya & Manalo, 2022)

A WORK BY THREE OF MORE AUTHORS 1. The publisher location is no longer included in the reference.
2. The APA in-text citation for works with three or more authors
Note: In et al., et should not be followed by a period. Only "al" should is now shortened right from the first citation. You only include
be followed by a period. the first author’s name and “et al.”.
 Based on the study conducted by Manalo et al. (2022)
 (Manalo et al., 2022)
 Jones, Smith, Liu, Huang, and Kim (2020)
 Jones, Smith, Ruiz, Wang, and Stanton (2020) 3. Surnames and initials for up to 20 authors (instead of 7)
 should be provided in the reference entry.

UNKNOWN AUTHORS
 (Anonymous, 2022) – utilize only when the resources
specifically stated that the author is anonymous. 4. DOIs are formatted the same as URLs. The label “DOI:” is
 If so happened that the work has no author, cite the source no longer necessary.
by its title or use the first two words in the parenthesis 5. URLs are no longer preceded by “Retrieved from,” unless a
retrieval date is needed. The website name is included
(unless it’s the same as the author)
SHORT QUOTATIONS
 If you are directly quoting from a work, you will need to Inclusive and bias-free language
include the author, year of publication, and page number for Writing inclusively and without bias is the new standard, and APA’s
the reference (preceded by "p." for a single page and “pp.” new publication manual contains a separate chapter on this topic.
for a span of multiple pages, with the page numbers The guidelines provided by APA help authors reduce bias around
separated by an en dash). topics such as gender, age, disability, racial and ethnic identity, and
sexual orientation, as well as being sensitive to labels and describing
EXAMPLE: individuals at the appropriate level of specificity. Some examples
include:
According to Jones (1998), "students often had difficulty using APA
style, especially when it was their first time" (p. 199) The singular “they” is endorsed as a gender-neutral pronoun.

LONG QUOTATIONS

Place direct quotations that are 40 words or longer in a free-standing

block of typewritten lines and omit quotation marks. Start the quotation Instead of using adjectives as nouns to label groups of people,
on a new line, indented 1/2 inch from the left margin, i.e., in the same descriptive phrases are preferred.
place you would begin a new paragraph
4 CRIMINOLOGY/MANALO MICHO/CLE January 2024
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 Instead of broad  Studies importance to sectors it may be beneficial
categories, you should
use exact age ranges Scope and Limitation
that are more relevant and specific.
 Scope or Delimitation are those factors that are controlled by
APA Paper format the researchers; the factors that the researchers establish to
In the 7th edition, APA decided to provide different paper format provide boundaries
guidelines for professional and student papers. For both types, a  Limitation/s are considered out of control
sample paper is included. Some notable changes include:
Definition of Terms
Increased flexibility regarding fonts: options include Calibri 11, Arial 11,
Lucida Sans Unicode 10, Times New Roman 12, and Georgia 11.
 Constitutive/Conceptual = solely defined by dictionaries
 Operational/Functional = the definition is depending upon
The running how the study uses the term
head on the title
page no longer
includes the words “Running head:”. It now contains only a page Chapter 2:
number and the (shortened) paper title.
Review of Related Literature and Studies
PARTS OF THE RESEARCH PAPER
 Related Literatures are generally those that published
Title:  Related Studies are generally the works that are
unpublished
 Subject and Scope
Chapter: Experimental Designs
 No Abbreviation
 Variables
 Number of words for title is unindentified Quantitative: Using numbers, statistics – statistically minimum of 30
respondents
CHAPTER 1
Qualitative: data are in form of words – minimum of 1 participants: 50
maximum participants
Introduction/Background of the Study
QUANTITAIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS
a. Introduction of the topic (Carl’s Model)
b. Relate to current knowledge
c. Indicate the research gaps Experimental Design:

Conceptual Framework 1. True Experimental Design – random assignment of

participants; equal chances; used in large populations
2. Quasi-experimental – no random assignment
a. Visual representation or relationship between variables
Non-experimental Designs
 Independent Variable
 Dependent Variable
1. Descriptive – simple qualitative summary
2. Comparative – differences between tow groups
Determining the Goal of the Study 3. Correlational – deals with the relationship of two distinct
variables
a. Purpose of the Study – Infinitive Form
b. Statement of the Problem – Interrogative Form  Positive Correlation – p-value of less than 0.05
 Negative Correlation – p-value of more than 0.05
Hypothesis
4. Survey – information collected from the group
a. Tentative answer that must be tested
 Large number – Population
 Two Types of Hypotheses  Small Number – Respondents

 Null (H-Naught) 5. Secondary Data Analysis – existing database (no

 Alternative (H sub 1) respondents)

Assumption: QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

a. No test necessary since this is presumptively believed to be 1. Ethnography – studies the culture and social system;
true. description and interpretation of a cultural or social group;
focuses on the pattern of actions
Significance of the Study 2. Phenomenology – studies the lived experiences; conducts
long interviews

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  Transcendental – obtain unbiased description of the Recommendations
raw data  An appeal to people or institutions of solve the problems
 Hermeneutic – opinion of the researcher is prominent discovered in the study
to interpret the meaning  Practicable and attainable

3. Case study – single entity; a detailed study of a specific CRIME AND STATISTICS
subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization,  Refers to the measure of level or amount of crimes
or phenomenon.  Uses the term index and non-index crimes
4. Grounded Theory – studying phenomenon in forming
theories Index Crimes -crimes that significantly occurs regularly; crimes against
persons and property
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Non-Index Crimes – violation of special laws and other crimes against
 Basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an moral and order
unknown piece of information
Statistics Formula:
PROBABILITY SAMPLING – every member has equal chances 1. Crime Solution Efficiency – percentage of solved cases out
of the total number of reported crimes incidents. It is the
 Simple Random Sampling – literal equal chance general measure of law enforcement agency’s investigative
 Systematic – selection of every Kth of population capability of efficiency
 Stratified – dividing the population into subgroups/strata
 Cluster – dividing the population into sections then selecting
a group to serve as the respondents

NON-PROBABILITY – careful consideration in choosing

2. Crime Rate – the number of incidents in a given period of
respondents/participants
time for every 100,000 population
 Purposive Sampling – choosing based on the goals of the
study; at least 3 criteria aligned to the goals of the study.
 Quota Sampling – proportions of the groups in the
population
 Snowball – respondents/participants of this study is tasked
to recruit members inconsideration of prize 3. Average Monthly Crime Rate – the average number of crime
 Convenience/Chance/Accidental/Grab Sampling incidents occurred per month for every 100,000 inhabitants
in a certain area.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
Scales of Level of Measurement
True Zero Set Interval Order Categorization
Ratio
Interval 4. Variance (or %change) – one way of analyzing crime trends;
Ordinal measures the percentage change every over a given period
Nominal of time
5. Crime Analysis
MEASURE OF CENTRAL TENDENCY:
 Mean – sum all the digits then divided by the total number of a. Percentage Share of Crime Volume of a Certain
values Area
 Median – middle number
 Mode – most frequent value appearing

Chapter IV

Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

 Contains the answer to all the sub-problems of the study
 Answers the presented through textual and tabular

Chapter V b. Percentage Share of the Occurrences of a type of

crime
CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATION
References:
Conclusions
 Written in past tense Purdue OWL. (n.d.). APA Formatting and Style
 Should be based on the findings of the study
 Should not contain any numerals from the findings Guide (7th Edition). Purdue University.
 Organized and categorized according to the sub-problems https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style
/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/index.html

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Ventura, R. & Viola, A. (2022). Comprehensive

Review Guide to Criminology: Correctional Administration and

Criminology. Ultimate Learning Series.

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