MR KOECH

AUT 312: BRAKING SYSTEM

1.0 INTRODUCTION
 When a vehicle is accelerated, energy supplied by the engine causes its speed to increase. This energy of
motion is called kinetic energy.
 The basic principle of operation of the braking system, during normal braking, is to change the energy of
motion (kinetic energy) into heat energy. The heat, produced by friction, is carried away by the cooler air
stream in contact with the brakes.

1.1 FUNCTION
The main functions of the braking system are:
a) To stop the vehicle in the shortest possible distance, with no tendency to pull to either side.
b) To be capable of controlling braking with no tendency to fade after repeated applications of the brake
pedal.
c) To provide a mechanical means of holding the vehicle stationary when parked.

1.2 MAIN TYPES OF BRAKING SYSTEM

Two main types of friction brake are in common use;
a) Drum brake; the 'internal expanding' type of brake uses two shoes which are attached to a back-plate.
The back-plate is fixed to a stub axle or axle tube.
b) disc brake; consist of an exposed disc which is attached to the hub flange. Two friction pads sandwich the
disc, and these brake pads are pressed onto the disc as the disc rotates giving a braking action.

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1.3 BRAKE OPERATING SYSTEMS
The three basic operating systems are:
a) Mechanical; used on old vehicles and still in use today for handbrake/parking brake mechanisms. It uses a
series of push rods or cables together with levers to push the brake linings against the friction surface.
b) Hydraulic; used on modern cars and light commercial vehicles. Basic layout consists of a master cylinder,
which is connected by tubing to the wheel cylinders which are situated at each wheel. Brake fluid
completely fills all pipelines and working wheel cylinders.
c) Pneumatic; used mainly on medium and heavy commercial vehicles. These layouts utilize air to boost the
effort applied by the driver or provide the braking effort in the case of a fully compressed air braking
system.
-Some vehicle braking systems are a combination of two or even three of the above basic types and additional
forms of braking with the use of retarders are also employed on heavy commercial vehicles.
-The basic effect caused during braking is retardation of a rotating brake drum or disc caused by friction between
sets of stationary shoes or pads acting against the rotating member.

1.4 DRUM BRAKES

 Internal expanding brake shoes are brought into contact with the internal surface of a brake drum by means of
a cam, lever(s) or expanding cylinder assembly.
 Shoes; the T-section brake shoes are anchored to the back-plate so that they can pivot, but not turn with the
drum.
 Linings; each brake shoe has a replaceable friction lining riveted or bonded to it. The linings are normally made
from asbestos-based fabric and sometimes incorporate zinc, brass, copper wire or copper chippings, to
improve wearing quality and aid heat dissipation.
 Drum brakes are mainly fitted to the rear wheels while a disc system is mainly fitted to the front wheels.
 Note that many modern vehicles no longer have drum brakes at all.
 The disc/drum arrangement allows more brake force to be applied to the front wheels and also the simple
application of a mechanical handbrake to the rear drum brake.
 Various brake shoe arrangements used include:
 leading and trailing shoe (L & T)
 twin leading shoe (2LS)
 duo-servo

a) Leading and trailing shoe brakes

 The shoes are hydraulically expanded by two separate pistons fitted in a wheel cylinder which is fixed rigidly to
the back-plate.
 Rotation of the shoes with the drum is prevented by an anchor pin that is securely mounted on the back-plate
so as to resist the full braking torque.
 A strong spring is fitted to return the shoes when the brake pedal is released; this in turn forces the brake fluid
to return to the cylinders.

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 When the brake drums are not rotating, if pressure is applied to the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure forces
both shoes outwards and after the clearance has been taken up, an equal force is applied by each shoe to the
drum.
 This equal force does not apply when the vehicle is moving and the drums are rotating. The drag of a moving
drum on the friction linings causes one shoe to be applied harder and the other shoe to be pushed towards
the off position. As a result, the braking torque produced by the shoes is in the ratio 4:1.

 Leading shoe; A leading (primary) shoe may be defined as one where the direction of drum rotation is from
the applied load end (toe). This shoe is forced harder on the drum, by drum rotation, because of the self-
energising wedge or jamming action. This action is sometimes called self-servo effect.
 Trailing shoe; A trailing (secondary) shoe is one where the direction of rotation tends to push the shoe off the
drum, giving no wedge action, and therefore vehicles with rear drum brakes usually fit a leading and trailing
shoe arrangement. A trailing shoe becomes a leading shoe when the direction of rotation is reversed.
 The leading shoe gives a greater drag force on the drum than a trailing shoe for the same applied load from
the actuator and thus tends to wear more quickly than trailing shoes. Because of this, some vehicles are fitted
with thicker leading shoe linings, or linings of harder material, to compensate for this unequal wear rate.
 Self-servo action; the condition whereby a leading shoe is effectively self-applied to the drum, is referred to as
a self-servo or wedge action.

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 b) Twin leading shoe brakes
 Before the universal adoption of the disc for front brakes, the twin leading shoe (2LS) drum brake was
commonly used.
 Each shoe has its own expander (wheel cylinder), which is positioned so that both shoes are subject to a self-
servo action.

 An interlinking pipe behind the back-plate provides an equal hydraulic pressure to each single-acting cylinder.
The cylinder housing also acts as a shoe anchor for the floating end of the shoes.
 Advantages of the 2LS over the L&T shoe brake;
 Even lining wear - because both shoes do an equal amount of work, a longer life is achieved, the brake
runs cooler and the need for adjustment is less frequent.
 Equal self-servo - there are two effective shoes so a more powerful, stable brake is obtained.
 Greater resistance to fade - less reliance is placed on one shoe to do the major share of the braking, so the
self-servo action on this shoe can be reduced. This results in a more progressive brake and, as a result, it is
less sensitive to heat.
 One disadvantage of the 2LS type shows up during reversing. Unless a special double-acting linkage is
provided, both shoes become trailing shoes. To allow for this problem, and for provision of the handbrake,
most manufacturers retain the leading and trailing drum for the rear brakes.

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 c) Duo-servo brakes
 This system is often called a self-energizing brake.
 It is a very powerful brake, but its effectiveness falls tremendously if the friction value decreases.
 The operating principle is based on the use of drum energy to considerably boost the force applied by the
driver.

 When the leading shoe is pushed out into contact with the forward-moving drum, frictional force causes it to
rotate partially with the drum.
 The shoe movement produced by this self-wrapping action is transmitted through a floating adjuster to the
trailing shoe, which brings the trailing shoe into contact with the drum.
 With the trailing shoe against the anchor pin and the shoe-to-drum clearance having been taken up, the force
applied by the expander is supplemented by the self-energizing action of both shoes.
 To minimize the delay before self-energization assistance comes into action, the trailing shoe is held on the
anchor pin by a stronger return spring; this means that the expander only moves the leading shoe. In this case
only, the leading shoe is called the 'primary shoe'. The shoe gets this name because the shoe is made to
contact the drum before the other (secondary) shoe.

Advantage of Drum Brakes

 Self-servo action; this is the result of the rotating drum helping a brake shoe to exert greater force onto the
drum. In effect, when the drum is rotating, it almost pulls a brake shoe into the drum thus producing better
braking force.

Disadvantage
 Brake fade; brake fade is a condition where the brake performance reduces drastically when brake
components, especially the friction linings, reach a given temperature. When this condition occurs, the driver
has to apply a much larger effort to bring the vehicle to rest.

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1.5 DISC BRAKES
 The drum brakes are associated with brake fade.
 Brake fade is the loss of retardation or stopping power, which occurs during application of the brakes.
 Brake fade is caused by the overheating of the brake assemblies.
 Effects of excessive heat on the drum brakes are;
 Reduction of the coefficient of friction between the linings and the drums
 Expansion of drums
 In hydraulically operated brakes, excessive pedal travel.
 All disc brakes are based on the principle of a wheel-driven disc being retarded by pressure-operated friction
pads.
 These pads are carried in a caliper which straddles the disc and which is mounted upon a torque arm secured
to the suspension

Advantages of disc brakes over drum brakes

 Greater heat dissipation. This is because only a small part of the disc is heated by contact with the pads, the
greater part always being in contact with the stream of cooling air. Brake fade is therefore greatly reduced,
and pedal travel remains fairly constant.
 Cleaner braking surfaces. Centrifugal force throws water, dirt, and oil off the discs, which therefore retain their
efficiency and are worn less.
 Lighter in weight. The disc-brake assembly is about 20 % less in weight than the equivalent drum type.
 Simpler construction. Pads are visible and wear is easy to see.
 Easier service. Pads can be changed much quicker than shoes.

Disadvantages

 The disc brake has no self servo action, so higher operating forces and pressures are required.
 The higher operating forces required complicate the design of the hand-brake mechanism. In a few designs
the inside of the disc is machined in the form of a brake drum, into which a completely separate drum brake
assembly fits. This dual system adds to the initial cost of manufacture of a vehicle.

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 Construction
 The disc is made of cast iron and is bolted to the wheel hub, so that its flat surfaces are vertical.
 An inverted, U-shaped caliper is fitted over the disc and is bolted to the stub axle assembly. This assembly
therefore acts as a torque arm which resists the reaction forces from the braking torque.
 Each side of the caliper contains a fluid cylinder and a piston, a rubber piston sealing ring set in a recess in the
cylinder wall, a dust cover, and a pad assembly.
 The cylinders are interconnected by a pipe to the nearest master cylinder.
 The pads are located and retained in the caliper by bolted-on retainer plates, or lock pins.

Operation
 When the brakes are applied, and little or no wear has taken place, the slight piston movement necessary is
obtained without relative movement between the piston and its seal, i.e. the piston movement distorts the
seal.
 When the brakes are released, the seal regains its shape and retracts the piston, maintaining a light rubbing
contact between the pads and the disc.
 This contact is due to the combination of the friction between the seal and the piston, and the static head of
brake fluid, i.e. this is a 'hydro-static' brake.
 When wear has occurred, the piston moves slightly through its seal to take up a new position in the cylinder,
i.e. it automatically compensates for the wear, and the hydrostatic effect automatically ensures the correct
light rubbing contact when the brakes are released.

1.6 HYDRAULIC BRAKE SYSTEMS

Advantages
 They are self-compensating; compensation is automatic because the pressure in an enclosed system is the
same at all points in the system.
 They offer high efficiency; there is no lost motion and reduction of force due to wear and lever angularity.
 They are flexible; their flexibility allow for suspension and steering movement, suitable for vehicles having
independent suspension.
 Brake pressure can be changed; Distribution of the brake pressure from the master cylinder can be changed.
The force exerted on a piston is governed by the piston surface area, i.e. the larger the piston surface area, the
greater the thrust exerted.
 They are quiet in operation.

System Layout

 The system consists of a fluid tank or reservoir, a master cylinder, a system of rigid and flexible pipes, pipe
junctions, and wheel cylinder assemblies.
 The reservoir may be combined with the master cylinder.
 The wheel cylinders may operate shoes and linings or disc pads.

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 A pressure-operated switch, which controls the brake warning lamps, is usually fitted at the first junction from
the master cylinder.
 In one type of system, a spring-loaded check valve may be incorporated to maintain some amount of standing
pressure in the pipe lines and wheel cylinders. The purpose of this residual or standing pressure is to:
 Enable the shoes or pads to move out to contact the drums or discs the moment the pedal is depressed.
 Ensure that any leakage is of fluid escaping (which is easy to detect) and is not of air entering (which is
very hard to locate and which makes the brakes unreliable and dangerous).

Operation

 Applied pressure on the footbrake pedal puts pressure on the hydraulic fluid contained within the system.
 Since the fluid is incompressible, it acts like a solid rod of liquid which is forced along the inside of the pipes, in
turn moving the wheel cylinder pistons.
 Release of pedal pressure allows the pistons to displace the fluid back towards the master cylinder.

Brake fluid

 The fluid used in hydraulic brake systems is a vegetable oil with certain additives. It must possess the following
properties:
 Have a low freezing point.
 Have a high boiling point.
 Have low viscosity (very thin) under a wide range of operating temperatures.
 Compatibility with rubber components; not attack the rubber and metal parts of the system.
 Compatibility with other fluids; the fluid must mix with other fluid in its class.
 Resistance to chemical ageing; the fluid should not deteriorate except over a long period of service.
 It must be, and remain, incompressible

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1.6 MASTER CYLINDERS

 The function of the master cylinder is to pressurize the brake fluid in the pipe lines and wheel cylinders or
calipers when the brakes are applied.
 Two types of brake master cylinders are used; the single-cylinder which is used for single-line and the dual-
cylinder (tandem) design which is used for dual-line system layouts.
 The single-line brake master cylinder is similar to the hydraulic clutch master cylinder.
 Two types of single-line master cylinder are used; the Lockheed (check valve type) master cylinders which
operate on the principle of increasing an existing pressure (residual or standing pressure) and the Girling
(Center valve type) master cylinders which permit the free passage of fluid to and from the system until the
cylinder is operated.

Basic operation of a single-line brake (or clutch) master cylinder

 The brake pedal is connected by a short push rod to the master cylinder piston.
 A slight amount of free-play should exist between the ball of the push rod and the socket in the master
cylinder piston.
 This clearance ensures that the piston returns fully when the brakes are released and fully uncovers the feed
ports.
 When the driver depresses the brake pedal, the push rod moves the piston down the cylinder bore shutting off
the fluid reservoir passage.
 The sealed piston forces the hydraulic fluid along the pipeline to operate the wheel cylinders or calipers to
operate the brakes.
 When the brake pedal is released, the master cylinder becomes reconnected with the fluid reservoir from
which fluid can flow by gravity.
 The fluid reserve tank may be integral with the master cylinder, or be separate and connected by a pipe.
 The filler cap contains a vent hole to prevent a vacuum being formed within the system, thus preventing the
entry of air via the cupped seals.

a) Centre valve type (Girling) Single-line master cylinder

 A drilled hole or port at the opposite end to the push rod connects with the fluid reservoir.
 Another drilled hole in the upper body of the cylinder allows fluid to pass between the reservoir and the
system.
 The cylinder contains a valve
stem, valve stem seal, centre
valve assembly, spring, spring
thimble and a piston containing a
seal.

Operation—brakes applied

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 When the pedal is depressed, the push rod pushes the piston and spring, and the valve stem is forced onto its
seat by the spring washer which closes the reservoir port. This encloses and traps the fluid in the cylinder bore
and in the whole system.
 Continued piston movement reduces the effective volume and so increases the pressure in the system. The
increased pressure acts equally throughout the system, and the wheel cylinder pistons are forced outwards
and apply the brake.
Operation—brakes released
 When the pedal is released, the piston return spring, assisted by the pull-off springs, returns the fluid and
forces the piston back down the cylinder bore until it contacts the circlip which acts as a stop.
 As the piston reaches the end of its stroke, the centre valve is drawn away from the reservoir port by the
spring washer, and fluid is able to pass in either direction between the cylinder and the reservoir.
b) Check valve type (Lockheed) Single-line master cylinder
 The construction of the Lockheed brake master cylinder includes a double-acting check valve, a seat, spring,
and main and secondary rubber seals.
 The forward end of the piston is flat and is perforated by a ring of small holes, and a thin flexible washer is
fitted between the piston and main seal to prevent the main seal blocking the holes or sticking to the piston.

Operation—brake applied
 Depressing the brake pedal causes the push rod to force the piston along the bore of the cylinder, causing the
main seal to cut off the by-pass port from the reservoir.
 The fluid is completely enclosed in the cylinder during further movement of the piston and the fluid is
pressurized, which forces the check valve off its seat allowing fluid to pass into the pipe lines and operate the
wheel cylinders.
Operation—brake released
 The fluid behind the piston head is used to refill, or recuperate, the forward part of the cylinder each time the
brakes are released.

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 This fluid also keeps the cylinder bore wet, reduces wear of the main seal, and helps to provide better sealing
against entry of air.
 When the pedal is released the piston spring forces the piston back down the cylinder very quickly.
 This sudden piston movement results in a sudden pressure drop in the forward part of the cylinder, and this
pressure difference forces fluid through the holes in the piston head to refill this space when required to.
 The rear portion of the cylinder is at once refilled from the reservoir via the large port.
 If a check valve is fitted which maintains a line pressure, then the pressure of fluid in the lines between the
check valve and wheel cylinders is higher than that in the master cylinder. This prevents the entry of air into
the system, if a small leak occurs. It also helps the bleeding process by ensuring that a fresh charge of fluid
enters the system at each stroke of the brake pedal and helps to expel air from the system.
 The wheel cylinder seals are maintained under slight pressure, which prevents a tendency for them to collapse
and allow air to enter the fluid system through the wheel cylinders.
 In this system, the brake pull-off springs are used to force fluid against the force of the main spring on the
check valve, lifting the valve off its seat, and displacing fluid into the forward end of the cylinder, returning it
to the reservoir via the small by-pass port.
1.7 DUAL LINE HYDRAULIC BRAKES (SPLIT BRAKE SYSTEMS)

 When a single line hydraulic brake fails, there is total failure in service brakes.
 As a safety measure, two independent lines can be
used;
 Front/rear split
 Diagonal split
 Front axle and one rear wheel split etc.

  In Front Rear split, also called vertical

split, one piston is connected to the front brakes
and one to the rear. There is little braking available
in case of front brake failure. This is because of the
fact that rear wheels only provide a third of the

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 braking effort. The vehicle also becomes unstable in case of wheel lock. This system is used for rear wheel
drive vehicles.
 In Diagonal split, also called X-split, one piston operates one front wheel and one rear wheel. It is used in
majority of the vehicles today since it has the advantages of giving adequate braking in case of one line
failure.
 Front axle and one rear wheel split is also known as the ‘L’ Split. One part of the master cylinder is
connected to the front brakes and one rear wheel brake and the other part of the master cylinder is also
connected to the front brakes and the remaining rear wheel brake.

TANDEM MASTER CYLINDER

 To avoid complete failure of hydraulic system, a tandem-master cylinder is used.

 Two independent brake circuits (split brake systems) are controlled through the use of one brake master
cylinder.
 A hydraulic failure in one of the brake pipelines results in a loss of only one circuit or two of the brakes.
 Effective footbrake control is retained and safety is improved.

Construction
 The unit has two chambers each having their own reservoir.
 The primary piston is moved by the push rod and has a cylindrical stop on its pressure face.
 The secondary piston has stops at each end and a hollow piston stop is arranged in the end of the
cylinder. It also has a screwed stop which passes through the wall of the cylinder.

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  The check valve assembly for line A brakes is fitted into the end of the cylinder, a similar valve for line B
brakes being fitted into the side of the cylinder near to the primary chamber.

Operation
 Normal. When the pedal is depressed the push rod forces the primary piston to move along the bore. Its
seal covers the by-pass port and the fluid in the primary chamber is totally enclosed. As this occurs the
spring between the pistons moves the secondary piston and the fluid in the secondary chamber is totally
enclosed. Continued pedal movement results in pressure building up equally in both chambers, and when
this exceeds the static line pressure both check valves are opened. The higher pressure is at once
transmitted to the wheel cylinders and the brake shoes/pads are applied to their drums/discs. When the
pedal is released the two pistons are returned by their springs and the normal recuperation action of the
two chambers occurs simultaneously.
 Line A (secondary) brake system damaged. The primary piston is moved by the push rod in the normal
manner but the pressure build-up results in the secondary piston forcing the fluid out of the damaged
portion of the line A brake system. The pressure in the secondary chamber collapses and that in the
primary chamber is reduced until the stop of the secondary piston contacts the stop in the end of the
cylinder. Continued pedal movement then results in a pressure build-up in the primary chamber and the
operation of the line B brakes is maintained but the pedal movement is increased.
 Line B (primary) brake system damaged. If this occurs the movement of the primary piston forces fluid out
of the line B brake system. Continued pedal movement results in the stop of the primary piston contacting
the stop on the rear of the secondary piston, and the secondary piston is then moved directly to apply the
line A brakes. Extra pedal movement occurs but some braking is still possible.
1.8 POWER ASSISTED BRAKES

 Full power brakes are usually compressed air brakes. The brakes entirely depend on external energy. The
driver only operates a valve during braking.
 In power assisted brakes, a servo unit is used to provide the external energy to top up on the driver’s
effort.
 Power assisted brakes can use;
 Vacuum assistance
 Hydraulic pressure assistance
 Compressed air assistance
 Most vehicles use vacuum assistance, which is available in the induction manifold of the S.I. engine or can
easily be generated by exhaust or pump.
 Reasons for using a servo unit in the braking system;
 It permits the use of low-factor wheel brakes with less sensitivity to changes in lining friction
 A reduction in the driver effort on the brake pedal
 A reduction in the total pedal travel required

1. VACUUM ASSISTANCE
a) Air suspended(non-suspended)

Non suspended

 Both sides of the vacuum piston are normally subjected to atmospheric pressure and one
side is exhausted when the brakes are applied by using manifold depression or exhauster
unit i.e. vacuum is admitted to provide boosting force.
 Non-suspended boosters are obsolete due to their slow action.
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 b) Vacuum suspended

Vacuum suspended

 Both sides of the vacuum piston are suspended in vacuum.

 Air at atmospheric pressure is introduced at one side when the brakes are applied.
 These boosters are quick in action since it is easy to pump air in a space than to evacuate it.
 Nearly all boosters in light vehicles are of this type.

c) Air pac(Air assistance)

Air pac

 The booster piston is suspended in atmospheric air when brakes are off.
 Compressed air is admitted to provide the assisted force.
 Air pacs are used in medium heavy commercial vehicles where vacuum cannot provide the
required high boost force.

A) INDIRECT ACTING SUSPENDED VACUUM SERVO

 The indirect type is now not used.

 It also sometimes referred to as a ‘remote type’ because it is located in the hydraulic line between the
single master cylinder and the wheel cylinders and therefore remote from the master cylinder.
 This enables the servo to be added to a standard non-assisted braking system.
 The advantage of this servo was that it could be located easily on vehicle that did not have much space
under the bonnet.
 It consists of three main items;
i) Vacuum cylinder containing a spring loaded diaphragm.
ii) Slave hydraulic cylinder.
iii) Control valve actuated by hydraulic pressure.

Source; Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 5thed, V A W Hillier, pg 443

OPERATION

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Suspended vacuum servo-indirect acting

 i) Brakes released/off
 When the brake pedal is free, vacuum exists in both sides of the servo piston.
 The diaphragm control valve maintains the air valve closed and the vacuum valve open.

ii) Brakes applied

 When the pedal is pressed, hydraulic fluid passes through the hydraulic servo piston, through
hydraulic servo cylinder, to wheel cylinders.
 The clearance between the brake shoes and drums is taken up before reasonable pressure is
build up in the master cylinder.
 After all clearance is taken up, pressure builds up forcing the control valve piston to rise up.
 The vacuum valve is closed.
 Further increase in pressure, opens the air valve.
 Air rushes to the booster cylinder forcing the vacuum servo piston to move.
 The tapered piston rod closes off the hydraulic servo piston outlet hole.
 Fluid pressure is build up in the hydraulic servo cylinder and wheel cylinders.
 When brakes are fully applied atmospheric pressure exists on the right side of the servo piston.

iii) Brakes held on

 When the brakes are partially applied, the air and vacuum valves are maintained closed.
 Intermediate pressure exists on the right side of the vacuum booster.

B) DIRECT ACTING SUSPENDED VACUUM SERVO

 Direct acting servo is the one widely used in light vehicles.

 Servo unit is fitted in front of the master cylinder and is activated by the brake pedal.
 It is used with either single or tandem master cylinders.
 The booster can be fitted in both S.I. and C.I. propelled vehicles.
 In case of C.I. engine, where there is no vacuum in the induction manifold, an exhauster is fitted. The
usual practice being to fit it in the alternator.

Source; Light
and Heavy

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Technology, 4thed, M J Nunney, pg 581 / Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology, 5thed, V A W Hillier, pg
444

OPERATION

i) Brakes released
 The servo piston is fully retracted by the return spring.
 Servo piston is exposed to vacuum on both sides i.e. suspended in vacuum

ii) Brakes applied

 When pedal is pushed, the head of plunger compresses the reaction disc tube, and then closes
the vacuum port.
 Further compression of disc tube opens the air-port as the plunger leaves the valve behind.
 Air rushes through the filter, through the air-port, through communicating port and acts behind
the servo piston.
 The servo piston is forced to move and push the master cylinder push rod.
 The brakes are boosted.

iii) Brakes held on

 When the pedal is pushed and held at a particular position both the air-port and the vacuum port
remain closed so that a state of equilibrium exists between the master cylinder and the servo
unit.
 An intermediate pressure would be maintained on the right side of the servo piston.
 If the pedal force is increased, air-port will open again, giving a much higher intermediate
pressure.
 If the pedal force is reduced, vacuum port will open and then a much lower intermediate
pressure will be arrived at on the right side of the servo piston.
 When the brakes are released, the reaction disc will eject the plunger thereby closing off the air-
port and opening the vacuum port. The servo piston return spring will then force back the servo
piston to the extreme right.
 When no vacuum is available and the driver applies the brakes, the plunger pin flattens the
reaction disc and the plunger pin will act directly on the master cylinder push rod.
The driver must apply a huge force to apply the brakes and at the same time overcome the
return spring.
 NB: The function of the rubber reaction disc is to impart a certain degree of feel or feedback into the
pedal effort being exerted by the driver.

2. HYDRAULIC ASSISTANCE

 Unless an effective servo is fitted, a considerable effort is required to stop a heavy vehicle or light truck.
 Because the pressure difference between atmospheric pressure and engine vacuum is limited, a system is
needed that provides a much greater source of energy. This can be achieved with a hydraulic servo.
 The hydraulic pressure can be produced by an engine driven pump or an electrical-motor driven pump.
 Mounted behind the conventional master cylinder, the servo valve is supplied with pressurized fluid.

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 CONTINUOUS FLOW BRAKE HYDRALIC SERVO

OPERATION

i) Brakes released/off
 Fluid passes between the master cylinder piston through the servo valve bore and back to the
reservoir.
 There is no pressure build up in the system.
 The servo valve return spring ensures that the conical faces are apart when the pedal is released.

ii) Brakes applied

 Initially the conical face of the servo valve is closed.
 The pump builds up pressure behind the master cylinder piston.
 The force due to this pressure tends to force the piston and valve apart. The piston surface area
is greater than the valve surface area, thus more force is applied to the piston.
 The piston/valve area ratio governs the ratio of the assistance given to the driver.
 The pressure force acting on the control valve provides the driver with the necessary feedback of
the amount of braking.
 When the servo valve is kept closed, assistance is continued.
 When the brakes are fully applied, the relief valve opens to safeguard the system from excessive
pressure.

iii) Brakes held on

 When the brake pedal is held on, the servo valve is held in one position.
 The pressure build up, behind the master cylinder piston, tends to push the piston, opening the
control valve.
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  The fluid is throttled through the conical face and then returns to the reservoir.
 When the pedal is released, free circulation of the fluid is restored.

Accumulator

 An accumulator is sometimes fitted in this system.

 The accumulator stores hydraulic fluid under pressure.
 The stored fluid, under pressure, can be tapped to provide braking when the engine is stopped or
when running at a low speed.
 A charging valve is incorporated to facilitate the filling of the accumulator and also to sense when
the accumulator is required.

3. COMPRESSED AIR ASSISTANCE

AIR PACS

 An alternative to a hydraulic servo on light trucks and minibuses is a compressed air servo.
 The system is generally referred to as an air/hydraulic (air-over hydraulic) or Air-pac system, because
compressed air is used to boost the force applied by the driver to a hydraulically operated brake.

 Air pressure, generated by an engine driven compressor, is stored in a reservoir adjacent to the servo
chamber; this houses a piston that operates another piston that controls the main hydraulic brake line.
 When the brake is applied, a valve directs compressed air into the servo cylinder to boost the pedal effort.
1.8 POWER BRAKES (AIR BRAKES)

 These are used for many of the larger commercial vehicles and PSVs.

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Compressed-air brakes
 PEDAL VALVE OPERATION

i) Brakes released/off
 Air from the reservoir is admitted from the bottom of the pedal valve but cannot flow to the
wheel cylinders since the inlet valve is closed.
 The outlet valve is open and the hollow piston exhaust the air from the wheel cylinders to the
atmosphere.
ii) Brakes applied
 The plunger is forced down by the pedal.
 The strong spring compresses the light spring in the pedal valve.
 The hollow piston move down to contact the outlet valve.
 The exhaust to the atmosphere is closed.
 Further movement of the pedal forces the hollow piston to push the inlet valve open.
 Air rushes to the wheel cylinders and brakes are applied.
 Wheel cylinder pressure is admitted below the hollow piston neck through the port.
 The pressure acting below the hollow piston provides the driver with the necessary feel of the
amount of braking.
iii) Brakes held on
 When the pedal is held at a particular position, the pressure acting below the hollow piston neck
compresses the strong spring moving the hollow piston up.
 Equilibrium is reached whereby the force on the pedal is equal to the upward force on the whole
piston.
 At this point, the inlet valve will close and the outlet valve would remain closed. Intermediate
pressure will exist at the wheel cylinders.
1.9 SPRING BRAKE (SECONDARY BRAKE)

 Compressed air brakes can be very dangerous in case the vehicle moves without adequate air in
the reservoir.
 The spring brake is a safety stop which acts as a parking brake and also as a secondary brakes in
case of failure of service brakes.
 The safety stop comes on automatically when the vehicle losses compressed air and can only
disengage after there is adequate compressed air in the reservoir.

2.0 BRAKE VALVES

i) Pressure regulating valve

 Is fitted in the rear brake line.
 Its function is to reduce the risk of the rear wheels locking during heavy braking by limiting the
brake fluid pressure acting on the rear brakes.
ii) Pressure control valve (inertia valve)
 This is a development of the pressure regulating valve.
 It is fitted to overcome the problem of the large load variation between the front and rear wheels
of the front wheel drive vehicles.
 It is fitted in the rear brake line(s).
 It is an inertia sensitive, pressure reducing valve that operates at a predetermined rate of vehicle
deceleration. It takes into account vehicle weight transfer, gradient, vehicle loading and road
conditions during braking.
 When the deceleration rate has been reached, the valve temporary shuts off the rear line, and
any additional brake pedal force increases the pressure in the front brake hydraulic circuit.
iii) The pressure differential warning actuator

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  This is a driver warning device that causes an illumination of a ‘brake failure warning lamp’ if the
pressure difference in the brake lines between two circuits differs by more than a given amount.
iv) Load-apportioning valve/ Load sensing valve
 Its purpose is to supply, within a given limit, hydraulic pressure to the rear brakes in proportion
to the load carried by the rear wheels.
 It helps reduce the risk of a rear wheel skid at times when the rear of the vehicle is lightly loaded
and ensuring proportioning of the brake pressure when the rear wheels are heavily loaded i.e.
prevents jack knifing.
v) Unloader valve
 This valve allows for charging of the reservoir tanks until a predetermined pressure is reached.
 When the set pressure is reached, the valve vents the pump to the atmosphere.
 It also prevents the backward flow of air in the system.
 It prevents the pump from overheating.
 Where several reservoirs are used, it ensures that all the reservoirs are fully charged with air and
also ensures that air do not escape from one reservoir to the other.

vi) Relief valve

 This safety valve blows off in case the system pressure becomes too high. It operates only when
the unloader valve fails.
vii) Relay valve
 This valve is activated by the pedal valve pressure.
 It admits pressure to wheel cylinders with an equal pressure from a nearby reservoir.
viii) Quick release valve
 It is easy for air to flow from a region of high pressure to a low pressure region.
 Brakes application is usually quick but brakes release is slow, as all the air from the wheel
chambers pass out to the atmosphere through the pedal valve.
 This valve provides for quick brake release.
 These valves are arranged near the wheel chambers.
ix) Differential protection valve
 This valve prevents the double application of the brakes.
 The valve ensures that service brake air cannot reach the wheel cylinders when secondary brake
is on.
 The valve also ensures that when secondary brake is switched off, the service brake air can reach
the wheel cylinders.
x) Emergency relay valve
Functions:
 To allow for charging of trailer reservoirs
 To facilitate service brake application
 To allow for trailer secondary brake application
 To act as a safety device which provide for automatic spring-brake application when the trailer is
disconnected from tractor or when there is inadequate air in the system.
2.1 ANTILOCK/ANTISKID BRAKING SYSTEM (ABS)

 Applying brakes too hard or on a slippery surface can cause the wheels to lock.
 When wheels lock, steering control is lost and in most cases, it produces longer stopping distances.
 The antilock braking system prevents wheels from locking or skidding no matter how hard brakes are
applied or how slippery the road surface is. Steering stays under control and stopping distances are
generally reduced.
 Because safety is a priority with braking systems, ABS must allow braking to be maintained if the ABS
should fail.

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 Most ABS systems are designed in such a way that if a failure occurs, normal braking can be maintained.
The ABS system is fitted to the standard braking system as an add-on to the standard braking system.
CONSTRUCTION

1. Brake pedal
2. Brake Booster and Master Cylinder
3. Hydraulic Control Unit/ Hydraulic Modulator
4. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
5. Wheel Speed Sensor Pick-up
6. Wheel Speed Sensor Rotor
7. Wheel Cylinder

 It consists of a brake pedal, a master cylinder, wheel speed sensors, the electronic control unit (ECU), and
the hydraulic control unit (hydraulic modulator).
 The wheel speed sensor consists of a notched or toothed rotor that rotates with each wheel and a pick-
up.
 As the wheel turns, a small voltage pulse is induced into the pick-up and sent to the ECU.
 When the brakes are applied, the wheels’ speed of rotation changes. This sends a new signal to the ECU.
 If the ECU detects that a wheel might lock, it sends a signal to the hydraulic control unit.
 In a three channel system, the hydraulic control unit uses three solenoid valves to control brake pressure
and prevent them from locking.
 The valves are in series with the brake master cylinder and the brake circuits.
 One operates for each of the front wheels and one controls both rear wheels.
 At the start of the engine, the ABS automatically checks itself. Any failure in the system lights up a warning
light in the dash panel.

OPERATION
i) Normal brake operation
 During normal braking, as the rotational speed of the wheels falls, no electric current flows from the ECU
to the hydraulic unit. The solenoid valve is not energized. The brake master cylinder hydraulic pressure is
applied to the brake unit and the ABS is not involved.
 However, even though the ABS is passive during normal braking, its ECU is constantly monitoring for rapid
deceleration of any of the wheels.
ii) Pressure hold
 If a wheel speed sensor signals severe wheel deceleration, which means that the wheel is likely to lock up,
the ECU sends a current to the hydraulic unit. This energises the solenoid valve.
 The action of the valve isolates the brake circuit from the master cylinder. This stops the braking pressure
of that wheel from rising and keeps it constant.
iii) Pressure reduction
 If the sensor signals the wheel is still decelerating too rapidly, the ECU sends a larger current to the
hydraulic unit. The armature moves even further and opens the valve.
 It opens a passage from the brake circuit. Brake fluid is sent from the brake circuit back to the master
cylinder.
 Pressure in the wheel cylinder circuit is reduced and the wheel is braked less heavily.
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  If the wheel sensor indicates that lowering the brake pressure is letting the wheel accelerate again, the
ECU stops sending current to the hydraulic unit and de-energizes the solenoid valve. This lets the pressure
increase, so that the wheel is again decelerated.
 This cycle repeats itself about 4-6 times per second.
NB: It is normal in an ABS for the valves in a hydraulic control unit to keep changing positions as they change
the brake pressure that is being applied. These changes in positions may cause rapid pulsations to be felt
through the brake pedal.

2.2 TRACTION CONTROL

 On slippery surfaces and if power from the engine is too great, wheel slip will occur.
 Prevention of wheel slip was previously achieved by employing a limited slip differential (LSD).
 The slip-limiting action can also be achieved using ABS components to give either a braking action on the
driven wheel that is slipping during acceleration, or to cause a reduction in engine power.
 When a wheel increases its speed relative to the others, the ECU applies the brake to slow it down and, if
necessary, reduces the engine power output by partially closing the throttle.
 As with ABS, the sensing is continuous, and the ECU will constantly strive to obtain the highest level of
drive from each wheel, whenever it is demanded by the driver.
2.3 RETARDERS/ENDURANCE/AUXILIARY BRAKES

 Also called endurance brakes or auxiliary brakes.

 These are powerful and smooth, and usually operate through the transmission system or drive train.
 They may be put into operation by either a small lever under the steering wheel or a small pedal above
the main brake pedal.
 An auxiliary retarder is a vehicle slowing, rather than a vehicle-stopping device and is not therefore a
substitute for the service brake system.
 They are particularly useful in hilly or mountainous areas to avoid brake fade as a result of overheating
when travelling down long gradients.

Advantages of brake retarders

 Reduced brake lining wear
 Reduced tyre wear
 Less driver fatigue
 Improved handling of the vehicle on wet and slippery surfaces
 Reduced brake fade

Types of Brake Retarders

(i) Exhaust brake retarder
(ii) Hydraulic brake retarder
(iii) Electromagnetic retarder (eddy current retarder)
(iv) Compression brake retarder (engine brake)
(v) Friction retarder
 Auxiliary retarders are used in conjunction with ABS systems, their retarding effect being interrupted
when ABS is actuated.

1. EXHAUST RETARDER:

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 It operates only after the fuel supply to the injection pump has been cut off so that only air is discharged
to the exhaust manifold from the cylinders on each of the exhaust strokes.
 Its principle of operation relies on a butterfly-valve positioned inside the exhaust down-pipe being made
to “close-off” the exit so that the discharged air (not exhaust gas) from each cylinder is pumped
continuously into the exhaust manifold against the blocked exit of the exhaust down-pipe.
 As a result of this accumulating air in the exhaust manifold, there is a build-up of back pressure which
opposes the up-stroke of each piston on its exhaust-stroke, consequently producing a resisting torque to
the rotating crankshaft.

CONTRUCTION;
 It consists of the following;
 Foot control switch: - It’s operated through a lever below the steering wheel or a foot switch next to the
accelerator pedal or below the brake pedal. Its function is to engage and disengage the retarder
 Solenoid actuator: - this is a field winding on iron core. It is converted into an electromagnet when voltage
is passing through. Its function is to pull the butterfly valve through the linkage to the closed position.
 Exhaust butterfly valve: - it is located inside the exhaust down pipe at a hardened section. It allows the
exhaust gas (air) to be blocked/ trapped inside the cylinder when the retarder is on and allows gases (air)
to escape to the atmosphere when the retarder is off.
 Fuel cut off link: - it is secured to the exhaust butterfly valve and moved by it. Its function is to close or
open the fuel cut off switch, thus making or breaking the electrical earth-return circuit to the ECU.
 Fuel cut off switch: - it transmits an electrical signal to the ECU (Electronic control unit) to facilitate the
delivery of fuel to be cut-off when the exhaust butterfly valve is closed.
 Electronic control unit (ECU):- this is a micro-processor that receives and sends electrical signals to enable
fuel delivery to be cut off.
 Control solenoid valve: - it’s an electromagnetic device that receives an electrical signal from the ECU and
it rotates the plunger in the injection to cease temporarily.

OPERATION
i) Retarder inoperative:
 Under normal driving conditions, the exhaust butterfly-valve is maintained in the fully open position by
the solenoid actuator.
 When the exhaust butterfly-valve is fully open, the electrical earth-return circuit to the ECU is completed
through the closed fuel cut-off switch, thus permitting the ECU to operate the unit injection pump so that
fuel is injected into the cylinders in their respective firing sequence
ii) Retarder operating:
 When the driver presses the foot-control-switch, this closes the contacts causing the solenoid (butterfly-
valve) actuator to become energised.
 The initial anti-clockwise twist to the butterfly-valve spindle opens the fuel cut-off switch contacts, and
this is signalled instantly to the ECU which then shuts down all of the individual injection pump units so
that fuel injection into the cylinders ceases.
 Further movement of solenoid armature plunger causes the butterfly-valve and its spindle to rotate to the
fully closed position
 Immediately, discharging air from the cylinders will be prevented from escaping to the atmosphere by the
blocking action of the closed exhaust butterfly-valve.
 In a very short time, the back-pressure build up provides an opposing force to the moving pistons and
corresponding resisting torque to the rotating crankshaft, thus providing the resisting torque to the drive
axle which is used to retard to the motion of the vehicle.

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 2.4 JACK
KNIFING AND SWING OF ARTICULATED VEHICLE

 The term jack-knifing is used to describe a condition of instability where the semi-trailer pushes the rear
of the tractive unit (tractor) out of line, thereby creating a toggling effect that results in the tractive unit
partially rotating and closing on the trailer.

 Causes of jack-knifing
 Premature locking of the rear brakes on the tractive unit
 If the brakes lock prematurely on the trailer and cause it to swing over.
 A sudden swerving manoeuvre, even without the brakes being applied.
 Method of avoiding jack-knifing
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 Ensuring at the design stage that the distribution of braking effort between the axles of
articulated vehicles is such as to minimize jack-knifing
 Carrying heavy load at the front of trailer and small weight at the rear of trailer in order to
minimize locking of rear wheels
 Braking more the trailer than the tractor
 The fitting of an anti-jack-knife device.
 By including a brake load sensing valves at the rear axles of tractor. The brake limiting valves
reduce the maximum air pressure to the rear wheel chambers where tractor axles are highly
loaded.
 By incorporating a fifth coupling brake, which locks the fifth coupling whenever service brake is
applied.
 By incorporating an electronic anti-skid sensor at the rear wheels of tractor which deliver
information to the ECU which reduces air pressure when the wheels lock e.g. Maxarat ABS.

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