UNIT 4 MAMMALS

Structure
Introduction
Objectives
General Characters and Classification
Natural History
MonotremataIPrototheria
Marsupialia
Eutheria
Economic Importance
Evolution and Affinities
Threatened Species in India
summary
Terminal Questions
Answers

INTRODUCTION
You have so far studied about vertebrates which lay eggs and take little or no care of
their young ones. Now you will study a group of vertebrates that give birth to young
ones and take care of them by nourishing them. They are called mammals. The name is
derived from Latin word "mamma" meining breasts. Mammals are provided with mammary
glands or breasts which secrets milk that is fed to young ones. The fertilized egg is
retained within the uterus of the mother where it undergoes development in relative
security. During development a structure called placenta is formed. It helps in supplying
nourishment and oxygen to the developing embryo. It also helps the embryo in getting
rid of nitrogenous wastes and carbon dioxide. All the four foetal membranes are formed
during embryonic development. Allantois and the yolk sac establish close contact with
the uterine wall and form the placenta. Mammalia represent the most successful and at
present the most dominant group of tetrapod vertebrates on earth. There are about 5000
species of mammals alive today. As the body of reptiles is covered by scales and that of
buds by feathers and the body of mammals is covered by hairs. Hairs also form an
insulation to the body like feathers and helps in maintaining constant body temperature.
So mammals are also warm blooded (Homeothermic) as birds. Mammals are widely
distributed. They occur in the coldest regions of the earth like the arctics and the hottest
regions like the sand deserts. They occupy all types of land habitats. They walk, run,
swim, burrow and fly. There are mammals adapted to flying and aquatic life. The brain of
mammals is well developed. They are more intelligent than other vertebrates. Mammals
represent the zenith of vertebrate evolution at present. The present geological period is
called the GOLDEN AGE OF MAMMALS. Man belongs to this group of vertebrates and
stands at the pinnacle of evolution today.

Objectives 0

After reading this unit you should be able to:

explain important characters of mammals which have contributed to the success of
their life on land,
give an account of nonplacental mammals,
describe adaptations in bats for flight and whales for aquatic mode of life,
explain dentition in mammals,
discuss the evolution of man,
f)O
list the names of threatened species of mammals in India.
 Mammals
4.2 GENERAL CHARACTERS A N D CLASSIFICATION
1. The body of mammals is covered by hairs. Hairs and other structures like claws,
hoofs and nails on the digits as also scales found in some mammals as on the tail
of rats, form the epidermal exoskeleton of mammals.
2 Mammals are homeothermic. The hairy covering o f the body and sweat glands
found in the skin help in maintaining constant body temperature.
3. A number of glands like sebaceous, sweat, scent and mammary (milk) are present in
the skin of mammals.
4. The skeleton of mammals is well ossified. The cranium inntheskull is large. The
skull is bicondylar i.e., two occipital condyles. Teeth are heterodont (occurrence of
different types of teeth), thecodont (teeth fitted into pits on the jaw bones) and Ossify : make or become
hard like bone or change into
diphydont (occurrence of two sets of teeth in the life of a mammal). The lower jaw bone.
is made of only one bone, the dentary. The upper jaw is hsed with the skull and
the lower jaw articulates directly with the skull. There are seven vertebrae in the
neck of mammals irrespective of the length of the neck. An external ear opening
and an external ear, the pinna are present. There are three ossicles in the middle ear
(incus, malleus and stapes). They help in transferring sound waves to the internal
ear.
5. The brain is comparatively large when compared to oher vertebrates. The cerebrum
is well developed. There are four optic lobes (called corpora quadrigemina) as
opposed to only two in the brain of other vertebrates. There are 12 pairs of cranial
nerves.
6. The heart of mammals is four chambered. Both auricle and ventricle are completely
divided into right and left chambers. The opening between the left auricle and the
left ventricle is guarded by the bicuspid valve whereas the opening between the
right auricle and the right ventricle is guarded by ths tricuspid valve (Fig.4.1). The
presence of these valves is characteristic of mammals. There is only one aortic arch,
the left aortic arch which curves around to the.dorsa1 side and forms the dorsal
aorta. The red blood corpuscles are non-nucleated except in camels where they are
nucleated.

Superior vena cava

\ Atrioventricular node veins

\ Sinus node

' Ventricular septum

Fig.4.I: Cutaway view o i the human heart showing bicuspid and tricuspid valves.
Diversity in Chordates 7. There is a muscular diaphragm separating the abdominal cavity from the thoracic
(Fig. 4.2). The diaphragm helps in respiration. Lowering and raising of the
diaphragm sucks in and pushes out air from the lungs during respiration.

,!nciw'r teeth

Sub-maxillary glands

Fig.4.2: Dissection of rat showing diaphragm which sepatatw the abdominal cavity from
thoracic.

8. Lungs are elastic and contain small air cavities called alveoli. There is a voice box
called larynx in the trachea. It helps in producing sound.
9. The kidney of an adult mammal is formed fiom metanephros. A urinary bladder is
usually present.
10. .Sexes are separate. There is sexual dimorphism. The male mammals are provided
with copulatory organ called penis, It helps in transferring sperm (semen) to the
female genital tract during copulation. Testes are usually present in extra abdominal
sac like structures called scrotum. Fertilization is internal. Mammals are viviparous
(having offspring which develops within mother's body). A placenta is formed
during embryonic development. The anus and the urinogenital openings are
separate and a cloaca is absent except in Monotremata. 4

Classification:
Mammals are classified on the basis of the nature of teeth, limbs and the presence of
claws, hoofs or nails on the digits. The class Mammalia is divided into three subclasses
based on the nature of reproduction.
Subclass I :Prototheria 1 Monotremata:
It includes primitive reptile-like mammals. They lay yolky eggs yet secrete milk and are
fundamentally different fiom all other members of the class mammalia. Testes are
abdominal in position. They possess a cloaca. The external ear (pinna) is absent. They Mammals
are restricted to Australia, Tasmania and New Guinea.

Examples: The spiny ant eater (Tachyglossus~Echidna,(Fig. 4.3).

~ta& Fore i;mb GIG. (ly)lts

Fig.4.3: Echidna, The mouth is small but it has a long sticky tongue to gather up its mites
d
and ants.

The duckbill Platypus (Ornithorhynchus) (Fig. 4.4) is an egg laying mammal and exhibits
a combination of reptilian and mammalian characters. Reptilian features are uninogenital
system, precoracoids, absence of pinna etc. Mammalian features include hair, diaphragm,
4-chambered heart; 3 ear ossicles etc. Duckbill inhabits rivers, pools, and creeks and
burrows to 40 feet long in river banks. The animal feeds on freshwater invertebrates,
carried in cheeck pouches. Upper jaw forms a flattened beak covered with a smooth,
hairless skin which forms a free fold at the base of the beak. Adult has no teeth and
jaws are covered with horny plates. Limbs have 5-clawed and webbed digits. Tail
happens to be flat and adapted for swimming. Mammary glands are without nipples.
Female makes nest of roots and leaves during spring in burrows and lays 1-3 eggs.
Young ones hatched out of eggs are nursed by milk secreted by scattered mammary
glands on the abdomen of female.

Fig.4.4: Ornithorhynchs.

Subclass 11: Metatheria / Marsupialia

There is a ventral abdominal pouch called marsupium in the females. The young ones are
retained and protected in this pouch. The young pups born after a short gestation period
(13 days in the kangaroo) are transferred to the marsupium, nourished and protected there
until they are able to look after themselves. The animals are confined to Australia and
America.
Diversity in Chordates

,, Fig.4.5: Macropus

The Kangaroos (Macropus conguru) (Fig. 4.5) have become mostly terrestrial and
developed a bipedal method of progression. Their bipedal locomotion involves
modification of the ilia and thigh muscles for whose attachment the tibia bears a marked
anterior crest. The foot gains increased leverage by elongation of metatarsal of digit 4.
Digits 2 and 3 are very small and syndactylous. Due to hopping habit of kangaroos, it is
no surprise to see that their hind limbs are long but it is somewhat surprising to find that
their fore-limbs are quite short. Most of the length is provided by the long forearm bones
which are considerably longer than the humerus. If the animal bends forward, its fore-
limbs soon touch the ground. Do they have any function in locomotion? The fact is that
they do, because kangaroos have a crawling gait in which the forelimbs and tail are used
as props.

Kangarocs (Marsupials) are pouched, ovoviviparous mammals that exhibit a second

pattern of reproduction. These marsupials do have a primitive type of placenta, called a f
choriovitelline or yolksac, placenta. The embryo or blastocyst of a marsupial is at first
encapsulated by shell membranes and floats free for several days in the uterine fluid.
After hatching from the shell membranes the embryo does not implant, or take root in A

uterus as it does in euthqrians, but it does erode a shallow depression in the uterine wall
in which it lies and absorbs nutrient secretions from the mucosa by the way of ,

vascularised yolk sac. Gebtation the period of intrauterine development is brief in

marsupials and all marsuqials give birth to tiny young which are still embryos both
anatomically and physiologically. However, early birth is followed by prolonged interval
of lactation and parental care. After gestation the young is born, attaches to nipple. The
mother immediately becomes pregnant again, but the presence of a sucking young in the
pouch arrests developmeqt of the new embryo in uterus about 'the 100 celled stage'..

Subclass 111: Eutheria / Placentalia

' The embryo develops completely in the uterus of the mother. A placenta develops to
protect and to nourish the embryo. The young ones are born at a relatively advanced Mammals '
stage of development. They are fed with milk secreted by the mammary glands. There are
R total of 28 orders of which only 16 orders are represented by living examples. A few
important orders are mentioned here. For a complete classification of living mammals see
Appendix I1 at the back of this block.

Order
1. Insectivora (Insect eaters) : Insectivorous and burrowers. Examples are : Shrews and
moles (Figs. 4.6 & 4.7).

Head A

I
Fore limb I
Hind limb

Fig.4.6: Sorer (Shrew).

Fig.4.7: Talpa (Mole)

insectivores' are mostly small, nocturnal animals, maintaining many of the earliest
mammalian features, possibly because of their special habits. They are adapted for
sub-terranean burrowing habit and they live in tunnel. They are usually .
opportunistic feeders which feed on a variety of small invertebrates such as worms
and grubs as well as Insects. Insectivores represent primitive eutherian characters of
having small cranial cavity, low grade brain as exhibited by the presence of smooth
cerebral hemispheres, inguinal testes, discoidal and dedrduate placenta with
provision for yolk sac placenta. Many insectivores hibernate in winter and are
provided with special reserves of fat for this purpbse. Most of them are solitary but
some have social habits, exchanging auditory and olfactory signals. They make
simple nests.
Chiroptera (G.K. Cheir : hand, pteron : wing) are Flying mammals (Fig. 4.8). Except
for their specialisation for flight the bats stand very close to.the insectivor?~.
These animals diverged early and their characteristic features developed in the early
Eocene. They are the only mammals which truly fly by flapping the wings. In
Diversity in Chordates acquiring the power of flight they have evolved many features which are parallel
with the birds such as economy of weight in the skeleton and gut and active
metabolism. Bats usually hang their heads downwards when not flying and to
excrete they turn and hang by the claw of the pollex, so that wing is not soiled.
There is no upward temperature regulation when a bat is hanging. The animal
becomes very cold everytime it rests. The cooling provides a great economy of
food. When first wakened the bat can walk, open its mouth and bite or cry out, but
can only fly after a period of some minutes of warming up by jerking the legs and
shivering.

Fig.4.8: Bat

3. Edentata (toothless) : Teeth are lost or reduced because of insectivorous diet.

Examples : armadillo and scaly anteater (Figs. 4.9 & 4.10). They all possess a long
snout and tongue, very large salivary glands. The special features of Edentates are
mostly as a result of special ways of life, often leading to bizarre external
appearances such as the long snout of the great ant-eater or the carapace of the
armadillo. Armadillos are nocturnal and fossorial and obtain protection by the
development of bony plates in the skin, these being covered by horny scutes. The
teeth are simple uniform pegs like without enamel and with open roots and
continuous growth. Tail is prehensile when disturbed. Manis rolls its body with
head between the fore-legs and tail around body. Manis are commonly called scaly
anteaters or pangolins. The absence of teeth, the elongated snout, long thin
torigue, simple stomach, reduced ears and long claws are all features found in other
anteaters as well as in Manis.

Transverse bands Of bony scutes

Fig.4.9: Darypus (Armadillo).

 Mammals

External ear

Clawed digits Fore limb Hind

\ limb

Fig.4.10: Manis Scaly anteater or pangolin.

Fig.4.11: Hare (Lepus).

Fig.4.12: Rabbit (Orydolagus) .

4. Lagomorpha (hare shaped) : have long, constantly growing incisors, like rodents,
but unlike rodents they have an additional pair of peglike incisors growing behind
the first pair. So they possess 3 pairs of incisors. Examples are hares and rabbits
(Figs. 4.1 1 & 4.12). ALI lagomorphs are herbivores with cosmopolitan distribution.
Diversity in Chordates Hares and rabbits and some rodents often eat their faecal pellets (Coprographyj,
giving the food a second pass through the fermenting action of the intestinal
bacteria. This way coprography may also provide an opportunity for the animal to
obtain vitamin produced by the cecal bacteria.

Fig.4.14: Squirrel (Fllnambulus).

5. Rodentia are gnawers (rats, squirrel, Figs. 4.13 & 4.14, Mice etc). They, comprising
nearly 40% of all mammal species, are characterised by two pairs of razor, sharp
incisors used for gnawing through the toughest pods and shells for food. With
their impressive reproductive power, adaptability and capacily to invade all
terrestrial habitats, they are of great ecological significance.

--

Fig.4.15: Platanisla gangeticus (Ganga dolphin).

 6. Cetacea (whale-like) ;are aquatic mammals. Fore limbs are modified as nippers. Hind
limbs are absent. Body is covered by scanty hair. The nostrils are represented by a
single or double blow-hole on top on the head. Examples are whales, dolphins (Fig.
4.15) and porpoises. Large whales and dolphins sleep in the sea. In many respects
the whales have reverted to the characteristics of a fish form of life partictilarly in
body shape with elongated head, no neck and tapering, streamlined body. Dolphins
can swim at upto 40 kmh for many hours. The propulsive thrust comes largely
Porpoise sea animal rather
from the horizontally placed tail flues. In the forelimb the humerus is short, the than like a dolphin or small
elbow joint is hardly mobile and the hand increased. in length and sometimes whale.
expanded. The number of fingers is often reduced to four, the phalanges of some
of the digits may be considerably increased in number (hyperphalangy). The
scapula is flattened and there is no clavicle. The behaviour of whale is elaborate
involving social life, communication by sound, and probably much learning. Play is
common and rhythmical dancing has been observed. Also homosexual behaviour
and masturbation in captivity are noticed.

.. i
Fig.4.16: Elephas maxims (Elephant).

7. Proboscoides (with a trunk) are herbivorous and huge terrestrial mammals (Fig. 4.16)
with an efficient nervous organisation for finding the food, efficient means of
collecting it, and large well, organised surfaces for grinding it. When a suitable tree
is found the elephant shakes it with his trunk for its fruits and then uses his
weight to push it down with forehead. He may scrape off the bark with the tusks.
The trunk is main organ of collection with enormously elongated nose and upper
lip, with appropriate muscles and sensitive tip. Each jaw has 3 molars but at a time
only one ( or sometimes two) is functional. This is because molars develop in a
series. After several years of working the functional molar wears away and falls off
and the next molar takes its place. All this is possible because inspite of being
t
thecodont the molars of elephants do not 6 x iii a socket but are lodged in a bony
canal. Large size and large brain go with long life and by serial use of their molars.
s
Female elephants live upto 60 and males to 50 years in grasslands, perhaps to 80
years in montane areas.
8. Carnivora (flesh eaters) They all have predatory habits and possess sharp c1av.r~on
digits. Teeth are specialised. for catching and tearing prey. They are carnivorous in
diet. Examples are cats, Cheetah (Fig. 4.17) leopard, lion (Fig. 4.18), tiger, domestic
cat (Fig. 4.19), dogs, fox, wolf, (Fig. 4.20) common dog etc.
 Diversity in Chordates
I r

Fig.4.17: Aeinonyx jubatus {Cheetah).

Fig.4.18: Panthera leo (lion).

Fig.4.19: Felis bengalensis (Leopard cat).

 Mammals

.
. - Fig.4.20: Canis lupus (wolf).

9. Artiodaetyla (even toed) arc hoofed mammals with a ruminant stomach and possess
even number of toes in limbs. Animals also possess horn and antlers. Examples are
pig (Fig. 4.21), cattle, ox, (Fig. 4.22), sheep (Fig. 4.23), goat, deer (Fig. 4.24), camel
(Fig. 4.25), giraffe (Fig. 4.26). Most of these ungulates have two toes, although the
hippopotamus and some others have four. Each toe is sheathed in a cornified hoof.
Many such as the cow, deer and sheep have horns. Many are ruminants which
mean animals that chew the cud. They are strictly herbivorous.

Fig.4.21: Sus scrofa (Pig or Wild boar).

FigA.22: Musk Ox.

Diversity in Chordates

Fig.4.23: Ovis (Sheep).

Fig.4.24: musk deer.

Fig.4.25: Camelus dromdorus (Ambirn camel).

 Mammals

Fig.4.26: Giraffa camelopardalis (Giraffe).

10. Perissodactyla (odd toed) are hoofed mammals with odd number of toes, and
herbivorous in diet. Examples are horse (Fig. 4.27), zebra (Fig. 4.28), rhinoceros,
(Fig. 4.29), donkey (Fig. 4.30), etc. The horse family (Equidae), which includes
horses, and zebras has only one functional toe. Tapirs have a short proboscis
formed from the upper lip and nose.

u
Fig.4.27: Equus caballus (Horse).
Diversity i n Chordates

Fig.4.28: Equus zrbrn (Zebra).

Fig.4.29: Rhinoceros.

Fig.430: Equus h e n i a ~ l s(Ass or Donkey).

'
11. Primates (highest) as a group they are generalised with five digits on both fore-
limbs and hindlimbs and possess opposable thumb. All digits have nails. All have
their bodies covered with bair except humans. Forelimbs are often adapted for
grasping, as are the hindlimbs sometimes. Examples are lemurs, tarsiers, monkey
(Fig. 4.3 I), ape; gibbon (Fig. 4.32).
 Mammals

Fig.4.3 I: Rhesus monkey (Mucaccr).

Fig.4.32: Gibbon (Hylobarrs lar) on the ground gibbons are the only non-human primates
that move on their h i d legs.

SAQ 1
i) Mention four important characters of class Mammalia.
ii) In group A names of mammals and in group B places of their availability are given.
Match the names in group A with places in group B.
GmpA GroupB
I. Echidna a Africa
2 Opossum b. AssarnlIndia
3. Rhinoceros c. America
4. Zebra d. Australia
i Match the mammals given in group A with orders given in group B.
GmpA G w B
1. Bats a Rodentia
2 Rats b. Carnivora
3. Cats c. Chiroptera
4. Goats d. Artiodactyla
iv) Match the method of hcomotion given in group A with mammals given in group B.
GmpA Grow-‘
1. Flyingmammals a Whales
2 Swinrmingd b. Bat
3. Swinging mammal c. Man
4. WaKmg mammal d. Chimparu;ce
v) Mention the three subclasses of class Mammaria with 2 examples for each.
Diversity in Chordrtes
4.3 NATURAL HISTORY
The class Mammalia includes the most successful tetrapod vertebrates. Mamma'ia are
interesting for their behavioural patterns. They are very alert and are provided with highly
developed nervous system, particularly the brain. This character has given them the
advantage of adapting to any condition and any htlbitat. They display the highest level
of intelligence among vertebrates. They exhibit remarkable range of activities. The body
temperature of mammals ranges from 37°C to 42°C. The normal body temperature of man
is 98.6"F. The insulation around the body provided by the hairy covering has made
possible maintenance of constant body temperature. There are sweat and sebaceous
glands in the skin of mammals. Sweating is a specific physiological process found in
mammals only. It helps in getting rid of excess body heat. Sweat glands secrete a watery
sweat which, when evaporated on the skin's surface draws heat from the skin and cools
it. Sweating helps in cooling the body temperature, when the outside temperature is high.
Further, some amount of waste material is also got rid off through sweating. Sweating
thus helps in excretion also. These qualities of mammals have helped them to survive in
severe competition with other land vertebrates.

Mammals are most widely distributed. They are capable of living in a wide range of
habitats. They occur in all the continents of the earth. Polar bears and seals are adapted
to live in sub zero temperatures of the arctic regions. Camels and a number of species of
rats are adapted to live in the hottest deserts. Seals have succeeded in conquering the
seas. Beavers and otters live in freshwater lakes and rivers. Bats are adapted to a life of
flying. Still mammals are essentially terrestrial animals. They live in many types of habitats
on land. They are arboreal living among branches of the trees, burrow and live under-
ground in dark caves, at all altitudes among high mountain ranges up to 20,000 feet.
Tundra : wide, treeless plain There are species of goats and sheep which live among the rocky hills and mountains.
of the arctic regions (of Most rodents, carnivores, and ungulates live in open grass lands and forests ranging
Russia. Siberia) marshy in from dense tropical jungles to treeless aAetic tundra. Most mammals are diurnal and a few
summer and frozen hard in are noncturnal in habit.
winter.
Mammals differ in their stature, shape, colouration and mode of life, type of the food
consumed and shelter used, their social organisation and customs. Each kind of mammal
has a definite geographical and ecological range. The range of habitat limitations may be
narrow as ia beavers or wide spread as in rats. Many are solitary (lions, mink, rodents
etc.), 0 t h move
~ in packs (wolves and hyaenas), prairie dogs live in colonial burrows
mammals like buffaloes and deer live in herds or in social groups as in primates. Food
and cover available decide the density of populations; shrews and mice live 50-100 per
acre, squirrels 2-10 per tree group, deer 25-40 per acre etc. They occur in large numbers
in tropics and least in polar regions. Populations of mammals is usually constant unless
modified by natural calamities like drought, flood, scarcity of food and human
interference.

There are a number of glands in the skin of mammals, like sweat glands, sebacious
glands, scent glands and all the important mammary glands. Mammary glands secrete milk
which is fed to the young. The secretion of scent glands is useful to the animals as a
means of chemical communication between the sexes of a species or members of a group
in the species. The scent gland secretions help in attracting males and females to meet
, and mate. Skunks are provided with odoriferous glands opening into the anus. The
secretion can be thrown as a jet and its bad odour repels the enemies. Thus, it is used in
defense against enemies. Sweat glands are helpful in regulating body temperature. The
secretions of sebacious glands are discharged into the hair follicles and this helps in
keeping the hairs soft, glossy and shining. It also helps to maintain the skin soft. There
are tear glands (lachrymal glands) found near the eyes and their secretions help in
keeping the eye balls clean and moist. Mammary glands are modified sebacious glands
and they are usually well developed and secretary in the female mammals. The develop-
ment, differentiations and functions of the mammary glands are regulated by hormones.
They become secretary soon after the birth of the young. The number and position of
mammary glands differ in different orders of mammals. In carnivores and rodents there are
more than one pair of mammary glands located along the ventral surface of the thoracico-
abdominal region. In ruminant ungulates (cattle, sheep, goat etc.) they are inguinal in
position. In Primates (monkeys, apes and human) there is only one pair of mammary
glands found on the ventral surface of the thoracic region.
Teeth are well developed. Teeth are absent in the adults of Cetacea, Edentata and
Prototheria. The number of teeth present and their arrangement varies in different species.
The nature and arrangement of teeth are called dentition and expression of the number of
different types of teeth in a particular species is called the dental formula. You will study
in great detail about dentition in Unit 6 of Block I1 of Animal Diversity-I1 course.
A typical malnmalian tooth has t\vo portions. One part embedded in the pit o f the jaw
bone forms the root and the part exposed and is norlnally visible above the jaws is the
crown. I t is the crown that i s uscd for mastication. The tooth is essentially made up of a
specific substance called dentine. Daritinc i s found both in the root and the crown.
Dentine in the crown part is covered by a shiny subst:~ncecalled the enamel, and in the
root by cement. the!^. is a cavity in the centre o f the tooth which contains the connec-
tive tissue, nerves and blood capillaries. This is called the pulp cavity. Tooth, in general
in vertebrates is derived from the placoid scales o f fishes. In other non-mammalian
vertebrates teeth are similar in structure, shape arid function. This is called homodont
condition. But in niammals teeth differ in structure and fullction. This is called heterodont
condition. In mammals four dilferent types of' teeth are found. the chisel shaped incisors
at the front, conical canines on the sides and premolars and molars at the extreme ends
o f tlie jaws. on either side. Incisors are helpful in cutting the food, the canines in tearing
tlie food, premolars and molars in grinding tlie food. Most mammah develop two sets o f
teeth in their life time.

'The lirst set o f teeth appears early in life. This is called tlie milk set. Later this is
replaced by a more permanent set wliic!l lasts tlie \vhole o f tlle adult life o f an animal.
'This condition o f developing two sets 01' teeth during a life time is called diphyodont
condition.

Dentitition has been used in classifying Placental mammals. Dentition o f mammals reflects
adaptive radiation with reference to tlle type o f food and feeding habits. The condition o f
dentition of-a mammal is best illustrated by dentnl fornl~ria.In carnivora, canines are large
and strong and help in capttlrilig prey and flesh. Further, the last premolar o f the upper
jaw and the first niolar o f the lower jaw on each side are specialised and adjusted to cut
against each other. This modified set o f teeth in Carnivores is called the carnassial teeth.
It is a characteristic o f Carnivora. In rabbits the canines are absent. This results in
occurrence of a wide gap between llle incisors and premolars on each side. This gap is
called diastemma. But the incisors are \\*ell developed for gnawing. The incisors o f
Rode~ltiaand Lagotnorpha are endowed with a persistent pulp and continue to grow
throughout life. In other herbivorous nianinlals like ungulates the canines are small and
rtldimentary. But tlie molars are well 1;eveloped with prominent grinding ridges at the top.

Only one pair o f continually growing upper incisors in elephants forming the two big
lrpcurvcd tusks composed o f solid dentine except for a temporary cap o f enamel at the
tip. This Inass o f ivory is useful for defence and perhaps in food collection but this is
not just o f iniportance in feeding. Elepliants tusks are used for ivory jewellery. This has
led to mass killing o f tlie animal for ivory leading to decline in their number. O f late, there
i s a worldwide niovernent against purchase o f ivory so that a~limalshave chance to
survive in future. The tusks are smaller in females. The tusks o f the male elephants are
modified incisors. In the wild boar the tusk is the modified canine.

The d e n t ~ formula
l (the number and the arrangement o f different types o f teeth) includes
the number o f each o f the four types o f teeth on one half o f each jaw. There is bilateral
symmetry in the arrangement o f teeth in each jaw. For explanation you consider the
2- 1-2-3 2 1 2 3
dental formula o f man; 2-1-2-3 or i 2 c 1pm m 3=32.
The letters i. c, pm and ni refer to incisor, canine, premolar and molar respectively. Each
type nuiiiber may be written preceded by the indicative letter or the numbers only be
represented. The numbers on the uppcr row indicate the teeth in one half o f the upper
.jaw and those on the lower row the teeth in one half o f the lower jaw. Add the number
in the two rows together and multiply it by two to get the total number o f teeth in that
sninial. For example, the total number of teeth in man is 32, The basic total number o f
3- 1-43
teeth for mammal is 44 and the dentnl formula is 3-111-3 This typical condition is
found in the horse.

Thu dental formula for a few common mammals is given below:

3- 1-42 3- 1-3- I 3-0- 1-3 14-04

dog 3-1-43 = 42' C" 3-1-7-1 = 30, cow j-0-1-3 = 28, Elephant O-m= 26 In

elephants all the 6 pairs o f molar in cacli jaw, arc not fi~nctionalat the sanie time. Only
one pair is active at a time.

In elephants the teeth are allowed lo Somi high up in the skull, so that each tooth has a
very great area. made up by the fusion o f as many as twenty seven separate plates.
D i t e r s i t y tn C hurdates These plates develop as separate cones of dentine and enamel, each with its own pulp
cavity. The three elements of teeth are exposed and they wear at slightly different rates
leaving a rough surface. Each tooth is worn away gradually from infront backwards. The
elephant molar is a horizontal shearing device, not a grind~ngone. During the course of
evolution the number of plates has increased and they have become thinner and more
closely packed so as to provide more shearing surfaces at each stroke (Fig. 4.33).

Fig.433: Molar of elephant showing its natural features.

The method of locomotion and the manner of use of limbs during locomotion varies
among mammals. Most mammals are tetrapods and use all the four limbs for locomotion.
Man is an exemption. Man uses only the hind pair of limbs for locomotion. This is to a
great extent dependent on the habit and habitat and these together influence foot
posture. The skeleton and limb muscles also show adaptive niodifications depending on
the type of locomotion. The ancestral basic type is the use of the entire sole of the feet
(palm of the forelimb) being placed firmly and flat on the ground during locomotion. This
posture is described as plantigrade (sole walking) type of locomotion. This provides
better and firm footing. Man is plantigrade. Most carnivores walklrun on their digits. This
is described as digitigrade (finger walking) type of locomotion. In this method only a
small part of the digits come in contact with the ground. This lessons friction and help in
more speed in movement. In this method the palmlfoot and wristlankle are raised above
the ground adding length to the limbs which in its turn provides longer stride and greater
speed. The ultimate method in attaining higher speed is seen in hoofed mammals
(Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla). The number of digits is reduced and the mamnials
move on the tip of their digits. They have developed comified hoofs to stand wear and
tear due to use. This type is described as unguligrade (hoof walking) type. This adds
more to the length and consequently to greater speed. Horse is able to gallop at a
greater speed because of this advantage. This method of locomotion is also described as
cursorial. They can run faster and far. They are adapted for speed and endurance. Man
can run at a speed of 22.3 mph, a cheeta at 70 mph, horse can run at 15 mph for 35 miles
at a stretch. A jackrabbit at 40 mph, antelope at 60 mph, fox at 45 mph, a camel can run
at 12 mph for 115 miles at a stretch. This should not be mistaken with the sustained
speed of automobiles. This speed represents the attainable speed at some time during
their running. They cannot run at the same speed for longer stretch of time.

Mammals are warm blooded animals. They are capable of maintaining their body
temperature at constant levels in spite of changes of temperature in the surrounding
environment. Oxidative processes in the cells of the body produce heat.'Loss of this heat
by radiation or evaporation is prevented by insulation provided by the hairy covering.
Excess of heat is got rid off by evaporation. Sweating and heat used to evaporate sweat
helps to cool the body and maintain body temperature at tolerable levels. There is
profuse sweating on hot days. Because of this mechanism mammals are able to adapt
themselves to excess heat of the summers and excessive cold of the winters. Desert
mammals spend their days in shades or deep in the burrows without exposing themselves
to hot sun. Most of them adapt nocturnal habit. They are active during nights. Mammals
living in temperate zone countries or arctic regions where winters are very severe migrate
to warmer regions and thus try to escape excess cold of winters. Seals, reindeer, bison,
red bat and some species of whales migrate to warmer regions during winter. Mammals
which cannot migrate spend winters in relative inactivity in warm caves or burrows. This
method of spending winters in inactivity is called hibernation (winter sleep). Hibernation
is a state of sleep when body metabolism slows down, heart beat becomes slower, blood
circulation becomes sluggish, body temperature drops and animals spend time in sleeping
and eating little or no food. Some animals accumulate fat to be utilized during hibernation.
During hibernation animals can exist for a longer duration spending relatively little energy
derived from the stored fats. With the onset of spring animals wake up and begin their
normal activities. All hibernating animals are heterotherrnic. Chipmunks and ground
squirrels spend cold winters in hibernation in underground nests and bats in caves. Bears
of temperate regions are known to hibernate during winter in caves. Bats are known to
hibernate in North India but not in South India.
As opposed to hibernation some mammals like ground squirrels spend their summers in Mammals
deep burrows and sleep through the summer. This is called aestivation. This is summer
sleep. They spend summers in relative inactivity very much like hibernation.

Feeding habits and the type of food consumed by mammals show variations. They may
be herbivorous, carnivorous, insectivorous or omnivorous. Herbivorous animals feed on
grass and other vegetation. Most domestic mammals, deer, rabbits, elephants, squirrels
etc., are herbivorous. The cats (lion, tiger, leopard, war, fox), dogs etc., feed on
herbivorous mammals. Omnivorous mammals like man, rat, bear etc., eat'both plants and
animals as their food. Insectivores like bats, moles, mice, shrews, pangolins, bears,
racoons, ground squirrel etc., feed mostly on insects and may also eat other food. Some
carnivores are known to eat fruits and grains also to supplement animal food. Some
species of bat such as vampire specifically feed on blood of other mammals. They are
described as sanguivorous. The different mammals show suitable adaptations to secure
their respective food and consume them. One such adaptation is in the teeth. The bat
has razor-sharp incisors which the animai uses to shave away the epidermis of its prey,
exposing underlying capillaries. After infusing an anticoagulant to keep the blood flowing,
it laps up its meal and stores it in a specially modified stomach. The other adaptations
are with reference to their behavioural adjustments.

Mammals as a group of animals show some specialised behavioural patterns not found in
others. They are capable of learning. Mammals are relatively more intelligent. They use
their ability to produce ~ o u n dto warn each other, scare the enemies, call their young, call
the mates during mating seasons and call for help during times of distress. Many mothers
keep their young with them for some time and teach them hunting, defending, sear~hing
food and discriminate good food from bad, etc.

4.3.1 Monotremata (Prototheria)

Monotremata (Gk Mono = single, tremos = hole) or Prototheria (Gk. Proto = first,
theria = animals/mammals) are the most primitive of mammals. The name monotremata is
used to designate the presence of a single exit opening for both excreta and urine and
genital products. All other mammals are provided with separate openings for urinogenital
ducts and the rectum. Prototheria are referred to as being the first mammals to evolve.
They are today confined to and live in Australia and neighbouring islands (Tasmania &
Newguinea). They represent a fascinating group of animals exhibiting both reptilian and
mammalian features. The group is represented today by two genera only.

Example :Duckbill/Platypus (Ornithorhynchus anatinus), (Fig. 4.4)

Spiny ant eater/Echidna (Tachyglossus aculeata, Fig. 4.3)

Egg l a y i ~ gis a reptilian habit. But in these animals eggs are retained inside the mother's
body and incubated. The young ones are fed by the mother. These animals exhibit some
cbaracters peculiar to them alone, like the presence of dorsal nostrils, short fur and
absence of the external ear the pinna.

Platypus is adapted to an aquatic mode of life. It is found in the rivers and ponds of a
restricted region of Australia. It has webbed feet and paddle like tail to help in swimming.
It grows to a length of 45 cm. The mouth is drawn out in the form of duck bill, so the
name duckbill and it is covered by a soft skin. These animals feed on freshwater
invertebrates like insects and she11 fish. The body is covered by a, thick fur. Teeth
appear in the young and are absent in the adults. There are poisonous gIands and horny
spine connected to the poison glands on the hind feet of maIes. Females are provided
with nippleless mammary glands. They lay 1 to 3 yolky eggs which are similar to the
reptilian eggs. There is a cloaca1 opening through w h i ~ hboth the urinogenital ducts and
the rectum open out. They build nests in the burrows on the banks of rivers. Eggs are
laid in the nests and they incubate and nourish the young. Eggs hatch within two weeks.
Mammary glands produce milk which oozes out through the fur and is licked by the
young.

Echidna is a terrestrial form. It grows to a length of 45 cm. The body is covered by

coarse hair and spines. It is specialised for diet of termites. It is provided with powerful
claws. The snout is narrow, long and beak like. It has a long sticky tongue with which it
can poke into the termite nests. They feed on ants, so the name ant eater. Teeth have
been lost. They protect themselves by digging themselves in until their sharp spines
protrude above the surface of the ground. The female develops a pouch on the ventral
surface of the abdomen afresh every breeding season. They lay single egg and cqny the
egg in the pouch until hatched. The young feeds on the milk which seeps out through
the mother's hair. Two genera and two species are alive today; Tachyglossus found in
AustraIia and a larger genus Glosses found in Newguinea.
1)iversity in Chordates 4.3.2 Marsupialia

Marsupial means pouched mammals (Gk. Marsupion = pouch). Marsupials and Placentals
represent two separate branches which diverged about 60 million years ago from a
common ancestral group of mammals. So they have a common origin. Marsupials are
confined to Australia and neighbouring islands with a lone exception, the opossum living
in the American continent. In addition to mammalian characters they show some
specialised features peculiar to the group. They are provided with a ventral pouch called
marsupium. The gestation period is very short. In kangaroo it is only 13 days. The young
born in an underdeveloped condition, are transferred to the pouch, protected and nour-
ished until they are able to live by themselves. Placenta is not formed during e m b ~ o n i c
development. Small amount of yolk is present in eggs and this is utilized by the develop-
ing embryo. The young when born are hairless, blind and deaf. But they are endowed
with a keen sense of olfaction which helps them in'finding their way from the
urinogenital orifice to the pouch. In the pouch they attach themselves to the sin le
nipple present in the pouch, suck the milk and grow safely in the protection of t i e
pouch. After several weeks of development the young are able to leave the pouch,
venture out to feed or play and dart back to the safety of the pouch at the first sign of
danger. The female carries the young during its wanderings in search of food and such
other activities. The forelimbs are better developed than the hind limbs at birth, because
they are used ,to cling on to the mother's fur on the journey to the pouch (Fig. 4.34).

C
Fig.4.34: Kangaroo (Mircropus) with her young.
 Kangaroos '(Macropus) live in Australia only, (Fig. 4.5). It is because of this that the Mammals
members of the cricket team from Australia are some times referred to as Kangaroos. The
1 forelimbs are shorter than the hind limbs. The tail is long and powerful. They sit on their
I hind limbs and tail which forms a third leg as it were. The tail provides a push a
I
momentum when kangaroo takes a leap which is its normal method of locomotion.
Kangaroos are bipedal and herbivorous.
I

Opossums are found in America. They are arboreal and insectivorous. They are provided
with a prehensile tail which helps them to coil around branches during their movement
I
through branches. A marsupium is absent. The young are carried on the back of the
mother. There are two sub-species of opossums living in the central and southern states
of north America. They represent the most primitive among the American mammalian
fauna. They are, therefore, often called "living fossils". Opossums are hunted for their fur
and meat.

4.3.3 Eutheria

I Eutherians are often called Placentals as they are truly viviparous and highly advanced
among mammals. A placenta is formed during the uterine development of the embryo. The
placenta protects, nourishes and helps the embryo in excretion during embryonic
development. Placenta is formed by the apposition of foetal and maternal tissues.
, Nourishments and oxygen reach the embryo and nitrogenous wastes, as well as ca~bon
dioxide leave the embryo through placenta. Eutheria are at present the dominant animals
on land. They are divided into 28 orders of which only 16 are represented by living
examples. There has been a remarkable degree of adaptive radiation in Eutherians during
the 60 million years of their existence. They burrow walk, run, swim and fly. They eat
almost anything like grass, weeds, sea weeds, worms, insects, fruits, bark, squids, crusta-
ceans, other animals and each others. They live on land, caves and burrows, on tropical
tree tops (monkeys, and apes), live in open seas (whales, dolphins, porpoises), arctic ice Floe : sheet of floating ice.
floes (polar bear, seals), sandy $eseNs (camels, rats) and of course artificial dwellings like
apartment houses (man).

Order lnsectivora includes insect eating mammals, and represents the most primitive and
most widely distributed eutherians. lnsectivores are considered to be the ancestral stalk
from which most placental mammals including man are said to have evolved. They are
small and sharp snouted mammals. They are nocturnal in habit and spend most of their
life underground. The body is covered by a soft fur except in hedgehogs where hairs on
the dorsal surface are modified into spines. There are a few vibrissae and the animals are
endowed with an acute sense of hearing. The eyes in moles are very small and rudimen- Vibrissae : stiff coarse hairs
tary. Some Insectivores still retain a cloaca. They give birth to a large number of young near mouth o f most mammals
at a time. Testes are abdominal in position. There are a large number of mammary glands and in human nostril.
arranged along an axis on the ventral surface of the abdomen and thorax. Limbs are
pentadactyle and the digits are provided with claws that help in burrowing. They possess
the primitive number of teeth (44) and show no differentiation. Placenta is discoidal and
Discoidal placenta
haemochorial type. Most insectivores, hibernate during winter.
As the embryo and chorion
enlarge only those villi which
~codentiafar outnumber the other placentals in the number of species and individuals. are in contact with
enometriu~n remain and others
Rodentia represents one of the largest and most important orders of Eutheria. It includes degncrate. The region still in
about 3000 living species. This group is of enormous economic importance. Rodents contact with endometrium
forms the disc shaped
account for nearly 30% loss of food grains in India. They destroy both the standing placenta. The manner in
crops and the stored food grains. They are very bad house pests. They also act as which the trophoblast interacts
with the maternal tissue
vectors transmitting diseases like plague. Teeth are modified for gnawing. Their dentition largely determies the morphol-
is characterised by the presence of strong chisel shaped incisors with persistent pulp. ogy of placenta. Very intimate
contact between the mother
The incisors do not form roots, and continue to grow throughout the life. Canines are and embryo is achieved in the
absent. Rodentia are mostly herbivorous. The order includes all types of rats, gerbils, placenta found in the humans
and rodents. Thus in the
mice, guinea pig, squirrel, beevers, porcupine etc. They are found everywhere. Some of animals in which the'villi are
them are amphibious but not completely aquatic. They are polyestrous and cycle produced only from a part of
throughout the year. They give b~rthto 10-12 young at a time. They are most harmful allantochorion taking the form
of a disc or plate the placenta
mammals. However, they are used as laboratory animals for research work. is called discoid.

Man is the most intelligent of all mammals. Man and his near relatives, the apes and
monkeys are relatively more smart and intelligent, hence the name Primate (chief) given
Diversity in Chordates to this order. However, it should be kept in mind that not all primates are equally
intelligent. Primates have evolved from a primitive group of placentals, most probably the
Haemochorial plancenta insectivores. The liberation of forelimbs from the function of locomotion is the most
'Ihe chorionic villi grow deep striking feature of Primates. Monkeys and other primitive primates, however, are
into uterine tissue and break quadripedal. Fore-limbs of man and apes are used as hands. This has given them the
down the maternal blood
vcssels until they are bathed in ability to handle and manipulate. They are able to coordinate their visual perceptions.
maternal blood. This kind of Primates are the most unspecialised eutherian mammals. This seems to be an advantage
placenta is called
~aemocborirl placenta in rather than being a disadvantage. Having evolved fiom the most primitive placentals they
*ich a thin membrane
srcpafates the embryontic blood have evolved highest degree of intelligence ever to have attained by any animal so far in
witbln the capillary of the evolution. Primates are widely distributed in all the continents except Australia
chorionic villus from the
R)aternal blood in the crypts
of the Wmetrium. It is Earliest Primates are the Prosimhns (premonkeys). The hoshnians (ex. lemurs, tsqsiers
Uuough this membrane that
tbe exclumge of gases takes etc.,) are found in Africa, (Madagaskar and South Asia). Three major groups evolved
place; oxygen and nutrients from Prosimians 1) Ceboidea (new world monkeys) found in central and South America
p ~ fiwn
u blood to the
anbryo a d C02 and other only, 2) Cercopitheeoidea (old World monkeys) found in wanner parts of eastern hemi-
wrsta timn the foetal blood sphere except Australia, 3) the top group Hominidae (man-like) includes different species
move mss the membrane to and races of man (all extinct except Homo sapiens). The brain case of man is twice as Wg
mothers' blood.
as those of apes. Man is bipedal, walks erect and has scanty hair covering on tbe body
latclligcaee
compared to other Primates. The greater toe is not opposable as the thumb in hands and
(i) ln(cl1igence is a quelity of as found in monkeys.
behaviour that dcmon-
strat*l the degree to which
an organism is able to .
lean quickly aod to adapt
nspoosa rapiw
efrdwely when faced
with new situations.
(2) The ability to manipulate
and to
relationsf&: in
poMan solving and to
rtJpond flexibly to
clmgkg demands withi a
given context. Human
iaHligcnu encompasses
the coltectivc repertory of
cognaive powers possessed
by su individual which can
*
k brought to bear on the
of diffiarlt a d
collpkxprobkn=@=
lnsighs foftsigk
judgement or ~magmnation.
%I
Fore likb

Fig.435: Lark

Lemurs are found in Madagaskar. They have a long prehensible tail. Loris, (Fig. 4.35),
does not possess a tail, is found in South India. Loris feeds on plant food and small
animals, and exhibits oestrous cycle as oppsed to menstrual cycle of all other Primates.
Tarsier another Prosimian is found in the Phillipines. It grows to the size of a cat. It hrs
large eyes. It has pads on toes. Mannosets, another Prosimian lives in central America
(Brazil). They grow to the size of a small squirrel. The body is covered by soft fur. All
the digits are provided with claws except the great toes which have nails.

Cetrsiacrr are confined to American continents. Both the great toe and the tbmnb are
opposable. All digits are provided with nails. Tail is long'and prehensible. It helps in
climbing trees .by curving round the branches. The two noshils are set far a p t
ExampIe :squirrel monkey; spider monkey; howler monkey, etc.

Old world monkeys have a long tail but it is not prehensibk. The two nostrils are close
together. They possess cheek pouches. They live mostly in Africa and Asia. Examples :
Baboom, Macaqua,h e w s monkey, (Fig. 4.3 1) etc.
 Apes belong to the suborder Pongidae. Tail is absent, fore limbs are longer than the hind Mammals
limbs and walk on two feet. Example : Gibbon (Hylolrrrtes ogilis) lives in South East Asia
and East InUies, (Fig. 4.32). They are arboreal and omnivorous in diet. They grow to a
height of 3 ft. They swing from branch to branch with their fore limbs and'walk on
ground on their hind limbs.

Orang utan (Pongo pygmaeus) lives in Borneo and Sumatra, (Fig. 4.36). They are
herbivorous. They live on tree tops and grow to a height of 3 ft. Brain is smaller than
*<I
f
that of man.

~i6.431:Gorill..
Gor~lla(Gorilla gorilla) is found in western Africa. (Fig. 4.37). It is the largest of the
apes. It is vegetarian, large and bony, and grows to a height of 5.5 ft. and weigh about
500 lbs. It builds nests and lives in small groups.
Diversity i n Chordates

Fig.4.38: Chimpanzee.
,
Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) is also found in western Africa, (Fig. 4.38). It resembles
gorilla but, smaller in size with shorter arms and is relatively more intelligent.

Fig. 4.39 : Pteropus (Flying-fox).

Bats belonging to the order Chiroptera are adapted to a life of flight. The digits of the
fore limbs are elongated. A stretch of leathery skin extends between the fingers, between
the fore and the hind limbs and encircles the hind end of the animal often including the
tail to form the wing. There are hooks on the toes with which they hang themselves from
branches or from any perch, when not flying. They hang up side down. There are about
600 species of bats. The order is subdivided into two suborders based on size and diet.
Megachiroptera includes large bats which are rnostl;: firr!it eatern, (Fig. 4.39).
Microchiroptera includes small bats which are insec. arous (Fig 4.8). A few species of
bats are sanguivorous and suck the blood of other ;In v~alslike horses, cattle etc. These
i
bats are called vampires. Vampires act as vectors transmitting diseases like rabies,.. yellow Mammals
lever, chaga's disease and trypanosomes among horses. Bats are known for their special
sense of echolocation. They move around and guide themselves by emitting high
frequency sounds and then detecting these when they are reflected back off objects in
the surrounding medium, This is a type of radar mechanism which bats seem to have
I
invented long before man discovered it. They have eyes and can see well. Most of the Echolocation : is the
bats are nocturnal and depend on echolocation to find their way, discover enemies prey/ determination of the position
'
food and obstacles. The living mechanism of echolocation is said to be more efficient of the object through the
than man made radars. The sonar system of bats is millions times more eff~cientand more sound reflected by it. Bats use
sensitive. Moreover, they have the advantage of millions of years of evolutionary this mechanism to locate its
surroundings.
experience. Bats can find their insect prey in complete darkness, even when the insect
does not produce any sound that can be heard by man. Bats can get a complete picture
of their surroundings through echo of the sound.

Cetacea comprises mammals adapted for aquatic life. This order includes more than 100
species. Whales are the largest living animals. The fore limbs of whales are modified into
flippers to help in swimming. Hind limbs have been lost. Tail is horizontally flattened into
a fluke like structure with two lobes. It also helps in swimming. Eyes are small, external
ears are absent, they have sparse hairs. But they have a thick subcutaneous layer of fat
b-
called blubber which provides insulation in the absence of hairs. Teeth have undergone
degeneration and numerous in number. Whale bone whales have structures called
whalebone on the sides of the upper jaw instead of teeth. Whalebone is made up of
*
parallelly arranged horny plates. Whales feed on small animals of the sea. The whalebone
helps as a sieve to drain water retaining only the animals in the mouth on which it feeds.
Whales grow to a length of 105 ft. Blue whales are the largest. They weigh 125 tons.

Order Carnivora consists of mammals adapted for flesh eating. There are both land and
aquatic forms. The teeth are modified for flesh eating. The well developed canines and
the carnassial teeth help in capturing prey and tearing their flesh. The digits are pro-
vided with retractable claws as in cats. Incisors are small; Lion, tiger, cheetah, wolf, fox,
leopard, dog, cat, mongoose, (Fig. 4.40) are examples of land forms, seals of marine forms,
(Fig. 4.41); Otters and Dolphins of fresh water forms, (Fig. 4.42 & 4.43). Carnivores are
adapted for digitigrade mode of locomotion. Bears (Fig. 4.44) are an exception which use Walrus : large sea animal of
plantigrade type of locomotion. Seals and walruses (sealion) are adapted to acquatic mode the arctic regions with two
of life. Both pairs of limbs are webbed and help in swimming. The body is fish-like. Most long tusks.
of them are marine and a few are freshwater forms. Walruses are comparatively larger and
have large canines in the upper jaws. The canines are used by Walruses to dig sand to
search burried crustaceans and molluscs which form its food.

Fig.4.40: Herpestes (Mongoose).

Fig.4.41: Phoca (Seal). 159

Diversity in Chordates

Fig.4.42: Lutra (otter).

Q.4.43: Common Dolphin (Ddpliiruts &$#is).

Fig.4.44: Malursus ursinus (Sloth Bear).

Elephants are members of the order Proboscoidea having the largest land dwelling animals
today. They grow to a height of 16 ft and weigh nearly 1500 lbs. They are found in Africa
and Asia. The haj. covering on the body is sparse, skin is loose and thick and is
provided with large muscular proboscis (trunk). Nasal openings are present at the tip of
the proboscis. IJpper incisors of the male are modified into tusks. Canines are absent.
There are 6 pairs of large grinding molar teeth on each jaw. But only one pair is
li~nctionalat a time. Then skull is massive and has thick bones that have air spaces Mammals
making the skull light. Elephants have the longest gestation period of 23 months.

Fig.4.46: Deer (Kashmiri stag or Hangul, Cervus elaphus hanglu).

Fig.4.47: Sambar CCNUSunicolor.

Diversity in Chordates

Fig.4.48: Antelope (Gazella gazella)

Hoofed mammals (Ungulata) usually live in open gass lands. They are herbivorous and
cursorial in habit. The group is called ungulata because of the presence of hoofs at the r
tip of their digits. There are two groups based on the number of digits on their feet;
Peccary : Kind o f wild pig
Artiodactyla with even number of digits (2 or-4 digits), e.g., pig, peccaries, hippopotamus,
found in America. camel, llamas, cattle, buffalo, bison (Fig. 4.49, sheep, goat, deer (Figs. 4.46 & 4.47), giraffe,
antelope (Fig. 4.48) etc., and Perissodactyla with odd number of digits (1 or 3) such as
horse, tapirs, rhinoceros, donkey etc., Artiodactyla are called big game aiimals because
they are hunted by both man and predators alike for food and sport respectively. Some
of the artiodactyles like camel, deer, pronghorn antelope, cattle, buffalo are ruminants.
This is an adaptation for life on open grass land habitat where security is not available.
They have learnt to swallow as much food as possible in a short time as possible
without wasting time on chewing and then move to a secure place, regurgitate the food
from the stomach, chew it completely at leisure and reswallow it to be digested and
assimilated. They have specially modified stomach to help in this habit (Fig. 4.49). The
stomach is four chambered. it consists of rumen, the reticulum, the psalterium and then
abomassum. Rumen is the largest chamber used for storing unmasticated food. This habit
is called rumination.

Camel (one humped) lives in Arabia and Indian desert. Its another species (two humped)
lives in Gobi desert north of I-limalayas. They are beasts of burden. They possess
splayed feet which help to spread their weight on s&d or snow. The hump is a fat
storing organ and the stomach stores water. This enables them to go long distances on
small ration of food and water.

Mule is a a man made Ungulate. It has been in the service of man for over 3000 years.
Very few man created animals have been as valuable and biologically as interesting as
this mule. It assists man in transporting men and materials in the most inaccessible
places. Mule is a hybrid obtained by crossing a male donkey with a female horse. Male
mules are sterile, whereas female mule is capable of reproducing and give birth to foals
(young horses). The hybrid between the male horse and the female donkey is called a
0
Ninhy and it is not as useful as a mule. The mule which served man for thousands of
years faithfully is on the verge of disappearance under the impact of mechanisation.
Mules have played a worthy role in human affairs and have helped create history. They
really deserve a better fate as at present than an obscure drift towards oblivion.

The head gear of hoofed mammals is very interesting. T h e are provided with horns and
antlers. They appear similar but are fundamentally different. These cephalic ad~mments
appear in the members of five families of Ungulates : Rhinocerotidae (example, rhinoc-
eros), Bovidae (example, cattle, antelope, goat), Antiloeapridae (eximple, pronghorned
antelope of America), Cervidae (example, moose, caribou, elk, deer) and Girafidae
(example giraffe). Horns and antlers generally occur in Artiddactyle unguiaites with the
sole exception of rhinoceros which is a Perissodactyle. FUiinoceros are provided with two
(African species) or one (Asian species) permanent midline nasal horns. Bovidae are
provided with horns which are symmetrical and permanent. Pronghorn antelopes possess
a pair of symmetrical horns which are shed and renewed every year., Cervidae also
possess a pair of annually renewable antlers. Giraffes have paired cephalic protruberances
of uncertain- hnctions. Thus antlers occur mainly in the deer family and they are bony in Mammals
nature. Antlers occur in the males only. Antlers are complex in structure and ornate in
shape. They have been coveted by people as trophies. But they have no utility value
and some times are a nuisance and an encumberance to the animals. Antlers get
entangled among the branches of trees or with the antlers of rivals and expose them to
dangers of becoming easy prey to predators. Antlers are very delicate and they are used
by males during mating season to win harems of females. Evolutionists describe antlers
as an uneconomic experiment of nature. Horns on the other hand are permanent
structures and present in both sexes. They do not regenerate as do the antlers. Horns
serve animals as effective weapons of offence and defense. Horns are made of keratin
and are supplied with blood capillaries and nerves. Horns are not ornamental structures.
They may be curved, twisted, coiled, helical, zigzag and straight with pointed ends and
may be used as spears to gore to death an enemy or a rival. The horns of rhinoceros are
made up of hairs, a solid keratin structure. The horns of cattle are hollow and are
mounted like a shoe on spike like structure called os cornua.

To intestine Omasurn Oesophagus

\ \ / First swallowing

Fig.4.49: Ruminants such as the cow have special. digestive structures for the digestion of
cellulose. Digestion of cellulose begins in the large rumen, where vast numbers
of protozoans and bacteria begin the breakdown of cellulose under anaerobic
conditions. The producis are regurgitated as the cud, rechewed and swallowed,
this time ,entering the reticulum (follow the arrow). The partially digested mass
then enters the omasum and finally the abomasurn (the true stomach) where
digestion of the microorganisms themselves begins. Digestion is completed in the Cradle : place where
small intestine. something is born or begins.
4.3.4 Economic Importance
Mammals formed the cradle for the evolution of man. Man belongs to the class
Mammalia-They seem to have provided both material and opportunity for his physical,
biological and cultural evolution. They have provided the biological environment. They
have made his life possible and feasible. Man gets most of his food and clothing from
mammals. Ancient man completely depended on them for his food and clothing. Flesh of
cattle, buffalo (beef), sheep, goat (mutton), pig @ork) and camel are used as food by
man. They also provide milk and milk products which form good nourishment. The hide
of these and many other mammals is tanned and used in the manufacture of leather
whose products like foot wear, belts, purses, bags, suit cases and warm wehing
apparently are used by man. Buffaloes of North America sustained the civilization of
Difersity in Chordates American native lndian populations. The thick blubber of whales and seals is used as
fuel oil and in the manufacture of soap and detergents. The soft fur of minks, beavers,
fox, musk rat, opossums are used in manufacturing warm garments coveted by the
aristocrats and the rich. An industry to breed them has been started providing job
opportunities to many people. Many mammals are hunted not only for food but also for
recreation in the name of sports. That is why most wild populations of ungulates come to
be called Game animals. The result is that many of them have become extinct or are on
the verge of becoming extinct. Most of these rare species could now be seen today only
in sanctuaries or zoos. Zoos are established to provide recreation to man in the name of
education and in the garb of conserving many of them. Many wild animals provide man
with precious material like ivory. Ivory is used in the manufacture of jewellery, articles of
art and sports (Billiard balls, Carrom strikers, pens, combs, etc.,). Horns are used in
preparing ornamental articles. Horn also is a source of protein. Antlers of deer, head and
proboscis of elephants, legs of elephants are used to prepare ornamental articles and
precious furniture. Many wild mammals are stuffed and exhibited at homes and museums.
Many mammals like buffalo, cattle, donkey, camel, horse help man in transporting them
and their material, draft and farming. Dogs are used for dragging wheel carts on snow.
The wool and hair of many mammals like sheep, goat etc., are spun into yam, woven into
fabrics to provide warm clothing to people living in colder climates. Dogs, cats and otters
are used as pets. Dogs are trained to help man in providing security and to guard house,
farm and herds of sheep and goats. Many mammals are helpful as laboratory experimental
animals (rats, guinea pigs, dogs, cat, cattle, horse etc.,). Horse and dog racing is a
common sport and recreational activity which has developed into an industry by itself
breeding them.

As many mammals are useful to man a number of them are harmful and injurious also.
They cause physical menaee, act as source of diseases like plague, typhus, rabbit fever,
trichosis and rabies. Many predators kill and feed on domestic mammals and many some
time turn man eaters posing danger to man.

SAQ 2
(i) Dental formulae of some mammals are given below. Identify the mammal to which
the formula belongs from among the names of mammals given in the brackets
against each formula.
2- 1-2-3
a. -= 32 (elephant, horse, man)
2-1-2-3

b. -3-142
- - 42 (elephant, man, dog)
3-143

-
c. 3-1-3-1 - 30 (dog, cat, horse)
3-1-2-1

-
d. l 4 = 38 (cow, pig, man)
2-1-2-3

-= 28 (cow, dog, cat)

e. 3Q-1-3
301-3

f - '-
0-0-06
= 26 (cat, elephant cow)

(ii) Match the posture of locomotion given in group A with the mammals given in
group B.
Group A GroupB
a. Plantigrade x horse
b. Digitigrade y. man
c. Unguligrade z dog
 (iii) Fill up the blanks in the following sentences with suitable words from among the Mammals
words given in the brackets.
a. Horses possess .........at the end of their digits. (nails, claws, hoofs)
b. Man has .........on his digits. (hoofs, claws, nails)
c. Carnivores are provided with ...........on their digits. (nails, claws, hoofs)
d. Some mammals spend their winters in ............in temperate zone climate.
(aestivation, hibernation, circulation)
e. Nails, hair, claws and hoofs are the .................exoskeleton of mammals.
(endodermal, mesodermal, epidermal)
(iv) State in the box provided whether the following statements are True (T) or
False (F) :
a. Rats are useful mammals.
b. Elephants are the largest land animals.
c. Blubber is found in monkeys.
,i-
d. Carnivores are grass eating mammals.
e. Mole is burrowing Insectivore.
E Whale lives in the sea.
g. Kangaroos are natives of India.
h. Cows provide milk.
17
i. Horse is a ruminant mammal.
(v) Match the common names of the following mammals in group A with their generic
names in group B,
GroupA GroupB
a. Duckbill v. Macropus
b. Echindna . w. Homo
c. Kangaroo x Ornithorhynchus
d. Man y. Hylobates
e. Gibbon z Tachyglossus

4.4 EVOLUTION AND AFFINITIES

Mammals have evolved from mammal-like reptiles, the Synapsida, during late Triassic of
early Jurassic period. These early ancestral forms showed both reptilian and mammalian
characteristics. They were very small and were no match to the giant reptiles of the day.
They evolved simultaneously with the flowering plants, crocodiles and turtles. Mammals
represent the highly evolved vertebrates. Fossil record of early mammals is scanty. The
earliest known mammal-like reptile was Cynognathus. It was of the size of a carnivorous
dog. The rate of evolution in the beginning was very slow. This is attributed to the
,, unavailability of habitats since most of them were already extensively occupied by
reptiles. 'The reptiles were well adapted and could not be easily dislodged. Some amount
of diversification in evolution of mammals appears by late Jurassic. Mammals of
Y
Cretacious were very small, abou't the size of mice. The fossils available are few and far
between and only parts of skeletons are available. Examination of the dentition which has
been well preserved indicates evolution of mammals along three lines. 'This shows
diversification in their feeding habits. There were herbivores feeding on fruits and seeds,
carnivores feeding on other animals and insectivores feeding on insects and small
animals. Mesozoic has been described as the golden age of reptiles. The mammals living
in that time appear like specialised descendants.of reptiles. Mammals managed to live
thraugh Jurassic and Cretaceous inspite of the fierce competition of reptiles of the day.
Better and efficient physiology and reproductive strategy seems to have helped the
mammals to survive. Cenozoic period, the next geological age was characterised
by continental drift and wide spread erosion. Consequently not many fossils of the
Diversity in Chordates period are available. Some fossils of Paleocene are found, mostly from north American
continent. By late ~aleocenemammalian fossils become available in Asia, Europe and
Sobth American continents. By this time radiation of mammals had started. Thus
Paleocene was a period of transition in the history of earth, from the age of reptiles to
the age of mammals. Dinosaurs surprisingly disappeared by the dawn of Paleocene and
suddenly the continental fauna became dominated by mammals. The Paleocene mammals
are mostly represented by Marsupials and Insectivorous mammals. Herbivorous ungulates,
Carnivorous predators and small monkey like forms, rodents and other forms of mammals
appeared by the end of Paleocene. By this period it looks as though mammals had
inherited the earth. Disappearance of most mesozoic reptiles vacated many habitats and
mammals were quick to grasp the opportunity and occupy them. Paleocene was a period
of extensive radiation and divergence of'mammalk. In the end mammals outran the reptiles
by occupying all the available niches. At this point you should remember that mammals
did not cause the extinction of reptiles. Actually extinction of reptiles provided
opportunity for mammals to diverge and to expand. At about this time one of the most
Plancenta : Organ lining the important and striking changes in the evolution of mammals occurred. viz., increase in the
1
womb during pregnancy by size-of brain as evident from the cranium size in the fossils available.
which the foetus is nourished.
It is expelled with the foetus
and the umbilical cord Both marsupials and placentals seem to have evolved independently from 8 common
following birth. Mammals ancestor during the cretacious period. In the course of evolution. Placentals became
having placenta are called
placentals. dominant because of their superior in:elligence. Insectivores reprewnt the hypothetical
eutherian ancestor. They are small in size with plantigrade type of locomotion. They come
Marsupial : Aninial of the nearest to the placental ancestor with primitive generalised characters. Living reptiles of
class of mammals the females
of which have a pouch in today that show many specialisations cannot be the stem reptiles from which insectivores
which to cany their young, may have evolved. Presently at what point mammal-like repJiles - Therapsids - ceased and
which are born before mammals began, it is impossible to say as there was no sudden transformation of reptjles
developing completely e.g.
Kangaroos. into mammal, and no dramatic event took place to mark the appearance of the fpt
member of our class.

More moderate placentals appeared in Eocene and continued their diversification during
the Oligocene. By Oligocene most of the modem placentals were already in existence. By
Eocene and Oligocene the fauna of the earth, particularly the mammalian fauna had an
exotic look. It is during this time that ancestral carnivore-like Sabrerooth, the ancestral
forms of hoofed mammals like the protylopus, h e ancestral'camel, Eohippus, the ancestral
horse, the Moeritherium, the ancestral elephant appeared. Insectivores are the ancestral
forms of all eu'therian mammals and a large numbers of modem descendants who we
hardly recognise as our relative. Insectivores, therefore, include four rather different types.
Firstly then typical living forms comprise such as shrews, moles and, hedgehogs. The
second form includes the li;ing treelhrews perhaps the most primitive of living
eutherians and fossils so generalised that they can not be put in any other placental
order. The other two forms of insectivores include small divergent offshoots from the
insectivores stocks, the elephant shrews and flying lemurs.
0
Luckily a complete list of fossils depicting the evolutionary history of camel, elephant and
horse is available. It is possible to trace their evolution step by step with changes in the
nature of habitats that were responsible for the ~hanges.North American continent was
the stage for these dramatic events. Evolution of camel and horse occurred in north
America and their fossils are available in abundance there throughout Cenozoic era. But
ironically they disappeared in the late Pliocene~fromthe north America (Fig. 4.50).
Surprisingly no native camel and horse occur in north America today. The evolufion of
horse has taken place from Eohippus through different geologica! ages and stages --
to the
- -

modem horse Equus. Similarly Protylopus from Eocene, Poebrotherium from Oligocene
and Procamelus from Miocene and Pliocene have been found. Moeritherium from late
Eocene measuring just 2 ft in height was the ancestor of elephants. It gave rise to
Mastodon of Pliocene measuring about 6 fi, growing to a size of 1I ft of the modem Mammals
elephant, the Loxodonta of Africa and Elephas of Asia. The history of the evolution of
these herbivores spans a period of 60 million years and 350 recognisable species in ,
between:

Fig.4.50: Table to show the evolution of horses. Then approximite condition of the limbs
and teeth dm& each epoch are shown respectively to fhe left and right
,
It, is not so easy to trace the evolution of man. Man and apes seem to have had a
common origin and they diverged early to evolve on different lines &out 25flion years
ago. All the seemingly similar ancestors who are on the direct line of evdution of man
are grouped into a single family, the Hominidae. The mammals included in this family are
commonly called the hominids. The important feature in the evolution of hominids is the
development of upright posture and life en the ground. Apes are the nearest relatives of
man. They are adapted for a life in forests. So they had to develop long muscular arms
to help for a life among the trees; climbing and swinging from branch to branch.
The oldest known common ancestor of man and apes is Proconsul. He lived about 25
million years ago. A series of fossils found in different parts of the world have helped in
reconstructing the possible lines of evolution of man. Ramapithecus discovered in India
represents a fossil man. H e is recognised as the next in line in the evolution of man. He
is believed to have lived about 10 to 15 million years ago (Fig. 4.51). There is evidence
from 'Africa-which shows several disfrnct lines of creature resembling man: The bones of
~ u s t r a l o ~ i t ~ e (southern
cus ape) probably represent three species. None of them actually
contained our ancestors, but evolve paralled to them. The first specimen found 'from
Africa w i a juvenile skull and was named /Anstrelopitbecus alricanus. Other fossils ,
referred to the genus Australopithecus wkch have been found in East Afiica date back
Diversity in Chordates to 3 to 1 million years ago. The cranial capacity of Australoapithecus skulls is estimated
at 450-500 ml, little larger to body size of an ape. These fossils have been found in East
Africa associated with stone tools. There is an evidence that they walked on twc legs.

Fig.4.51: Distribution and hypothetical phylogenetic tree of taxa leading to fossil hominids.

The area at the back of skull for attachment of neck muscle was smaller than in apes
while mastoid process was larger. The foramen magnum is at the centre of the skull.
These features indicate that the head was balanced on the neck rather than hanging
forward like apes. The mandibles were larger than in modem man but teeth fonn a
rounded arcade. The incisors are vertical and the canines spatulate and smaller than in
apes but larger than the man. The molars are relatively larger than in man but the pattern
of replacement was like that of man. Some workers are of the view that Australopithecus
may have run rather than walked, because the iliac blade faces dorsally and the middle
metatarsal was thickened rather than the first as in Homo. Other workers believe that
bone of these fossils be within the human range. However, fossils record show that a
considerable variety of almost human creatures existed in Africa. The first true hominids
found in fossil records are usually assigned to the genus Australopithecus (from
Australis, Southern and pithecus, "ape" southern because the fust specimens were found
in south Africa). The origin of erect posture is recognised to be an important feature in
the evolution of man. Erect posture is in fact biologically disadvantageous. It exposes
underbelly to dangers and hinders fast and easy movement. However there is one great
advantage; it liberates fore limbs from the shackles of being used in locomotion. 1t
provided the opportunity for the evollltion of a species with free hands. The hands could
now be put to other uses like defending himself against enemies. Free hands made'
possible holding of articles like tools and weapons. Australopithecus seem to have been
tool makers and tool users. Remains which can be recognised as tools have been found
with these fossils. The ability to hold articles seems to have contributed greatly to the
rapid evolution of brain. Erect posture bestowed another advantage of looking from a
greater height and to look longer distances. Tight grip allowed use of tools and/or of
weapons. They could defend effectively, and could pick flower, fruits and leaves from
plants, dig roots and kill other animals for food. Therefore, development of erect posture
and free hands are recognised as the most important events in the evolution of man.
Modem man is included in the genus Homo. The genus Homo evolved about 500,000
years ago. Java man was the first fossil of Homo to be discovered in Java.
Java man may be classified as Homo erectus (originally described as Pithecanthropus Mammals
erectus). Specimens of these fossils have been found in Asia, Africa and Europe. Later
similar fossils were found in Africa and Beijing (old Peking). All these fossils have been
included under one single species Homo erectus. Homo erectus stood erect, a little taller
than Australopithecus, about 5 ft in height. Brain case of java mass was lager: The
recent ancestor of man has been identified as Neanderthal man. He lived throughout
most of Europe, and also in parts of Asia and Africa, about 1,60,000 to 60,000 years ago.
He must have been a member of a race of H.erectus or a new species of the genus
Homo. He seems to have lived and flourished in cold harsh environments (Fig.4.52).,
Evidences indicate that he used weapons to kill animals for food. He had developed'some
sort of culture and seems to have burried his dead relatives with ceremony as indicated
by the evidences at the burial site. Brain was larger than that of the modem man, and
seems to have been intelligent. Suddenly disappeared some 30-40,000 years ago.
Neanderthal man is considered by some authors as a separate species intermediate
between H.erectus and H.sapiens the modem man. It is considered to be next in the
evolution of H.sapiens. Neanderthal man was succeeded by Cromagnon man. Cromagnon
man resembled modern man in size and his general body build. He seemed to have been
a great hunter. He used stone weapons and tools like spear, arrow heads and knives. He
had developed the art of painting. He has left many evidences of his painting ability in
the fonn of pictures of animals in the cave walls all over France and Spain.

Pliocene Pleistocene
Recent
GEOLUGICAL Middle
PERIODS Pleistocene Pleistocene

H m sapiens
---------.
-------------------.---.---.-.-
FOSSIL *Homoerects
MEN 4 b

ICE

STONE
CULTURES

Abbevillian Acheulian
CULTURE
PERIODS
I L O W E R P A L A E O L I T H I C

Time in millions 1.0

of years

Fig.4.52: Diagram of Pleistocene time and some stages o f human cultural evolution.

Cromagnon the cave dwelling hunter evolved into a village dwelling agriculturist, the
modem man. This in brief is the evolution of man. The evidences are scanty. Full skeletal
fossils have not beer, found. Pieces of jaw, cranium, teeth and other evidences found as
Diversity in Chordates fossils have been pieced together in reconstructing fossil individuals h d trace the
possible lines of evolution of man. From these studies it becomes evident that the
EVOLUTION OF MAN IS NOT ONLY AN ACHIEVEMENT OF THE PAST BUT ALSO A
PROMISE FOR THE FUTURE. It has to be seen whether man will keep this promise or
will perish as other animals did before his making way for a better species.

The early history of man is thus not complete. It is half evidence and half conjecture. He
seems to have lived in the beginning in Africa in groups as do some of the natives even
today in Africa as tribes. They spread to other continents in search of better
opportunities.

It is estimated that about one million years ago total human population may have been
just 12,500. By the dawn of civilization by about 10,000 years back the concept of family
seems to have taken root. Four distinct races of Homo sapiens are recognised today
though population Biologist Dr. Dobwnsky recognises seventeen races. The four races
are Australoid, Caucasoid, Mangoloid and Negroid: Australoid with curly hair,
moderately broad nose, and brown skin; Caucasoid with wavy hair, narrow nose and
white skin; Mongoloid with straight hair, moderately broad nose and yellow-brown skin;
Negroid with wooly hair, broad nose and black skin. So the races of man have been
identified on the basis of their s k i colour, hair texture and facial structures:

The human species is still young. If the life span of the planet earth is measured in
hours and assumed to be 24 hours man has appeared just five minutes ago. Man seems
to have been well adapted to his environment. This shows amazing speed of his evolu-
tion. He has developed the capacity to reason and his greatest asset is curiosity. These
qualities should stand by him today to help controlling mass destructive weapon
environment polluting industries, uncontrolled population growth and unabated
destruction of nature, too much interference with his surroundings all in conflict with
nature. If he is not cautious he may be doomed to extinction.

If a species of animal has to survive it must get adequate food, protection against
enemies and competition. In the case of man the immediate need is to control galloping
population growth, to produce more food, control nuclear weapons and disease producing
organisms which are threatening to destroy not only the very existence of human
organism but all other organisms on the earth. He w s t learn to live in harmony with the
environment. Man must learn to allow other organisms to live. Ije must realise that other
living beings also have equal rights if not more to live. The philosophy of peaceful
coexistence among people should extend to include all other living organisms.

SAQ' 3
1. Match the names of mammals given in group A with the names of their earliest
ancestors given in group B.
GroupA GroupB
a. Man w. Eohippus
b. Camel x Proconsul
c. Horse y. Protylopus .
d. Elephant z Moeritherium
2 The various fossil ancestors of man are given below. Rearrange them in the order
of their appearance in the evolution of man.
Homo sapiens
Homo erectus
Ramapithecus
Australopithecus
Proconsul.
Cromangnon man
Neanderthal man.
3. What is the probable reptilian group from which mammals have evolved? Select the Mammals
correct one from the names given in the brackets. (Crocodilia, Lacertilia, Synapsida).

4. Mention the name of the earliest known mammal-like reptile by selecting one from
the lists given ih the parenthesis. (Ornithorhynchus, Eohippus, Cynognathus).
..........................................................................................................................................
5. Tick mark ( J ) the primitive group of mammals which show both reptilian as we]! as
mammalian characters (Metatheria, Eutheria, Prototheria).

THREATENED SPECIES IN INDIA ' '

Planet earth has plenty of resources like soil, forests, water, wild life, mmerals etc., This
has helped the origin, evolution and growth of life on this planet. Most organisms have
tended to use these natural resources for their existence, survival and perpetuation. But
after the appearance of man on the earth all this has changed. There has been over
exploitation of these natural resources to feed, house and clothe the ever increasing
millions df people. There is an inverse correlation in the increase of human population
and development of natural resources. Human population is increasing unabated. There is
wide spread destruction of habitat and pollution of whatever remains. Forests are not
only a source of materials and home for the wild life, it is also the life and breath of
nature. Forests constitute the major part of our environment other than the vast mass of
water. Forest is a wealth. It regulates rain fall and thus indirectly the water resources of
earth. It helps to hold the soil intact and prevents erosion. Besides increase in human
population density dependent factors such as overpopulation of species (reproductivity)
emigration, competition for resources, predation, parasites and diseases regulate the
populations and cause threat to the existence of a species size. Competition can be
between individuals of the same species or between individuals of different species.
Factors causing threat to wild life have been discussed in Ecology course and for
detailed information students are advised to refer to Block 4, Unit 14 of LSE-02.

The major constituent of wild life is the species of mammals; the predators, the game
animals and some rare species like elephants, rhinoceros, slendor loris, otters etc., They
add colour and grandeur to life on the earth and make life worth living. They provide
variety and meaning to life on the earth. They help us understand ourselves. The natural
resources are classified into two types; (1) the renewable resources like the flora and the
fauna which constitute the biotic factors, soil and water which constitute the physical
factors and (2) the non-renewable such as minerals.

The renewable resources are intricately interrelated and form ecological webs and chains
or pyramids of numbers, energy, producers and consumers. A disturbance at one level
would disturb the whole chain and dissociate the pyramids. Most organisms have tended
to use these natural resources for their existence, survival and perpetuation. The able
management of renewable resources is to use these prudently within the level of
continuous renewal.

After the advent of man there has been a thorough change, a change for the worse.
Forests constitute the primary renewable resources. These forests were the habitats of
rare precious species of animals and plants. They constitute major part of our
environment other than the vast mass of water.

There has been continuous encroachment of forests to make way for farm lands, urban
expansion and development. In India these two human activities are posing danger to the
very existence of wild life and in a way to the existence of man himself. This is the
condition in the world everywhere. This has created habitat destruction, disturbances in
climate. There has been either increased or decreased rain fall causing floods or famines.
The recurring floods in the north eastern part of India and coastal south India are
eroding forests in addition to destroying agricultural crops. The recurring famines
resulting in death of millions of people in north Africa is a result of this. The main
reason in India is deforestation and denudation of Himalayas foot hills and Western
Ghats. Monsoons are failing or enatic causing famines, and unavoidable hardship on the
wild life and is threatening their very existence. Elephants are killed by the poachers for
their precious ivory and by the hunters in the name of sport. Rhinoceros are killed for
their horns and slender loris for their eyes which are said to have aphrodisiac (exciting
sexual desire and activity) powers. Predators are hunted and killed in the name of sports
for recreation. With all laws on paper poaching continues unabated. Many species have
become extinct in the near past and many more are on the verge of extinction. The wild
life is a natural wealth, source of joy and happiness for a nature lover. Once upon a time
wild life was in all its glory in India. They roamed the forests. They were admired and
appreciated by natives and visitors alike. Rudyard Kipling was so fascinated that he has
written profusely about wild life. Indians should be proud of them. Alas! we have lost all
feeling and do not care what happens to our wild life. Kings and Princes hunted them
down in the name of sports for their own recreation and probably !also to please the
British rulers during pre-independence era. Under the garb of promoting tourism habitat
disturbance continues even today. Sanctuaries and safaries have been established to
secure natural homes for the wild life. But it has not solved the problem. It has
intensified and has caused disturbance in their reproductive physiology causing induced
sterility. The result is dwindling numbers of wild animals. Conservation today is
conservation of what little is left after all this human activity. It should aim to promote
natural increase of their numbers and to provide protection to all of them. ,3

Following is a short list of a few important endangered species of mammals in India (Red
Data Book, ishued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) located
in Morges. Switzerland).

Carnivores :
1. Clouded Leopard (Neofelis nebulosa)
2 Snow leopard
Both of Himalayan habitat and kashmir, once found in plenties, now being reduced
to a few.
3. Tiger (Panthera tigris), Project tiger seems to have improved their strain.
4. Lion (Panther leo) today confined to Gir forests in Gujarat.
5. Civet cat (Viverridae family), caught and killed for the scent glands to improve
aromatic industry.

Ungulates :
1. Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). The single homed rhinoceros is today confined
to Kaziranga Sanctuary in Assam. It faces hardships in the perennial floods every
year.
2 Great Indian wild ass (Equus heminous) once plentiful in Kutch near Indo-Pakistan
border in Gujarat.
3. Hangul, Kashmir stag (Cervus elaphus) confined to Dachigram-Krashmir.
4. Brow-antlered deer (Sungag confined today to a 14 sq. km. marshy patch of land in
Manipur sprawling Logtake lake.
5. Black buck (Antilope cervicapra) found in the planes of south India.
6. Musk deer (Moschus moschifrus) of the Himalayas.
7. Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius), found in the tandra of Kerala; Evavikolum
reserve.
8. Himalayan Tahr (Hemihagus jemlahicus) once widely distributed from Kashmir to
Bhutan.
9. Swamp deer (Cervus duvaucelQ found in Nepal, Dhudwa reserve in Uttar Pradesh
and Kaziranga sanctuaries in upper Assam.
10; Himalayan markhor (Caprafalconeri) distributed in north west Himalayas, a
mountain goat.
11. Great Indian water buffalo (Bubulus bubalis), once plentiful in Assam, part of Mammals
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh swamps.
12. Indian bison Gaur (Bos guurus) also called white socks because of the presence of
white ankle patches. Once plentiful in western ghats.
Others:
1. Pangolins the scaly ant earter, widely distributed.
2. Lion tailed Macaque found in Western ghats.
3. Malabar flying squirrel inhabits Kerala and Western ghats.
4. Slender loris restricted to South India.

SAQ 4
($ Mention the two types of natural resources.

(ii) Tick mark ( J ) which among the list of mammals given below are threatened species.
a. IX e. slender loris
b. camel E sheep
c. tigm g. dog
d. rhinoceros h. black buck

SUMMARY
Mammals represent the highly evolved group of vertebrates. They are viviparous. They
give birth to young ones and nourish them with milk a secretion by a special group of
glands, the mammary glands hence the name Mammalia. They are warm blooded. The
body is covered by hairs which fonn epidermal exoskeleton. There are sweat glands and
sebaceous glands in the skin. Sweat glands secrete sweat. It is both a method of excre-
tion and a method of keeping the body cool during hot weather. The feet are variously
'modified for walking, running, swimming and flying. They are widely distributed and
found in all the continents and all the seas. The teeth of mammals are heterodont,
thecodont and diphyodont type. The skull is bicondylar. The lower jaw is made of only
one bone and is directly articulated with the skull. There are three pairs of ear ossicles in
the middle ear. Heart is four chambered and consists of bicuspid and bicuspid valves
preventing backward flow of blood from left and right ventricles to corresponding auricles
respectively. There is only one aortic, the left aortic arch. Prototheria are the most
primitive and primate the most highly advanced groups of mammals. Whales are the
largest living water animals and elephants the largest living land animals. Man's arbitrary
and dictatorial behaviour have caused untold miseries to mar?y animals and disturbed the
environment with the result that many species have become extinct and many more are
on verge of extinction. Unless man mends his ways man himself is facing the threat of
extinction.

4.7 TERMINAL OUESTIONS

A. 1) Mention the characters of mammals with reference to the structure of heart, and
skull.
Diversity in Chordates

...................................................................................................................................
2) Describe the structure of a mammalian tooth and its mammalian characters.

3) Name a few mammals you see in your every day life and mention the orders
which they belong to.

4) Explain the adaptation in bats to flying.

...................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................

5) Match the name of the mammal in Group A with character in Group B. a

GroupA GroupB
A. Camel a. diastema
B. Rabbit b. cloaca
C. Echidna c. echolocation
D. Bat d. wool
E Sheep , e, hump
F Chimpanzee f fur
G Mink g. blubber
H .. Whale h. brachiation
Mention, what for the following mammals are useful to man?
a whale b. elephant
c. sheep d. cow
e. horse f camel
g. guinea pigs h. rhinoceros
 Mammals

7. Explain with examples the process of hibernation.

............................. ............................................................................................................
<

..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
8. Mention the names of any four threatened species of mammals.

4.8 ANSWERS

Self Assessment Questions

1. (i) a. Body being covered by hairs.
b. Heterodont, thecodont and diphyodont dentitition.
c. Presence of left aortic arch.
d. Formation of placenta during embryonic development.
(ii) 1. Australia 2. America
3. Assamnndia 4 Africa
(iii) 1. Chiroptera 2. Rodentia
3. Carnivora 4. Artiodattyla
(iv) 1. Bat 2. Whale
3. Chimpanzee 4.. Man
(v) Subsclass 1Prototheria. Example. Echidna and Platypus
I1 Metatheria. Example. Kangaroo and Opossum
2. (i) a: man, b: dog, c: cat,
d: horse, e: cow, f elephant
(ii) a: y b: z c: x,
(iii) a- hoofs, b: nails, c: claws,
d: hibernation e: epidermal
(iv) a: false, b: true, c: false,
d: false, e: true, f true,
g: false, h: true, i: false
( 9 a: 5 b: Y, c: w,
d: q
3. 1. a: x, b: y, c: w and d: z.
2. Proconsul
Ramapithecus
Aus~rlopthecus
Homo erectus
Nwnderthal man '
Cromagnan man .
Homo sapiens.
3. Synapside
4. cyanognathus .
5. Prototheria
Diversity in Chordates 4. (i) a) Renewable resources; biotic and physical factors.
b) Nonrenewable resources like minerals.
(u) d, e, and h.

Terminal Questions
1. Heart; both auricle and vent -icle are completely divided. Therefore, the mammalian
heart is four chambered. Tt,t opening between the left auricle and the left ventricle
is guarded by the bicuspid valve and the opening between the right auricle and the
right ventricle is guarded by the tricuspid valve. Only one aortic arch, the left one
takes its origin from the heart.
Endoskeleton : Skull bicondylar, only one bone forming the lower jaw, the dentary,
presence of three ear ossicles in the middle ear, the upper jaw is fused with the
skull and the lower jaw articulates directly with the skull, presence of an external
ear opening.
2 A typical mammalian tooth 'consists of two parts; part protruding out of the jaw,
the crown and the part embedded in the pit of the jaw, called the root. The tooth is
made of dentine. On the crown portion it is covered by enamel and on the root
part it is covered by cement. In the centre of the tooth is the pulp cavity contain-
ing blood capillaries, nerves and connective tissue.
The teeth of mammals are heterodont, thecodont and diphyodont. The mammalian
teeth are modified according to the food and feeding habits.
3. Cattle
Artiodactyla
Sheep
Goat J
Horse
Perissodactyla
Donkey
-
Cat & dog Carnivora
Rats - Rodentia
Monkey - Primate
Bats - Chiroptera
4. Bats have wings made by the leathery skin spread between the fingers, between
the fore and hind limbs and between the hind limbs encircling the hind end. It may
or may not include the tail. The wing helps in flying. The bats have developed
echolocation by which they learn about their surroundings and catch the prey and
avoid obstacles while flying.
5. A:e, B:a, c : b ,
I3 c, E: d, F: h,
G: f, H: g. :
6. a : useful, blubber;
b : useful, ivory;
c : useful, wool;
d : useful, milk;
e : useful, carrying men and materials
f : useful, transport in desert;
g : useful, experimental animal
h : useful, horn.
7. Hibernation is spending the cold winter in relative inactivity. Example. bats and
squirrel in temperate zone.
8. Clouded leopard; Neofelis nebulosa
Rhinoceros; Rhinoceros unicornis
Black buck; Antilope cervicapra
Slender loris;
GLOSSARY
Alveolus (plural, alveoli) : a small cavity such as the tiny air sac in the lung or sac of a
compound gland, or the socket for a tooth.

Allantois : one of the extra embryonic membranes of the arnniotes that function in
respiration and excretion in birds and reptiles and plays an important role in the
development of the placenta in most mammals.

Amnion : the innermost extra embryonic membrane forming a fluid filled sac around the
embryo in amniotes.

Anus :the terminal opening of the gut.

Atrium :any main chamber; the principal receiving chamber of the heart; the large cavity
containing the pharynx in tunicates and cephalochordates.

Autostyly :a type of jaw suspension in which hyomandibular is non functional as a

supporting structure and the upper jaw region is entirely responsible for its own suspension,
seen in Dipnoi.

Auricularia larva :larva found in holothuriodea of Echinoderms.

-
Brachiation :a form of locomotion in which the arms are used to swing the body from
branch to branch among trees; a special type of suspensory locomotion; arm swinging
locomotion.

Bipinnaria larva :fiee swimming ciliated larva of the asteriod echinoderm.

8
Canine : a pointed tooth between incisors and premolars.

Chorion :outer of the double membrane that surrounds the embryo of reptiles, birds and
mammals. In mammals it contributes to the placenta.

Cloaca : the common chamber into which the gut, excretory tubes and reproductive tubes
empty their contents.

Dentine : a bonelike tissue of teeth that is secreted by odontoblasts; dentin.

Diaphragm : the domelike muscular partition between the abdominal and thoracic cavities
in mammals which functions in gentle inspiration and in defecation.

Diastema (plural, diastemata) :a gap especially the toothless interval between canine and
premolars in mammals.

Echolocation :the location of objects by detecting echoes reflected from them; echo
ranging.

Enamel :the hard, crystalline material produced by epidermal cells and deposited over
dentine of tooth in tetrapods and their immediate ancestors.

Eocene : the second epoch of the Tertiary period of the cenozoic era.

Esophagus :the part of the gut tube that lies between pharynx and stomach, oesophagus.

Fenestra (plural fenestral) : large opening or window, usually in a bone or between bones.

Heterocercal tail : the type of tail fin found in cartilaginous fishes (sharks and rays) in
which the lobes of the fin are asymmetrical; this is caused by the lengthening of some of
the fin rays.

Holostyly : a type ofjaw suspension in which there is support both from hyomandibular -
and a direct articulatron of upper jaw of braincase seen in Holocephali.
Homeotherms :warm blooded animals having a constant body temperature that is
invariant with the surroundings.

Homocercal tail : the type of tail fin found in most living bony fishes. The two lobes ofthe
tail are symmetrical and supported only by dermal fin rays.

Hyostyly : a type ofjaw suspension in which the upper jaw has no direct connection with
the brain case and the jaw joint is braced entirely by hyomandibular bone. Seen in most
modern fishes.

Gestation : the period of time from fertilization to birth in embryos that develop within the
body of a parent.

Genealogy : account of descent from ancestor; investigation of pedigree; plants or animal's

line of development from earlier forms.

Incisor : any tooth of a mammal that is located anterior to the canines and is used for
cutting. Upper incisors are lodged in the premaxilla whereas lower incisors are fixed in
dentary.

Labyrinthodont :one of a group of extinct amphibians derived from crossopteryglalis thal

have complexly infolded tooth dentine; of 'like' or pertaining to that group of amphibians.

Lateral line receptors : a line ofmechanical receptor cells lying along the sides of certain
fishes and amphibians, and sensitive to sound and wave action in water.

Larynx : a complex of cartilaginous elements, muscles, and fibers at the pharyngeal

openings of the trachea that functions to protect the opening and in some forms permits
vocalization, voice box especially in humans.
I

Lophophore :ciliated tentacle used to collect food.

Mammal : any animal belonging to the class Mammalia. Mammals have mammary glands.
hair. warm bodies and three ear ossicles i.e, incus, malleus and stapes.

Marsupial : any individual of the mammalian order Marsupialia which includes opossums,
kangaroos, and wallabies.

Marsupium : an abdominal brood pouch on most marsupials in which the young ones
develop.

Monophyletic : group of species having all been derived from a colnmon ancestor or si~iglc
parent stock.

Neoteny : a condition in which an organism attains sexual maturity while certain larval or
juvenile characters are retained permanently.

Nocturnal : of or pertaining to the night.

Occipital condyle : one of the joint surfaces from the occipital region of the skull that
articulates with the atlas.

Ossification : deposition of mineral salts, calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate arol~ncl
collagen fibrts in tissues so.that the tissue becomes hardened or ossified.

Polyphyletic : derlved from more than one ancestral source; opposed to monophyletlc.

Poikilotherms : cold blooded animals having a body telnperature that varies with that of
their surroundings.

Taxonomic clade : a taxon or other group consisting of a single species and all of its
descendents forming a distinct branch on a phylogenetic tree.

Tornaria larva : a free swimming larva of Enteropneusta that rotates as it swims

I Viviparkty :the condition of producing young of considerable development within the
adult body.

Wing : any appendage which serves as a major aerofoil especially the forelimbs of birds,
bats and pterosaurs.

Further Reading
1 . The Life of Vertebrates J.Z. Young (Third Edition) ELBS. Oxford University Press.
2 . The Vertebrate Body A.S. Romer and T.S. Parson (Sixth Edition). CBS College
Publishing.
3 . Chordata Anatomy and Evolution D. Jacob, A. Sharma and K. Nandchahal ( 1994).
Ramesh Book Depot, Jaipur.