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Microstructural Analysis of Ballistic Tests on Welded Armor Steel Joints

Article in Metallography Microstructure and Analysis · June 2013

DOI: 10.1007/s13632-013-0069-5

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139
DOI 10.1007/s13632-013-0069-5

TECHNICAL ARTICLE

Microstructural Analysis of Ballistic Tests on Welded

Armor Steel Joints
M. Balakrishnan • V. Balasubramanian •

G. Madhusudhan Reddy

Received: 12 September 2012 / Revised: 25 December 2012 / Accepted: 13 April 2013 / Published online: 15 May 2013
Ó Springer Science+Business Media New York and ASM International 2013

Abstract The deformation and fracture behavior of Introduction

welded joints made from quenched and tempered steel
closely conforming to AISI 4340 were investigated. Due to Armor-grade quenched and tempered (Q&T) steel is used
weld thermal cycles and under matching fillers, the welded for protection of military and nonmilitary vehicles, because
armor steel joints showed poor ballistic performance of its high energy-absorbing properties. Q&T steels used
compared with the base metal (BM). The problems for armor applications require high strength, notch tough-
encountered in the past were reduced by depositing a soft ness, and hardness [1–3]. Most of the research carried out
austenitic stainless-steel buttering layer in between the BM in the past on Q&T armor steel has concentrated on
and the hardfaced layer. This method showed enhancement hydrogen-induced cracking (HIC) [4–6], heat-affected
in ballistic performance and good weld integrity. In this zone (HAZ) softening [7–9], ceramic front layer and
investigation, an attempt is made to investigate the metallic back layer composites, or fiber-encapsulated
microstructure after ballistic testing on the weld metal zone composites [10]. It was recently reported that the presence
consisting of the hardfaced interlayer. The results reveal of an austenitic stainless-steel (SS) buttering layer between
the microstructural characteristics before and after ballistic the armor plate [base metal (BM)] and weld metal/hard-
testing of armor steel welds fabricated using the shielded faced metal resulted in enhanced ballistic performance and
metal arc welding (SMAW) process. successfully held the weld layers intact when a projectile
was fired at interfaces and the heat-affected zone (HAZ)
Keywords Welding
Hardfacing
Sandwich structures
[11]. It was also reported that the ballistic performance of
Ballistic impact
Microstructures the weld metal is enhanced, resulting in shattering of the
projectile [12].
High-strain-rate fracture and failure of a high-strength
low-alloy steel in compression were investigated by Odeshi
et al. [13]. It was observed that thermal softening as a
result of adiabatic heating in the materials controls the
deformation and fracture behavior. The role of retained
austenite, twinned plate martensite interfaces, and grain
boundaries in determining the ballistic performance of steel
M. Balakrishnan
V. Balasubramanian (&) was explored by Maweja and Stumpf [14]. The effect of the
Center for Materials Joining & Research (CEMAJOR),
target plate’s strength on the perforation of steel plates was
Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Annamalai
University, Annamalai Nagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India also studied by Deya et al. [15]. The experimental results
e-mail: visvabalu@yahoo.com indicated that, for perforation by blunt projectiles, the
ballistic limit velocity decreased with increasing strength,
G. Madhusudhan Reddy
while the opposite trend was found in tests with conical and
Solidification Technology Division, Metal Joining Group,
Defense Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL), ogival projectiles. The structure, dislocation substructure,
Kanchanbagh, Hyderabad 500058, India and mechanical properties of targets made of four

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126 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

aluminum alloys after impact loading by a kinetic energy carefully extracted in the through-thickness direction for
projectile were investigated by Milman et al. [16]. Murr analysis via light microscopy. Hardness measurements
et al. [17] explored the novel deformation processes, were carried out as per the ASTM E-384-05 standard [19]
microstructures involving ballistic penetrator formation, before and after ballistic testing. A Vickers microhardness
hypervelocity impact, and penetration phenomena using testing machine was employed to measure the hardness
light and transmission electron microscopy. From this lit- along the weld center line (WCL) and across the WCL with
erature review, it is apparent that the reported work on the 500 g load for dwell time of 15 s. X-ray diffraction (XRD)
microstructural characteristics of ballistic tested weld metal patterns were obtained from sections containing only BM
region is very scant. Hence, this investigation aims to and sections containing both weld metal (SS root, hard-
evaluate the microstructural features of ballistic tested faced middle layer, and SS capping) and BM. The fracture
armor steel welds (before and after ballistic testing) in surfaces of impacted targets were analyzed by scanning
continuation of the study reported by Balakrishnan et al. electron microscopy (SEM).
[12]. This article reports the changes observed in the
microstructural features along the projectile trajectory in a
multilayered armor steel joint after ballistic testing.
Results

Ballistic Performance
Experimental Work
The ballistic test results are presented in Table 2. In all four
The BM used in this study was 18-mm-thick high-strength, locations, namely fusion line (FL), WCL, HAZ, and BM,
low-alloy Q&T steel closely conforming to the AISI 4340 the target offers maximum resistance and thus successfully
specification. Heat treatment applied to the BM consisted stopped the projectiles. Of the four locations, the WCL
of austenizing at 900 °C followed by oil quenching and offers the highest resistance compared with other locations
subsequent tempering at 250 °C. This heat treatment yields (DOP of only 14 mm).
high hardness and strength, and good toughness for this
BM. The chemical compositions of BM and filler metal are
presented in Table 1. In this investigation, an unequal Microstructure
double V-joint configuration was prepared as shown in
Fig. 1. The beveled edges were buttered with SS electrodes Light micrographs of various locations before ballistic
and hardfaced with 5.5-mm-thick chromium carbide; the testing are shown in Fig. 2. The microstructure of the BM
result was a hardfaced interlayer between SS root and (Fig. 2a) consists of acicular martensite with fine needles
capping weld layers. The specifics of the buttering proce- of lath martensite, in addition to some retained austenite
dure are discussed elsewhere [11, 12]. The shielded metal [20]. The image analysis result revealed the presence of
arc welding (SMAW) process was selected because it is 97.2 % martensite and 2.7 % retained austenite in the BM
commonly employed in the fabrication of combat vehicles microstructure. The microstructures of various locations of
[18]. The SS electrode was selected because it avoids the the multilayered joint are presented in Fig. 2(b–i). The
time-delayed cracking tendency of Q&T steel weldments undiluted weld metal microstructure in the SS buttering
[3]. The preheating and interpass temperatures were and SS capping (Fig. 2b) contains grain boundary d-ferrite
maintained at 150 °C during welding. The fabricated target in a plain austenitic matrix. The weld interface (IF) region
was subjected to standard ballistic testing, and its perfor- of the SS buttering and BM (Fig. 2c) contains a continuous
mance was compared with that of the armor-grade Q&T epitaxial growth of austenite. The weld interface region of
steel BM. The ballistic test procedure was discussed in hardfacing and SS capping (Fig. 2d) shows an epitaxial
previous publications [2, 7, 8, 10–12]. Four shots were fired growth of d-ferrite in austenitic matrix. Fig-
into the welded target plate to evaluate its ballistic per- ure 2(e) presents the macrostructure of the welded joint
formance. The depth of penetration (DOP) of the projectile and shows the different layers/regions of the joint. From
into the target plate was the metric used for evaluating this macrograph, it is clear that the joint has very good
ballistic performance. The weldment was characterized by integrity and complete fusion at all interfaces was
microstructural analysis and hardness measurements. Et- achieved. The HAZ is also visible in the macrostructure.
chants used included 2 % Nital for BM and HAZ region, The undiluted hardfaced region (Fig. 2f) contains homo-
aqua regia for the SS weld metal region, and Vilella’s geneous cast-like structure and is composed of hard phase
reagent for the hardfaced region. After ballistic testing, the precipitates of hexagonal chromium carbides of different
weld metal region (where the projectile impacted) was sizes on softer austenitic matrix [21]. Large spine-like

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139 127

Table 1 Chemical composition (wt.%) of base metal and all weld metal deposits
Element C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Mo V Fe

Base metal (AISI 4340) 0.35 0.54 – – – 1.25 1.75 0.52 – Bal
ASS electrode (AWS E 307-16) 0.08 3.3 0.90 0.015 0.04 20.30 8.50 1.5 – Bal
Hardfacing alloy (AWS E FeCr-A7) 4.0 1.0 1.50 – – 30.00 – 2.0 0.50 Bal

Fig. 1 Joint configuration

Table 2 Ballistic test results

Shot number Velocity of projectile Location of projectile impact on Failure type Depth of penetration into Illustration
(m/s) target the target (mm)

1 826.31 Fusion line S1a 16 Stopped

a
2 832.81 Weld S1 14 Stopped
3 827.40 Base metal S2b 16 Stopped
4 827.82 HAZ S1a 17 Stopped
a
No bulge
b
Smooth bulge

carbides are clearly visible in the microstructure of the Figure 4(a, b) shows the microstructural features of
hardfaced layers in the joints. The HAZ microstructure location ‘‘A’’ at different magnifications. This location
(Fig. 2g) clearly depicts the presence of coarse martensite corresponds to the interface between the BM and SS but-
near the FL and toward the BM side; it contains uniformly tering layer. Figure 4(a) reveals a number of small frag-
distributed martensite along with low-temperature products mentations of the layer. Though it is disintegrated into a
such as bainite [22]. The weld interface region of SS but- number of pieces, in the middle (Fig. 4a) there is a part
tering and hardfacing (Fig. 2h) reveals fine continuous which shows the integrity of the fusion between buttering
epitaxial growth of austenitic matrix and hexagonal car- layer and hardfaced layer. The micrograph clearly shows
bides. The interface region between buttering layer and that the crack exists only in the high-hardness hardfaced
BM, and between buttering layers and hardfacing, has layer and in the low-hardness buttering layer, but not in the
similar morphology. The interface microstructure of the interface between the buttering layer and BM. This sug-
sandwiched joint has a smaller portion of unmixed zone gests that the joint integrity is enhanced by the buttering
near to the periphery of the fusion boundary along with a layer. A blunted crack at the interface between SS buttering
softened layer of untempered martensite structure. Fig- and hardfacing is visible in Fig. 4(b). In the same micro-
ure 2(i) shows the SS root microstructure, which clearly graph, the hardfaced layer consists of a number of micro-
depicts the presence of vermicular d-ferrite dispersed in a cracks. At higher magnification, the interface region
massive austenite matrix. between SS buttering layer and hardfacing layer shows few
Figure 3 shows the microstructure of the material sur- microvoids (Fig. 4b). Figure 4(b) reveals the presence of a
rounding the projectile path in the through-thickness number of very fine microcracks in the SS buttering layer
direction of the target plate at the WCL location. Micro- also. However, good bonding between hardfaced layer and
structural features of encircled locations are discussed in buttering layer is clearly visible in the same micrograph.
the following paragraphs. This suggests that the soft and tough buttering layer was

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128 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

Fig. 2 Optical micrographs of BM and weld metal at various locations

able to absorb some of the impact energy by cracking on its cracks in the hard layer [23]. This might lead to frag-
own in the presence of the hardfaced layer. mentation and separation from the subsequent layers.
Figure 5 shows the microstructure after ballistic impact These cracks presented in the hardfaced layer are arrested
at location ‘‘B’’ in Fig. 3. Figure 5(a) shows the presence at the interface between the hardfacing and buttering layer,
of cracks in the hardfaced layer both parallel and normal to and this is clearly visible in Fig. 5(a). At the interface
the bullet trajectory. When the projectile hits the hard layer between the buttering layer and hardfacing layer (Fig. 5a),
directly, it proceeds off-beam and tends to produce more the presence of some small microvoids is clearly visible.

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139 129

These microvoids are not presented in the direction parallel the impact point. They vary in amount from one location to
to the bullet trajectory. This suggests that the separation of another in a given target specimen and a given layer. This
buttering layer and hardfacing layer after impact is still suggests that the failure of the hardfaced layer could be
prevented due to the presence of the soft austenitic but- caused after considerable plastic deformation of chromium
tering layer. Cracks both parallel and normal to the direc- carbides and that the failure can be considered as plastic
tion of the projectile trajectory are clearly visible in flow led rupture [24, 25].
Fig. 5(b). In the same microstructure, the presence of Figure 6 shows the microstructural features of location
hexagonal chromium carbides is also observed. ‘‘C’’ labeled in Fig. 3. In this figure, the deformation of the
Figure 5(b) reveals the presence of transgranular failure SS buttering layer is clearly visible (Fig. 6a), being com-
of hexagonal chromium carbides in the horizontal crack posed of solid-state flow of austenitic buttering layer in
path. In addition, the presence of gross plastic deformation between the bullet and BM, as observed by Pizana et al.
(elongated chromium carbide) is also observed in the same [25]. The solid-state flow is clearly visible in Fig. 6(b, c).
figure (Fig. 5c). Figure 5(c) reveals the crack path, which Figure 6 shows the presence of adiabatic shear bands
shows transgranular failure of high-hardness hexagonal (ASBs). The solid-state flow could be produced when
chromium carbide. The hard layer of high-carbon, high- material from the head section near the target–projectile
chromium carbide alloy absorbs the ballistic impact energy interface is transported. Thus, the shear bands facilitate the
by forming high-density cracks. The distribution and shape high-strain-rate deformation experienced in this region
of these cracks seem to be dependent on the distance from [25].
Figure 7 shows the microstructural features of location
‘‘D’’ labeled in Fig. 3. Figure 7(a) shows the target–bullet
interfacial microstructure (where the nose of the bullet was
stopped). At the root of the joint, the presence of skeletal d-
ferrite in the austenitic matrix is clearly visible in the
micrograph. A part of the hardfaced layer jammed at the
interface between the target and projectile is also evident in
the same micrograph. In Fig. 7(b), an anomalous pattern of
skeletal d-ferrite in the austenitic matrix in the immediate
vicinity of the target–projectile interface is also visible.
Figure 8 shows the microstructural features of location
‘‘E’’ labeled in Fig. 3. This location corresponds to the
interface between the hardfacing and SS root layer. The
microstructure (Fig. 8a) clearly shows the presence of
hanging of buttering layer and hardfaced layer. In Fig. 8(a),
the arrow indicates the plausible crack propagation direc-
tion starting from the hardfaced layer and propagating
Fig. 3 Microstructure of through-thickness cross section (arrow
toward the soft SS layer. In Fig. 8(b), ASBs are observed,
indicates bullet direction) and adjacent to the ASBs, cracks are also seen. Figure 8(a, b)

Fig. 4 Microstructural features of location ‘‘A’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 1009 magnification (b) at 10009 magnification

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130 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

Fig. 5 Microstructural features of location ‘‘B’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 1009 magnification (b) at 2009 magnification (c) at 5009 magnification

reveals the presence of a crack in both the buttering and the interlayer is clearly visible. It is significant that the crack is
hardfaced layers after ballistic impact. In Fig. 8(c, d), the not in the soft front layer but instead is presented in the
presence of elongated austenitic grains is clearly visible hardfaced middle layer in the radial direction (normal to
from the micrographs. This shows that these layers have the bullet trajectory). This can be ascribed to the fact that
undergone considerable deformation before crack initiation the austenite matrix might have played a role in retarding
and separation of layers. fast crack propagation as it is a ductile phase. In Fig. 10(c),
Figure 9 shows the microstructural transformation after the needle-like chromium carbides are broken due to the
ballistic impact at location ‘‘F’’ (different locations of long cracks.
hardfaced region alone) labeled in Fig. 3. From Fig. 9(a, Figure 11 reveals the microstructural features of loca-
b), it is evident that numerous cracks were generated dur- tion ‘‘H’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (the interface between SS cap-
ing the ballistic impact in orientations both parallel and ping/buttering layer and hardfaced region). In Fig. 11(a),
normal to the bullet trajectory. The distribution and shape the interfaces (interface between buttering/hardfacing and
of the cracks depend on the distance from the impact point. hardfacing/SS capping) are clearly visible. The presence of
They vary in number from one location to another in a cracks is observed only in the SS capping front layer but
given target specimen and a given layer. However, in not in the SS buttering layer. This can be ascribed to the
Fig. 2(b), it is apparent that no such cracks are presented in dilution effect of the SS capping layer with the hardfaced
the hardfaced layer. This suggests that the cracks are layer and also the impact intensity on the front layer. This
generated during the ballistic impact only. impact intensity is comparatively lower in the SS buttering
Figure 10 reveals the microstructural features of loca- layer, and also the available microstructure in this zone
tion ‘‘G’’ (interface between SS cap and hardfaced region). (buttering layer) possesses higher toughness as compared
In Fig. 10(a, b), cracks are present in multiple directions. In with the chromium carbide microstructure in the hardfaced
Fig. 10(b), crack arrest in the SS capping layer is observed. layer. Figure 11(b–d) depicts a number of microcracks and
In Fig. 10(c), the presence of cracking in the interface pull-out of some parts of the hardfaced layer. However,
between the SS capping front layer and hardfaced these cracks are completely arrested in the interface

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139 131

Fig. 6 Microstructural features of location ‘‘C’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 2009 magnification (b) at 5009 magnification (c) at 10009
magnification

between the SS buttering layer and hardfacing, because microhardness has been observed by Solberg et al. [26] in
these cracks are blunted by the austenite microstructure. the through-thickness direction, irrespective of weld layers.
These hardness values are just above the hardness mea-
Hardness sured in the virgin material (0 mm, hardness along WCL)
far from the shear zone.
Microhardness measurements were taken along the WCL
to identify the hardness profile in the through-thickness
direction of the target plate. Similarly, hardness measure- XRD Results
ments were performed as per the scheme illustrated in
Fig. 12(a) to identify the hardness alteration after the bal- Comparing the XRD patterns from the two examination
listic test at three different radial distances from the lip of locations (Fig. 13), the only difference is the presence of
the unaffected area after projectile travel. For comparative chromium carbide peaks in the section containing both
analysis, the hardness profile along the WCL before and weld metal and BM. The XRD results confirm the presence
after impact is presented in a single graph (Fig. 12c). In of austenitic and martensitic peaks in both cases. In addi-
this graph, the hardness curve labeled ‘‘0 mm’’ is the tion to the austenitic and martensitic peaks, the presence of
hardness profile along the WCL before impact and the Cr7C3 and Cr3C2 is also confirmed through this XRD
hardness profile along 0.4 mm from the lip of the bullet analysis in this section. The main peaks of the specimen
trajectory after impact. Similarly, the hardness curves of reveal four phases: face-centered cubic (c), body-centered
0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm are the hardness profiles after ballistic cubic (m), hexagonal (Cr7C3), and orthorhombic crystal
impact at 0.1, 0.2, and 0.3 mm, respectively, from the lip of structure (Cr2C3). As the hard chromium carbide peaks are
the bullet trajectory. From these curves, it is observed that a observed at high intensity, these results indicate that these
smaller increase in hardness was observed within the phases are more dominant in these layers. The presence of
localized area (Fig. 12b) that covered with adiabatic shear austenitic phases reflects the presence of retained austenite
band as seen in Figs. 6 and 8. A similar increase in in these regions.

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132 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

Fig. 7 Microstructural features of location ‘‘D’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 1009 magnification (b) at 2009 magnification (c) at 5009 magnification

Fracture Surface knobby type of fracture mode at this location. The dimples
are narrower and more elongated. Both dimpled and
The samples exhibit a fibrous fracture surface showing knobby fracture occurred along ASB in these specimens,
three distinct zones, as shown in Fig. 14. Zones marked 1, and the transition between ductile shear fracture and
2, and 3 represent the fracture surface of the bulk material knobby fracture modes is clearly visible on the fracture
and that of the sheared regions, respectively. The transi- surface.
tional deformed band between the bulk material and
1.5 mm depth from the lip of the broken area is shown in
zone 2. The appearance of shear bands depended on the Discussion
distance from the initiation point. Near the edge of the plate
in the fractured surface, the shear lips of the broken plate Role of SS Capping in Ballistic Performance
were smooth with very fine dimples. Zone 3 is the large Enhancement
curved surface representing the conical shell of the trans-
formed adiabatic shear band that formed during the com- In this investigation, it is observed that the fully austenitic
bined action of plastic deformation and adiabatic heating weld metal using SS electrode, having a microstructure of
along the narrow heat wave paths [12, 13]. Two fracture d-ferrite in a plain austenitic matrix, is beneficial for
modes are observed in this zone: ductile shear fracture moderate strength welds with good crack resistance. Due to
mode showing highly elongated dimples (Fig. 14b) and its high alloy content in the SS filler, it can tolerate up to
knobby fracture mode (Fig. 14c), which suggests partial 67 % dilution by the BM without the formation of weld
melting of the grain boundary within the shear bands [27]. metal martensite. This can be attributed to the low diffu-
This can be ascribed to the high velocity of the projectile; sivity of hydrogen in austenite; the fully austenitic weld
the heat generated in some slip planes does not have metal limits the amount of hydrogen diffusivity to the HAZ
enough time to dissipate completely. This local heating and consequently reduces the likelihood of HIC [5]. This
prevents homogeneous deformation and thus promotes the microstructure can absorb more impact energy due to its

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139 133

Fig. 8 Microstructural features of location ‘‘E’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 509 magnification (b) at 509 magnification (c) at 2009 magnification
(d) at 10009 magnification

Fig. 9 Microstructural features of location ‘‘F’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 509 magnification (b) at 509 magnification

high toughness. The nickel available in these electrodes toughness of the austenite is reinforced by the presence of
improves the toughness in two ways. One is by reducing grain boundary d-ferrite in this capping layer.
the d-ferrite content of the weld metal, and the other is by
stabilizing the austenite. Thus, the larger austenitic phase Role of Hardfaced Interlayer in Ballistic Performance
along with less d-ferrite promotes higher toughness [18]. Enhancement
This argument can be confirmed by the results of image
analysis of the SS capping. Results indicated 90.5 % aus- Hardfaced weld consisting of uniformly distributed hex-
tenite and 9.5 % d-ferrite in the SS capping layer. The agonal chromium carbides in a eutectic austenitic matrix

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134 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

Fig. 10 Microstructural features of location ‘‘G’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 509 magnification (b) at 509 magnification (c) at 2009 magnification

possessing very high hardness can be beneficial to resist the bullet and the target causes a large amount of breakup of
ballistic impact. XRD analysis confirmed the presence of the hardfaced layer. The presence of cracks in this region
hexagonal (Cr7C3) and orthorhombic crystal structure after ballistic testing would be beneficial to stop the bullet
(Cr2C3). The projectile penetration resistance of various penetration by absorbing ballistic impact energy due to
armor materials is dependent on their hardness. Adequate cracking of the hardfaced layer and controlling the pro-
toughness is called for, to avoid cracking tendency and jectile travel direction to be vertical [23]. In Figs. 5, 10,
consequent disintegration of the material. Generally, the and 11, the numerous cracks observed in the direction
harder the material, the better its resistance to projectile normal to the bullet penetration direction could be attrib-
penetration [17, 18]. It was expected that the soft austenitic uted to the elements whose tensile strengths are substan-
capping front layer would no longer offer resistance to tially lower than their corresponding compressive values,
projectile penetration. The capping front layer allows the such as ceramic (chromium carbide hardfaced interlayer)
bullet to puncture the front layer; when the bullet reaches [24].
the hardfaced layers, the hardfacing offers maximum The gross plastic deformation of the carbide structure
resistance to penetration. can be justified by the presence of austenitic matrix in the
The image analysis results of undiluted hardfaced layer hardfaced layer, as discussed for the weld metal undiluted
microstructure show the volume fraction of carbides (both hardfaced microstructure (Fig. 2b). The existence of mi-
hexagonal and needle like) to be 53.5 %, with the crovoids at the interface between the buttering layer and
remaining 46.5 % being the austenitic matrix. This is hardfaced layer in Fig. 6(d) reflects the competence of the
beneficial to absorb the maximum ballistic impact and thus joint at the time of impact. This could be explained if the
reduce the impact velocity of the projectile to zero. The joint reliability were poor, so these layers might have
reduction in velocity is effected by cracking of the hard- disintegrated after impact. However, here this was not the
faced layer in both directions, both transverse and parallel case. This suggests that the ballistic resistance of the
to the bullet trajectory. As the impact energy is intense near welded joint is improved by the presence of the hardfaced
the impact point, an aggressive interaction between the interlayer, which is supported by the presence of the soft

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139 135

Fig. 11 Microstructural features of location ‘‘H’’ labeled in Fig. 3 (a) at 509 magnification (b) at 509 magnification (c) at 509 magnification
(d) at 2009 magnification

and tough austenitic SS buttering layer. This is because the changed into dispersed d-ferrite in a massive austenitic
projectile retains its path through the soft layer and then matrix. This could be due to the successive heat supplied
hits the hard layer in the center, thereby resulting in more by the deposition of hardfacing and capping layer. Due to
efficient retention of the projectile travel and less crack the longer cooling time, the plain austenitic matrix is
formation. In addition, the soft SS layer is beneficial in changed into massive austenite and also the d-ferrite
producing the crack-free new surface of the hardfaced present in the grain boundaries of austenite is dispersed
region through melting and subsequent solidification dur- into the massive austenite and exhibits a vermicular mor-
ing welding of the SS layer. This cures the cracks produced phology. Image analysis results indicate that there is a
during hardfacing of the high-chromium-carbide interlayer. small amount of reduction of d-ferrite as compared with the
The elongated chromium carbide structure in both hexag- SS capping layer due to the longer cooling time supplied by
onal and plate-like chromium carbide is clearly visible in the successive weld deposits. This is also beneficial to
Fig. 5(b, c). This is attributed to the energy absorption, improve the impact toughness of the root layer due to the
which is primarily achieved by the hardfaced layer through presence of an increased amount of austenite. Figure 7
the generation of numerous cracks in both the longitudinal shows the location corresponding to the sharp-nosed pro-
and transverse directions. The hard layer of high-carbon, jectile–target interface. Here, the amount of distorted
high-chromium alloy absorbs the ballistic impact energy by microstructure is less as compared with the other locations.
forming a high density of cracks [23]. This could be ascribed to the total impact energy being
completely absorbed by the multilayered target before the
Role of SS Root in Ballistic Performance Enhancement projectile reaches this DOP. A small amount of solid-state
flow in the immediate vicinity of the target–bullet interface
Image analysis results of SS root revealed that ferrite is also observed in Fig. 7(c). This indicates that the layer
accounted for approximately 16.8 %, with the balance present at the root side after the bullet penetrates to DOP of
(83.2 %) being austenite. Here, the grain boundary d-ferrite about 14 mm is sufficient to completely stop the bullet
in the plain austenitic matrix present in the SS capping is from further progression into the target. This is possible

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136 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

Fig. 12 Hardness test results.

(a) Macrostructure of the joint
before impact.
(b) Microstructure of the joint
after impact and schematic
illustration of hardness
measurement map. (c) Hardness
profile along the weld center
line at different locations of the
joint before and after impact

bullet interface (Fig. 7c), while the other locations possess

strongly distorted microstructure (Figs. 6, 7). Again the
absence of adiabatic shear band in this region in Fig. 7 can
be ascribed to this lower available impact energy reduced
by the other (SS capping front and hardfacing) layers.

Role of SS Buttering Layer in Ballistic Performance

Enhancement

From Fig. 6, it is very clear that, at the time of bullet travel

through the weld layers, there is a considerable amount of
plastic flow of weld metal. A schematic illustration of the
material flow is presented in Fig. 15. The material flow in
Fig. 13 XRD pattern for weld metal/base metal this case is outward, opposite to the bullet direction, and
perpendicular to the target surface because of the presence
only because of the presence of the capping front layer and of very high-hardness BM next to the soft SS buttering
hardfaced middle layer, because the maximum available layer; this could be the reason for the arrest of the material
impact energy is reduced when the bullet crosses these flow in the direction perpendicular to the bullet penetration
layers is believed to be more. The remaining energy and parallel to the target surface. The highly distorted grain
available at the bullet–target interface is minuscule and is boundary d-ferrite is clearly visible in Fig. 6(b, c). This
not sufficient to cause any further penetration. Thus, it shows the capability of the austenite matrix present in the
causes only a small amount of solid-state flow in the buttering layer against the high-strain-rate deformation,
immediate vicinity of the target–bullet interface. This is the which is assisted by the distortion of d-ferrite present in the
reason for the presence of a lesser amount of distorted grain boundaries of this layer. Though solid-state material
microstructure in the immediate vicinity of the target– flow occurred in the adjacent region (SS buttering layer),

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Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139 137

Fig. 14 Fracture surface of bullet path

like that of a dispersion-strengthened composite. These

microstructural changes could be the reason for the maxi-
mum impact energy absorbed by the massive austenite,
toughened by the dispersed d-ferrite in the massive aus-
tenite matrix, during the ballistic impact [28]. The buttering
layer provides high joint integrity by keeping the hardness
level in between the BM hardness and weld metal hardness.
The interface microstructure and microhardness play a
critical role in keeping the joint more stable at the time of
Fig. 15 Schematic illustration shows the probable solid state flow of projectile impact. The microstructure between the buttering
material at the time of impact (1-6 sequence of deposition; layers 1, 3,
5 & 6 represents the ASS weld, layers 2 and 4 are hardfacing and ‘B’ layer and the BM shows a clear anchoring between these
is ASS buttering layer.) two dissimilar metals, having a hardness value between
255 and 445 HV0.5. Due to this level of hardness, joint
there is no evidence of separation of the buttering layer and disintegration is prevented during projectile impact.
hardfacing layer (Figs. 5b, 6(b, c)). These results again
exemplify the joint integrity between these two layers after Effect of Ballistic Impact on Hardness
the ballistic impact. The highly distorted microstructure of
d-ferrite in a plain austenite matrix is clearly visible in The hardness is markedly increased within the localized
Fig. 6(f). The presence of massive austenite and dispersed area (Fig. 12) that covered with adiabatic shear band as
d-ferrite in the austenitic matrix is clearly visible instead of seen in Figs. 6 and 8. A similar increase in microhardness
the grain boundary d-ferrite present in the austenitic matrix was observed by Solberg et al. [26] in the through-thick-
as seen in Fig. 2(b). This could be attributed to the solid- ness direction, irrespective of weld layers. These hardness
state material flow of the austenitic buttering layer in values are just above the hardness measured in the virgin
between the bullet and BM. This microstructure appears material (0 mm, hardness along WCL) far from the shear

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138 Metallogr. Microstruct. Anal. (2013) 2:125–139

zone. This indicates that there is no possible phase trans- 3. The combination of hard and soft layers improved the
formation, and the increase in hardness could be due to ballistic immunity of the joint by absorbing impact
deformation-induced microstructure changes (Figs. 5–11) energy (due to cracking of primary carbides) and
and work-hardening effect [28]. Even though no micro- controlling the projectile travelling direction as verti-
structural changes were discovered for undiluted hardfaced cal due to the presence of the soft backing layer by
layers, a small increase in hardness was detected due to the way of possible reduction of projectile velocity
deformation-induced hardening of this zone by the ballistic coupled with crack blunting behavior.
impact. Even these zones before impact possess a very high 4. The buttering layer enhances ballistic immunity by the
hardness, resulting in the generation of numerous cracks in resultant microstructure and hardness distribution and
both directions. This prevents adiabatic shear band for- successfully keeps the weld layers intact when the
mation in this zone. projectile is fired at the WCL, interfaces, and HAZ.
5. At the WCL, further investigation is required for
Role of Sandwiched Joint Design in Ballistic analytical correlation of the projectile shattering
Performance Enhancement mechanism and resulting hardness distribution,
because this study correlated the ballistic test results
Sandwiching of the hardfacing alloy weld between SS weld with the resultant microstructure and microhardness
layers improves the ballistic resistance by way of a possible values.
reduction of the projectile velocity coupled with crack
blending behavior. When the projectile hits the hard layer Acknowledgments The authors wish to record their sincere thanks
directly, it proceeds off-beam and tends to produce more to the Armament Research Board (ARMREB), Directorate of
cracks in the hard layer. This might lead to subsequent Armaments, Ministry of Defence, New Delhi, Government of India
fragmentation and separation from the substrate. However, for providing financial support to carry out this investigation through
a R&D project, no. ARMREB/MAA/2008/93. The authors also reg-
when the soft layer is welded over the hard layer, the overall ister their sincere thanks to M/S. Mailam India Ltd, Pondicherry for
ballistic property of the hardfaced specimen would be providing welding consumables.
improved. This is because the projectile retains its trajectory
through the soft layer and then hits the hard layer in the
interior, thereby resulting in more efficient restraint of the References
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